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Module 13 -Bruner’s Constructivist Theory
Tticee) Bruner’s Constructivist Theory
CARINII
In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following
learning outcome:
» describe the development of the child’s ability to
represent knowledge.
+ explain how the spiral curriculum works.
Cum
Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism.
‘A major theme in the theory of Bruner is that learning is an active
process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon
their current/past knowledge.
HReNRTKor mines
Bruner’s
Constructivist Theory
(Main Concepts)
Representation of
1 Knowledge
Predisposition
to Learn
Structure
of Knowledge
Effective
‘Sequencing
Reinforcement |144. FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING
ea Brune
: ‘ Repre
Think of a topic that you studied when you were in your preschool or i
elementary years, and then you studied it again in high school, and probably fries
you had that same topic again in college. 6
What was the topic?
Try to recall how the topic was discussed/tackled in class (use of visual
aids by teacher, experiment, field trip, etc.)
Describe what and how you leamed about the topic during preschool/ a
elementary.
Describe what and how you leaned about the topic duting high
school.
i 3.
Describe what and how you learned about the topic in college
Jerome Bruner
Bom New York City, Br
Saber 1815, pictoria
degree from Duke can con
Unversty in 1997 a
and his Ph.D in 1947 Compare and contrast how the topic was taught to you in the Be
hiagorapid different levels (Try to recall the activities, materials, details (in pict
in te Department given, etc.) concrete
1 Payehology at
Haward Unversity ; : ‘
from 1952 - 1972 Why do you think the same topic was taught in the three Spiral
pea different levels in school? Cite three or more reasons in bulleted
= 1060, Later he form ee
joned the New York :
Uniesty of La: ERE ORT ROE ES eA cognitiy
In 1960 Bruner pub- SS teachers
lished The Process : mst i
‘of Education. This Instructi
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wich edt mach
experimentation and : format 2
ofeel me In the activity you just had, you would have surely seen that a should t
in te 19608. Howard) single topic can be taught in preschool/elementary, then again in high upon wh
Gace soc ote’ | school, and still again in college! Take for instance, in learning about Tn |
worted under Buner | Jose Rizal, in elementary we may have his picture in a postcard, teachin;
seeds; he ton” | Know that he is our national hero, born on June 19, 1861 in Calamba develop
inte eary 708 | | Laguna, and maybe even have a field trip there. In high school, we grade sc
Geena Umesy| may study his two novels in more detail. In college, we would go topic is
Of Oxerd fx several | deeper into analyzing Rizal’s works and may look into the personal topic car
enewinie75. | and social factors that influenced him in his life and work and write a the 14 I
term paper on it. This repeated topic on Rizal is a way of applying will agai
the principles in Bruner’s Theory. He gave us important concepts in up as a}
development of representations, the spiral curriculum and discovery subject. |
learning. These concepts are all in line with the constructivist taken up
approach. (Constructivism will be discussed in Module 14). Principle
you get ¢Module 13 - Bruner’s Constructivist Theory 145
Bruner’s Main Concepts
Representation
Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge in three stages.
These three stages also become the three ways to represent knowledge.
1. Enactive representation — At the earliest ages, children learn about
the world through actions on physical objects and the outcomes of
these actions. Children represent objects in terms of their immediate
sensation of them, They are represented in the muscles and involve
motor responses, or ways to manipulate the environment (i.e. riding
a bicycle and tying a knot, tasting the apple),
2. Teonic representation ~ This second stage is when learning can be
obtained through using models and pictures. The leamer can [wach arose
ow use mental images to stand for certain objects or events. |vidcos at you:
Iconic representation allows one to recognize objects when they | in.
are changed in minor ways (e.g. mountains with and without
snow at the top). A
3. Symbolic representation — In this third stage, the learner has
developed the ability to think in abstract terms. This uses
symbol system to encode knowledge. The most common
symbol systems are language and mathematical notation,
Jerome Bruner
spoke at the
Universidad
Autonoma de
Madrid May 27,
Bruner advised that teachers utilize and bring together concrete,
pictorial then symbolic activities to facilitate learning. Before children
can comprehend abstract mathematical operations, teachers can first have
the numbers represented enactively (with blocks) and then, iconically
(in pictures). Children can later on handle number concepts without
concrete objects and only with numbers and number signs (symbolic),
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Spiral curriculum
Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to boosting
cognitive development. Students will not understand the concept if
teachers plan to teach it using only the teacher’s level of understanding,
Instruction needs to be anchored on the learners’ cognitive capabilities.
The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a
format appropriate to the leamer’s current state of understanding, Curriculum
should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds
upon what they have already learned.
In a spiral curriculum, teachers must revisit the curriculum by
teaching the same content in different ways depending on students’
developmental levels. This is why certain topics are initially presented in
grade school in a manner appropriate for grade schoolers, and then the same
topic is tackled in high school, but on a much deeper level. Sometimes a
topic can be revisited within the same semester or school year. For instance,
the 14 learner-centered principles were introduced to you in Module 2, and
will again be tackled in Module 26. This time the 14 principles will be taken
up as a means to integrate and summarize all your learning in this course/
subject. Many other concepts and principles discussed in this book are also
taken up in your other subjects like Child and Adolescent Development and
Principles of Teaching to name a few. This is part of spiral learning. It helps
you get a clearer understanding, thus more effective learning.146
FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING *
Inthe K to 12 curriculum, the spiral progression is a mandate. Section
5 (g), Curriculum Development of RA. 10533, states “The curriculum shall
use the spiral progression approach to ensure mastery of knowledge and skills
after each level.” As applied in Math, this would mean that the teachers
teach Algebra, Geometry, Statistics and Trigonometry concepts from Kinder
to Grade 10. In the science class, Biology, Chemistry, and Physics concepts
fare taught from Grade 3 (where Science as a subject starts) to Grade 10
considering the developmental stages of students. In the spiral progression
approach, the teaching of concepts increases in depth and breadth across the
Grade levels. Statistics concepts in Kindergarten are much simpler compared
to the Statistics concepts in Grade 10. Geometry concepts in Kindergarten
are much simpler than those taught in Grade 10. This is in contrast to
the disciplinal approach of Math and Science teaching in the 2002 Basic
Education Curriculum (BEC), This means that in the 2002 BEC, Algebra is
taught in the First and Second Year; Geometry in the Third Year; Statistics and
Probability, and Trigonometry in the Fourth Year, In the sciences, Integrated
Science is taught in the First Year; Biology in the Second Year; Chemistry in
the Third Year and Physics in the Fourth Year.
In the spiral progression approach, concepts are revisited again and again
as you go up the Grades. This supports mastery of concepts.
Figure 2.
Below are the principles of instruction stated by Bruner:
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts
that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
2, Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by
the student (spiral organization).
3, Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill
in the gaps (going beyond the information given).
Discovery learning
Discovery leaming refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself. The teacher
plans and arranges activities in such a way that students search, manipulate,
explore and investigate. Students learn new knowledge relevant to the domain
and such general problem-solving skills as formulating rules, testing and
gathering information. Most discovery does not happen by chance. Students
require background preparation. Once students possess prerequisite knowledge,
careful structuring of material allows them to discover important principles.
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Classroom Exampl
Tearning becomes more meaningful when students explore their
learning environment rather than listen passively to teachers
* Im elementary school - Teachers might use guided discovery to
help children leam animal groups (e.g, mammals, birds, reptiles),
Rather than provide students with the basic animals groups and
examples for each, the teacher could ask students to provide the
names of types of animals. Then the students and teacher could
classify the animals by examining their similarities and differences,
Category labels can be assigned once classifications are made, Thig
approach is guided by the teacher to ensure that classifications are
Proper, but students are active contributors as they discover the
similarities and differences among animals,
* In high school - A chemistry teacher might use “mystery”
liquids and have students discover the elements in each, The
Students could proceed through a series of experiments designed to
determine if certain substances are present in a sample. By using
the experimental process, students learn about the reactions of
various substances to certain chemicals and also how to determine
the contents of their mystery substance.
(Retrieved from http://www.lifecircles-inc. com/Bruner.htm)
Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four
major aspects:
1. Predisposition to learn, He introduced the ideas of “readiness for
isarning”. Bruner believed that any subject could be taught at any stage
of development in a way that fits the child’s cognitive abilities, Thay
feature specifically states the experiences which move the leamer toward
§ love of learning in general, or of learning something in particular
Motivational, cultural and personal factors contribute to thie Brune,
emphasized social factors and carly teacher's and parents’ influence on
this. He believed that learning and problem solving emerged ont of
exploration. Part of the task of a teacher is to maintain and direct a
child’s spontaneous explorations,
structuring knowledge.
1. Understanding the fundamental stricture of a subject makes
it more comprehensible. Bruner viewed eategorization as
fundamental process in the structuring of knowledge. Details are
better retained when placed within the context of an ordered and
structured pattern.
2. To generate knowledge which is transferable to other contexts,
fundamental principles or pattems are best suited,
147148
FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING ,
3. The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge
in a subject area is diminished when instruction centers on a
structure and principles of orientation. This means that a body of
knowledge must be in a form simple enough for the learner to
understand and it must be in a form recognizable to the student's
experience.
3. Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in
general, the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty. Sequencing,
or lack of it, can make learning easier or more difficult. Spiral curriculum
refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon
them and elaborating to the level of full understanding and mastery.
4, Reinforcement. Rewards and punishments should be selected and paced
appropriately. He investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally,
interest in the subject matter is the best stimulus for learning. Bruner did
not like external competitive goals such as grades or class ranking.
Categorization
Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the
construction of internal cognitive maps. He believed that perception,
conceptualization, learning, decision making and making inferences all involved
categorization. Categories are “rules” that specify four thing about objects. The
four things are given below:
Criterial attributes — required characteristics for inclusion of an object
in a category. (Example, for an object to be included in the category
“car” it must have an engine, 4 wheels, and be a possible means of
transportation,
2. The second rule prescribes how the criteral attributes are combined.
3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties. (Example, it could
be a car even if a tire was missing, and if it was used for hauling cargo
it would be shifted to a different category of “truck” or perhaps “van”.)
4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes, Some attributes
can vary widely, such as color, Others are fixed. For example a vehicle
without an engine is not a car. Likewise, a vehicle with only two
wheels would not be included in “car”
There are several kinds of categori¢
1. Identity categories — categories include objects based on their
attributes or features.
2. Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories).
Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render
objects equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based
on related functions (for example, “car”, “truck”, “van” could all
be combined in an inclusive category called “motor vehicle”), or by
formal criteria, for example by science, law or cuitural agreement. For
example, an apple is still an apple whether it is green, ripe, dried, ete
(identity). It is food (functional), and it is a member of a botanical
classification group (formal).Module 13 ~ Bruner’s Constructivist Theory
Ze 3. Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize sensory input,
a They are major organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning,
of Going beyond immediate sensory data involves making inferences
to
on the basis of related categories. Related categories form a “coding
“system.” These are hierarchical arrangements of related categories,
The principles of Bruner launched the notion that people interpret the
world mostly in terms of similarities and differences. This is a valuable
contribution to how individuals construct their own moiels or view of the
world.
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+ Read more about discovery leaming and how it is used in preschool,
elementary and high school levels,