AMBIENT AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT IN OPEN

CAST METAL MINES

A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

in

MINING ENGINEERING
Submitted by

M.HARSHA VARDHAN V.HARI SAINATH REDDY

Pin No. 21555A2612 Pin No. 21555A2624

V.GOPI G.SIVA NAGESWARARO

Pin No. 20551A2627 Pin No. 20551A2612

Under the Supervision of

Dr. ALA CHARAN KUMAR
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

GODAVARI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING&TECHNOLOGY
CHAITANYA KNOWLEDGE CITY, NH16, RAJAMAHENDRAVARAM, AP.

Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada, AP, India.

GODAVARI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

 (Autonomous)
CHAITANYA KNOWLEDGE CITY, NH-16, RAJAMAHENDRAVARAM,
533296, AP

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “AMBIENT AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT IN

OPENCAST METALMINES” is the bonafide work of “M.HARSHA VARDHAN
(21555A2612),V.HARISAINATH REDDY(21555A2624), V.GOPI(20551A2627),
G . S I V A N A G E S W A R A R A O (205551A261) ”, who carried out the project work
under my supervision during the year 2022 to 2023, towards partial fulfillment of the requirements
of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mining Engineering as administered under the
Regulations of Godavari Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajamahendravaram, AP, India,
and award of the Degree from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada. The results
embodied in this report have not been submitted to any other University for the award
of any degree.

Signature of the Head of the Department Signature of the Supervisor

Dr. ALA CHARAN KUMAR Dr. ALA CHARAN KUMAR
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT Associate Professor
Department of Mining Engineering Department of Mining Engineering
Godavari Institute of Engineering &
Technology (A)

Date:

External Viva voice conducted on

Internal Examiner External Examiner

GODAVARI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

 (Autonomous)
CHAITANYA KNOWLEDGE CITY, NH-16, RAJAMAHENDRAVARAM,
533296, AP

CERTIFICATE OF AUTHENTICATION

We solemnly declare that this project report “AMBIENT AIRQUALITY

ASSESSMENT IN OPENCAST MINES ” is the bonafide work done purely by us, carried
out under the supervision of Dr. ALA CHARAN KUMAR, towards partial fulfillment of the
requirements of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mining Engineering as
administered under the Regulations of Godavari Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Rajamahendravaram, AP, India, and award of the Degree from Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University, Kakinada during the year 2023-2024.

We also declare that no part of this document has been taken up verbatim from any
source without permission from the author(s)/publisher(s). Wherever a few sentences,
findings, images, diagrams, or any other piece of information has been used for the sake of
completion of this work, we have adequately referred to the document source. In the event of
any issue arising hereafter about this work, we shall be personally responsible.

It is further certified that this work has not been submitted, either in part or in full, to
any other department of the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Kakinada, or any
other University, institution, or elsewhere, in India or abroad, or for publication in any form.

Signature of the Students

Date:

M. HARSHA VARDHAN (21555A2612)

V. HARI SAINATH REDDY (21555A2624)

V.GOPI (20551A262

G.. ..SIVANAGESWARA RAO(205551A2612)

GODAVARI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous)
CHAITANYA KNOWLEDGE CITY, NH-16, RAJAMAHENDRAVARAM, 533296,
AP

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our deep gratitude to Dr. ALA CHARAN KUMAR, Head of the
Department, Department of Mining Engineering, Godavari Institute of Engineering &
Technology, Rajahmendravaram, under the guidance the present work is carried out. We considered
his willingness to share his vast knowledge, made us understand the project and its manifestations,
and helped us to complete the assigned tasks on time. The encouragement and guidance provided by
him during his work are invaluable.

We would like to sincerely thank our principal Sri Dr. P.M.M.S. SARMA for forwarding us to do
our project and offering adequate duration in completing our project.

With a deep sense of gratitude, we extend thanks to our beloved chairman Dr.
SATYANARAYANA RAJU, founder-chairman, and Sri K. SASI KIRAN VARMA, managing
director of Godavari Institute of Engineering Technology, for providing us with all the facilities to
complete our project.

Our heartfelt thanks to all the faculty members for the suggestions during this project work and our
sincere acknowledgment to the Friends who have constantly helped and encouraged us to complete
our project

Signature of the Students

N. HARSHA VARDHAN (21555A2612)

V. HARI SAINATH REDDY (21555A2624)

V.GOPI (20551A2627)

G.. ..SIVANAGESWAR

A RAO(205551A2612)
 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY
ASSESSMENT IN OPEN CAST
METAL MINES
 ABSTRACT

The term ‘mining’ is more or less synonymous to environmental pollution. The

growing emphasis on open cast mining operation in recent years to achieve ever
increasing production targets has further aggravated the problem of air pollution.
Great amount of respirable dust concentration are added into the environment by
the mining activities due to mechanization, escalating production, large scale
blasting etc. Major sources of air pollution in open cast mines are drilling, blasting,
overburden loading and unloading, material handling and workshops and HEMM
operations in mine , mainly transport of material from one site to another site to
produce most dust ,in that dust particle mix with air to cause major air pollution .not
only air pollution we spoils so much environment , agriculture also.The entire
ecosystem and all of the organisms living in it are badly impacted by contaminated
water sources, in addition to having a negative impact on human health.

The objective of this paper is to assess of air quality in iron ore and managense
mine in , India and to minimize the air pollution tecunique and collection of
samples from the Central and state , private mine. The samples were examined for
physical and instrumentally

The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are the basis for India’s
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to regulate air pollutants including
particulate matter and five other criteria pollutants. PM2.5 and PM10 particles are
currently accepted indicators for irreparable pollutants. Several methods normally
exist to measure the amount the dust
LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
NO CONTENT NO
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE II
CERTIFICATE OF AUTHENTICATION III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IV
ABSTRACT V
LIST OF CONTENTS VI
LIST OF FIGURES VII
LIST OF TABLES VIII
LIST OF ABERIVATIONS IX
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Objective 8
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 9
3 METHODOLOGY 17
3.1 Weighted Arithmetic -Water Quality Index (WA-WQI) 20
3.2 Treatment Methods 22
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 25
5 CONCLUSIONS 38
6 REFERENCES 40
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE
NO TITLE NO
1.1 The physical properties of Baryte 4
3.1 Overall methodology 18
3.2 Sample near the mouth of the shaft 19
3.3 Sample from the tailing pond 19
4.1 Comparison of collected samples with pH standard value 28
4.2 Comparison of collected samples with TDS standard value 28
4.3 Comparison of collected samples with Hardness standard value 29
4.4 Comparison of collected samples with Iron standard value 29
4.5 Comparison of collected samples with Turbidity standard value 30
4.6 Comparison of collected samples with Fluoride standard value 30
4.7 Comparison of collected samples with Nitrate standard value 31
4.8 Comparison of collected samples with Sulphates standard value 31
LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE
NO TITLE NO
1.1 Baryte reserves in India 2

1.2 Barytes reserves in Andhra Pradesh 2

3.1 Classification of water and their grades 20

3.2 Standard values of the physicochemical parameter 21

4.1 Physicochemical properties of sample 1 26

4.2 Physicochemical properties of sample 2 27

 LIST OF ACRONYMS

ABBREVIATIONS ACRONYMS
HEMM Heavy Earth Moving Machinery
DO Dissolved Oxygen
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
EC Electrical Conductivity
WA-WQI Weighted Arithmetic-Water Quality Index
WQI Water Quality Index
TH Total Hardness
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
ROM Run Of Mine
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
TSS Total Suspended Solids
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1
11
AMBIENT AIR MEANS
that ambient air is atmospheric air in its natural state, not contaminated by
air-borne
pollutants.Ambient air is typically 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. The extra 1%
is made up of
a combination of carbon, helium, methane, argon and hydrogen. The closer the
air is to sea
level, the higher the percentage of oxygen. Manufacturing processes and the
burning of fossil
fuels has directly impacted ambient air quality by releasing a high level of
industrial and chemical pollutants into the atmosphere.

AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION MEANS

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines ambient air pollution as

potentially harmful
pollutants emitted by industries, households, cars, and trucks. Of all of these
pollutants, fine
particulate matter has the greatest effect on human health. Most fine particulate matter
comes from
fuel combustion from vehicles, power plants, industry, households, or biomass
burning. WHO
estimates fine particulate matter causes 25% of lung cancer deaths, 8% of chronic
obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) deaths, and 15% of ischaemic heart disease and stroke.
Advanced technology is available to monitor particulates in ambient air. These
instruments measure
critical regulatory parameters including PM-10 and PM-2.5 mass concentration as it
exists in
ambient air. Monitoring for aerosols and dust within a designated area, whether for
research or routine input, can include various industry-proven particulate matter
technologies, such as gravimetric sampling, light scattering, beta attenuation, and
inertial weighing TEOM technologies.
Portable and personal instruments are also available to monitor ambient air in the
workplace to help

12
 detect the presence of toxic vapors and gases. Without such equipment, respirable
particles can
settle deep in the lungs, resulting in serious health and respiratory problems, such as
decreased lung
function, asthma, irregular heartbeat, Black Lung Disease and chronic bronchitis.
According to the U.S. EPA, there are many reasons why ambient air monitoring is
needed:
1.Provide air pollution data to the general public in a timely manner
2.Support implementation of air quality goals or standards
3.Evaluate the effectiveness of emissions control strategies;
4.Provide information on air quality trends
5.Provide data for the evaluation of air quality models
6.Support research (e.g., long-term studies of the health effects of air pollution)

AMBIENT AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT MEANS

Ambient air quality assessment is the systematic, long-term assessment of pollutant

levels by measuring the quantity and types of certain pollutants in the surrounding,
outdoor air

1. There are several approaches for assessing ambient air quality, including
atmospheric dispersion modelling, emissions inventories, and air monitoring

2. The Ambient Air Quality Directives also allow for objective estimation as an air
quality

3. assessment method for air quality zones with very good air quality and no large
conurbations

3. Air quality assessment can be used to determine whether a standard or guideline

has been exceeded, or to estimate population exposure to air pollution and the effects
on the health of the population

13
 .
KEY FACTS OF AMBIENT AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT

 Air pollution is one of the greatest environmental risk to health. By

reducing air pollution levels, countries can reduce the burden of disease
from stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and both chronic and acute
respiratory diseases, including asthma.
 In 2019, 99% of the world’s population was living in places where the
WHO air quality guidelines levels were not met.
 The combined effects of ambient air pollution and household air pollution
are associated with 6.7 million premature deaths annually.
 Ambient (outdoor) air pollution is estimated to have caused 4.2 million
premature deaths worldwide in 2019.
 Some 89% of thosia and Western Pacific Regions.
 Policies and investments supporting cleaner transport, energy efficient
homes, power generation, industry and better municipal waste
management would reduce key sources of outdoor air pollution. Access to
clean household energy would also greatlyse premature deaths occurred in
low- and middle-income countries, and the greatest number in the WHO
South-East A reduce ambient air pollution in some regions.

OBJECTIVES OF AMBIENT AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT

1. Define non-statutory limits to assess air quality and guide air management
decisions.

2. Are not legal requirements unless referenced directly in a regulation or

authorization.

3. Are used to guide decisions unless they are written specifically into a permit or
regulation at which point they become binding requirements.

Ambient air quality parametres

14
As of 2023 , there are 1350 mines (excluding atomic, fuel, and minor minerals)
working mines in India. Out of these, 575 are metal mines and 775 are non-metal
mines . Out of the total working mines, 45 are present in Karnataka . Karnataka is
the leading producer of iron ore , in karnataka so many iron deposits are there . in
Karnataka is mainly producing iron and lime stone, quartz and building stone .

15
 Types of Iron Ore – Haematite, Magnetite, Limonite & Siderite. Distribution of Iron
Ore in India – Iron ore in Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka & other states.

Types of iron ore

 Haematite, Magnetite, Limonite & Siderite.

Haematite
 Reddish; best quality; 70 per cent metallic content.
 Found in Dharwad and Cuddapah rock systems of the peninsular India.
 80 per cent of haematite reserves are in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Andhra
Pradesh.
 In the western section, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa has this kind of ore.

Magnetite
 Black ore; 60 to 70 per cent metallic content.
 Dharward and Cuddapah systems.
 Magnetic quality.
 Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Limonite
 In ferious ores; yellowish in colour; 40 to 60 per cent iron metal.
 Damuda series in Raniganj coal field, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar
Pradesh and Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh.
 Advantage == open cast mines == easy and cheap mining.

Siderite
 ‘Iron carbonate’; inferior quality; less than 40 per cent iron.
 Contains many impurities {previous post}; mining is not economically variable.
 However, it is self-fluxing due to presence of lime.

Iron ore distribuation in india

 Hematite and magnetite are the two most important iron ores in India
Exact
Numbers not
important.
Haematite Magnetite
Remember
1st and
2n position.

18,000 10,500 million tonnes

million
tonnes
Which type
16
 of iron ore is
abundant in
India?

1. Haematite

2. Magnetite

Odisha 33%
Jharkhand
26%
Karnataka 73%
Chhattisgarh Andhra Pradesh 14%
18%
Rajasthan 5%
Rest in
Andhra TN 4.9%
Pradesh,
Assam, Rest in Assam, Bihar, Goa,
Bihar, Jharkhand, Kerala, MH,
Maharashtra, Meghalaya and Naga
MP,
Rajasthan,
UP

Iron ore in orissa

 The ores are rich in haematites.
 India’s richest haematite deposits are located in Barabil-Koira valley.
 Others: Sundargarh, Mayurbhanj, Cuttack, Sambalpur, Keonjhar and Koraput
districts.

17
 Iron ore in chattisgarh
 Bailadila mine is the largest mechanised mine in Asia [Ore benefication only done here]

 A 270 km long slurry (a semi-liquid mixture) pipeline from the Bailadila to Vizag plant
 transports the ore slurry.

 Smelting is done in Vizag [Vishakhapatnam] iron and steel factory.

 Bailadila’s high grade ore is exported through Vishakhapatnam to Japan [No iron ore in Japan. But
market is huge due to automobile industry] and other countries.

 The Dalli-Rajhara range is 32 km long [ferrous content 68-69 per cent] range with significant
reserves.

18
 Iron Ore in Jharkhand
 25 per cent of reserves.
 First mine in Singhbhum district in 1904.
 Iron ore of here is of highest quality and will last for hundreds of years.
 Noamandi mines in Singhbhum are the richest.
 Magnetite ores occur near Daltenganj in Palamu district.

IIron ore in karnataka

19
 Iron ores are widely distributed.
 High grade ore deposits are those of Kemmangundi in Bababudan hills of Chikmagalur
district and Sandur and Hospet in Bellary [Lot of Mining Mafia].
 Most of the ores are high grade haematite and magnetite..

Iron ore in other countries

 Andhra Pradesh (1.02%): Kurnool, Guntur, Cuddapah, Ananthapur, Nellore.
 Maharashtra (0.88%): Chandrapur, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg.
 Madhya Pradesh (0.66%).
 Tamilnadu: Salem, Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore, Madurai etc.
 Rajasthan: Jaipur, Alwar, Sikar, Bundi, Bhilwara.
 Uttar Pradesh: Mirzapur.
 Uttaranchal: Garhwal, Almora, Nainital.
20
 Himachal Pradesh: Kangra and Mandi.
 Haryana: Mahendragarh.
 West Bengal: Burdwan, Birbhum, Darjeeling.
 Jammu and Kashmir: Udhampur and Jammu.
 Gujarat: Bhavnagar, Junagadh, Vadodara.
 Kerala: Kozhikode.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

21
4. LITERATURE REVIEW

The following is a brief review of scholarly work of different researchers in the

field of Ambient Air Quality Assessment:

Krupa and Legge (1999) studied the use of passive samplers for gaseous air
pollutants. They evaluated the specificity and linearity of the response of passive
samplers; results obtained by such an approach were initially compared and
cross-correlated with co-located active samplers or continuous monitors for
accuracy. It was found that the seasonal influences in any comparisons of data
from passive sampling versus active monitoring, particularly in the cold climates
and associated atmospheric processes of the northern latitudes. They found that
the differences between the two systems can be highly significant during the
winter months. Some pollutants such as NH3 need to be converted to a second
compound (NO2) before quantification. This can lead to technical complications
on site with instrument performance. Finally they concluded that although
passive samplers are very desirable from economic and logistic perspectives, they
should be co-located with passive samplers, with continuous monitors at
sampling locations.

Cihakraborty et al. (2001) developed empirical formulae with the objective to

calculate emsion rate of various opencast mining activities. They selected 7 coal
mines and 3 iron ore miness with the consideration of geographical location,
working method, accessibility and resource availability. 12 Empirical formula
22
for Suspended particulate matter were developed for many opencast mining
activities like drilling, coal loading ,coal handling plant , haul road , workshop ,
etc. but the formula was for the overall mine for NO x and SO2 estimation. To
verify the universal applicability of the empirical formulas, they selected Rajpura
opencast coal mine. A good accuracy was indicated between the calculated value
and field measured value which varied from 77.2% to 80.4%. They concluded
that Suspended particulate matter is the main constituent of emissions while
emissions due to NOx & SO2 are negligible. They revealed that the results of this
study is of great importance for mine environmental engineers and scientists
working in the field of air quality monitoring to monitor air quality and its impact
from pollutants generating projects.

Dahmann et al. (2008) investigated the results of exposure assessment with

respect to nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide in German hard coal mines. The
measurement campaign was accompanied by an epidemiological study
investigating possible health effects on the airways of the lungs. For this purpose
time weighted 8-hour shift values were determined by them, for typical groups of
coalminers according to the European measurement standards. Based on these
measurements and on experts’ assessments of the retrospective exposure
situation, time-dependent cumulative and average NO and NO2 exposure
estimates were derived for an inception cohort of two groups of coalminers. They
concluded that Miners working in blasting crews (no blasting specialists) were
estimated by experts to experience 2/3 of the nitrogen oxide exposure of blasting
specialists. Especially, for the diesel engine drivers, exposure can be rather
higher than the prescribed value.

23
Mandal et al. (2011) analysed that majority of air pollutants that are
contaminating the atmosphere traces its source from the haul and transport roads
in coal mining areas thus enhancing different health problems. As high as 93.3%
of total generated dust comes from haul roads of South African coal mines,
according to the analysis carried out by Amponsah-Dacosta using USEPA
guidelines. Due to the partial failure of the available techniques, the dust doesn’t
get removed from the haul road completely. In this study the qualitative as well
as quantitative aspects of road dusts is being dealt by them. For this, they
collected representative road dust samples from four different coalfields of India.

24
 Chapter 3
Ambient air quality measuring instruments
Ambient air quality sampling methods
Occupational health diseases
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

25
 Ambient air quality measuring instruments

Air quality measured is a fundamental aspect of environmental engineering that

enables us to assess and monitor the levels of pollutants in the atmosphere. By
understanding how air quality is measured, we gain valuable insights into the state of
our environment and can take informed actions to mitigate the negative impacts of air
pollution. In this blog post, we will explore the various methods and technologies
used by environmental engineers to measure air quality accurately.

Monitoring Stations and Networks

Monitoring stations are strategically located in urban areas, industrial zones, and
regions with specific air quality concerns. These stations house sophisticated
instruments and equipment that continuously measure the concentration of pollutants
in the air. They capture real-time data on key air pollutants such as particulate matter
(PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide
(CO), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
These monitoring stations are often part of larger air quality networks, which
comprise a series of interconnected stations deployed across a city, region, or country.
The data collected from these networks provides a comprehensive understanding of
air pollution patterns.

Gas Analyzers and Sensors

Gas analyzers and sensors are essential tools used in air quality measurement. These
devices detect and quantify specific gasses or pollutants present in the atmosphere.
For example, electrochemical sensors are commonly used to measure gasses such as
carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone. Infrared gas analyzers are effective in
detecting and measuring gasses like methane and sulfur dioxide.
Advancements in sensor technology have led to the development of portable and low-
cost air quality sensors. These sensors can be deployed in various locations, including
homes, schools, and workplaces, providing localized air quality data. While these
sensors may not provide the same level of accuracy as professional monitoring
stations, they contribute to citizen science initiatives and increase public awareness of
air pollutio

Particulate Matter Monitoring

26
Particulate matter (PM) refers to tiny particles suspended in the air, which can have
detrimental health effects when inhaled. To measure PM levels, environmental
engineers use instruments called particulate matter monitors. These monitors employ
optical, gravimetric, or beta attenuation techniques to measure the mass concentration
or particle count of PM in different size ranges, such as PM10 (particles with a
diameter of 10 micrometers or less) and PM2.5 (particles with a diameter of 2.5
micrometers or less)

Air Quality Indices

Air quality indices provide a simplified way of interpreting air quality data and
communicating it to the public. These indices consolidate multiple pollutant
measurements into a single numerical value, often represented on a scale from 0 to
500. The index categorizes air quality into different levels, such as good, moderate,
unhealthy, and hazardous, allowing individuals to quickly understand the current state
of air quality and take appropriate precautions.

Air quality indices are often associated with color-coded systems, such as the Air
Quality Index (AQI) used in the United States or the Air Quality Health Index
(AQHI) used in Canada. These indices consider various pollutants and their
respective health impacts, providing a holistic assessment of air quality conditions

Remote Sensing and Satellite Data

Remote sensing and satellite technologies play a crucial role in measuring air quality
over large geographical areas. Satellites equipped with sensors can detect and
quantify certain pollutants from space, providing a broad-scale view of air pollution
patterns. These satellites measure indicators such as aerosol optical depth, which
indicates the presence of particulate matter, and tropospheric NO2 levels, which
reflect nitrogen dioxide concentrations. By
combining ground-based measurements with satellite data, environmental engineers
can enhance their understanding of regional air quality variations, identify pollution
sources, and support decision-making processes for pollution control strategies
27
 Modeling and Data Analysis

In addition to direct measurements, air quality assessment often involves modeling

and data analysis techniques. Environmental engineers use computer models that
simulate the dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere based on emission sources,
weather patterns, and topography. These models can predict pollutant concentrations
and help identify areas of concern.

Data analysis techniques, such as statistical analysis and trend analysis, are employed
to interpret air quality data, identify long-term trends, and assess the effectiveness of
pollution control measures. This analysis enables environmental engineers to make
informed decisions regarding air quality management and policy development.

In conclusion, the measurement of air quality is a crucial aspect of environmental

engineering that allows us to assess the levels of pollutants in the atmosphere and
understand their impact on human health and the environment. Through various
monitoring techniques and instruments, environmental engineers gather data on
emissions, smoke, particle pollution, and other key parameters to evaluate air quality
accurately.

Air quality monitoring involves the collection of data from monitoring stations
strategically located in different regions. These stations continuously measure the
concentrations of pollutants, providing valuable insights into the state of the
atmosphere. This information is then used to generate reports that assess the amount
of pollutants present in the air and their potential health and environmental
implications.

One of the primary reasons for measuring air quality is to ensure compliance with air
quality standards and guidelines set by governments and international organizations.
Air quality standards are established to protect public health and the environment by
limiting the acceptable levels of pollutants in the air. Monitoring air quality allows us
to identify areas where pollution levels exceed the standards, enabling governments to
take necessary actions to mitigate the sources of pollution and improve air quality.
28
Air quality monitoring also plays a critical role in understanding the formation of
smog, a type of air pollution characterized by the presence of high levels of
pollutants, especially in urban areas. By monitoring and analyzing air quality data,
environmental engineers can identify the sources of smog and develop effective
strategies to reduce its formation and impact.

Furthermore, air quality monitoring provides valuable information for assessing the
impacts of climate change. Rising temperatures and changing weather patterns can
influence air quality, affecting the concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere. By
measuring air quality, we can monitor changes in pollutant levels, track trends, and
evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation efforts in combating climate change.

The measurement of air quality is particularly crucial for public health. Poor air
quality, characterized by high levels of pollutants, is linked to various health issues,
including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, as well as lung cancer. According
to the World Health Organization, exposure to high levels of particulate matter and
elevated ozone levels can significantly increase the risk of these health problems.
Monitoring air quality allows us to assess the extent of exposure and develop
strategies to reduce the impact of air pollution on human health.

Government agencies and policymakers heavily rely on air quality data to inform
decision-making processes. The data collected through air quality monitoring
programs support the development of policies and regulations aimed at reducing
emissions and improving air quality. By understanding the current state of air quality
and its potential impacts, governments can implement targeted measures to protect
public health and the environment.

Air quality measurement is an essential tool in environmental engineering that

enables us to assess and monitor the levels of pollutants in the atmosphere. Through
comprehensive monitoring programs, accurate reporting, adherence to air quality
standards and guidelines, and ongoing research, we can continue to improve air
quality, protect public health, and mitigate the impacts of air pollution on our planet.
It is crucial that governments, environmental agencies, and researchers continue to
prioritize air quality monitoring and collaborate to develop effective strategies for
achieving cleaner and healthier air .

29
30
Ambient air quality methods in open cast iron mines

1.1 Basic Sampling methods

Basically there are six air sampling methods which are:
1.1.1 Filter Sampling Inhalable (Total) Dust
Air is drawn through a filter paper, the paper traps the solid particulate e.g. dust,
aerosols & fibres. Gravimetric analysis is usually used to measure results (i.e. by
measuring the weight gained by the filter). Further analysis can be carried out on
the filter to identify the specific chemicals captured.

1.1.2 Sorbent Sampling

Sorbents are normally contained in a small glass tube with sealed ends. Air is
drawn through the sorbent, which captures molecules of the gas or vapour to be
sampled. The trapped contaminants are released using solvent washing or heat to
a gas chromatograph (GC) for analysis. One of the best known sorbents is
charcoal.

1.1.3 Sampling Respirable Dust

The I.O.M. Sampler with a foam plug placed in the cassette inlet is capable of
sampling respirable dust. The specific foam separates the respirable fraction,
which is collected on the filter, from other particulate matter sizes.

1.1.4 Bag Sampling

Particularly suitable for ''grab'' or Short Term Samples (STS), the air is passed
through the pump into a special plastic bag. Alternative methods of filling a bag
without passing air through a pump can also be used. The bag, containing a
relatively large volume of sampled atmosphere is then taken to the laboratory for
analysis.

1.1.5 Filter Sampling Respirable (Alternative Method)

The Cyclone Sampler uses a filter contained in a cassette, which separates out the
31
respirable fraction of dust in the sample.

1.1.6 Impinger/Bubble Sampling

Air drawn into the impinger is forced through a nozzle, which is covered with a
liquid such as high purity water. The pollutants dissolve in the liquid media and
is subsequently analysed, usually by colorimetric techniques of detection.

1.2GRAVIMETRIC SAMPLING

In this method of sample air is passed through a filter, the filter or other sampling
collector is weighed to determine the amount the particulate matter collected.
This is a non-specific technique. All material collected on the filter is included,
although some of them may not be the contaminant of interest. While most
contaminants are determined by other methods that give quantitative analysis of
the compound in the air sample, material such as wood dust, coal dust, etc. are
still measured gravimetric element.

1.2.1 PM10 and PM2.5 Samplers of High volume type

For PM10 assessment, traditional gable roof of the high volume sampler is
replaced by an impactor design size-select inlet. For the impaction design the air
sample entering the symmetrical hood is deflected upward into a buffer chamber.
The buffer chamber is evacuated at a rate of 68 m3 per hour via multiple circular
nozzles. The entering particulate matters get accelerated as they pass through the
nozzle to an impaction chamber; this process helps the particulate matter to gain
some momentum and thus particulate matters having diameter larger then inlet
10μm cut design impact the surface of the impaction chamber. Small particulate
matters rise through the impactor chamber at speeds slow enough to minimise
re-entrainment of the already impacted particles and then pass through multiple
bent tubes to high volume sampler’s filter where they are collected.

The second size select design of PM10 measurement is ‘cyclone inlet’. Here
omnidirectional cyclone is used for fractionation in the inlet allowing particulate
matters to enter from all angles of approach. In the inlet, an angular velocity
32
component is added to the sample air and the particulate matters contained in it
by a series of evenly spaced vanes. Larger particulate matter removal occurs in
the inner collection tube. This tube incorporates a perfect absorber which is
usually an oiled surface to eliminate bouncing of particulate matters. The sample
flow then enters the intermediate tube where the trajectory of the particulate
matters is altered to an upward direction. An additional turn is added to change
the flow to a downward direction to allow the remaining particulate matters to
deposit on a filter for subsequent analysis. As with the impaction inlet control of
air velocities in cyclonic inlet, it is critical to maintain the correct particulate
matter size cut point. It is critical to maintain correct design volumetric flow
through the inle

33
Personal samplers for PM2.5 and PM10 particulate matter sampling
These versions of air samplers are lightweight type for collecting air borne
particulate matters in the PM2.5 and PM10 size range. These are frequently
used to provide a measure of air borne particulate matters concentration for
studying potential health impacts of dust particulate matters in the ambient
environment.

The aerosol sample enters the sampler through multi nozzle single stage
impactors to remove large particulate matters having aerodynamic equivalent
diameter larger than 2.5um and 10um. Particulate matters having diameter
smaller than the impactor cut size are collected on a 37mm diameter filter of
choice. The collected particulate matter can be analysed gravimetrically to get
air borne particulate matter’s mass or analysed for specific chemical
compounds.

Features:
Light-weight personal samplers with single
stage impactors. Selective impactor cut-point of
2.5 µm or 10 µm.
Can be operated with a personal sampling pump

5
 Occupational health diseases air

1.2.2 Cardiovascular system

Carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin modifying its conformation and
reduces its capacity to transfer oxygen. This reduced oxygen availability can
affect the function of different organs (and especially high oxygen consuming
organs such as the brain and the heart), resulting in impaired concentration,
slow reflexes, and confusion. Apart from lung inflammation, systemic
inflammatory changes are induced by particulate matter, affecting equally
blood coagulation. Air pollution that induces lung irritation and changes in
blood clotting can obstruct (cardiac) blood vessels, leading to angina or even
to myocardial infraction. Symptoms such as tachycardia, increased blood
pressure and anaemia due to an inhibitory effect on haematopoiesis have been
observed as a consequence of heavy metal pollution (specifically mercury,
nickel and arsenic). Finally, epidemiologic studies have linked dioxin
exposure to increased mortality caused by ischemic heart disease. While in
mice, it was seen that heavy metals can also increase triglyceride.

1.2.3 Digestive system

Dioxins induce liver cell damage, as indicated by an increase in levels of
certain enzymes in the blood, as well as gastrointestinal and liver cancer.

1.2.4 Reproductive system

It is rather critical to mention that air pollutants can also affect the
developing foetus
Maternal exposure to heavy metals and especially to lead increases the
risks of
spontaneous abortion and reduced foetal growth (preterm delivery, low
birth weight)

There are also evidences suggesting that parental lead exposure is also
responsible
6
for congenital malformations, and lesions of the developing nervous
system, causing
critical impairment in new-born’s motor and cognitive abilities. Same
dioxins were
found to be transferred from the mother .

1.3 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

The objectives of air quality standards are:

1.3.1 To indicate the levels of air quality necessary with an
adequate margin of safety to protect the public health,
vegetation and property;
1.3.2 To assist in establishing priorities for abatement and control of
pollutant level;
1.3.3 To provide uniform yardstick for assessing air quality at national
level;
1.3.4 To indicate the need and extent of monitoring programm

In order to combat air pollution, it is required to identify the

pollutants, its source of emission and investigate the effects of living
and the environment. The Central Pollution Control Board has notified
the revised National Ambient Air Quality Standards Gazette of India,
Extra-ordinary Part-II Section 3, sub section (ii), dated Nov 18, 2009.
The revised National Ambient Air Quality Standards is depicted .

7
Chapter 04

National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (N.A.M.P.)

8
1.4 National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (N.A.M.P.)

• Importance of air quality monitoring

Air pollutant, both indoor and outdoor, cause significant harm to

health. Therefore, monitoring of pollutants is importair in a certain
area helps air quality agencies know when and how to take action to
protect public health. The Government uses its air monitoring data to:

o Determine if air quality is meeting national standards

o Determine the highest pollutant concentrations
o Understand how pollutants behave and their relationship with the weather.
o validate pollution modelling, used to test 'what if' scenarios.
o Forecast air quality
o Evaluate the effectiveness of air pollution control programs
o Evaluate the effects of air pollution on public health
o Track the progress of plans for meeting air quality standard
o Determine air quality trends
o Develop responsible and cost-effective pollution control strategies and
policy decisions
o ant for effective air quality management. The Government monitors air
quality in different areas to find out how much pollution is in the air and
make sure pollutant levels are meeting health - based air quality standards.
Knowing how much pollution is in the

• Present status of NAMP

Central Pollution Control Board initiated National Ambient Air Quality

Monitoring (NAAQM) programme in the year 1984 with 7 stations at
Agra and Anpara. Subsequently the programme was renamed as
National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP). Steadily the air
quality monitoring network got strengthened, in year 2019 the number
of stations was raised to 804 covering 344 cities/towns/villages
in 28 states and 6 Union Territories as on 31 st December
2019 .

9
1.5.1 Objectives of NAMP

The objectives of the NAMP are as follows:

 To determine status and trends of ambient air quality;
 To ascertain whether the prescribed ambient air quality standards are
violated;
 To Identify Non-Attainment Cities;
 To obtain the knowledge and understanding necessary for developing
preventive and corrective measures;
 To understand the natural cleansing process undergoing in the
environment through pollution dilution, dispersion, wind based
movement, dry deposition, precipitation and chemical transformation of
pollutants generated.

1.5.2 Parameters monitored under NAMP

To check air quality of the country, Central Pollution Control Board initiated
National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP) under which three air
pollutants viz., Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) and Particulate
Matter size equal to or less than 10 micron (PM10), have been monitored
regularly at all the locations. Other parameters like PM 2.5 (Particulate Matter
having an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm), Carbon
monoxide (CO), Ammonia (NH3), Lead (Pb), Ozone (O3), Benzene (C6H6),
Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), Arsenic (As) and Nickel (Ni) are being monitored at
selected locations and are slowly being added to the monitoring network under
NAMP.

The monitoring of meteorological parameters such as wind speed and direction,

relative humidity and temperature were also integrated with the monitoring of
air quality and are monitored at selected locations. The monitoring of regular
parameters is carried out for 24 hours (4-hourly sampling for gaseous pollutants
and 8-hourly sampling for particulate matter) with a frequency of twice a week,
to have 104 observations in a year.

The monitoring under the NAMP is being carried out with the help of State
Pollution Control Boards (SPCB), Pollution Control Committees (PCC),
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur and
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) Head Office and its Regional
Directorates. CPCB co-ordinates with these agencies to ensure uniformity,
consistency of air quality data and provides technical and financial support to
1
0
them for operating the monitoring station.

1.5.3 Data Analysis, Processing and Limitations

The samples collected at the monitoring stations, following the guidelines of

NAMP, are then analyzed in the laboratories of the State Boards and different
agencies as per the methods of measurement given in the NAAQS. The data
generated are entered into an online system of CPCB known as Environment
Air Quality Data Entry System (EAQDES) by respective SPCBs and PCCs. The
data is then scrutinized for outliers and gaps in input of data by CPCB. In case
of any gaps, the matter is discussed with the respective agencies and later the
data is checked, scrutinized, compiled, processed and analyzed statistically to
get the information on the annual mean, standard deviation etc. of the pollutants
and payment is also made to the respective agencies. Figure 1.5 shows the data
flow in NAMP.

1
1
Figure 1.5: Data flow in NA

DATA
ROADMAP
Data – by SPCB, PCC, NEERI

If absent in
EAQDE E-mail Hard copy soft
copy
S then
entere
d

Entered in status book

AQMN-
CPCB
VALIDATI SPCB, PCC,
SPCB, PCC, NEERI ON
NEERI
query to update
Data quality & outliers Gaps in updation
Y Y

N N

Payment Compilation & Analysis

1.5.4 Quality Assurance/Quality Control of Data and Management

The policy decisions in the country related to air pollution are being taken based
on the results obtained by CPCB through its air quality monitoring programme.
It is therefore, of utmost important to keep a quality check on the data generated
so that the data is of acceptable quality. In order to ensure the quality of data,
CPCB is carrying out various exercises as follows:

Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations: Officials from

CPCB Regional Directorates regularly visit monitoring stations and monitoring
laboratories to ensure proper methodology for sampling and analysis. The
findings of the inspection report are communicated to respective monitoring
agencies for implementation

Review Meetings: CPCB conducts review meetings with monitoring

agencies to discuss various problems related to monitoring activities and sort
out the remedial measures

Training Program on Ambient Air Quality Monitoring and data

entry: CPCB carries out training program on ambient air quality
monitoring and data entry in the Environmental Air Quality Data Entry
System (EAQDES) with an objective to improve quality of data
generated under National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP).

1
2
 Chapter 05
Ambient air quality sample analysis

35
 AIR QUALITY ANALYSIS

5.1 WHY BELLARY DISTRICT IS SELECTED FOR AMBIENT AIR CHECK

The mineral resources of Karnataka are distributed very unevenly. Most of the
iron and manganese ore is found in Karnataka district. So, all the large open cast
metal mines are located in this region. Due to the presence of large number of
mines, there is a cumulative impact of particulate matter pollution on the
environment. Therefore a detailed study on ambient air quality needs to be done
on that area. Our studies spanned on mines namely, Haragina doni iron ore mine,
Smiore iron and manganese mines, Tiffenbarytes iron mines,
Sanjeevarayanakote iron ore mine, janikunta ironoremines,etc. The study
included direct sampling in the field, data collection from EIA/EMP reports and
SPCB, Regional office, bellary .

5.2 PROCEDURE
The method that was used was according to the CPCB guidelines. The sampling
instrument was set on a stable and leveled ground, without any type of
disturbances. In the core zone, the sampler was located at an approximate
distance of 35 m from nearby constructions. The sampler was placed 40 m away
from the trees in buffer zone. Three populous locations were selected lying
within 07 km radius from the mine periphery, viz. Village Haraginadoni , kuditini
Town and Village belagal .

The filter paper was properly conditioned before placing it on the filter cassette
of the sampler. Initial dry gas meter reading was noted. The suction pump was
activated along with the timer. A total duration of 8 hours was set for sampling.
After the stipulated time, the sampling instrument was stopped and the filter
paper was retrieved. It was conditioned and sealed for further investigation in
laboratory.

35
5.3 OBSERVATIONS
Air quality data from mining areas of Bellary district were collected from some
EIA/EMP reports. Data were also collected from SPCB, Bellary regional office.
To verify the status of air quality in field, measurement of air quality were done
at Haraginadoni iron ore mine in the month of November . Particulate matter
samplers were used for the above purpose. The gases collected at the mine sited
were subsequently sent to the lab SPCB, Bellary and Bengaluru.

35
 The analysis of sampled air quality data of Haraginadoni iron mines in the
bellary district has been presented in table given below:

Table 5.1 Sampled air quality data of Haragina doni iron ore mine

Location Parameter Valve Stranded unit

Mining office PM2.5 35 60 μgm/m3

PM10 μgm/m3
86 100
SO2 μgm/m3
07 80
NOx μgm/m3
09 80
CO μgm/m3
0.6 4

Crusher area PM2.5 40 60 μgm/m3

PM10 μgm/m3
92 100

SO2 μgm/m3
09 80

NOx μgm/m3
12 80

CO mg/m3
0.9 4

Waste Dump PM2.5 49 60 μgm/m3

un loading PM10 μgm/m3
area 52 100
SO2 μgm/m3
0.9 80

35
 NOx μgm/m3
02 80
CO mg/m3
0.2 4

Haragina doni PM2.5 32 60 μgm/m3

village PM10 μgm/m3
89 100
SO2 μgm/m3
03 80

NOx μgm/m3
19 80
CO mg/m3
0.1 4

Janikunta PM2.5 45 60 μgm/m3

village PM10 μgm/m3
97 100
SO2 μgm/m3
3 80
NOx μgm/m3
2 80
CO mg/m3
0.1 4

Kuditini PM2.5 47 60 μgm/m3

mandal PM10 μgm/m3
65 100

SO2 μgm/m3
03 80
NOx μgm/m3
11 80
CO mg/m3
0.1 4

35
Belagal PM2.5 25 60 μgm/m3
village
PM10 μgm/m3
77 100
SO2 μgm/m3
02 80
NOx μgm/m3
06 80
CO mg/m3
0.1 4

In these samples we are collect from the mining office ,crusher and dumping site ,
and near village and town like Haraginadoni and belagal and kuditini town

In the above and below sample reports are collect form the Karnataka state
pollution control board , Regional office Ballari .

Table 6.2 Air quality data Haraginadoni iron ore mine ( mining site )

Sample date PM2.5 PM10 Unit

Jan -2023 32.7 56.9 μgm/m3

Feb -2023 39.5 56.6 μgm/m3

Marc-2023 42.6 53.3 μgm/m3

April -2023 29.6 50.6 μgm/m3

NAAQS 60 100 μgm/m3

The analysis of sampled air air quality data of different iron ore mines in the
35
bellary district taken from EIA/EMP reports are presented in tables given below :

Table 6.3 Air quality data of Sanjeevarayankote iron ore mine ( mining site )

Sample date PM2.5 PM10 Unit

Aug-2023 28.7 49.9 μgm/m3

Sept-2023 32.5 52.6 μgm/m3

Oct -2023 38.6 58.3 μgm/m3

Nov -2023 28.6 59.6 μgm/m3

NAAQS 60 100 μgm/m3

Table 6.4 Air quality data of Sanjeevarayankote iron ore mine ( plant area )

Sample date PM2.5 PM10 Unit

Aug-2023 39.2 59.6 μgm/m3

Sept-2023 41.0 59.9 μgm/m3

Oct -2023 32.0 57.3 μgm/m3

Nov -2023 31.2 56.89 μgm/m3

NAAQS 60 100 μgm/m3

35
Table 6.5 Air quality data of jani kunta iron ore mine ( crusher area )

Sample date PM2.5 PM10 Unit

Dec -2022 45.6 60.6 μgm/m3

Jan -2023 48.0 62.9 μgm/m3

Feb -2023 39.0 69.3 μgm/m3

March -2023 35.2 60.69 μgm/m3

April -2023 36.1 69.32 μgm/m3

NAAQS 60 100 μgm/m3

Table 6.6 Air quality data of obulapura iron ore mine ( mining site )

Sample date PM2.5 PM10 Unit

Aug-2023 49.3 62.36 μgm/m3

Sept-2023 32.69 63.28 μgm/m3

Oct -2023 33.52 66.39 μgm/m3

Nov -2023 32.65 69.32 μgm/m3

Dec -2023 31.23 68.54 μgm/m3

NAAQS 60 100 μgm/m3

35
Table 6.7 Air quality data of bellary near villages

Station PM2.5 PM10 Unit

Bellary town 31.0 62.89 μgm/m3

Belagatanda 42.3 66.54 μgm/m3

village

Vijaya crosss 26.96 69.15 μgm/m3

Toraganallu town 42.69 56.87 μgm/m3

Kulidigi 29.85 52.10 μgm/m3

NAAQS 60 100 μgm/m3

1
 CONTENTS

Sl. No Topic Page no.

* Certificate i
* Acknowledgement ii
* Abstract iv
* List of figures vi
* List of tables vii
1
 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Objectives 3
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
3 HEALTH IMPACTS OF PARTICULATE MATTER AND 12
GASSES IN OPEN CAST METAL MINES
3.1 Effect of particulate matter on various systems human body 13
3.2 Effect of mine gasses on human health. 15
4 AIR SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 17
4.1 Basic Sampling methods 18
4.2 Gravimetric sampling 19
4.2.1 PM 10 and PM2.5 Samplers of High volume type 19
4.2.2 Personal samplers for PM2.5 and PM10 Particulate matter 20
sampling.
4.3 Air sampling and analysis methods as recommended by CPCB 22
4.3.1 Guidelines for sampling and analysis of Particulate matter 22
(PM10) in ambient air
4.3.2 Guidelines for sampling and analysis of Particulate matter 24
(PM2.5) in ambient air
5 AIR QUALITY MODELLING 27
5.1 Gaussian Plume Model 28
5.2 Meteorological parameters that effects the air quality modelling. 32
5.3 Preferred and recommended air quality models 33
6 AIR QUALITY ANALYSIS 34
6.1 Procedure of on-field air sampling 35
6.2 Observations 35
6.3 Air quality Index 43
7 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 48
7.1 Measures of dust control 50
8 REFERENCES 57

1
 ABSTRACT

The term ‘mining’ is more or less synonymous to environmental pollution. The growing
emphasis on open cast mining operation in recent years to achieve ever increasing production
targets has further aggravated the problem of air pollution. Great amount of respirable dust
concentration are added into the environment by the mining activities due to mechanization,
escalating production, large scale blasting etc. Major sources of air pollution in open cast
mines are drilling, blasting, overburden loading and unloading, material handling and
workshops.

The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are the basis for India’s Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to regulate air pollutants including particulate matter and five
other criteria pollutants. PM2.5 and PM10 particles are currently accepted indicators for
respirable pollutants. Several methods normally exist to measure the amount the dust.

Method of sampling

Air Sampling: Air sampling is capturing the contaminants from a known volume of air,
measuring the amount of contaminants captured, and expressing it as a concentration.

There are many different methods for taking air samples. But the most widely used and
preferred method gravimetric sampling. Here a pump is connected to a filter medium; the
pump should be capable of drawing air through the filter at a constant rate for a time in excess
of 8 hours even in adverse conditions such as extreme cold or heat. For this particular work,
‘ENVIROTECH APM 460NL’ size selective air sampler was used. The sampling system
comprises of an omni directional air inlet, size selective impactor, filter medium, oil-less rotary
suction pump, dry gas meter for overall sampling procedure. The sampling was performed as
per CPCB guidelines.

Results and discussion

In the month of AUGEST-2023 , air sampling was carried out in Haraginadoni iron mine in
four locations namely, core zone-Mine office area and buffer zones- village belgal , kuditini
town and village Haraginadoni . The air quality index (USEPA, 2011) was calculated for the
above mentioned locations and other parameters like PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx and CO were
compared to NAAQS.

x
xi
Table 1: AQI of Sampled air quality data and conc. of other gaseous pollutants at
Haraginadoni iron ore mine
Location Mines Haraginad kuditiniTown Village NAAQS Unit
office area oni belagal
village
PM 2.5 29 30 41 27 60 μgm/m3
PM 10 82 88 97 75 100 μgm/m3
SO2 4 4 4 4 80 μgm/m3
NOx 9 16 9 9 80 μgm/m3
CO 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 4 mg/m3
AQI 77.56 79.53 100.98 73.63
Remarks Moderate Moderate Unhealthy for Moderate
sensitive group

From the above sampled data, it is observed that the level of pollution comes to be in Moderate
level. The concentration of gaseous pollutants was much lower than the NAAQS limits. In
overall sense, it can be said that in opencast mines particulate matter pollution is more
prominent. The PM10 concentrations at these sites were observed close to NAAQS limits.

Conclusion
The study reveals that the air quality index varies from simple to moderate category. However,
the AQI for kuditini town is coming under ‘unhealthy to sensitive people’ group. Thus various
dust suppression measures need to be taken to control particulate matter dispersion within
environment. It is noticed that majority of the concern is the particulate matter pollution caused
by transportation, crushing and grinding operations. It is suggested that in addition to tehnical
fixed and mobile sprinklers, the mine management should adopt some additional dust
suppression measures viz., proper housekeeping, black topping of permanent roads, utilization
of wetting, binding and agglomerating agents, foam suppression. Development of a green belt
around the periphery of the mines with plants having thick foliage should also be stressed
upon.

References
Chander, S., Alaboyun, A.R. and Aplan, F.F., 1991, Mechanism of capture of coal dust
particles by sprays, Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Respirable Dust in the
Mineral Industries (Pittsburgh, PA, October 17-19, 1990). Littleton, CO: Society for
Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.
Chaulya, S.K., 1999, Air quality status of an open pit mining area in India, Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment, vol-105, P.P: 369–389.
Ghose, M.K. and Majee, S.R., 2001, Air pollution caused by opencast mining and its
abatement measures in India”, Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 63, P.P:
193–202.
x
x
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig no. Title of the figure Page no.

3.1 Size comparison of PM2.5and PM10 13

4.1 Photographic view of PM10 sampler 21

4.2 Schematic PM10 Sampler (Cyclonic Inlet) 23

5.1 Co-ordinates of a Gaussian plume 30

5.2 Gaussian plume from a stack 31

6.1 PM Conc. in Haragina doni Iron ore Mine (Mining site) 36

6.2 PM Conc. in Sanjeevarayanakote iron ore mine (Mining site) 37

6.3 PM Conc. in Sanjeevarayanakote iron ore mine(Near plant area) 38

6.4 PM Conc. in Janikunta iron ore mine (Mining area) 39

6.5 PM Conc. in Janikunta Iron ore mine (Residential area) 40

6.6 PM Conc. in tiffen barytes iron ore mine 40

6.7 PM Conc. in obulapura iron mine 41

7.1 Mobile water sprinkling truck system 51

7.2 Application of foam near crusher area 54

xxv
i
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Title of the table Page

no. no.
1 AQI of Sampled air quality data and conc. of other gaseous pollutants V
‘Haraginadoni iron ore mine mine’

4.1 NAAQS for particulate matter PM10 22

4.2 NAAQS for particulate matter PM2.5 24

6.1 Sampled Air Quality data of ‘Haragina doni Iron ore Mine (Mining site)’ 36

6.2 Air quality of Sanjeevarayanakote iron ore mine (Mining site) 37

6.3 Air quality of Sanjeevarayanakote iron ore mine (Near plant area) 38

6.4 Air quality of Janikunta iron ore mine (Mining area) 39

6.5 Air quality of Janikunta iron ore mine (Residential area) 39

6.6 Air quality of tiffen barytes 40

6.7 Air quality of obulapura iron ore mine 41

6.8 Observed Air Quality data of ‘kumarswamy Iron ore mines’ during 41
2009- 2012

6.9 Recent Air Quality Data of different open cast metal mines obtained 42
from KPCB, Regional office, Bellary

6.10 Donimalali iron ore mine, Nmdc limited 45

6.11 Deogiri iron and manganese mines, M/S SMIORE Limited 45

6.12 Dharma iron ore mine, M/s JSW Limited 46

6.13 lyli gurunath iron and manganese mine, M/s Ramaghad minerals 46
Ltd.

7.1 Comparison between different particulate matter control measures 55

xxv
ii
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
 2. INTRODUCTION
Mining is a vital industry for industrial and economic growth of any country. The development
of infrastructure and core sector is directly linked with increased production of minerals, like
coal for power sector, iron ore for steel sector, limestone for cement for housing and
infrastructure development. With increased industrialization, urbanization and other
developmental activities; there is a greater need for increased production of minerals. The
emphasis therefore is now on surface mining which is adopted for quick and economic
extraction with higher percentage of recovery compared to underground mining; in fact bulk of
the minerals obtained in India now comes from opencast mines. Some of the important
minerals like limestone, dolomite, iron ore, bauxite, granite, silica and magnetite etc. are
obtained exclusively by opencast mining. Opencast mining is more damaging to the
environment than underground mining as are less to remove substantial amount of land to
reach the mineral It starts within a natural ecosystem and it not only disturbs the existing
ecosystems, but also generates an artificial one, which has its own factors including pollutants
and contaminants. The important environmental problems that arise out of the opencast
mining operation are air, water and soil pollution. In this project various aspects of air
pollution and their effect on the local habitat of a iron ore mine are discussed .

Air pollution in the open cast mining areas are caused by drilling, blasting, overburden loading
and unloading, material loading and unloading, road transport and losses from exposed
overburden dumps, material handling plants, exposed pit faces and workshops. In development
stage of an opencast mine, massive overburden (OB) has to be taken out to reach the mineral
deposit. This necessitates the use of excavators, loaders, dumpers, and conveyor belts, which
results into massive discharge of fine particulates from OB material. Likewise, normal
production and operation will need excavation, size reduction, waste removal, transportation,
loading, and stockpiling. All these operations generates particulate matter and is reported that
plying of heavy earth moving machinery on haul roads of mechanized opencast mines could
contribute as much as 80% of the dust emitted.
Characterization of potential health risks resulting from exposures to ambient air toxics
requires assessing the impact of ambient sources on personal exposures. This is a challenging
task because the variables needed to assess individual and population exposures are not always
available.

2
The National Ambient Air quality Standards (NAAQS) are the basis for the Central Pollution
Control Board to regulate air pollutants, including particulate matter (PM) and five other
criteria pollutants. Particles with an aerodynamic equivalent diameter (AED) less than or equal
to a nominal 10 micrometre (also known as PM 10) and 2.5 micrometre (PM2.5) are the currently
accepted indicators for PM pollutants.

1.1 OBJECTIVES
Keeping the aforementioned problems in mind the current work has been carried with
following objectives:

Assessment of the ambient air quality in the open cast iron and manganese ore mines in
the Bellary district of Karnataka .
Collection of data from EIA reports and KPCB, Bellary for the above areas.
Analysis of data for variation of air quality.
Classification of air quality according to standard Air Quality Index.

3
 Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
 3. LITERATURE REVIEW

The following is a brief review of scholarly work of different researchers in the field of
Ambient Air Quality Assessment:

Krupa and Legge (1999) studied the use of passive samplers for gaseous air pollutants. They
evaluated the specificity and linearity of the response of passive samplers; results obtained by
such an approach were initially compared and cross-correlated with co-located active samplers
or continuous monitors for accuracy. It was found that the seasonal influences in any
comparisons of data from passive sampling versus active monitoring, particularly in the cold
climates and associated atmospheric processes of the northern latitudes. They found that the
differences between the two systems can be highly significant during the winter months. Some
pollutants such as NH3 need to be converted to a second compound (NO2) before
quantification. This can lead to technical complications on site with instrument performance.
Finally they concluded that although passive samplers are very desirable from economic and
logistic perspectives, they should be co-located with passive samplers, with continuous
monitors at sampling locations.

Cihakraborty et al. (2001) developed empirical formulae with the objective to calculate
emsion rate of various opencast mining activities. They selected 7 coal mines and 3 iron ore
miness with the consideration of geographical location, working method, accessibility and
resource availability. 12 Empirical formula for Suspended particulate matter were developed
for many opencast mining activities like drilling, coal loading ,coal handling plant , haul road ,
workshop , etc. but the formula was for the overall mine for NO x and SO2 estimation. To verify
the universal applicability of the empirical formulas, they selected Rajpura opencast coal mine.
A good accuracy was indicated between the calculated value and field measured value which
varied from 77.2% to 80.4%. They concluded that Suspended particulate matter is the main
constituent of emissions while emissions due to NOx & SO2 are negligible. They revealed that
the results of this study is of great importance for mine environmental engineers and scientists
working in the field of air quality monitoring to monitor air quality and its impact from
pollutants generating projects.

5
Dahmann et al. (2008) investigated the results of exposure assessment with respect to
nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide in German hard coal mines. The measurement campaign
was accompanied by an epidemiological study investigating possible health effects on the
airways of the lungs. For this purpose time weighted 8-hour shift values were determined by
them, for typical groups of coalminers according to the European measurement standards.
Based on these measurements and on experts’ assessments of the retrospective exposure
situation, time-dependent cumulative and average NO and NO2 exposure estimates were
derived for an inception cohort of two groups of coalminers. They concluded that Miners
working in blasting crews (no blasting specialists) were estimated by experts to experience 2/3
of the nitrogen oxide exposure of blasting specialists. Especially, for the diesel engine drivers,
exposure can be rather higher than the prescribed value.

Mandal et al. (2011) analysed that majority of air pollutants that are contaminating the
atmosphere traces its source from the haul and transport roads in coal mining areas thus
enhancing different health problems. As high as 93.3% of total generated dust comes from haul
roads of South African coal mines, according to the analysis carried out by Amponsah-Dacosta
using USEPA guidelines. Due to the partial failure of the available techniques, the dust doesn’t
get removed from the haul road completely. In this study the qualitative as well as quantitative
aspects of road dusts is being dealt by them. For this, they collected representative road dust
samples from four different coalfields of India.

5
Stein and Corn (1975) observed that to provide a clear picture on the physical nature of the
size fractions, additional characterizing parameters based on density, particulate matter size by
optical microscopy, random and projected area & specific surface area need to be provided.
They collected air samples from underground coal mines from Pittsburg seam, lower Freeport
and lower Kittaning seams and with the use of horizontal elutriator and collected over 8 in*10
in membrane filter (Millipore SCW P00010). Each sample was separated into four different
size fractions by Bahco centrifugal classifier. Then various experiments were conducted by
them to calculate the above parameters for each size fractions. Then the difference in
parameters for the size fractions were analysed and discussed. Thus, it is made possible to co-
relate the advent and seriousness of respirable lung diseases with the physical and chemical
properties of different size fractions of the ARD (Airborne respirable dust), more closely.

Kumari et al. (1995) the study puts a great emphasis on determination of quartz present in the
airborne respirable dust (ARD) known to cause silicosis & cancer. FT-IR spectrometer was
5
being used in direct on filter method for quartz determination in ARD with quartz doublet peak
at 800 & 700 cm-1. For taking air samples from different locations of mine personal dust
samplers were used and collected over GLA -5000 PVC membrane filters.

Certain dust generating sources were selected where dust samplers may be placed and it was
even attached with different workers engaged in the shifts. The analysis in different coal and
metal mines showed that quartz content in respirable dust is <1% which is less than the
prescribed MEL (Maximum exposure limit) 3mg/m 3 except for 2-3 locations in Longwall and
bunker top. It was observed that drilling, haulage, crusher house are main high risk zone of
silicosis and was eventually concluded that wet drilling as well as improved ventilation is
effective to control airborne dust as well as emission of quartz. Frequent rotation of workers is
a must in locations like crusher sites where, even after adoption of dust suppression measures,
dust is not reduced to safe limits.

5
Chaulya (1999) for a period of 1 year, carried out a study for assessment of air quality in
Lakhanpur area. He found out that the annual average of concentrations of TSP & PM 10 were
higher than the prescribed limits given by NAAQS. He took the help of linear regression
analysis to predict the concentrations of one type of particulate matter by knowing the level of
the other, for O/C coal mines with same as conditions. Monitoring stations were placed to
evaluate air quality and plan any control measures. Sampling and analysis were done twice
monthly for residential areas (buffer zone) and six times monthly for industrial areas (core
zone/mining area) during the year from September 1998 to August 1999.

He suggested that effective control measures at the CHP, excavation area & o/b dumps should
be optimised to mitigate the TSP emission at source. Concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO)
and lead (Pb) were below detectable limits or negligible as per the bi-monthly monitoring
report for the area during the study time.

Krupa and Legge (1999) studied the use of passive samplers for gaseous air pollutants. They
evaluated the specificity and linearity of the response of passive samplers; results obtained by
such an approach were initially compared and cross-correlated with co-located active samplers
or continuous monitors for accuracy. It was found that the seasonal influences in any
comparisons of data from passive sampling versus active monitoring, particularly in the cold
climates and associated atmospheric processes of the northern latitudes. They found that the
differences between the two systems can be highly significant during the winter months. Some
pollutants such as NH3 need to be converted to a second compound (NO2) before
quantification. This can lead to technical complications on site with instrument performance.
Finally they concluded that although passive samplers are very desirable from economic and
logistic perspectives, they should be co-located with passive samplers, with continuous
monitors at sampling locations.

Ghose and Majee (2001) observed that In India, coal is mainly mined out from opencast
mines, contributing more than 70% of total coal production and it also has a high share in air
pollution. To keep a track upon the local atmosphere impact, a survey was conducted by them
taking emissions data which were utilised to find out the dust generation due to various mining
activities. They noticed that the air pollutants coming from mines and their seasonal
fluctuations in its quantity had high pollution potential and greater negative impact on human
health. They have given a lot of control measures to deal with this situation and even chalked
out ‘afforestation and tolerating capability of trees’ against the dust particulate matter. They

6
emphasised the need of utilisation of different chemicals to minimize the air pollutants coming
from haul road and stated that a pollution free environment can be achieved by implementing
suitable abatement measures.

Cihakraborty et al. (2001) developed empirical formulae with the objective to calculate
emsion rate of various opencast mining activities. They selected 7 coal mines and 3 iron ore
miness with the consideration of geographical location, working method, accessibility and
resource availability. 12 Empirical formula for Suspended particulate matter were developed
for many opencast mining activities like drilling, coal loading ,coal handling plant , haul road ,
workshop , etc. but the formula was for the overall mine for NO x and SO2 estimation. To verify
the universal applicability of the empirical formulas, they selected Rajpura opencast coal mine.
A good accuracy was indicated between the calculated value and field measured value which
varied from 77.2% to 80.4%. They concluded that Suspended particulate matter is the main
constituent of emissions while emissions due to NOx & SO2 are negligible. They revealed that
the results of this study is of great importance for mine environmental engineers and scientists
working in the field of air quality monitoring to monitor air quality and its impact from
pollutants generating projects.

Reddy and Ruj (2002) carried out the ambient air quality assessment in the Raniganj –
Asansol area based on sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and suspended particulate matter
(SPM) at four stations namely – Raniganj girls college (RGC), Searsol raj high school (SRS)
Raniganj, B.B college (BBC) Asansol and B.C college (BCC) Asansol; where a total of 429
samples each were taken from RGC & SRS and 435 each from BBC & BCC locations.
Ambient air monitoring frequency was 3*8 hours per day at each site on every alternate days
for 1 year; along with the recording of other parameters such as temperature, relative humidity,
air speed and its direction. They used high volume samplers to measure SPM & SO 2, and NOx
fumes and were collected by bubbling the sample in a particular absorbing solution. The results
from the above investigations showed that 95 percentile values of SPM & NOx exceeded the
reference limit in most of the stations but 95 percentile values of SO 2 level didn’t cross the
prescribed limit.

Further their seasonal variation was observed by them which highlighted ‘winter’ as the most
polluted season due to high concentration of pollutants, than summer followed by monsoon.
Thus, they concluded that the mining along with other industrial activities are solely
responsible for the high concentration of pollutants in this area.

7
Anastasiadou and Gidarakos (2006) and their team evaluated the environmental quality of
open air asbestos mine over a long period of time by measuring and monitoring the
concentration of asbestos fibres in air. The study was carried out in Asbestos Mine of Northern
Greece (MABE). Air sampling was performed according to the standard method for asbestos
sampling—the NIOSH Method 740 for phase contrast microscopy (PCM)—and according to
the air sampling process described by the EU. Static samples were taken at fixed locations,
1.5m above floor level. The samples were first observed optically and were analyzed
afterwards with X-ray powder diffraction (XRD).
A scanning electronic microscope (SEM) was also used and the suspect fibres were examined
with an energy dispersive X-ray for their composition. Majority of incidents show that asbestos
exposure is attributed to human activities, such as excavations, the treatment of asbestos, the
use of asbestos and the disposal of asbestos products into landfills.

Dahmann et al. (2008) investigated the results of exposure assessment with respect to
nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide in German hard coal mines. The measurement campaign
was accompanied by an epidemiological study investigating possible health effects on the
airways of the lungs. For this purpose time weighted 8-hour shift values were determined by
them, for typical groups of coalminers according to the European measurement standards.
Based on these measurements and on experts’ assessments of the retrospective exposure
situation, time-dependent cumulative and average NO and NO2 exposure estimates were
derived for an inception cohort of two groups of coalminers. They concluded that Miners
working in blasting crews (no blasting specialists) were estimated by experts to experience 2/3
of the nitrogen oxide exposure of blasting specialists. Especially, for the diesel engine drivers,
exposure can be rather higher than the prescribed value.

Sharma and Siddiqui (2010) carried out a study for the assessment and management of the air
quality around Jayant open cast coal mining situated at Jayant in Sidhi district of Madhya
Pradesh, India. Air monitoring for SO2, NOx and TSP was done for 24 hrs. once every 15 days
at each sites and concentration were expressed as μgm. Mean value for pollutant were
calculated on 24 hours sampling basis. For the sampling of particulate matter HVS (High
Volume Sampler) was used. Samples were collected for two years using glass fibre filter paper
on fort nightly basis. They also sought upon the observations on ‘spatial and temporal
variations in concentration of gaseous and particulate pollutants’ had done by Chaulya (2004)
during both the year of air monitoring. The study suggested that concentration of particulate
pollutant exceeded the prescribed limit especially during summer and winter season.

8
They finally recommended implementing a plan of regular cleaning of transportation roads,
watering of paved and unpaved roads with chemical binding agents, installation of sprinkler
system at high polluting coal transport roads within the plant premises and effective dust
suppression mechanism at coal handling plant.

Silva et al. (2010) observed that monitoring of light hydrocarbons is extremely critical ,
basically on two aspects; one is due to global climate change and other one for economic &
safety reasons. Due to the difficulty to access and lack of correct procedures of gas sampling in
Brazilian coal mines, they aimed to apply standard gas chromatography procedures of gas
sampling to determine LHCs (light hydrocarbons) levels from their 2 surface mines and 3
underground mines. Samples of gas were collected with the help of sequential sampler and
were placed in polypropylene tedler gas sampling bags. Then the LHCs concentration was
calculated from gas chromatograph equipped with flame ionization detector. The results
indicated higher percentage of LHCs in u/g mines than surface mines with CH 4 levels varying
from 3 ppm to 27% in coal mine atmosphere. They found that the proposed methodology was
very effective in measuring LHCs levels and was finally concluded that sampling of air using
tedler bags and sequential sampler was better than steel canisters.

Chen et al. (2010) dealt with the application of matter-element method in estimation of
ambient air quality in Huizhou opencast coal fields in Fuxin colliery. Study conducted by Fu et
al (2000) described air pollution of Fuxin to be composed of total suspended particulates
(TSP), SO2 and NOx. To verify their studies, dust samples were taken from four different
monitoring stations located in 4 different districts around Fuxin colliery. They applied ‘fuzzy
concept’ to the air quality assessment based on extension of matter-element theory, which
handles the concept of partial truth. Moreover this idea can predict the relative influence of
each dust pollutant on environment based on the upper and lower maximum allowable
exposure limits. They concluded that re-vegetating appropriate sites as well as the initiatives
from government can successfully help in complying ‘air quality’ within the prescribed limits
of CAAQS, 1996. The future work of this study is to develop an integrated & automated
decision support system for air quality assessment with the help of a programming language.

Khan and Bagaria (2011) carried out the study in Dhanappa limestone mines, Nagpur with
the main objective to suggest a monitoring programme to evaluate the effectiveness of
meditative measures to suppress air pollutants coming from mining areas. The sites which
were selected for the studies were of three different types of anthropogenic activities i.e.
sensitive, residential

9
and commercial and industrial area in around the mining sites. Annual Arithmetic mean of
minimum 104 measurements in a year taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform interval was
taken for the study. The APM-460 Respirable Dust Sampler that they used was provided with a
cyclone. The cyclone was designed to provide separation of PM10 particulate matters for a
more accurate sampling. Sampling of SO2 and NOx was done through an impinger which was
exposed for 24 hours at an impingement rate of 1 LPM to get one sample in a day. They
analysed SO2 and NOx on spectrophotometer employing West-Geake method and Jacob-
Hochheiser method respectively. The results that they obtained suggested that ambient air
quality in the mines zones with respect to SO 2 and NOx shows low pollution, while with
respect to RSPM and SPM it is moderate. They also suggested that regular monitoring and
analysing of those parameters will definitely restrict them below prescribed limits.

Mandal et al. (2011) analysed that majority of air pollutants that are contaminating the
atmosphere traces its source from the haul and transport roads in coal mining areas thus
enhancing different health problems. As high as 93.3% of total generated dust comes from haul
roads of South African coal mines, according to the analysis carried out by Amponsah-Dacosta
using USEPA guidelines. Due to the partial failure of the available techniques, the dust doesn’t
get removed from the haul road completely. In this study the qualitative as well as quantitative
aspects of road dusts is being dealt by them. For this, they collected representative road dust
samples from four different coalfields of India.

Determination of PH of dust samples were carried out by Orion ion analyser using glass
electrode; moisture content by oven dry method using Indian standards; Volatile matter by
heating the sample inside a covered crucible in a muffle furnace; ash content using Indian
standards and fixed carbon by deducting the sum total of moisture, volatile matter and ash
content from 100. Their results were quite encouraging in the sense that coal dust from haul
and transport road of mining areas can be effectively used as a domestic fuel. They concluded
that some road dust (comprising powdery coal) could be collected and converted into a solid
form so that it can be used as a domestic fuel vis-à-vis sustenance of a healthy environment
and energy.

10
Khalaji et al. (2011) used the new technique of spark induced breakdown spectroscopy (SIBS)
as a simple, rapid and in situ method for continuous dust monitoring as this method can detect
elemental composition of dust simultaneously and no sample preparation is required. They
formulated an experimental technique using a high voltage and a breakdown is created
between two electrodes. Each element in the plasma between electrodes emits its characteristic
spectral emissions by analysing the spectral emission of plasma, the elemental composition of
dusty air is determined. With this experiment the team showed that SIBS can be used as a
method for dust level monitoring and also can be used to alarm a remarkable increase of dust
in mines.

11
 Chapter 3

HEALTH IMPACTS OF AIR POLLUTION IN OPEN CAST METAL

MINES
4. EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON DIFFERENT ORGANS
AND SYSTEMS
PM2.5 and PM10 concentration are the currently accepted criteria of National Ambient Air
Quality Standard (NAAQS) for accessing air quality.
Following are the two reasons discussed:
(ii) Long retention period of fine particulate matter (diameter<10μ) in ambient air-
Small particles have a relatively high surface area per unit mass. A centimetre cube of
quartz particle if broken into particles of 1μm3, there will be1012particles with surface
area of 6m2 in comparison to only 6cm2 area of original quartz cube. Their terminal
velocity being very negligible of the order of cm/hour or even mm/hour remains in air
borne state for a long time.
(iii) Relative negligible absorption of fine particulate matter(diameter<10μ)in upper
respiratory track-
All dust below 10μm are considered as dangerous because of the fact that they don’t
get trapped in the upper respiratory track, such as trachea, bronchi and thus reach the
alveoli producing toxic effect like dyspnoea, thickening of alveolar walls, etc.

[Image courtesy – U.S. EPA]

Fig 3.1 Size comparison of PM2.5 and PM10

4.1 EFFECT OF PARTICULATE MATTER ON VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF HUMAN

BODY

4.1.1 Respiratory system

Numerous studies describe that all types of air pollution, at high concentration, can affect the
airways. Nevertheless, same as effects are also observed with long-term exposure to lower
pollutant concentrations. Symptoms such as nose and throat irritation, followed by
bronchoconstriction and dyspnoea, especially in asthmatic individuals, are usually experienced
after exposure to increased levels of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and certain heavy metals

13
such as arsenic, nickel or vanadium. In addition particulate matter that penetrates the alveolar
epithelium and ozone start lung inflammation. In patients with lung lesions or lung diseases,
pollutant-initiated inflammation will worsen their condition. Moreover air pollutants such as
nitrogen oxides increase the susceptibility to respiratory infections. Finally chronic exposure to
ozone and certain heavy metals reduces lung function, while the later are also responsible for
asthma, emphysema, and even lung cancer. Emphysema-like lesions have also been observed
in mice exposed to nitrogen dioxide.

4.1.2 Cardiovascular system

Carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin modifying its conformation and reduces its capacity to
transfer oxygen. This reduced oxygen availability can affect the function of different organs
(and especially high oxygen consuming organs such as the brain and the heart), resulting in
impaired concentration, slow reflexes, and confusion. Apart from lung inflammation, systemic
inflammatory changes are induced by particulate matter, affecting equally blood coagulation.
Air pollution that induces lung irritation and changes in blood clotting can obstruct (cardiac)
blood vessels, leading to angina or even to myocardial infraction. Symptoms such as
tachycardia, increased blood pressure and anaemia due to an inhibitory effect on
haematopoiesis have been observed as a consequence of heavy metal pollution (specifically
mercury, nickel and arsenic). Finally, epidemiologic studies have linked dioxin exposure to
increased mortality caused by ischemic heart disease. While in mice, it was seen that heavy
metals can also increase triglyceride.

4.1.3 Nervous system

The nervous system is mainly affected by heavy metals (lead, mercury and arsenic) and
dioxins. Neurotoxicity leading to neuropathies, with symptoms such as memory disturbances,
Sleep disorders, anger, fatigue, hand tremors, blurred vision, and slurred speech, have been
observed after arsenic, lead and mercury exposure. Especially, lead exposure causes injury to
the dopamine system, glutamate system, and N-methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) receptor
complex, which play an critical role in memory functions. Mercury is also responsible for
certain cases of neurological cancer. Dioxins decrease nerve conduction velocity and impaired
mental development of children.

4.1.4 Urinary system

Heavy metals can induce kidney damage such as an initial tubular dysfunction evidenced by an
increased excretion of low molecular weight proteins, which progresses to decreased

14
glomerular filtration rate (GFR). In addition they increase the risk of stone formation or
nephrocalcinosis and renal cancer.
4.1.5 Digestive system
Dioxins induce liver cell damage, as indicated by an increase in levels of certain enzymes in
the blood, as well as gastrointestinal and liver cancer.

4.1.6 Reproductive system

It is rather critical to mention that air pollutants can also affect the developing foetus. Maternal
exposure to heavy metals and especially to lead increases the risks of spontaneous abortion and
reduced foetal growth (preterm delivery, low birth weight). There are also evidences
suggesting that parental lead exposure is also responsible for congenital malformations, and
lesions of the developing nervous system, causing critical impairment in new-born’s motor and
cognitive abilities. Same dioxins were found to be transferred from the mother to the foetus via
the placenta.

4.2 EFFECT OF MINE GASSES ON HUMAN HEALTH

4.2.1 Nitrous Fumes

Nitrous fumes emanates mainly from exhaust of diesel automobiles and blasting of negative
oxygen balance explosives. Nitrous Fumes are rarely found in mine air, and it consists mainly
of nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide. Nitrous fumes are very poisonous, the maximum tolerable
concentration for long exposure being 0.00025%, as accepted by ACGIH. Concentrations of
0.025 to 0.75 % are rapidly fatal. Man affected by nitrous fumes show immediate symptoms of
nausea cough, choking, perspiration and headache, but later develops serious bronchial trouble
such as bronchitis and bronchopneumonia, which may prove fatal within 48 hours. It has been
claimed by Canadian investigators that small quantities of Nitrous fumes stimulate the
development and growth of silicosis in dusty atmosphere. In Indian mines a tolerable
concentration of Nitrous fumes is taken as 0.0005 %.

4.2.2 Sulphur di-oxide

Sulphur dioxide is also produced from diesel exhaust and blast fumes. Sulphur dioxide is an
irritant gas that is removed by the nasal passages. Moderate activity levels that trigger mouth
breathing, such as a brisk walk, are needed for sulphur dioxide to cause health effects in most
people. People with asthma who are physically active outdoors are most likely to experience

15
the health effects of sulphur dioxide. The main effect, even with very brief exposure (minutes),
is a narrowing of the airways (called bronchoconstriction). This may be accompanied by
wheezing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath, which may require use of medication that
opens the airways.
Symptoms increase as sulphur dioxide levels or breathing rate increases. When exposure to
sulphur dioxide ceases, lung function typically returns to normal within an hour, even without
medication. At very high levels, sulphur dioxide may cause wheezing, chest tightness, and
shortness of breath even in healthy people who do not have asthma.
Long-term exposure to sulphur dioxide may cause respiratory symptoms and illness, and
aggravate asthma. People with asthma are the most susceptible to sulphur dioxide. However,
people with other chronic lung diseases or cardiovascular disease, as well as children and older
adults, may also be susceptible to these effects.

4.2.3 Hydrogen sulphide

Also known as stink damp, it smells like rotten egg and has a sweetish taste. It is poisonous in
nature, even more than CO, and the allowable maximum concentration for prolonged exposure
is 0.001% as recommended by ACGIH, the symptoms being irritation and inflammation of the
eyes and irritation of respiratory tracts. An exposure for an hour to a concentration of 0.02 to
0.03 % causes marked symptoms, while an exposure to a concentration of .05 to .07 % leads to
serious poisoning in 30 minutes to 1 hour. A concentration of 0.1 to 0.3 % causes rapid
paralysis of the respiratory centre leads to asphyxia and death.

4.2.4 Carbon monoxide

CO is produced from blast fumes, diesel exhaust and surface mine fires. Also known as white
damp, it is colourless, odourless gas slightly lighter than air. CO is deadly poisonous gas,
because the haemoglobin in the blood has 250 to 300 times greater affinity to CO than for O 2.
Thus if CO is breath in large quantities for sufficiently long time, due to lack of oxygen, the
brain tissues get damaged. After long exposure the blood cells also get damaged, as a result the
patient suffers from headache, nausea, overstraining of the heart, mental disorder, loss of
memory, paralysis, temporary blindness, etc. leading to unconsciousness. A concentration
above 0.01 % for a long time causes a chronic poisoning with a slight headache resulting
exertion, while 0.3 to 0.4% may be fatal in a few minutes.

16
 Chapter 4

AIR SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Basic sampling methods

Air sampling and analysis methods as recommended by CPCB
 5. AIR SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

5.1 Basic Sampling methods

Basically there are six air sampling methods which are:
5.1.1 Filter Sampling Inhalable (Total) Dust
Air is drawn through a filter paper, the paper traps the solid particulate e.g. dust, aerosols &
fibres. Gravimetric analysis is usually used to measure results (i.e. by measuring the weight
gained by the filter). Further analysis can be carried out on the filter to identify the specific
chemicals captured.

5.1.2 Sorbent Sampling

Sorbents are normally contained in a small glass tube with sealed ends. Air is drawn through
the sorbent, which captures molecules of the gas or vapour to be sampled. The trapped
contaminants are released using solvent washing or heat to a gas chromatograph (GC) for
analysis. One of the best known sorbents is charcoal.

5.1.3 Sampling Respirable Dust

The I.O.M. Sampler with a foam plug placed in the cassette inlet is capable of sampling
respirable dust. The specific foam separates the respirable fraction, which is collected on the
filter, from other particulate matter sizes.

5.1.4 Bag Sampling

Particularly suitable for ''grab'' or Short Term Samples (STS), the air is passed through the
pump into a special plastic bag. Alternative methods of filling a bag without passing air
through a pump can also be used. The bag, containing a relatively large volume of sampled
atmosphere is then taken to the laboratory for analysis.

5.1.5 Filter Sampling Respirable (Alternative Method)

The Cyclone Sampler uses a filter contained in a cassette, which separates out the respirable
fraction of dust in the sample.

5.1.6 Impinger/Bubble Sampling

Air drawn into the impinger is forced through a nozzle, which is covered with a liquid such as
high purity water. The pollutants dissolve in the liquid media and is subsequently analysed,
usually by colorimetric techniques of detection.

18
5.2 GRAVIMETRIC SAMPLING

In this method of sample air is passed through a filter, the filter or other sampling collector is
weighed to determine the amount the particulate matter collected. This is a non-specific
technique. All material collected on the filter is included, although some of them may not be
the contaminant of interest. While most contaminants are determined by other methods that
give quantitative analysis of the compound in the air sample, material such as wood dust, coal
dust, etc. are still measured gravimetric element.

5.2.1 PM10 and PM2.5 Samplers of High volume type

For PM10 assessment, traditional gable roof of the high volume sampler is replaced by an
impactor design size-select inlet. For the impaction design the air sample entering the
symmetrical hood is deflected upward into a buffer chamber. The buffer chamber is evacuated
at a rate of 68 m 3 per hour via multiple circular nozzles. The entering particulate matters get
accelerated as they pass through the nozzle to an impaction chamber; this process helps the
particulate matter to gain some momentum and thus particulate matters having diameter larger
then inlet 10μm cut design impact the surface of the impaction chamber. Small particulate
matters rise through the impactor chamber at speeds slow enough to minimise re-entrainment
of the already impacted particles and then pass through multiple bent tubes to high volume
sampler’s filter where they are collected.

The second size select design of PM10 measurement is ‘cyclone inlet’. Here omnidirectional
cyclone is used for fractionation in the inlet allowing particulate matters to enter from all
angles of approach. In the inlet, an angular velocity component is added to the sample air and
the particulate matters contained in it by a series of evenly spaced vanes. Larger particulate
matter removal occurs in the inner collection tube. This tube incorporates a perfect absorber
which is usually an oiled surface to eliminate bouncing of particulate matters. The sample flow
then enters the intermediate tube where the trajectory of the particulate matters is altered to an
upward direction. An additional turn is added to change the flow to a downward direction to
allow the remaining particulate matters to deposit on a filter for subsequent analysis. As with
the impaction inlet control of air velocities in cyclonic inlet, it is critical to maintain the correct
particulate matter size cut point. It is critical to maintain correct design volumetric flow
through the inlet.

19
5.2.2 Personal samplers for PM2.5 and PM10 particulate matter sampling
These versions of air samplers are lightweight type for collecting air borne particulate matters
in the PM2.5 and PM10 size range. These are frequently used to provide a measure of air borne
particulate matters concentration for studying potential health impacts of dust particulate
matters in the ambient environment.

The aerosol sample enters the sampler through multi nozzle single stage impactors to remove
large particulate matters having aerodynamic equivalent diameter larger than 2.5um and 10um.
Particulate matters having diameter smaller than the impactor cut size are collected on a 37mm
diameter filter of choice. The collected particulate matter can be analysed gravimetrically to
get air borne particulate matter’s mass or analysed for specific chemical compounds.

Features:

Light-weight personal samplers with single stage impactors.

Selective impactor cut-point of 2.5 µm or 10 µm.
Can be operated with a personal sampling pump

Applications:
o Personal dust sampling for exposure assessment.
o Ambient air pollution studies.
o Ambient air quality assessment.
o Personal sampling for industrial hygiene applications.

20
Fig 4.1: Photographic view of PM10 sampler

21
5.3 AIR SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS METHODS AS RECOMMENDED BY CPCB

5.3.1 Guidelines for sampling and analysis of particulate matter (PM 10) in ambient air
(gravimetric method)

PM10refers to fine particulate matters that are 10micrometres (μm) or smaller in diameter.

5.3.1.1 Standard
Table 4.1: National ambient air quality standard for Particulate Matter PM10

Pollutant Time weighted Industrial/Residential EcologicallySensitive

Average Area Area
PM10 (μgm/m3) Annual 60 60
24 Hours 100 100

5.3.1.2 Principle of the method

Air is drawn through a size-selective inlet and through a 20.3 X 25.4 cm (8 X 10 in) filter at a
flow rate, which is typically 1132 L/min. Particulate matters with aerodynamic diameter less
than the cut-point of the inlet are collected by the filter. The mass of these particulate matters is
determined by the difference in filter weights prior to and after sampling. The concentration of
PM10 in the difference of the mass divided by the total volumetric flow.
Designated size range is calculated by dividing the weight gain of the filter by the volume of
air sampled.

5.3.1.3 Instrument/Equipment

The following items are necessary to perform the monitoring and analysis of Particulate Matter
PM10 in ambient air:
· Analytical balance
· Sampler : High Volume Sampler with size selective inlet for PM10 and
automatic volumetric flow control
· Calibrated flow-measuring device to control the airflow at 1132 l/min.
· Top loading orifice kit.

5.3.1.4 Sampling
Field Sampling - Tilt back the inlet and secure it according to manufacturer's instructions.
Loosen the faceplate wing nuts and remove the faceplate. Remove the filter from its jacket and
centre it on the support screen with the rough side of the filter facing upwards. Replace the

22
faceplate and tighten the wing nuts to secure the rubber gasket against the filter edge. Gently
lower the inlet. For automatically flow-controlled units, record the designated flow rate on the
data sheet. Record the reading of the elapsed time meter. The specified length of sampling is
commonly 8 hours or 24 hours. During this period, several reading (hourly) of flow rate should
be taken. After the required time of sampling, record the flow meter reading, take out the filter
media from the sampler and put in a container or envelope.

Fig 4.2: Schematic PM10 Sampler (Cyclonic Inlet)

5.3.1.5 Calibration
Periodical calibration of the sampler is being done by Orifice Transfer Standard. The PM 10
sampler calibration orifice consists of a 3.175 cm (1.25 inch) diameter hole in the end cap of
7.62 cm (3 inch) diameter by 20.3 cm (8 inch) long hollow metal cylinder. This orifice is
mounted tightly to the filter support in place of the inlet during calibration. A small tap on the
side of the cylinder is provided to measure the pressure drop across the orifice. A flow rate of
1132 L/min through the orifice typically results in a pressure difference of several inches of
water. The relationship between pressure difference and flow rate is established via a
calibration curve derived from measurements against a primary standard such as a Roots meter
at standard temperature and pressure. Flow resistances that simulate filter resistances are
introduced at the end of the calibrator opposite the orifice by a set of perforated circular disks.

23
5.3.1.6 Calculation
PM10 (μgm/m3) = (Wf – Wi) x 106 / V
Where,
o PM10 = Concentration of PM10in μgm/m3
o Wf = Initial weight of filter in gm
o Wi = Initial weight of filter in gm
o 106 = Conversion of gm to μgm
o V = Volume of air sampled in m3

5.3.1.7 Quality Control

Quality Control (QC) is the techniques that are used to fulfil requirements for quality. The QC
procedures for the air sampling and monitoring sections of this protocol include preventative
maintenance of equipment, calibration of equipment, analysis of field blanks and lab blanks.

5.3.2 Guidelines for sampling and analysis of particulate matter (PM 2.5) in ambient air
(gravimetric method)

PM2.5 refers to fine particulate matters that are 2.5 micrometres (μm) or smaller in diameter.

5.3.2.1 Standard

Table 4.2: National ambient air quality standards for Particulate Matter PM2.5
Pollutant Time weighted Industrial/Residential Ecologically
Average Area
Sensitive Area
PM2.5 (μgm/m3) Annual 40 40
24 Hours 60 60

5.3.2.2 Principle
The electrically powered air sampler draws ambient air at a constant volumetric flow rate (16.7
lpm) maintained by a mass flow / volumetric flow controller coupled to a microprocessor into
specially designed inertial particulate matter-size separator (i.e. cyclones or impactor) where
the suspended particulate matter in the PM2.5 size ranges is separated for collection on a 47 mm
polytetra fluoroethylene (PTFE) filter over a specified sampling period. Each filter is weighed
before and after sample collection to determine the net gain due to the particulate matter. The
mass concentration in the ambient air is computed as the total mass of collected particulate

24
matters in the PM2.5 size ranges divided by the actual volume of air sampled, and is expressed
in μgm/m3. The microprocessor reads averages and stores five-minute averages of ambient
temperature, ambient pressure, filter temperature and volumetric flow rate. In addition, the
microprocessor calculates the average temperatures, pressure, and total volumetric flow for the
entire sample run time and the coefficient of variation of the flow rate.

5.3.2.3 Sitting Requirements

Samplers should be sited to meet the goals of the specific monitoring project. For routine
sampling to determine compliance with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS), sampler sitting is described in CPCB guidelines shall apply. The monitoring should
be done outside the zone of influence of sources located within the designated zone of
representation for the monitoring site. Height of the inlet must be 3–10 m above the ground
level and at a suitable distance from any direct pollution source including traffic.
Large nearby buildings and trees extending above the height of the monitor may create
barriers or deposition surfaces for PM. Distance of the sampler to any air flow obstacle i.e.
buildings, must be more than two times the height of the obstacle above the sampler. There
should be unrestricted airflow in three of four quadrants. Certain trees may also be sources of
PM in the form of detritus, pollen, or insect parts. These can be avoided by locating samplers
by placing them >20 m from nearby trees. If collocated sampling has to be performed the
minimum distance between two Samplers should be 2 m.

5.3.2.4 Apparatus and Materials

Sampling equipment designated as FRM (Federal Reference Method) or FEM (Federal
Equivalent Method)
Electronic microbalance with a minimum resolution of 0.001 mg and a precision of
±0.001 mg, supplied with a balance pan. The microbalance must be positioned on a
vibration-damping balance support table.

Non-serrated forceps for handling filters. Non-metallic, non-serrated forceps for

handling weights.
47 mm Filter: Teflon membrane, 46.2 mm effective diameter with a polypropylene
support ring or filters.
Filter support cassettes and
covers. Filter equilibration racks.
Impactor oil/grease.

25
5.3.2.5 Procedure
The procedure of the PM2.5sampling is same as that of PM10 sampling.

5.3.2.6 Calculation and Reporting of Mass Concentrations

The equation to calculate the mass of fine particulate matter collected on a Teflon filter is as
below:
M2.5 = (Mf – Mi) mg x 103 μgm
Where,

M2.5 = total mass of fine particulate collected during sampling period (μgm)
Mf = final mass of the conditioned filter after sample collection (mg)
Mi = initial mass of the conditioned filter before sample collection (mg)
103 = unit conversion factor for milligrams (mg) to micrograms (μgm)
Field records of PM2.5 samplers are required to provide measurements of the total volume of
ambient air passing through the sampler (V) in cubic meters at the actual temperatures and
pressures measured during sampling.

Use the following formula if V is not available directly from the sampler:

V = Qavg x t x 10-3 m3
Where,
· V = total sample value (m3)
· Qavg = average flow rate over the entire duration of the sampling period (L/min)
· t = duration of sampling period (min)
· 103 = unit conversion factor for litres (L) into cubic meters (m3)

The equation given below can be used to determine PM2.5 mass concentration:
PM2.5 = M2.5 / V
Where,
PM2.5 = mass concentration of PM2.5 particulates (μgm/m3)

M2.5 = total mass of fine particulate collected during samplingperiod (μgm)

V = total volume of air sampled (m3)

26
 Chapter 5

AIR QUALITY MODELLING

 6. AIR QUALITY MODELLING

It is the mathematical simulation of how air pollutants diffuse in the ambient atmospheric
conditions. Air quality modelling is performed with computer programs that repeat and solve
the mathematical equations and algorithms which simulate the pollutant dispersion. The
dispersion models are used to estimate or to predict the down air concentration of air pollutants
or toxins produced from sources such as industrial plants, mines, vehicular traffic or
inadvertent chemical releases.

The dispersion models vary from each other depending on the mathematical algorithm used to
develop the model, but all require the input of data that may include:

Meteorological conditions such as air speed and direction, the quantity of atmospheric
turbulence (as characterized by what is called the "stability class"), the ambient air
temperature, the height to the bottom of any inversion aloft that may be present, cloud
cover and solar radiation.
Source term (the concentration or quantity of toxins in emission or accidental release
source terms) and temperature of the material.
Emissions or release parameters that influence such as source location and height, type
of source (i.e., fire, pool or vent stack) and exit velocity, exit temperature and mass
flow rate or release rate.
Terrain heights at the source location and at the receptor location(s), such as nearby
homes, schools, businesses and hospitals.
The location, height and width of any obstructions (such as buildings or other
structures) in the path of the released gaseous plume, surface roughness or the use of a
more general parameter “rural” or “city” terrain.

5.1 GAUSSIAN PLUME MODEL

The Gaussian plume model of dust dispersion is a mathematical model that is used in case
point source emitters, such as dust generating sources. Intermittently, this model will be
applied to non-point source emitters, such as dust exhaustion from automobiles in mines.

One of the main assumptions of this model is that over short periods of time (e.g. few hours)
steady state conditions exist with regard to air pollutant emissions and meteorological changes.
Air pollution is characterized as an idealized plume coming from the peak of a stack of some

28
height and diameter. One of the major calculations in this model is the effective stack height.
As the gases are heated in the stack, the hot plume (dust) will be thrust upward some distance
above the top of the stack: the effective stack height. For the model, we need to be able to
determine this vertical displacement, which depends on the stack dusty air exit velocity and
temperature, and the temperature of the neighbouring air.

Once the plume has reached its effective stack height, dispersion of dust will begin in three
dimensions. Dispersion in the downwind direction is a function of the mean wind speed
blowing across the plume in this direction. Dispersion in the cross-wind direction and in the
vertical direction will be according to the Gaussian plume equations of lateral dispersion.
Lateral dispersion relies on a value known as the atmospheric condition. It is the measure of
the relative stability of the neighbouring air. The model assumes that dispersion in these two
dimensions will take the outline of a normal Gaussian curve, with the greatest concentration in
the middle of the plume.

c, concentration
q, emission rate
σ values represent diffusion along the appropriate
axes y, horizontal distance off plume axis
z, height
h, emission height

In order for a plume to be modelled using the Gaussian distribution the subsequent assumption
must be made:
The plume spread has a normal distribution

The emission rate (q) is constant and continuous

Wind speed and direction is uniform
Total reflection of the plume takes place at the surface
The terrain is relatively flat, i.e., no crosswind barriers

29
 Fig 5.1: Co-ordinates of a Gaussian plume

Plume Behaviour: The mixing of ambient air into the plume is called entrainment. As the
plume entrains air into it, the plume diameter grows as it travels downwind. A combination of
the gases' momentum and buoyancy causes the gases to rise. This is referred to as plume rise
and allows air pollutants emitted in this gas stream to be lofted higher in the atmosphere.

The final height of the plume, referred to as the effective stack height (H), is the sum of the
physical stack height (H ) and the plume rise (Δh). Plume rise is actually calculated as the
distance to the imaginary centreline of the plume rather than to the upper or lower edge of the
plume.

30
 Fig 5.2: Gaussian plume from a stack

The Briggs’ plume rise formula (1969) is as follows:

∆h =
Where:

Δh = plume rise (above stack)

F = Buoyancy Flux
ū = average wind speed
x = downwind distance from the stack
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/ 2)
V = volumetric flow rate of stack gas
= temperature of stack gas
= temperature of ambient air

[Ref: Briggs, G.A., "Plume Rise", USAEC Critical Review Series, 1969]

Plume Stability:
Shapes of plumes depend upon atmospheric stability conditions which depend on
Environmental Lapse rate (ELR) and Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR). If,
ELR > DLR, atmosphere is stable

ELR >> DLR ,very stable atmosphere

ELR = DALR , atmosphere is neutral
ELR < DLR , atmosphere is unstable

31
5.2 METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS THAT EFFECTS THE AIR
QUALITY MODELLING

Given below is a list of some meteorological parameters:

5.2.1 Cloud cover: Cloud cover (also known as cloudiness, cloud amount) refers to the portion
of the sky sheltered by the clouds when observed from a precise location. It is articulated in
units of either in oktas (or eighths of the sky) or in tenths. It is because they are calculated with
an okta grid. A value of 0 refers to clear sky, while 8 oktas or 10 on the decimal scale
exemplify total overcast. Each okta characterizes one eighth of the sky covered by cloud as
detected.

5.1.2 Global Horizontal radiation: Total solar radiation; the sum of direct, diffuse, and
ground-reflected radiation; nevertheless, because ground reflected radiation is usually
inconsequential compared to direct and diffuse, for all applied purposes global horizontal
radiation is said to be the sum of direct and diffuse radiation only. Global horizontal radiation
is the sum of both the direct and diffuse components as measured incident on a flat horizontal
plane. It is thus the sum of the direct horizontal and diffuse horizontal values.

5.1.3 Hourly Precipitation: Precipitation is calculated as the deepness to which a flat

horizontal surface would have been enclosed per unit time if no water were lost by runoff,
evaporation, or percolation. Depth is stated in inches or millimetres. Gauging precipitation
covers rain, hail, snow, rime, hoar frost and fog, and is conventionally measured using
numerous types of rain gauges such as the non-recording cylindrical vessel type or the
recording weighing type, float type and tipping-bucket kind.

5.1.4 Ceiling Height: Ceiling height is well-defined as the height-above-ground level of the
lowest broken or overcast layer. If the sky is totally covered, the height of the vertical visibility
(VV) is taken as the ceiling height. The height for the lowest broken or overcast layer is used
as the ceiling height.

5.1.5 Relative humidity: Relative humidity is a term used to describe the amount of water
vapour that exists in a gaseous mixture of air and water vapour.

5.1.6 Dry Bulb Temperature: The dry-bulb temperature is the temperature of air shown by a
thermometer freely unprotected to the air but safeguarded from radiation and moisture.

5.1.7 Wind Speed: It is the speed of wind, the movement of air or other gases in an
atmosphere.

32
5.1.8 Wind Direction: Wind direction is the direction from which a wind initiates. It is
typically described in cardinal directions or in azimuth degrees.

5.3 Preferred and recommended models

AERMOD - An atmospheric dispersion model based on atmospheric boundary layer

turbulence structure and scaling concepts, including treatment of multiple ground-level
and elevated point, area and volume sources. It handles flat or complex, rural or urban
terrain and includes algorithms for building effects and plume penetration of inversions
aloft.

It uses Gaussian dispersion for stable atmospheric conditions (i.e., low turbulence) and
non-Gaussian dispersion for unbalanced conditions (high turbulence). Algorithms for
plume depletion by wet and dry deposition are also included in the model. This air
model was in development for approximately 14 years before being officially accepted
by the U.S. - EPA.

CALPUFF - A non-steady-state puff dispersion model that simulates the effects of time
and space-varying meteorological conditions on pollution transport, transformation,
and removal. CALPUFF can be applied for long-range transport and for complex
terrain.

BLP - A Gaussian plume dispersion model designed to handle unique modelling

problems associated with industrial sources where plume rise and downwash effects
from stationary line sources are critical.
CALINE3 - A steady-state Gaussian dispersion model designed to define pollution
concentrations at receptor locations down air of highways located in relatively
uncomplicated terrain.

33
 Chapter 6

AIR QUALITY ANALYSIS

Procedure and observations

Air quality index

AQI of some iron and manganese mines in Bellary district In Karnataka

 7. AIR QUALITY ANALYSIS

WHY BELLARY DISTRICT IS SELECTED FOR AMBIENT AIR

ASSESSMENT?

The mineral resources of Karnataka are distributed very unevenly. Most of the iron and
manganese ore is found in Karnataka district. So, all the large open cast metal mines are
located in this region. Due to the presence of large number of mines, there is a cumulative
impact of particulate matter pollution on the environment. Therefore a detailed study on
ambient air quality needs to be done on that area. Our studies spanned on mines namely,
Haragina doni iron ore mine, Smiore iron and manganese mines, Tiffenbarytes iron mines,
Sanjeevarayanakote iron ore mine, janikunta iron ore mines,etc. The study included direct
sampling in the field, data collection from EIA/EMP reports and SPCB, Regional office,
bellary .

5.4 PROCEDURE
The method that was used was according to the CPCB guidelines. The sampling instrument
was set on a stable and leveled ground, without any type of disturbances. In the core zone, the
sampler was located at an approximate distance of 40m from nearby constructions. The
sampler was placed 20 m away from the trees in buffer zone. Three populous locations were
selected lying within 10 km radius from the mine periphery, viz. Village Haraginadoni ,
kuditini Town and Village belagal .

The filter paper was properly conditioned before placing it on the filter cassette of the sampler.
Initial dry gas meter reading was noted. The suction pump was activated along with the timer.
A total duration of 8 hours was set for sampling. After the stipulated time, the sampling
instrument was stopped and the filter paper was retrieved. It was conditioned and sealed for
further investigation in laboratory.

5.5 OBSERVATIONS
Air quality data from mining areas of bellary district were collected from some EIA/EMP
reports. Data were also collected from SPCB, bellary regional office. To verify the status of air
quality in field, measurement of air quality were done at Haraginadoni iron ore mine in the
month of november . Particulate matter samplers were used for the above purpose. The gases
collected at the mine sited were subsequently sent to the lab SPCB, bellary and benguluru .

35
The analysis of sampled air quality data of Haraginadoni iron mines in the bellary district
has been presented in table given below:

Table 6.1: Sampled Air Quality data of ‘Haraginadoni iron mine’.

LOCATION PARAMETER Results Prescribed standard UNIT
PM2.5 29 60 μgm/m3
PM10 82 100 μgm/m3
Mines office area SO2 4 80 μgm/m3
NOx 9 80 μgm/m3
CO 0.1 4 mg/m3
PM2.5 30 60 μgm/m3
PM10 88 100 μgm/m3
Village SO2 4 80 μgm/m3
Haraginadoni NOx 16 80 μgm/m3
CO 0.1 4 mg/m3
PM2.5 41 60 μgm/m3
PM10 97 100 μgm/m3
kuditiniTown SO2 4 80 μgm/m3
NOx 9 80 μgm/m3
CO 0.1 4 mg/m3
PM2.5 27 60 μgm/m3
PM10 75 100 μgm/m3
Village belagal SO2 4 80 μgm/m3
NOx 9 80 μgm/m3
CO 0.1 4 mg/m3

36
 120

c 100
oncentratio
n
80
PM 2.5
PM 10 SO2
60 Nox
CO

40

20

0
Mine office area haraginadonikuditini townvillage belagal NAAQS

Fig. 6.1: PM Conc. in Haraginadoni Iron ore Mine (Mining site)

Note: Concentration of PM10, PM2.5, SO2, and NOx in figure is μgm/m3 and that of CO is mg/m3

The analysis of sampled air quality data of different iron mines in the bellary district taken
from EIA/EMP reports are presented in tables given below:

Table 6.2: Air quality of Sanjeevarayanakote iron mine (mining site)

Sampling date PM2.5 PM10 unit

Jun -2023 28.7 49.2 μgm/m3
July -2023 30.6 51.2 μgm/m3
Aug -2023 31 51.3 μgm/m3
Sep -2023 30.9 51.3 μgm/m3
Oct -2023 34 53.9 μgm/m3
Nov -2023 35.3 55.9 μgm/m3
NAAQS 60 100 μgm/m3

37
 120

100

80

Concentration 60
PM2.5
PM10
40

20

0
jun 23jul-23aug-23sep-23oct-23nov-23NAAQS

Fig. 6.2: PM Conc. in Sanjeevarayanakote iron mine (Mining site)

Table 6.3: Air quality of Sanjeevarayanakote iron mine (Near plant area)

Sampling date PM2.5 PM10 Unit

Jun -2023 32.9 54.7 μmg/m3
July -2023 34.6 55.1 μmg/m3
Aug -2023 34 54.9 μmg/m3
Sep -2023 33.5 54 μmg/m3
Oct -2023 36.2 56.9 μmg/m3
Nov -2023 38.5 59 μmg/m3
NAAQS 60 100 μmg/m3

120

100

80

concentration 60 PM2.5
PM10
40

20

0
Jun-23jul-23aug-23sep-23oct-23nov-23NAAQS

Fig. 6.3: PM Conc. in Sanjeevarayanakote iron mine (Near plant area)

38
Table 6.4: Air quality of Janikunta Iron ore mine (Mining area)

Sampling date PM2.5 PM10 Unit

Apr-23 22.6 43.3 μmg/m3
May-23 21.3 41.6 μmg/m3
Jun-23 21.5 42 μmg/m3
Jul-23 22 42.8 μmg/m3
Aug-23 15 35.8 μmg/m3
NAAQS 60 100 μmg/m3

120

100

80

Concentration 60
PM2.5
PM10
40

20

Apr-23May-23Jun-23 Jul-23 Aug-23NAAQS

Fig. 6.4: PM Conc. in Janikunta Iron ore mine (Mining area)

Table 6.5: Air quality of Janikunta Iron ore mine (Residential area)

Sampling date PM2.5 PM10 Unit

Apr-23 12.4 32.3 μmg/m3
May-23 13.3 33.5 μmg/m3
Jun-23 13.3 33.6 μmg/m3
Jul-23 13.6 32.9 μmg/m3
Aug-23 8.8 29.4 μmg/m3
NAAQS 60 100 μmg/m3

39
 120

100

80

Concentration 60 PM2.5
PM10
40

20

0
Apr-23May-23Jun-23 Jul-23 Aug-23NAAQS

Fig. 6.5: PM Conc. in Janikunta Iron ore mine (Residential area)

Table 6.6: Air quality of Tiffen barytes iron mine

Sampling date PM2.5 PM10 Unit

05-11-2023 20 48 μmg/m3
06-11-2023 22 56 μmg/m3
12-11-2023 23 44 μmg/m3
13-11-2023 18 53 μmg/m3
19-11-2023 17 50 μmg/m3
26-11-2023 14 62 μmg/m3
NAAQS 60 100 μmg/m3

40
Table 6.7: Air quality of Obulapura iron ore mine

Station PM2.5 PM10 Unit

Inside ML Area 42.4 56.65 μmg/m3
Within DLC Forest 40.05 52.1 μmg/m3
Bhulbeda village 44.1 57.05 μmg/m3
Hariharpur village 43 57.55 μmg/m3
Jaribahal village 47.3 62.4 μmg/m3
Sargitalia village 45.65 58.3 μmg/m3
Kankada village 42.15 56 μmg/m3
Daduan village 46.35 61 μmg/m3
NAAQS 60 100 μmg/m3

120

100

80

60

40 PM2.5
PM10
20

Fig. 6.7: PM Conc. in obulapura iron mines

Table 6.8: Observed Air Quality data of ‘kumarswamy Iron ore mine’ during 2019-2022

CORE ZONE
Year Station Name PM2.5 PM10 SO2 (<value) NOx(μgm/ CO
(μgm/ (μgm/m3) (μgm/m3) m3) (mg/m3)
m3)
2019 45 56.5 3.78 34 <0.1
2020 42.5 59 4.5 24 <0.1
2021 Mines office 22 67.5 5 22 <0.1
2022 32.5 22 7 17 <0.1

41
 BUFFER ZONE
2019 38.5 20 1.78 25 <0.1
2020 32 29 4 15 <0.1
2021 Narasapura 34 64 5 17 <0.1
village
2022 38 24 7 13 <0.1

2019 41 52.5 1.78 15.5 <0.1

2020 42.5 54 4.5 19.5 <0.1
2021 Nandihalli village 24 71.5 4.5 27.5 <0.1
2022 38.5 20 6 22.5 <0.1
2019 38.5 80.5 3.28 22 <0.1
2020 41 52.5 3.28 15 <0.1
2021 Deogiri village 19.5 60 5.5 25.5 <0.1
2022 38.5 25 4 18 <0.1

2019 51.5 81.5 4 17 <0.1

2020 49.5 - 4 18.5 <0.1
2021 Donimalai 13.5 38.5 5 11.5 <0.1
2022 43 18 4 32.5 <0.1
NAAQS 60 100 80 80 4

Table 6.9: Recent Air Quality Data of different open cast metal mines obtained from
SPCB, Regional office,bellary .
Mine Location Parameter Unit Result NAAQS
Near Crusher Area(25m PM2.5 μgm/m3 49 60
from source)
Near Narasapura PM2.5 μgm/m3 44 60
valley(25m
from source)
devadari iron mine
Near Crusher Area(25m PM10 μgm/m3 86 100
from source)
Near Narasapura PM10 μgm/m3 89 100
valley(25m
from source)
Nandhi Iron and Near Active Mining Area PM10 μgm/m3 82 100

42
mine Near Weigh Bridge PM10 μgm/m3 89 100
Rama Iron Near Active mining Area PM10 μgm/m3 96 100
mines Near Mining office Area PM10 μgm/m3 80 100
Smiore Near Active mining Area PM10 μgm/m3 54 100
Manganese mines Near Main Gate PM10 μgm/m3 48 100
Dharma Iron Near 250 TPH iron ore PM10 μgm/m3 92 100
mine crusher Area
Near Active mining Area PM10 μgm/m3 70 100
HRG iron Near iron Crushing Area PM10 μgm/m3 92 100
ore mine Near Active mining Area PM10 μgm/m3 80 100
Smior -2 Near Weigh Bidge PM10 μgm/m3 74 100
Manganese Mines Near Quarry Area PM10 μgm/m3 86 100

5.6 Air quality index

Air quality index (AQI) is a number used by government agencies to communicate to the
public how polluted the air is currently or how polluted it is forecast to become. As the AQI
increases, an increasingly large percentage of the population is likely to experience
increasingly severe adverse health effects. Different countries have their own air quality
indices which are not all consistent. Different countries also use different names for their
indices such as Air Quality Health Index, Air Pollution Index and Pollutant Standards Index.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed an index which they
use to report daily air quality. This AQI is divided into six categories indicating increasing
levels of health concern. An AQI value over 300 represents hazardous air quality whereas if it
is below 50 the air quality is good.

The air quality index is a piecewise linear function of the pollutant concentration. At the
boundary between AQI categories, there is a discontinuous jump of one AQI unit.

43
To convert from concentration to AQI this equation is used.

I=(

where:

= the (Air Quality) index,

= the pollutant concentration,
= the concentration breakpoint that is ≤ ,

= the concentration breakpoint that is ≥ ,

= the index breakpoint corresponding to ,

= the index breakpoint corresponding to .

EPA's table of breakpoints for PM2.5 is:

Category
0 15.4 0 50 Good
15.5 40.4 51 100 Moderate
40.5 65.4 101 150 Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups
65.5 150.4 151 200 Unhealthy
150.5 250.4 201 300 Very Unhealthy
250.5 350.4 301 400 Hazardous
350.5 500.4 401 500 Hazardous

44
5.7 Air quality index of some iron and manganese mines

Table 6.10:Donimalali iron ore mine, Nmdc limited (Half yearly compliance report for the period:
April to September’ 23 )
(Near Mining Area)

SAMPLING DATE PM 2.5 AQI REMARKS

Apr-23 22.6 64.97 Moderate
May-23 21.3 62.41 Moderate
Jun-23 21.5 64.8 Moderate
Jul-23 22 63.79 Moderate
Aug-23 15 48.7 good
Sep-23 13.5 43.83 good

(Near Residential Area)

SAMPLING DATE PM 2.5 AQI REMARKS

Apr -23 13.3 43.18 good
May-23 12.6 40.91 good
Jun-23 8.8 28.57 good
Jul-23 7.6 24.67 good
Aug-23 12.4 40.26 good
Sep-23 13.3 43.18 good

Table 6.11 Deogiri iron and manganese mines, M/S SMIORE Limited .
(Half yearly compliance report for the period: October 22 to march 23)

SAMPLING DATE PM 2.5 AQI REMARKS

Oct-22 32.9 85.24 Moderate
Nov-22 34.6 88.58 Moderate
Dec-22 34 87.4 Moderate
Jan-23 33.5 86.42 Moderate
Feb-23 36.2 91.73 Moderate
Mar-23 38.5 96.26 Moderate

45
Table 6.12: Dharma iron ore mine, M/s JSW Limited
(Executive summary report on EIA/EMP of year 2022)

STATION CODE SAMPLING DATE PM2.5 AQI REMARKS

Inside ML Area 1/9/22 TO 30/11/22 42.4 104.73 unhealthy for sensitive

groups
Within DLC Forest 1/9/22 TO 30/11/22 40.05 99.31 Moderate
1/9/22 TO 30/11/22
Koppal village 44.1 108.08 unhealthy for sensitive
groups
Toranagallu village 1/9/22 TO 31/11/22 43 105.91 unhealthy for sensitive
groups
Devalapura village 1/9/22 TO 30/11/22 47.3 114.38 unhealthy for sensitive
groups

Table 6.13: lyli gurunath iron and manganese mine, M/s Ramaghad minerals Ltd.

(Executive summary report of draft EIA of year 2012)

MONTH SAMPLING DATE PM2.5 AQI REMARKS

02-01-2023 39 97.24 Moderate
03-01-2023 25 69.69 Moderate
09-01-2023 21 61.82 Moderate
10-01-2023 23 65.76 Moderate
January 16-01-2023 24 67.72 Moderate
17-01-2023 25 69.69 Moderate
23-01-2023 29 77.56 Moderate
24-01-2023 31 81.5 Moderate

06-02-2023 22 63.79 Moderate

07-02-2023 23 65.76 Moderate
February 13-02-2023 25 69.69 Moderate
14-02-2023 26 71.66 Moderate
20-02-2023 21 61.82 Moderate
27-02-2023 19 57.88 Moderate

46
 05-03-2023 20 59.55 Moderate
06-03-2023 22 63.79 Moderate
12-03-2023 23 65.76 Moderate
March 13-03-2023 15 55.91 Moderate
19-03-2023 17 53.95 Moderate
26-03-2023 14 48.04 Moderate

47
 Chapter 7

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Measures of Dust Control

 8. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
7.1 DISCUSSION

Mining of ore impacts the air quality to a significant extent. Air Quality study was carried out
in some of the metal mining areas of Bellary and anathapuram district. These two districts
have a number of Iron, Manganese, Limestone, Dolomite and Chromite mines. There has been
a large number of complaints from the residents of nearby villages regarding the high level of
particulate matter pollution. This has also been highlighted in different newspaper reports.

Therefore a study of the air quality at some of the locations at these two districts was carried
out. Since the area is too vast, air quality data was collected from the EIA reports and SPCB
Bellary Regional Office. In addition to this, air sampling was carried out in December 2012
with the help of EnviroTech PM 2.5 and PM10 (model no. APM 460 NL) samplers. In addition,
the air quality index (AQI) of all the locations have been calculated to make a comparison of
air quality in different locations and accordingly recommend suitable remedial measures. The
summary of the findings are presented here.

It was observed that the concentration of gases, viz. CO, SO 2 and NOx were negligible in all
cases. Therefore, emphasis has been given on particulate matter concentration in this study.

Haraginadoni iron ore mines were the site where we went to take air quality observations of
our own. In the four locations where we took sampling data, village belagal was found to be
least polluted with PM2.5 and PM10 values lowest among all the locations. This may be due to
distance of the sampling location from the actual mine site and the presence of a surrounding
green belt. It is observed from table 6.1 and fig 6.1 that kudini town was the most polluted of
the four locations as the particulate matter values are close to the NAAQS standards. The AQI
of kuditini town was unhealthy to sensitive groups due to its high particulate matter content
whereas for other three locations the AQI was Moderate suggesting that the air quality is just
acceptable.

In the sanjeevarayana kote iron mine, from table 6.2 and fig 6.2, it can be observed that from
june to november -2023, the particulate matter concentration is slightly increasing with lowest
value in june and highest value in november for both PM10 and PM2.5. These phenomena can
be attributed to seasonal variation of PM concentration. The overall air quality index was
moderate which is depicted in table 6.11.

49
In both mining and residential areas of janikunta iron ore mine, the PM2.5 and PM10
concentration has a decreasing trend throughout the sampling period from April-23 to August-
23 depicted in Table 6.4, 6.5 and fig 6.4 and 6.5. The concentration of dust particles were
much below the NAAQS standard indicating AQI (table 6.10) of the mine is good for both the
sampling areas. In rainy months, the PM concentration was found to be least.

In tiffen barytes iron mine, sampling was done throughout the month of November by SPCB.
It was found that the concentration of PM2.5 decreased during the sampling period but PM10
concentration showed no specific trend of change as depicted in figure 6.6. AQI of the mine
area was found to be moderate as shown in table 6.13

For the air quality assessment in obulapura iron ore mines, air sampling was done in eight
nearby locations and the result is shown in table 6.7 and figure 6.7. The PM2.5 and PM10
concentration are constant but are relatively higher than any other mines. Village Daduan has
the highest value of both PM 2.5 and PM10 concentration. Hence the AQI in table 6.12 depicts
that the air quality is unhealthy to sensitive groups.

The yearly air quality data (2019-2023) of ‘Haraginadoni iron ore mine iron ore mines’ is
shown in Table 1. Here we observe that PM2.5 concentration is remaining constant for the
whole period. PM10 concentration is at its peak in the year 2019-2023 but it reduced drastically
to around half the previous values. CO concentration is remaining below 0.1 mg/m 3 in the
whole time frame. The NOx and SO2 concentration is well within the NAAQS prescribed limits
and there is no pattern of change.

The recent air quality data collected from a group of iron mines taken from SPCB, Regional
office, bellary is given in the table 6.9. It can be observed that in all mines, PM concentration
is alarmingly high near crusher areas ranging from 80-92µgm which is just below NAAQS
standard. Therefore it can be suggested that appropriate dust suppression measures need to be
implemented near the crusher areas such as application of foaming and wetting agents and
formation of green belt.

The observed decrease in the concentration of particulate matter and other toxic gasses is due
to the successful application of modern dust control methods which include dry and wet
methods, and adoption of newer technology for reducing gas emission. The most common one
that is used in those mines is the fixed and mobile water sprinkler system. Regular dust
cleaning practices are being adopted for better air quality management.

50
7.1.1 Measures of Dust Control

From the above discussion it is clear that air pollution due to different gases is not a serious
concern in the study area. However, particulate matter is a matter of concern, even though
they are within prescribed limits at the moment. Since, there are a number of mines in cluster,
the cumulative impact could be serious and is yet to be studied. It is noticed that majority of
the concern is the particulate matter pollution caused by transportation, crushing and grinding
operations. Some of the latest technologies which could be utilised to mitigate such challenges
in mines are:

Housekeeping: Bad road conditions and overloading of vehicles lead to spillage, and the
material spilled is subject to re-entrainment which leads to production of dust. Overloading of
trucks/dumpers should be strictly prohibited to prevent spillage and regular clearing of roads
should be carried out. If possible the trucks/dumpers should be covered to avoid spillage. The
spilled material should be removed periodically. Further dust suppression can be carried out by
spraying water using fixed or mobile sprinklers.

Fig 7.1: Static water sprinkling system in NMDC LIMITED

51
With frequent watering, newly spilled material is moistened at close intervals. When chemicals
are applied with infrequent watering, newly spilled material could go for long periods before
being moistened. Therefore, in mines where spillage cannot be controlled, watering alone is
better for dust control.

Black topping of permanent roads: Haul roads and light vehicle roads having a reasonably
long life (say 10 to 15 years) can be metalled and topped with asphalt or bitumen to provide a
better road surface and to reduce the generation of fugitive dust.

Binding and agglomerating agents: Binding agents are used when dust control by water is
not feasible. They are classified as humectants and adhesive formulations. Humectants,
maintains surface moisture to keep the dust wet, like calcium and magnesium chloride.
Adhesives, maintain fine dust particle agglomerate in absence of surface moisture, like oils and
polymers. The performance of binding agent depends on physical and chemical properties of
substrate, the application technique and storage and handling conditions . For example, EK35,
is synthetic resin binder which captures fines and keep them locked in surface, it works
effectively on all types of soil and aggregates and are biodegradable in nature.

Wetting agents: Wetting agents are surfactant formulations that improve the ability of water
to adhere and spread on dust particles thereby increasing the bulk density of particle and leads
to agglomeration. These are mainly useful in unloading and conveying operations.
Considerable research has been done on the use of wetting agents and has found to have
increased dust control effectiveness ranging from 0-25% .For Example- 3M Dust suppressant
LSP-1000C is water soluble, alcohol free formulation. It penetrates and agglomerates fine dust
particles; dries to form a thin, flexible film that suppresses dust for extended periods.
Surfactants are sometimes used in wet spray applications because they lower the surface
tension of the water solution, which has the following effects:

Reduced droplet diameter.

An increase in the number of droplets for a given volume of water; and

A decrease in the contact angle defined as the angle at which a liquid meets a solid surface.

Despite the effectiveness of chemical additives, it must be noted that they are not often
used in the metal/non-metal mining industry based upon several limitations.

52
 Surfactants are significantly more expensive than a typical water application. They can
alter the properties of the mineral or material being processed. Surfactants have limited
usefulness in the metal/non-metal mining industry, as opposed to in the coal industry, since
ore or stone are much easier to wet than is coal due to its hydrophobic nature.

The effectiveness of chemical additives depends on:

1. the type of wetting agent
2. hydrophobic nature of the mineral particles
3. dust particle size
4. dust concentration
5. water pH
6. minerals present in the water used
Examples:
3M™ SDS4 Polymeric Dust Suppression
3M™ SDS-2 Surfactant Based Dust Suppression
Environmental LDC PLUS 12™

Foam suppression: Foaming agents are high foaming surfactants containing wetting and
binding agents which convert water and compressed air mixture into foam. The foam
suppression technology, gives a heavy spray of foam which blankets the dust before a dust
cloud can rise. It works by reducing the surface tension of dust particles. This minimizes the
amount of water used. Foams used for dust control are dry, stable, small-bubbled and
consistent. Use of foam has better efficiency as compared to water as the foam liquid wets and
agglomerates fine dust particle, it can reduce 20-60% more dust as compared to water. These
dust particles penetrate the foam bubble, causing the bubble to break and wet the particles.
Large particles are not a problem, as the small micro-foam bubbles wet the larger particles
without affecting the bubble. Micro-foam can be injected at material transfer points in order to
obtain optimum dust control, requiring approximately 0.4 gallons of water for each ton of bulk
material treated for dust control.

It is effective as it use lesser water as compared to that used in water sprays. Use of foam has
increased dust reduction . They can be used at transfer points and crushing operations. It
provides best way of suppressing dust with minimum addition of moisture. The major
drawback in use of this system is its high cost.

53
 Fig 7.2: Application of foam near crusher area

Micro-foam is another method for controlling dust from fugitive dust sources, particularly
load-out stockpiles. Typical foams used in fire fighting (large 5-mm bubbles) are not effective
at dust control, unlike micro-foam (small <100-µm bubbles). Micro-foam is stated to be better
than water for dust suppression, because the water droplets, to be effective for dust control,
must be similar in size to the dust particles which micro-foam can replicate. In addition, the
velocity of the water must be high to break its surface tension upon contact with the dust
particle. Highly concentrated foam dust control agents are formulated to produce resilient, low
surface tension foam for the control of fugitive dust throughout the plant material handling
system. The most cost-effective performance generally occurs in waters containing total
hardness between 100 to 1000 ppm (mg/L).

Dust hood/collectors: Dust collection hoods and flanges capture dust at the source and
provide easy connection to the duct system. Most Dust Hoods and Flanges can be double faced
taped to a machine cabinet or drilled and mounted as need. Dry collection can be performed
most efficiently by maintaining an appropriate dust collector to bailing airflow ratio.

Dust collection systems work on the basic formula of capture, convey and collect.

First, the dust must be captured. This is accomplished with devices such as capture hoods
to catch dust at its source of origin. Many times, the machine producing the dust will have
a port to which a duct can be directly attached.
Second, the dust must be conveyed. This is done via a ducting system, properly sized and
manifold to maintain a consistent minimum air velocity required to keep the dust in
suspension for conveyance to the collection device. A duct of the wrong size can lead to
material settling in the duct system and clogging it.

54
 Finally, the dust is collected. This is done via a variety of means, depending on the
application and the dust being handled. It can be as simple as a basic pass-through filter, a
cyclonic separator, or an impingement baffle. It can also be as complex as an electrostatic
precipitator, a multistage bag house, or a chemically treated wet scrubber or stripping
tower.

Green belt: Plantation of trees is one of the best measures for controlling air pollution. Trees
act as wind breaks and the leaves as dust filter. Much of the dust produced in permanent roads
in and around mines can be trapped by having trees with dense foliage planted on both sides of
the roads. Maiti and Banerjee (1992) found that a 8m wide green belt between roads and
buildings can reduce dust-fall by two to three times, and conifers reduce dust-fall by up to 42%
in temperate urban areas. They also indicated that evergreen plants with shiny leaves like
Alstoniascholaris, Ficuslunea, F. Benghalensisand Magniferaindicaare the best dust catchers.
Therefore, major dust producing areas such as stockyard, transfer points, material handling
plants should be surrounded by a green belt. At least 30-40 meter green belt should be created
on either side of the transportation road passing through populated areas.

Table 7.1: Comparison between different particulate matter control measures

Particulate Matter control methods Effectiveness Cost and Drawbacks
Dilution ventilation Moderate High- more air may not be feasible
Displacement ventilation Moderate to Moderate - can be difficult to
high implement
Wetting by sprays Moderate Low - too much water can be a
problem
Airborne capture by sprays low to Low - too much water can be a
Moderate problem
Airborne capture by high pressure Moderate moderate- can only be used in
sprays enclosed spaces
Foam Moderate High
Wetting agents Zero to low Moderate
Dust collectors Moderate to Moderate to High - possible noise
high problems
Reducing generated dusts low to Moderate
Moderate
Enclosure with sprays low to Moderate
Moderate
Dust avoidance Moderate Low to Moderate

55
7.2 CONCLUSION

Mining, because of the very nature of operations involves disturbing the ground, removing and
handling soil and rock, and the subsequent transport, dumping, crushing and processing of this
material. At all stages there is some potential to produce particulate matter. It has become more
serious and alarming due to increased production and mechanization in opencast as well as
underground mines. It is seen that in mining industry, right from the soil handling to the final
transportation, dust is generated resulting in air pollution.

In the present study, it was found that the AQI values for Janikunta Iron ore mine ranges from
0 to 50, which lies in the ‘Good’ category. The AQI value of obulapura Iron ore mines varied
from 100 to 150, indicating that it belongs to ‘Unhealthy to sensitive group’ category. Rest of
the mines, viz. Sanjeevarayanakote Iron mine, tiffen barytes Iron mine have their AQI value
within ‘Moderate’ category.

The PM10values of most of the mines under observation were found to be close to the
standards prescribed by NAAQS, whereas PM2.5 values are well within NAAQS. The
concentration of gaseous pollutants e.g. NOx, SO2, CO were found to be negligible with
respect to NAAQS limits.

Several suggested mitigation measures which has been suggested, if followed, can bring down
the level of particulate matter concentration considerably. These days, a number of dust
dispersion modelling software’s are also available to predict the dust concentration, which can
be utilized to plan for precautionary measures in advance. Best practice dust management can
be achieved by appropriate planning in the case of new or expanding mining operations and by
identifying and controlling dust sources during the active phases of all mining operations.

56
 Chapter 8

REFERENCES
 9. REFERENCES

Anastasiadou, K. and, Gidarakos, E., 2006, Toxicity evaluation for the broad area of the
asbestos mine of northern Greece, Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol- A139, P.P: 9–18.
Briggs, G.A., "Plume Rise", USAEC Critical Review Series, 1969.
Chakraborty, M.K., Ahmad, M., Singh,R.S., Pal, D., Bandopadhyay,C. and Chaulya, S.K.,
2002, Determination of the emission rate from various opencast mining operations,
Environmental Modeling & Software, Vol. 17, P.P: 467–480.
Chander, S., Alaboyun, A.R. and Aplan, F.F., 1991, Mechanism of capture of coal dust
particles by sprays, Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Respirable Dust in the
Mineral Industries (Pittsburgh, PA, October 17-19, 1990). Littleton, CO: Society for
Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.
Chaulya, S.K., 1999, Air quality status of an open pit mining area in India, Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment, vol-105, P.P: 369–389.
Chen, J., Yijun Jiang, Wang, H. & Li, D., 2010, Assessment of ambient air quality in coal
mine waste areas — a case study in Fuxin, China, New Zealand journal of agricultural
research,vol- 50:5, P.P: 1187-1194.
Dahmann D., Morfeld, P., Monz, C., Noll, B. and Gast, B., 2008, Exposure assessment for
nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide in German hard coal mining,International Arch
Occupation Environmental Health, vol-82, P.P: 1267–1279.
Ghose, M.K. and Majee, S.R., 2001, Air pollution caused by opencast mining and its
abatement measures in India, Journal of Environmental Management,vol- 63, P.P: 193–
202.
Kumari, S., Kumar,R., Mishra, K.K., Pandey, J.K., Nair,G. and Bandopadhyay, A.K., 1995,
Determination of quartz and its abundance in respirable airborne dust in both coal and
metal mines in India, Procedia engineering , vol-26 , P.P : 1810-1819.
Khalaji, M., Roshanzadeh, B., Mansoori, A., Taefi, N. and Tavassoli, S.H., 2011, Continuous
dust monitoring and analysis by spark induced breakdown spectroscopy, Optics and
Lasers in Engineering, vol-50, P.P: 110–113.
Khan, M. and Bagariya, R.K., 2011, Status of ambient air quality at Dhanappa limestone
mines, International Referred Research Journal, vol-3, issue-28.
Mandal, K., Kumar, A., Tripathi, N., Singh, R.S., Chaulya, S.K., Mishra, P.K.
&Bandyopadhyay, L.K., 2011, Characterization of different road dusts in opencast coal
mining areas of India, Environment Monitoring Assess, vol-184, P.P: 3427–3441.
Mukherjee, S.K. and Singh, M.M., 1984, New techniques for spraying dust, Coal Age June,
pp.54-56.
Maiti, S. K. and Banerjee, S. P., 1992, A comprehensive study of dust collecting potential of
plants growing in Jharia Coalfield, Eastern India, Transactions, p.89.
Misra, G.B., 2002, Mine environment and ventilation, Oxford university press, 10 th impression,
P.P: 45-57, 80, 85.
Midwest Industrial Supply Inc, 2010, EnviroKleen and EK35 - Synthetic Organic Dust
Control, http://www.midwestind.com/assets/files/Brochure%207-14-11/EK-EK-35-364-
4p.pdf, accessed on April 19, 2013.

58
Rosbury, K.D. and Zimmer, R.A., 1983, Cost-effectiveness of dust controls used on unpaved
haul roads. Volume 1: Results, analysis, and conclusions. PEDCo Environmental, Inc.
U.S. Bureau of Mines contract No. J0218021. NTIS No. PB 86-115201.
Sharma, A.K. and Siddiqui, K.A., 2010, Assessment of air quality for an open cast coal mining
area’, Indian journal of scientific and industrial research, vol-1(2), P.P:47-55.
Silva, R., Pires, M., Azevedo, C.M.N., Fagundes, L., Garavaglia, L. and Gomes, C.J.B., 2010
,Monitoring light hydrocarbons in Brazilian coal mines and in confined coal samples,
International Journal of Coal Geology, vol-84, P.P: 269–275.
Stein, F. and Corn, M., 1975, Shape factors of narrow size range samples of respirable coal
mine dust, Powder technology, vol-13, P.P: 133-141.
US EPA, 2011, Air Quality Index (AQI) - A Guide to Air Quality and Your Health, 9
December 2011, accessed on 8 August 2013.
http://www.wiregrassenergynetwork.com/health-effects.html
http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/environment/New_IDEA_Air_Quality_Monitoring_prt.html
http://www.cpcb.nic.in/newitems/7.pdf
http://www.anywaysolutions.com/kiepersol-mine-piet-retief-haul-roads/
http://www.envirofloeng.com/foamexample.html
Elements of mining
Dj deshmukh volume-1,2,3
Mineral conservation development rules
State control board technique book
Ambient air quality methods

59