AN INTRODUCTION TO WORLD

HISTORY
Overview of World History:
• It has three specific dimensions:

The Status of World History:

• It refers to the position of World History in the overall scheme of General Studies, and it has two parts.
► Curriculum of Preliminary Examination.
► Curriculum of Main Examination.
• General Studies World History is not part of the curriculum of the preliminary examination.
• General Studies World History is part of the curriculum of General Studies (GS) Paper I of the Mains
examination.
• World History was introduced in 2013 in UPSC Mains Examination Syllabus, and in 2013 around 4
questions were asked from World History in GS Paper I in Mains examination. After that, the number of
questions varied from 4 to 3 or 2 or 1 for the last few years.
• In the light of recent trends, the maximum number of 4 to 5 Questions could be expected to be asked in
the Mains Examination.
• There are two categories of questions:
► First category carries questions of 10 marks each, and the total maximum marks from this category
could be around 40 to 50 marks.
� ► Second category carries questions of 15 marks each, and the total maximum marks from this
� category could be around 60 to 75 marks.

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gz The Scope of World History:
0 • The UPSC Mains syllabus has mentioned Major Events of World History from the 18th century
onwards, which includes events like Industrial Revolution, Colonization, Decolonization, World War I
C and II, Russian Revolution, etc.
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a::: • Here, the primary idea is confined only to the events of the 18th century onwards and not the event
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z • Modern World History starts from the 16th century till the year 2000.
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• Contemporary World History starts from 1945 till the year 2000.
• Among all major events of World History, European events are the core or nucleus of World History
because other countries were impacted directly or indirectly by the European events such as Age of
Enlightenment, Industrial Revolution, Imperialism, Colonization, Nazi Power, Cold War, etc.

Interconnections and Comparisons:

• It refers to the interconnection between or among world events such as:

► American Revolution and French Revolution

► Russian Revolution and Chinese Communist Revolution
► Lenin and Stalin
► Lenin and Mao

Sample Questions that may be asked concerning Interconnection or Comparison:

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Sample Questions

Compare the features of the American Revolution and the French Revolution.
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Revolution?
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 Personalities of World History:
• If we consider all the major events of World History, we will find that some personalities played
significant roles in World History.
• Some of the major Personalities are listed below:
► Ho-chi-Minh, a Nationalist Communist leader of Vietnam, played a significant role in the Anti-Colonial
struggle and Anti-American Struggle in Vietnam.
► Simon Bolivar played a significant role in the independence of Latin America in the 1820s.
► Nelson Mandela, a great leader of South Africa, played a significant role in ending the appetite and
bringing about democracy in South Africa.
► Abraham Lincoln was the Greatest American Statesman during his tenure during the Civil War (1861-
65) took place. He played an essential role in saving the Unity of America.
► Karl Marx, a great thinker a socialist who presented a new interpretation of socialism, made it radical
and revolutionary.
► Lenin, a great communist leader of Russia, was the architect of the Russian Revolution; he was
associated with the formation of Communist Russia, later the USSR.
► Mao was the communist leader of China associated with the Communist Revolution of 1949, and he
gave birth to the Communist China.
► Stalin was a communist leader in Russia who played an important role in Russia through
industrialization and FYP (Five Year Plan).
► Bismarck, a great Statesman of Asia, was associated with the unification of Germany.
► Metternich was a great reactionary conservative leader of Europe in the early 19th century. He played
an important role in the Vienna Congress and created a new European order.
► Mezzini was the Nationalist Revolutionary of Italy who founded organizations like Young Italy. Europe
played an important role in promoting the ideas of Italian nationalism; he worked for the unification of
Italy.
► Hitler was a great dictator of Germany, and a leader of the Nazi Party. Under his leadership, the Nazi
� form of government emerged.
� ► Gorbachev was known for his international approach to International Cooperation and Peace, which
helped end the Cold War. He was a great leader and was known for his reforms of the USSR. He
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0 • Perestroika ("restructuring" in Russian) refers to a series of political and economic reforms meant to
� kick-start the stagnant 1980s economy of the Soviet Union.
gz • Glasnost ("openness" in Russian) refers to the Soviet policy of open discussion of political and social
0 issues.

C Modern World History and Modern Indian History:

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a::: • It covers Modern World History with reference to Modern Indian history. It deals with the comparison of
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3
► The New Economic Policy of Lenin of 1921 discusses the mixed economic model, and the Nehruvian
Policy of Economy after independence also discusses the mixed economic model.
► The Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century in Western Europe gave rise to great personalities like
John Locke, Voltaire, Kant, etc.
► Ideas of enlightenment also influenced 19th century India. Indian personalities like Raja Ram Mohan
Roy, lshwar Chandra Vidyasagar were influenced by the ideas of enlightenment of Europe. The ideas
were Rationalism, Humanism, Nationalism, Optimistic Progress, etc.
► These ideas were reflected as the progressive ideas in 19th century India.

Readings for World History:

• Contemporary World History: NCERT (Contemporary World History, Class 12th - By Anwar-ul­

Haq and others)

• Mastering Modern World History: Norman Lowe.

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4
 El AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT
Lecture2
Introduction:
• The Age of Enlightenment is known as the 18th Century Western Europe era as this was the age of
enlightened ideas.
• These ideas represented progressive ideas that were hitherto absent of several great thinkers,
philosophers, and writers who arose in 18th Century Western Europe.
• Such as John Locke, Rousseau, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Adam Smith, Immanuel Kant.

Background of the Age of Enlightenment: 0 00:04:25

• 16th Century Europe:
► The rise of great British thinker and writer, Thomas More, presented an idea of an ideal state of
humanity or an optimistic move of humanity towards an ideal state; such optimism of the ideal
State paved the way towards enlightened ideas in the 18th Century.
► Thomas More was the first person to use the term "Utopia," describing an ideal, imaginary world in
his most famous work of fiction. Utopia refers to an ideal State or a perfect State.
► His book Utopia describes a complex community on an island where people share a common
culture and way of life.
• 17th Century Europe:
► It was a century of Scientists and Rationalists.
o Newton, a great scientist, Rene Descartes, and John Locke were great rationalists.
► This was the age of Scientific Reason and Rationalism, and it presented an Idea of Natural Law.
► The Natural Order/Law refers to the Law which governs the whole existence, and Humans are part
of it.
► One such Law was discovered by Newton; the Law of Gravity.
• Rene Descartes and John Locke considered Reason as an extraordinary faculty of Human Beings,
through which humans can progress.
• Rationalism and Naturalism in this age created a background for the Age of Enlightenment.

Thomas More's Locke's

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Ideas of Enlightenment: 0 00:09:16
Four characteristic features characterized these ideas:
• Reason or Rationalism
► Human Reason could do anything and play a significant role in Human Progress.

• Natural Laws
► Using Reason, the Natural Laws could be discovered, and one such Law was "The Law of Gravity
by Newton".

• Ideas of Optimistic Progress

► The whole creation is governed by curtain-specific laws, i.e., Natural laws, which would enable
Human Progress to achieve Optimistic Progress

• Humanism
► This optimistic progress is linked with Humanism. It focuses on the Welfare of Humans, Human
Rights, Human Freedom, and Human Progress.
► In the 16th Century 'Utopia', Thomas More gave the idea of Optimistic Progress. In the 17th

•
Century, Rationalists and the Idea of Natural Progress emerged.

• • .

Main Thinkers:
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• John Locke was a British thinker and philosopher of the 17th-18th Century. He presented the ideas of LL
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 • These rights are the Right to Life, Property, and Liberty.
• The role of the State or Government is to protect these rights, and if the State fails to protect these
rights, people have the right to change the Government.
• This emerges from the idea of 'Popular Sovereignty'.
• In the light of these ideas, it could be understood that John Locke was in favour of a Democratic
System.

Physiocrats:
• Physiocrats refer to a group of Economic thinkers in the 18th Century in France. They claim to present
the Natural Law of Economy; Laissez-Faire.
• Laissez-Faire means Free Economy; a system with minimal interference from the State/ Government.
• The idea was that when this Natural Law of Economy was ensured, it would also ensure Economic
Development and Economic progress.

Adam Smith:
• Adam Smith was a British thinker and writer. He was a great economist who laid the foundation for
Classical Economics.
• He advocated the idea of Laissez -Faire.
• He presented a comprehensive economic analysis of the Economic System.
• His idea was that regulations and controls impede economic progress.
• He presented the idea of a Free Economy for Economic progress.

Jeremy Bentham
• Jeremy Bentham was a British thinker, philosopher, and writer, who was a founder of a liberal current
known as 'Utilitarianism', based on the concept of Utility.
• This was defined as the Happiness created for the Greatest numbers.
• He presented the ideas to reform the Laws and the enactment of good Laws would play a significant
role in the attainment of Utilitarianism.

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w • Cesare Beccaria was an Italian thinker, philosopher. He presented the idea that the 'Justice system
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Montesquieu:
• Montesquieu was a French thinker and philosopher of the 18th Century.
• He is known for his idea of 'Separation of Power', which is adopted by many Constitutions of the world
including India; Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary.

Rousseau:
• Rousseau was a French philosopher and thinker. He presented the idea of a social System
characterized by 'Equality'.
• He presented an idea of a political system characterized by 'Freedom'. He believed in direct
Democracy.
• In his book 'Social Contract', he mentions that 'Man is born Free, but everywhere he is in Chains'.

Voltaire:
• Voltaire was a French thinker, philosopher of the 18th Century.
• He is known for presenting an idea of Freedom of Religion'; the first open attack on the Roman
Catholic Church.
• He questioned the existence of the role of the Church. He presented the idea of the Separation of
Religion and State.

Immanuel Kant:
• Immanuel Kant was a German thinker philosopher, and he is known for his ideas on Ethics and
Morality.
• He is considered the father of 'Deontological Ethics', i.e., Duty-based Ethics.
• Kant presented ideas of New Ethics.
• According to Kant, Morality is Ethical action while performing one's duty.

Enlightened Monarchs in the Age of Enlightenment:

• Peter the Great- Russia
• Frederick the Great- Prussia
• Maria Theresa - Austria
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Modern Age: 0
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8
 birth to the Modern Age.
► Progressive Political System
► Progressive Economic System
► Progressive Social System
• Political, Economic, Social Systems were characterized by some lofty ideas like Equality, Liberty,
Justice, etc. Democratic ideals and the idea of a Free Economy are considered important in the
modern age.

Age of Human Rights and Freedom:

Revolutions:
• Enlightenment ideas were progressive ideas, which attacked old archaic systems, like absolute
monarchy, dominant Church, aristocracy, privilege-based society, and so on. These ideas brought an
awakening in society.
• Sometimes this age is termed as 'Intellectual Revolution of the 18th Century'.
• The American Revolution and the French Revolution were inspired and influenced by the ideas of
Enlightenment. Both revolutions took place towards the end of the 18th Century.

Spread of Ideas of Enlightenment to Colonies

• As the ideas of Enlightenment spread in Western Europe; Britain, the German State, France, and
Italy and these ideas were spread to colonies as well; America (in the 18th Century) and India (in the
19th Century).
• During this era in the American Enlightenment, the famous personalities were Thomas Jefferson,
Benjamin Franklin, and in the Indian Enlightenment, Raja Ram Mohan Roy and H.V. Derozio.

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 Etll IMPERIALISM, COLONIALISM,
lf:IIAND DECOLONISATION (PART-1)
Probable Questions from the Lecture:
• What do you mean by Imperialism?
• How Imperialism is different from Colonialism?
• Do you think Imperialism and Colonialism are the same phenomena?

Capitalism: 0 00:02:31
• Capitalism served as a greater factor behind Imperialism and Colonialism.
• Capitalism is an economic system that developed in the modern world, i.e., 16th Century onwards. In
this economic system, private players play a major role.
• In this system, an individual or group that has surplus capital invests this surplus capital in economic
activities and hires labour from outside.
• The investor of the Capital is called a Capitalist.
• Out of the Economic Activity, a big part is appropriated by the capitalist, and a small part is
distributed among the labour as wages.
• When capital is invested in Trading Activity, such capitalism is known as Merchant Capitalism.
• When capital is invested in Industrial activity, it is known as Industrial Capitalism. When it is invested
in Finance Activity, it is known as Financial Capitalism.

Capitalism Phases:
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11
 search of the goods.
• So Mercantilism, dominant during the 16th and 17th Century gave impetus to modern Imperialism
and Colonialism.
• Laissez-Faire is an economic doctrine that emerged in the 18th Century. This idea was first presented
by the physiocrats in France.
• This idea was further advocated by economist Adam Smith.
• Laissez-Faire refers to the doctrine of Free Economy, which means limited state control.
• This is entirely different from Mercantilism because Mercantilism was characterized by state control in
the economy.
• Freedom of Choice in Economic activities, i.e., the market forces are determine by supply and demand.
• Mercantilism was the dominant economic doctrine between the 16th to 18th centuries. Then it was
replaced by Laissez-faire, which became the dominant economic doctrine in the 19th Century.
• Laissez-Faire got a boost from the Industrial Revolution and the growth of Industrial Capitalism in
the first half of the 19th Century.

Imperialism: 0 00:17:55
• Imperialism is defined as a policy or practice of extension of influence, control, and Domination by a
country or a state.
• Modern Imperialism is Imperialism in the Era of Capitalism (16th Century onwards).
• Some of the Capitalist countries were Portugal, Spain, Britain, France, Netherlands. Later, Italy,
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Germany and two non-European Powers, the USA and Japan.
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 Colonialism: 0 00:33:52

• Colonialism refers to a Politico-Economic System characterized by Foreign Control and

Exploitation.
• Suppose a region is in Foreign Control and the society of this region is transformed in a way that this
region serves the economic interest of foreign power.

How are Modern Imperialism and Colonialism different?

• It is considered that both are the product of the same economic system i.e., Capitalism.
• So, Modern Imperialism and Colonialism are two sides of the same coin.
• The distinction here is of Capitalistic Regions.
• While Modern Imperialism involved Capitalistic Regions; Portugal, Spain, Britain, France,
Netherlands, later Germany and Japan. Colonialism involved Non-Capitalistic Regions; Big part of
Asia, All of Africa, Big part of America, Australia and New Zealand.
• For example, what was done by Britain was Imperialism and what happened to India was
Colonialism. India witnessed Foreign Control and exploitation by Britain.
• The society and economy of India were transformed to serve the interest of Britain.
• The economy of India was subordinated to that of Britain.
• Another view of scholars is that Colonialism involves significant settlement usually, i.e., for the
settlement of the people from the capitalistic region, for example, a good number of people from
� Britain shifted to India in order to control and exploit.
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Colonialism:
• The region under Direct Control is called Colony.
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a.. • Decolonization is the abolition of Colonialism or the end of Colonialism.
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 • For example, Colony India became free and Independent on the 15th August 1947 after the
Colonisation process had begun in the 1750s onwards.
• The main phase of Decolonisation is from 1945 onwards.

Neo-Colonialism:
• Neo Imperialism refers to the specific phase of modern Imperialism, the 1870s to 1940s.
• Whereas neo-colonialism is a new form of Colonialism, and this new form began with respect to
many colonies when they became free.
• Case 1: Suppose, a Colony of Britain becomes free and independent. After becoming free, this region
experiences the informal influences of Britain.
• Case 2: Britain or some other developed country influences.
► This phenomenon is named neo-colonialism. The term came into vogue in the 1960s.
► This has been happening because, though the colony has become free, yet this region is
economically poor, politically insatiable, militarily weak.
► These weaknesses again made a reason for exploitation. These informal influences are from
different channels. For example, giving aid, grants, loans, military supplies, creating military
bases, creating puppet governments.

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 • So the influences and exploitation take place through the operations in these regions.
• The USA has been a major player in neo-colonialism.

There is a famous statement:

'Colonies are no longer in existence, the process of decolonization is over, but yet it has refused to become
history'

White Settlers' Colony:

• When a non-capitalist region came under the control of Britain, a significant number of White settlers
from Britain came to the colony to settle and continue to stay and rule.
• In the USA, Canada, Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand, the white settlers settled down, kept
on controlling and kept on ruling . Such colonies are known as White Settlers Colonies.
• All these White Settlers Colonies were British colonies.
• Among these, the USA fought the War of Independence towards the end of the 18th Century and
became free.
• But the rest continued as white settlers' colonies and later Britain granted them Dominion Status.
• Dominion Status is a specific political status of a region, under which the white settlers are given the
right to rule, but under the British Sovereignty.
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15
 IMPERIALISM, COLONIALISM AND
DECOLONISATION (PART-2)
The Trends of Imperialism and Colonialism:
0 00:04:38
Phase 1: From 16th to 18th Century
The rising trend of Modern Imperialism and Colonialism in this period was significant.
• The factors which gave birth to Modern Imperialism and Colonialism
► Geographical Discoveries: This included the discovery of new sea routes.
► Development in Science and Technology: Ship-building, Compass, etc.
► The ideology of Mercantilism
► Merchant Capitalism

Modern Imperialism and

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Vl • Modern Imperialism and Colonialism received a setback because of following reasons:
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 ► This was the great loss of Britain and this event stood for liberation from the foreign regime.
► It became a great symbol of the struggle for freedom and liberation and the struggle against
Imperialism and Colonialism.
• 1803 to 1820s:
► Latin American Liberation Struggle (includes South America, Central American and some parts of
the Caribbean).
► The entire Latin America was under two colonial powers; Portugal and Spain.
► A big part of Brazil was under Portuguese colonial rule and the rest was under Spanish Colonial
Rule. Both Colonial regimes were highly suppressive and oppressive. This regime focussed on
Bullionism, i.e., the doctrine of Mercantilism.
► The Latin American Liberation Struggle began in 1803 and by the 1820s almost all the colonies of
Latin America became free.
► Simon Bolivar, from Venezuela, played a significant role in the struggle against Spanish Colonies.
He was inspired by the French Revolution and the American Revolution.

Phase 3: 1870s to 1914 0 00:18:44

• This phase is the revival of Modern Imperialism.

• The rising trend is called Neo - l m perialism.
The factors of Neo- Imperialism
• Industrial Revolution: �
► It began in England towards the end of the 18th Century and then took place in other countries. [
► The Industrial Revolution gave birth to two necessities; Raw Materials and a Market for selling z
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goods.
► The Industrial Revolution gave birth to Industrial Capitalism and Finance Capitalism. �
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Rise of Aggressive Nationalism in Europe �
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► Aggressive Nationalism gave encouragement to the idea of expansion of the nation, war.
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 • Christian Missionaries:
► The spread of Christian Ideology and this process could be facilitated by controlling the foreign
lands.
• A long deep recession began in Europe in the 1870s
► It became serious in the 1890s and in this scenario, many European Powers began to think of the
acquisition of news regions, as a response to this economic crisis.
• Construction of the Suez Canal:
► A connection between the Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea and a connection between Europe and
the Western World. The Strategic Importance of the Suez Canal attracted European Countries
towards the North-Eastern parts of Africa, resulting in Semi-Colonisation of Egypt.

Mediterranean Sea

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► Almost the whole of Africa was colonized during this.
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Kenn c.,o

Map of Continent of Africa before 1880s

• Before the 1880s, only certain Peripheral regions of Africa were under European Control. N'
• A big part of (about 90%) was outside European Control. �
• Connection with Africa before the 1880s was the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. [
z
• Besides the slave trade, European procured certain products as well. 0
• Africa was divided into hundreds of Tribal societies, representing tribal politics but in the 1880s
�
onwards, a new trend began. z
• Belgium began to explore the Congo region of Africa, with the purpose of colonising. g0
• This move of Belgium is called 'Scramble for Africa'. u
w
0
• All the major European powers engaged themselves and began a colonial race for the acquisition of 0
African territories in the interior of Africa. z
<t'.
• In this conflicting scenario, the Berlin Conference 1884-85 of European Nations was organized with �
(/)
a purpose to settle the issues related to Africa. :J
�
• The deliberations of this Conference gave birth to certain parameters with regard to how to acquire z
0
and on the basis of the parameters presented by the Berlin Conference, the European powers ...J
u
0
colonized entire Africa.
• This Natural Africa was converted into Artificial Africa. �
(/)
:J
<t'.
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a.
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20
 Britbh

Ind/an
Ocean
Atlantic
Ocean

African Colonies after

the Berlin Conference of 1 884

• Except for Liberia and Ethiopia, all Africa got shared among European Nations.
• The British got a Big share of territories
• Within these boundaries, two or more two tribal communities got involved.

"' • This became the major problem after the African colony got independence. This gave birth to tribal
conflicts and the situation of civil war in parts of Africa, which became a major constraint in the
� development of Africa.
[
z
0

�
z
g0
u
w
C
C
z
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21
 • It is said that the Partition of Africa (Artificial Partition) among the European Powers was a unique
event in the history of Modern Imperialism, particularly in the History of New Imperialists. It is also
said that European Power chopped Africa into many artificial pieces and distributed them among
themselves.
• This phase of Neo- Imperialism gave birth to rivalism, which was also the reason for the First World
War.

Phase 4: 1914 to 1939 0 00:46:50

• World War I ended in 1918 and this was followed by a Peace Conference in Paris called the Paris
Peace Conference. The First World War proved to be a setback for Modern Imperialism.
• There was again a declining trend.
• The First World War brought about the collapse of the Russian Empire, the Empire of Austria­
Hungary, The German Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. Territories of these empires gave birth to
new states.
• But again, in the 1930s the trend started to rise again.
• In the 193 0s, one can find Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Militarist Japan gave a push to Modern
Imperialism. Japan emerged as a major I mperialist part in the eastern part.
• Their actions created conflicting international scenarios and played a role as Axis Power, giving birth
to World War II.

�
Phase 5: After the Second World War: 1945 to 1990s
[
• There began a declining trend of Modern Imperialism and Colonialism and also the final end of the z
0
same.
• During and after the Second World War, several new trends emerged. �
z
Major factors for the Decline: 0
u
w
• The Second World War was between two blocs: Allied and Axis Powers. Allied fought this war in the 0
name of freedom and democracy against the fascists and military powers and they emerged 0
z
victorious in the war. After winning the war, there emerged an international public opinion in granting <t'.
�
freedom. (/)
:J
• Exhausted European powers, both economically and militarily, were not in a position to continue �
with the colonies effectively as they were able to manage the colonies before.
z
0
...J
u
• European Hegemony and all the major colonial powers were European powers. 0
• There was a change in the balance of power. There was a collapse of European powers and the rise of �
(/)
two superpowers; the United States and the Soviet Union. :J
• Foundation of United Nations in 1945, which played a role in the independence of several regions <t'.
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•
w
The Second World War gave an impetus to the anti-colonial struggle in many parts of the world. This a.
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22
 happened in India as well. Quit India Movement 1942 was during the Second World War.
• Certain colonies that became free in the 1949s and 1950s played a role in raising voices against
Colonialism and fought for freedom and liberation.
• These nations emerged with the idea of non-Alignment, and finally, the Movement in 1961.
• This Movement also played a role in the liberation of colonies mainly in Africa.
• The Second World War changed the scenario which was not favourable for modern Imperialism and
Colonisation.
• The result was that colonial power began to free colonies and this happened in Asia, Africa, and
some parts of Latin America.
• This phase became the great phase of Decolonisation.

Decolonization (1945 to 1990s) 0 00:53:35

• Independence of 13 colonies of Britain and independence of colonies of Latin America and
Independence of certain regions that were under the foreign powers that collapsed as a result of the
First World War.
• Sometimes Decolonisation is used mainly for this phase.
• Decolonization was a process that began in the 1940s and continued to the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, and
1980s.
• In the 1990s, End of Apartheid and establishment of democracy in South Africa occurred.
• Apartheid in South Africa that began in 1940 onwards represented a very typical case of colonization,
where the minority white government consisting of British, and the Dutch ruled the majority non­
z white and introduced a policy of extreme racism known as apartheid.
0
• In this phase the regions, in the wake of becoming free, became victims of conflicts and wars also.
� • Here, Egypt in the wake of independence became a victim of the Suez Crisis (1956).
z
• Vietnam became a victim of the Cold War called the Vietnam War (1954-1973/74).
0 • Palestine became the hotbed of conflict between the Jews and the Arabs. Jews formed the state of
u
w
C Israel in 1948. The conflict here began in 1948 onwards and is still going on. This conflict is known as
C the Arab-Israel Conflict.
z
<( • Palestinian are still fighting for their homeland and state.
�
Vl • So, this phase is the final Decline of Modern Imperialism and Colonisation, but a new phenomenon,
::::i
Neo-Colonialism, developed.
z
0
...J
u ?>
0
Previous Year's Questions
Vl
::::i • A+rica was chopped into states artificially created by accident o+ European competition.
<(
w Analyse. (UPSC 2013)
a..
�

23
• The anti-colonial struggles in West A.frica were led by the new elite o.f Western­
educated Africans. Examine. (UPSC 201(,)
• Why indentured labour was taken by the British .from India to other colonies? Have
they been able to preserve their cultural identity over there? (UPSC 2018)

N'
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24
 1::11 IMPERIALISM, COLONIALISM AND
1:.1 DECOLONISATION (PART-3)
Impact of Imperialism on Imperialist Powers: 0 00:00:47
• Several Capitalist powers such as Portugal, Spain, Britain, France, Netherlands, etc., emerged as
imperialistic powers.
• Two Broad dimensions of Impact of Imperialism on Imperialist Powers:
► Gains
► Conflicts

Gains:
• The Economic Resources: The massive number of different kinds of raw materials.
• Market: Subjugated areas/ colonies were used as a market for selling the industrial goods and the
market for the investment of surplus capital.
• Human Resource: The imperialistic powers exploited the native population and natives were used as
labour and soldiers in the military.
• Political Prestige and Political Dignity among the nations.
• Controlling Strategic Points.
► Example: The Suez Canal Region, The Cape, tip of Africa. The huge gains were what the imperialist
powers received and what they exacted. The trend that they initiated proved quite advantageous for
the imperial powers.

� Conflict:
[ • Conflict represented conflicts among the colonial powers.
z • They were involved in the colonial race and such competition created ground for conflicts. The conflict
0
found an impression on war as well.
� • Example: The Seven Year War between France and Britain in the 18th Century.
z
• Carnatic Wars that took place in India between France and Britain.
0 • Four Wars in South Africa between Dutch and the English.
u
w
C • One can find expressions of this conflict in the First and Second World Wars.
C
z
<(
�
Vl
Impact of Colonialism on Colonies: 0 00:08:28
::::i Colonialism refers to the phenomenon of colonies.
z Adverse Impacts:
0 • The impact of Colonialism on colonies was essentially adverse.
...J
u
0
• Colonialism was oppressive, suppressive, and exploitative in nature.
Vl • The scholars and writers associate Colonialism with plunder, loot, cruelty, degradation,
::::i underdevelopment, etc.
<(
w • Adverse impact is found in political, economic, and in social fields.
a..
�

25
 Adve rse I m pacts
of Co l o n i a l ism

• Christian missionaries played a role in conversion.

• White Racist Approach was always in operation in these colonies, under which the colonial powers
considered themselves as superior and considered the native population as uncivilized.
• Colonialism impacted the social sphere of the colonies badly and destroyed the identity and character
of the native society.

Accidental Positive by-Products:

• There were very few positive gains out of Colonialism. However, there are some historian scholars
who have focused on the idea of huge gains for the colonies out of Colonialism. �
► They have presented views that these societies were uncivilized societies and these powers have [
introduced western ideas, values, traditions and played a role in growth and development. z
0
► They introduced a western system of Education. They set up Modern Infrastructure, like railways,
posts, and telegraphs. �
z
► They introduced Modern Laws, Modern Political Infrastructure, and provided many colonies a
0
sense of Unity. u
w
► They imparted the ideas of Western Progressive values and ideals such as Naturalism, Democracy. 0
0
• The gains of Colonialism were highlighted this way however, these benefits that colonies received z
were not intended.
<
�
(/)
• The colonial power in the course of controlling and exploiting pursued some policies which proved :J
gainful for the native population. �
z
• For example, In certain parts of Colonies, they introduced railways. They did not include railways to 0
...J
u
0
improve the communication of the native population, rather to exploit the regions more effectively. In
certain Colonies, the colonial powers created a new political system. The idea was not to introduce a �
(/)
modern political system, rather to control it effectively. :J
• Western Education was introduced not to awaken and educate the native population, but rather to
<
�
w
bring about certain development so that regions could be better exploited. a.
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26
 • These gains under the colonial regime are considered as accidental, Positive by-products.

Trends of Migration during the Era of Imperialism and Colonialism: 0 00:17:50

Period: 16th Century to 20th Century:
• This was also the era of the great Migration Movement, both inter-continental and intra- continental.
• Considering the following regions: America, Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and New Zealand.
► Movement from Europe to Australia, America, and Africa (mainly South Africa).
► Movement from Africa to Europe and Africa to the Americas- Trans Atlantic Slave Trade.
► Movement from Asia to Africa, Asia to Australia- In order to provide Labour.
• These movements led to several socio-economic and cultural transformations such as:
► Languages: English and French Language became common in colonies.
► Spread of Christianity: From Europe to other parts of the world.
► Food Habits
► Crop Pattern: such as Maize, Potato, Tomato, Cashew Nut, Pineapple, etc.
► Technology

Constraints of Development in Latin America and Africa:

Most of the colonies of Latin America became free in the 1820s and remained after the Second World War.
All the colonies of Africa became free after the Second World War. But even after becoming free, these
� former colonies are still underdeveloped.
[
z Factors/constraints which played a role in the underdevelopment of these regions:
0
• Neo-Colonialism: These regions were economically poor, politically insatiable, militarily weak.
�
z These weaknesses again made a reason for exploitation and underdevelopment.
• Political:
0
u ► Though politically free, yet many parts of these two regions failed to become politically stable.
w
C Many regions faced political violence and underwent military rule or came under dictatorship;
C
z many regions witnessed military coups sometimes.
<(
� ► In Latin America, Intra-Latin America Conflict, border issues triggered wars amongst themselves.
Vl
::::i • Economy:
z ► The resources were not being utilized due to a lack of proper economic policy.
0
...J ► Many parts of these two regions remained as a one-product economy and banked on the export of
u
0
that product and remained dependent on external grants and aid.
Vl ► This played a role in developing a corrupt regime as well.
::::i
<(
w • Social:
a..
� ► With respect to Africa. The tribal royalty triggered tribal and ethnic conflicts and civil war.

27
 ► With respect to Latin America, the Drug trafficking gave rise of drug cartels and drug mafia, giving
birth to organized crime.

Important Events: 0 00:35:39

• American War of Independence
• Independence of Latin America
• Partition of Africa
• Independence of Egypt and Suez Crisis
► Egypt, while it became free, became a victim of a conflict, known as the Suez Crisis, 1956.
► The Suez Crisis was an invasion of Egypt by Israel, Britain and France with the objective of
regaining control of the Suez Canal. The crisis ended when the invaders withdrew under pressure
from many nations. India also raised its voice against this combined attack. This issue was placed in
the United Nations.
• Independence of the Colonies of South-East Asia (lndo-China, Indonesia, Malaya, Burma and
Philippines)
► lndo-China- French
► Indonesia- Dutch
► Malaya- British
► Burma- British
► Philippines- American Colony �
• Vietnam War: [
► When Inda-China was getting independence, Vietnam became a victim of the Cold War. z
0
► In Vietnam, there emerged a great Nationalist and communist leader, Ho Chi Minh, and he played
an important role in the Anti-Colonial struggle in Vietnam. �
z
► Since the U SA was obsessed with the idea of the threat of communism, the US wanted to stop the
u
spread of communism in any part of the world. China had become communist in 1940. So the 0
w
United States began to wage a proxy war in Vietnam against Ho Chi Minh and his organization, 0
0
and this gave birth to the Vietnam War, 1954- 1973-7 4. z
► Finally, the US withdrew from Vietnam without any success.
<t'.
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• Palestinian Issue: (/)
:J
► Palestine was inhabited by Jews in Ancient times and came under the Roman and Arab Empires, �
z
Ottoman Empire in the subsequent times, in which Jews were suppressed. 0
...J
u
► This made Jews shift to America and Europe and for many reasons they became rich and powerful 0
as well. �
(/)
► But in many parts of Europe also, they were persecuted. The result was that there emerged a :J
<t'.
movement called Zionist Movement. The movement was for going back and creating their �
w
homeland. This movement began towards the end of the 19th Century and gradually gained a.
�

28
 ground. Since Hitler was anti-Jews, he embarked upon a policy to exterminate the entire
population of Jews. Millions of Jews were killed in the 1930s and 1940s. Such massive and
pathetic persecution gave impetus to Zionist Movement. But Arab and Jews conflict continued in
this region and this region came under the British Mandate, inhabited by both Jews and Arabs.
► When the Second World War ended and the United Nations emerged, it presented a plan to divide
this region into three zones; State of Jews, State for Arabs, an International Region representing
Jerusalem. Britain was to implement this plan, but because of exhaustion from the second world
war, it was not able to implement this plan.
► As a result, Jews created their state, i.e., Israel (1948) . But that was not according to the UN Plan.
However, Jews were able to sustain themselves. This created a great hue and cry.
► The Arabs from all other places got united against Israel, supporting the Palestinian Arabs. This
gave birth to the Arab-Israel Conflict. This found expressions in many wars. But in every war, the
combined Arabs were defeated by Israel. This is because Israel sustained due to Financial
Strength and supportive power from certain western countries.
► In this course of the conflict, Israel captured some other regions of Palestinian and some regions of
other Arab States also and this issue became even more complicated. The issue is still persistent
because Palestinian Arabs have still not got their proper homeland and sovereign state. The conflict
between the Palestine Arabs and Israel still continues.

Independence of Africa
�
• South Africa- Apartheid to Democracy
[ ► South Africa was a white settlers' colony.
z
0 ► 1910: Union of South Africa was created and the white settlers became rulers. They were British
and the Dutch.
�
z ► The British government gave South Africa the Dominion Status.
0 ► 1948: Beginning of the policy of Apartheid (extreme racist ) .
u
w ► There was both internal and external conflict.
C
C ► Internal conflict was led by the African National Congress and was led by some progressive
z
<( leaders. One among them was Nelson Mandela, who emerged as a youth leader in the 1940s.
� ► Several international bodies like United Nations, Commonwealth, and several individual
Vl
::::i countries like India protested against Apartheid. The result of this protest within and beyond,
z resulted in the white government making an agreement with African National Congress and freeing
0
...J the leaders, and finally agreed to hold a democratic election in the 1990s. In these democratic
u
0
elections, democracy was established and, Nelson Mandela, became the first Non-white
Vl President.
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29
Important Personalities:
• Simon Bolivar: Latin American Liberation Movement
• Ho Chi Minh: Leader of Vietnam
• Nelson Mandela: Transforming regime of Apartheid to a regime of democracy
• Gamal Abdel Nasser: Leader of Egypt during Suez Crisis

Previous Year's Questions

• What were the events that led to the Suez Crisis in 1,sf»? How did it deal a final blow to Britain's
self·image as a world power? (UPSC 201lt)
• What were the m<!,jor political. economic and social developments in the world which motivated
the anti-colonial struggle in India? (UPSC 201lt)
• What problems were germane to the decolonization process of Malay Peninsula. (UPSC 2017)
• Why indentured labour was taken by the British from India to other colonies? Have they been
able to preserve their cultural identity over there? (UPSC 2018)

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30
 l"3 USA- COLONISATION AND THE
11:.11 AMERICAN REVOLUTION
• The USA was initially a colony. After that the White Settlers fought a war of Independence and
became free.
• The world's first written Federal Constitution was written.
• The USA then witnessed a Civil War in the mid-19th Century.
• After this the USA emerged as a powerful nation, an industrialized nation and became an imperialist
power.

Civil Wa r i n
F' 1ssos

The Colonisation of America 0 00:02:08

• It was essentially a creation of white settlers' Colony, i.e., the British Colony.
• They created 13 colonies. The process began in the early 17th Century. First Colony was founded in
Virginia (1607), 13th Colony was in Georgia (1732). All these colonies were founded on the eastern
coast- Atlantic Coast.

z
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( I

z
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l- Map of US from the Colonial Era
o
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z • Gradually, these 13 British Colonies grew, developed and expanded themselves and became the
0
United States of America.
• The 13 colonies had minimal interference from the British. Therefore, they grew in an independent
z manner. The white settlers carried with them western European Traditions.
0
...I
• The period from 1607 to 1762 can be considered as the emergence of colonies and their growth and
u
0

development with much intervention from Britain.

31
 Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
ew Jersey

Fig: 13 US Colonies

Nature of the American Colonies (1607-1762)

• All the 13 colonies grew and developed in an independent way.

� z
Development of 0
American Colonies i=
y
:::,
...I

A ;:c:::: ;:c:::: A z
Pol itica l Socia l Economic I nte l lectu a l
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• Political: American Colonies developed some progressive political traditions and systems. Besides, it w
:c
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experimented with the Republican system as well.
Cl
• Social: Absence of rigid class divisions, dominant aristocracy and feudal trend. It was a dynamic z
<(
society and also characterized by presence of various kinds of entrepreneurs who believed in z
0
investment and seeking fortune.
• Economic: Developed Merchant Capitalism and trading relations
•
z
Intellectual: Developed educational system, universities.

u
► There was an intellectual awakening called American enlightenment. 0
► America was one of the awakened and mature colonies.
:::,

32
 ► Interventions against the interest of these colonies were difficult. This means that the British could
not interfere in the way they did with other colonies.

American Enlightenment: 0 00:15:06

• Rise of ideas of Enlightenment in the 18th Century. These ideas spread to American Colonies also and
developed the American Enlightenment.
• Some of the important representatives of the American Enlightenment were Thomas Jefferson,
Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine.

Development of American Colonies from 1763-1775

• 1763- Britain began to intervene. Britain was guided by Mercantilist policies for appropriating
revenue in terms of Bullionism and introduced several taxes and restrictions on American Colonies.
• In the Seven-Year War between Britain and France (1756-1763). though Britain became victorious,
the Economic pressure on Britain made it introduce new policies marked by Mercantilism. This
created a clash between the interests of Britain's Mercantilism and American Capitalism. This clash
gave birth to the American Protest (1763 onwards). This protest acquired a radical form. But this was
not a liberation movement. All they wanted was the withdrawal of policy from the British. One of the
significant events of the radicalization of American Protest was the Boston Tea Party (1773).
• In 1774, representatives of these 13 colonies assembled at Philadelphia, a city in Pennsylvania, held a
Protest Conference and raised voices against British Mercantilism.
z • In 1775, there began a military conflict between colonies and Britain.
0
i== • From 1763 to 1775, the American protest was not for Independence. But from 1776 onwards,
:J
...I protest acquired a new form, and the War of Independence began.

z Mercantilism Vs Capitalism 0 00:32:15

• The British Policy from 1763 onwards represented Mercantilism and American economic interest
w represented capitalism.
�
<( • It is also said, what happened in America was a clash between British Economic interest and
w
:I: American economic interest.
l-
o • The American protest represented a revolt that was against Mercantilism.
z
<(
z No Taxation without Representation
0
• Since American colonies had no representation in the British Parliament, so the British Parliament had
z no power to impose taxes.
0
...I • The slogan represented democratic values. In the light of this, many Americans considered a political
u
0
revolution.
• This slogan finally led to radicalization.

33
Development After 1775
• On 4th July 1776, in the Philadelphia Conference, the American colonies declared their Independence.
This Declaration marked the beginning of the War of Independence.
• This Declaration was a great progressive document written by Thomas Jefferson.
• This throws light on the Natural Rights of the people and people have the power to change the
government.
• He made philosophical justification for the radical movement and this idea was taken by John Locke.
• Some European powers also joined in support of this military war, such as France, Spain, Holland.
• George Washington emerged as a great leader in this military war. Eventually, in 1781, the American
Colony emerged victorious.
• Finally, in 1783, the British at a Congress in Paris signed the Paris Treaty. With this, the British granted
the American colony formal Independence.

The Leaders 0 00:46:35

From 1763 to 1781, the movements were greatly inspired by several American great Leaders. The
American Revolution was an event marked by great suddenness. Some of the personalities who had a
lasting impact were:
• Benjamin Franklin
• Thomas Jefferson
• Thomas Paine
• James Madison
z
0
• John Adams j::
::::)
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• George Washington
• Alexander Hamilton
• Samuel Adams z
• James Otis
LU
• John Hancock �
• Oxenbridge Thacher <(
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• Jonathan Mayhew ....

J:

Q
z
<(
Roles Played by these Leaders: z
• They raised the issue of British intervention from 1763 onwards, proclaiming that such intervention 0
was notjustified
• They fostered the American sentiments of Americanism against the British. z
0
...I
• They developed the spirit of rights and freedom of the American people.
u
0
• They presented an idea of American Nationalism.
• They presented the idea of revolt and revolution. Thus, they created an intellectual awakening against ::::)

34
 the British. They played a role in all the mega-events, such as the Philadelphia Conference in 1774,
1776, the Declaration of Independence, and so on.
• Some of them played an active role in the war that began in 1775, such as George Washington,
Alexander Hamilton and some of these played a role in framing the Constitution as well.

'The Colonies Are like Fruits; they cling to the trees till they are ripe. '
- Turgot
The ripe here symbolizes Maturity or awakening status. Trees symbolise the mother country. The above
saying was used to understand the exploitation of the capitalist and colonial powers.

10
Previous Year's Questions

• American Revolution was an economic revolt against mercantilism. Substantiate.

(UPSC 2013)

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35
 USA: CONSTITUTION, NATU RE, AN D
I M PACT OF TH E AM ERICAN REVOLUTI ON
Framing of Constitution 0 00:0 1:27
• The process of framing the Constitution began in 1776 and the Constitution came into force in 1781.
This Constitution was called the Articles of Confederation.
• The 13 states were quite autonomous and most of the powers were vested with these states. At the
central level, there was Congress for this Confederation, but the congress had limited powers.
• The Articles of Confederation had certain limitations.
► It created loose kind of a union.
► It is characterized by a weak central power.
► It did not create any executive body at the central level.
• In 1787: A Constitutional Convention was organized in Philadelphia.
• Thus, the representatives wrote all together a new Constitution rather than amending the
Constitution. This came into force in 1789. This Constitution was a result of various diversions and
debates. It promised that after the introduction of the Constitution, amendments would be introduced
z and Basic Rights would be inserted. As a result, in 1791, ten Constitution amendments were passed
0 and they had the Bill of Rights.
j::
::)
..J • This Bill of Rights providing basic rights to people signified an important feature of the American
Constitution.
0::: Major Feature of the New Constitution 0 00:10:22
• Written
• Short: Preamble and 7 Articles and 27 Amendments
w
� • Preamble: Begin with 'We the People' symbolizing Popular Sovereignty
<(
w • Rigid: The process of the amendment was highly complex
J:
I­ • Democratic: Bill of Rights
LL
0 • Republic: Head of State is elected
� • Separation of Power: Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary
�
� • Presidential form of government: Both Head of the state and Head of the government
C • Bill of Rights: Fundamental of basic rights, inserted in 1791
z
<( But the great weaknesses of this Constitution were:
u.i
0::: • The institution of Slavery was recognized.
::)
• Right to Vote: Limited Franchise
z
z0
j::
Influences on the Constitution 0 00: 17:55
::) • Magna Carta, 1215: Great Charter of rights signed by the British in 1215.
I-
• Glorious Revolution, 1688
z • English Bill of Rights, 1689
u
0
These ended absolute power monarchy in Britain and marked the beginning of the dominance of
Parliament and thus giving rise to a democratic system
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37
 • Ideas of John Locke: Natural Rights, Right to Life, Liberty and Property, Popular Sovereignty
The American Constitution was greatly influenced by British Traditions.
• Ideas of Rousseau: The idea of General Will was embodied in the American Constitution represented
in "We the People".; the source of Power is in the people.
• Idea of Montesquieu: Idea of Separation of Power

· - ··-
• Government Tradition in American Colonies: Tradition of Republic

••
• Magna Carta, G loriou:
The

- • •-• · -
Revol ution, English Bill •
America n
• of Rights, John Locke,
Roussea u, Montesq uieu Constitution
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I nfl u e n ces Resu lt

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Charles Beard's views on Constitution LU

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In 1913, Charles Beard, a historian, wrote a book on the American Constitution. In this book, he presented <(
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highly radical views.
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Two major facets were: LL
0
• Facet 1: The American Constitution was an Economic Document.
► Articles of Confederation created a weak union government.
► This created a problem for big merchants, traders, business people, and their associates in �
0
conducting economic activity because units of the union were given great powers. z
<(
► It was a move of the elites that would be serving their economic interests. LU
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• Facet 2: It is an Undemocratic Constitution.
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► The Constitution was framed in a very secretive way and in a hurry and did not consider seeking z
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the opinion of the nation. Thus, was undemocratic. j:::
► It recognized the institution of Slavery and recognized limited franchise to a limited part of the :::,
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American population. A huge number were deprived of the Right to Vote. In this way it was
undemocratic. z
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• Charles Beard was highly criticized for these views, and he had to leave America and shift to Britain.
u
:::,

38
 American Revolution or American War of Independence 0 00:32:02
• American Revolution of the 1760s, 1770s, 1780s, presents both the American Revolution and the
American War of Independence.
• On 4th July 1776, American protest became the American War of Independence, and this continued
till 1781. The American colonies became victorious.
• This was the Revolution as well. Revolution refers to a fundamental change in a dramatic way.
• American events of the 1760s, 1770s, 1780s represent fundamental changes in a dramatic way.
• America initially did not want Independence and was just against Mercantilism.
• But later, they protested and waged a War of Independence and became free and wrote a Constitution
that transformed the political system of America.
• The shift in the American colonies to free states was the most fundamental change.

Nature of American Revolution

z • A revolution
0
j:: • A War of Independence
::)
..J • A political Revolution: The American Revolution is mainly about democratic values. These values
were manifested in the famous slogan 'No Taxation without Representation', which was a
0:::
democratic value.
• An Economic Revolt: Against Mercantilism
w • A Conservative Revolution: Americans' protest was not for Independence and many Americans were
� not happy with the declaration of Independence on 4th July 1776. The American Revolution did not
<(
w introduce socio-economic transformation.
J:
I­ • An expression of International Conflict: Conflict between Britain and France, Spain and Holland
LL
0 participated in the American Revolution. In the Paris Conference 1783, Britain made certain offers to
� France, Spain, Holland to pacify them. This shows an expression of International Conflict.
�
�
C Impact of the American Revolution
z
<( • Rise of New America:
u.i
0::: ► Colonies to free state
::)
► A new Constitution
z
z0 ► The changes in the socio-economic structure and life. The colonial economy crumbled.
• International Impact:
j::
::) ► The American Revolution influenced the world outside America in manifold ways. It is said that the
I-
American Revolution ushered "a new age in a new world". It means that it stood for freedom and
z liberation and stood for lofty ideas and values. It is also said that the American Revolution gave
0
u birth to the "Age of Revolution". This can be understood in the light of the French Revolution, and
the Latin American Liberation Movement.
::)

39
 ► The American Revolution was an economic revolt against Mercantilism. This stood as a setback to
Mercantilism and extended the new economic doctrine Laissez-Faire.
► The American Revolution emerged as a symbol of liberation and freedom from the colonial regime.
So, it served as a great challenge to imperialism and colonialism.
► The American Constitution, the first written Federal Constitution of the world, became a classic
example of a legal document for a political system. This Constitution inspired many other
constitutions of the world. Such inspiration we find in the Indian Constitution as well.
► Though Britain lost these 13 colonies, it learned lessons and consolidated other colonies. It said that
"Britain lost one colony, but consolidated other colonies."
► The American Revolution gave birth to the new world and the old world. So, America represented
the New World, and the other regions of the world represented the old world.

10
Previous Year's Questions
z
0
• Explain how the foundations of the modern world were laid by the American and French j:::
:::,
revolution. (UPSC 201,)
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LU
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40
 Ir.II USA- CIVIL WAR AND AMERICAN
� IMPERIALISM
• Civil War refers to a war within the USA that began in 1861 and ended in 1865. 0 00:01:08
• The American President during the American Civil War was Abraham Lincoln.

The U ni o n and the C onfeder acy

Bord,r S t a t e s

D Confed , r a t e Statu

(W.., Vw9RO ,-•td fn,mV•91N1on

1861; )Otntd lht U-, "' 186}.)

Fig: The above map was the scenario during the Civil War.
�
V)
:i • The northern states' Economy was characterized by Manufacturing and Trade. In contrast, southern
<(
c::w States were characterized by a plantation economy, mainly cotton plantation.
a. • The Cotton Plantation Industry rested on the labour provided by the states and the overall plantation
�
z industry rested on slave labour.
• So, slaves were very important in the Southern State.
c::w • The American Constitution had not abolished the institution of slavery. Since the nature of economies
�
<( was different, so the economic interests were different.
C
z • The Economy of northern states was the promotion of manufacturing, trade, and protection of the
<( Economy from foreign competition.
• In their economy slaves had no roles to play. The Northern States did not recognize Slavery.

5 Different economic interests resulted in an Economic divide between the Northern States and the
0
Southern States.

41
 Northe rn States -
M a n ufa cturing & tra d e,
no ro l e fo r sl aves

Southern States -
Cotto n pla ntatio ns,
sl avery p ro m i nent

• This economic d ivide was characterized by clashes of economic interest. This clash took a pol itical
d i mension, i.e., free state or slave state.
• The g reater n u m ber of free or slave states would define power in the central government.
• U nti l 1849, there was a numerical balance. But i n 1850, California joined as a free state.
• This turned the numerical balance in favour of Northern states. This made Northern states more
powerfu l .
• This alarmed the southern states. I n 1861, Abraham Lincoln was elected as President of America,
who was from the North .
• This fu rther alarmed the southern states. Apart from the economic d ifference and classes, there were
clashes with socio-cu ltu ral values.
• Slavery became a conflicting question between the Northern and Southern States. The events of
1850 and 186 1 i ntensified the confl ict.
�
• I n 186 1 , many southern states seceded, they formed a new u n ion g iven the name Confederate (/)
:J
<(
ii:
States of America.
• This secession was opposed by Northern states and the U n ion govern ment, resulting i n Civi l War. The w
C.
Civil War began in 1861. �

• The American Civi l War was a war between the Southern and the Northern States and the Federal
z
government was with the Northern States. ii:
w
• The Civil War was between the U n ion and the Confederation . Final ly, the confederates were defeated , �
<(
and they su rrendered i n 1865. C
• The U n ion emerged victoriously. The Confederate states united with the Union and formed the z
<(
United States of America.
Civil War, 1861- 1865:
The Issues: 5
• Economics of Slavery and its Political Control 0
• Economic Interests

42
 • Power of Federal Government to Control States
• Cultural Values

Role of Abraham Lincoln in Civil War 0 00:25: 10

Union's Proclamation:
• Under the leadership of Abraham Lincoln, a proclamation was made by the Union, that if any
European power recognized the Confederate States of America as separate states, that would amount
to a declaration of War against the Union.
• This proclamation had wider implications; as it put a check on European intervention in the American
Civil War.
Abolition of Slavery, 1863:
• The legal validity of this proclamation was questionable because the confederates claimed
themselves to be a separate Union. So, any proclamation made by the President of the Union was not
applicable to the confederates. Yet, it played a significant role in two states because this proclamation
had some effect on the slaves of the Confederate States.
• The slaves were told that they would be freed if they joined Army.
• This created new Military strength for the Confederates and the slaves were already the backbones
of their economy. So, they constituted the strength of the economy to some extent
• Through this proclamation, Abraham Lincoln claimed that the Union was fighting for saving the
American Union plus fighting for Human Freedom. Before 1863, the Union was fighting for the
American Union only but with this proclamation, it claimed to be fighting for Human Freedom as well.
• European society began to show sympathetic concerns since they were fighting for Human Freedom,
and this created an ideological pressure on the European government, and also played a role in
� putting a check on their intervention in the Civil War.
(,/)
::::i Constitutional Arguments:
<(
0::
w • Abraham Lincoln argued that the American Union is not subject to dissolution against the
a.
� Constitution.
z • He presented the arguments and claimed that the secession was Unconstitutional.
Mobilization of War resource:
0::
w • As the President, he had control over the Federal Military. He contributed to the war efforts of the
�
<( northern states of the Union.
C
z • His role was in Saving the Union.
<(
• Abraham Lincoln said,
"If I could save the Union without freeing any slaves I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the
>0 slaves I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that. "
• This move, in 1863, abolished Slavery and it was not a humanitarian move, but a strategic and tactical
move to save the Union, one on the Confederate states and second on Europe.

43
 "A house divided against itself can not stand. " I believe th is government can not endure, permanently
half slave and half free.
• His idea of halves, half slave, and half free was not i n the i nterest of the American Union. This led to the
Civil War, an American tragic event.

The attitude of European Powers to the American Civil War

• Many European nations such as Britain, France, etc, showed a pro-confederate attitude because the
confederate region was a region of cotton plantations and cotton was a great resource to be
appropriated by European nations.
• Besides, to divide America, there will be a weak America that would be in favour of Britain, France, and
European powers.
• Moreover, France had political ambition over Mexico and it believed that the Confederate States
would help France in getting control over Mexico.
• They could enter into the American Civil War. But the Union Proclamation checked on their
intervention. Abolition of Slavery, 1863, played a role as well.
• Thus, none of the European powers recognized Confederates as the Sovereign States of a Nation.
• None of the European powers intervened in the Civil War.
• All remained neutral except Russia. Russia offered assistance to the Union.
• Russia sent two fleets, one on the Atlantic side and the other on Pacific waters for support for
months. But no help was needed, and it returned.

Was the American Civil War a War of Nations?

• It was a war between the Union and the Confederates. The Union was a nation, but the Confederates
�
were self-proclai med and were not recognized as a nation. (/)
:J
• In reality, it was a Civil War whose, basis was the economic divide, where Slavery was the central <(
question. The economic divide triggered a political divide as well. ii:
w
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Impact of American Civil War
0 00:48:42 z
• According to an estimate, about 7 Lakhs people were killed. This cost more than $5 billion. But
ii:
w
eventually, it created a united America. �
• It paved the way for the Industrial Revolution in America and the rise of an Industrialized America. <(
C
This paved the way for the Rise of a powerful America and finally an Imperialistic America. Some z
<(
historians consider the American Revolution as a 'Blessing in Disguise', and some call it 'A Painful
Surgery', but it gave birth to a newly powerful America.
• Massive economic loss
5
• Restoration of the American Unity 0
• Constitutional Amendment

44
 ► 13th -1865- Abolition of Slavery: In this context, it is said that it completed the task of the
American Revolution.
► 14th- 1868 - Protection of Right to Life and Property
► 15th - 1870 - Voting Rights
• Infrastructure and Industry: United the North and South America
• Rise of powerful America
• American Imperialism
► The historian, Charles Beard says, "America was a Capitalist Movement". The basis is the
abolition of Slavery, which opened the path for the economic development of America.

+Restoration of 1 . Massive
American u n ity eco n o m i c l oss
2. Progressive 2. H uge loss of
Constitutional h u m a n l ives
Ame n d m e nts 3. America n
3. I nfrastructu re & I m peria l ism &
I nd ustria l N eo-co l o n ia l ism
Deve l o p m e nt

Positive and Negative Impact of American Revolution

�
(,/)
American Imperialism 0 00:55:45
::::i
<(
0::
w
• Monroe Doctrine, 1823: The idea was to put a check on European Intervention and create a ground for
a. the U SA into other parts of America.
�
• Encroachment over Mexico, 1845: Acquisition of Northern Mexico into U SA- Texas of today
z
• Perry Mission to Japan, 1852: To open Japan and have commercial relations with it
0::
w • Acquisition of Hawaiian Islands, 1898: The US created Pearl Harbour Naval Base
� • War with Spain, 1898-99: America fought a war with Spain and took over the control of the below
<(
C regions.
z
<( ► The Philippines
► Guam
► Cuba
>0 ► Puerto Rico
• Open Door Policy in China, the 1890s: China was becoming a victim of Semi-colonization, and the

45
 USA too wanted to participate in it. So, the policy meant to open China to not just specific powers, but
all powers.
• Attitude towards Latin America: Latin America became a part of the American intervention - Neo­
colonialism.
• Clash with Japan: 1930s Naval Blockade cut the oil supply of Japan. Japan surprisingly attacked Pearl
Harbour.
• Role in Neo-Colonialism, Post- 1945: America played the most dominant role.

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46
 m INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Industrial Revolution (1780s to end of 19th Century): 0 00:00:51

• The Industrial Revolution brought about basic changes in the industrial production process.
• It can be characterized by:

• The Industrial Revolution took place first in England then in Europe, the USA and Japan. There are so
many regions in the world where the Industrial Revolution is still going on.
In England:
• The 2nd half of the 18th Century and early 19th Century is characterized by several unique facets of
Socio-economic life that were not found in other parts of Europe this time.
• They created good conditions for the Industrial Revolution.
All these facets are covered as:
• Trade in the 1740s onwards
► Gave rise to British trade and expansion which means demand for British products increased and it
led to increases in necessity and demand.
► It inspired England to produce more to fulfill the demand.
► All these led to creating favorable conditions for the industrial revolution.
z
0
j:::
::, • Merchant capitalism
...J
► It was more developed in Britain as compared to other parts of Europe.
a::: ► It presented capitalized culture, investment culture and created favorable conditions for the
...J
<{
Industrial Revolution.
I­ • Adequate capital
v,
► Because of the expansion of trade and the large trade network, there was an adequate supply of
C
z

47
 capital in Britain that could be invested in industries.
► In order to produce more, it had to invest more.
• Dynamic society and Culture of Entrepreneurship
► Society was more dynamic and less static as compared to other parts of Europe.
► It was not a closed society; it was characterized by a culture of seeking fortune, higher rank and
status.
• Machines and Technology
► Innovation took place in Britain earlier than in any other part of Europe; it has played an important
role in the Industrial Revolution.
• Demographic change:
► It occurred in Britain and created favorable conditions for the Industrial Revolution characterized by
a rise in population.
► It is related to positive implementation for industrialization because it needed labour at that time.
• Urbanization:
► The Phase of urbanization in England was faster than any other part of Europe in the 18th Century.
► About 25% of the population living in urban areas gave rise to urban centers favorable for
industrialization.
• The Agricultural Revolution:
► The 18th Century was the Century of revolution. England witnessed three revolutions in the 18th
Century such as:
o The Industrial Revolution
o The Agricultural Revolution
o The Intellectual revolution
► The intellectual revolution was linked with the growth of the idea of enlightenment; thinkers like
John Locke, Thomas Hobbes supported these ideas, and they were all from Britain.
► The Agricultural Revolution brought a basic change in the agricultural system of Britain such as:
o Organization of agriculture on capitalist lines.
o Growth of machine-based agricultural systems.
o Extension of agriculture.
o Development of irrigation and drainage systems. z
0

o Development of good agricultural practices like use of manure and quality seed, etc. j:::
::>
...J
► The Agricultural Revolution created ground for capitalist investment, use of machines etc.
► As a result of the growth of agriculture it supported Industries by providing raw material supply a::
from the agriculture. ...J

► The Industrial Revolution started chiefly from the textile industry. i:i:
1-
► England imported cotton cloth from India and hence cotton played an important part in the l/l
::>
C
development of the industrial revolution. z

48
 "Whoever says I ndustrial Revolution, says cotton"
Eric John Ernest Hobsbawm
Impact on England: 0 00:16:33
• The Industrial Revolution changed the character of English society.
• As we know, the Industrial Revolution started in the 1780s and the process was complete by 1830.
• This period is very remarkable in the history of England because of large-scale industrialization, and it
is said that the development changed the characteristics of English society.

I m pact on England

::::x:::
A A A A
Eco n o m i c Socia l Po l itica l I nte l l ectu a l
'-/ '-/ '-/ '-/
Economic Impact
• Rise in the factory system.
• Beginning of large-scale production.
• It gave impetus to trading activities in Britain.
Social Impact
• It saw the rise of two new classes Industrial capitalist and modern labour and it became very
important classes of modern society. It helps in the growth of urban society.
• It gave rise to socio-economic problems and evils also. Since industrialization was based on a
capitalist system and the two classes, Industrial capitalist and modern labour played an important role
in industrialization but conditions of modern labour were pitiable and miserable. They had very
limited resources because a big part of the profit was consumed by the capitalist themselves.
Political impact
z • The concept of Trade Union, imperialism and colonialism also emerged.
0
j:::
::, Intellectual/Ideological Impact
...J
• Rise of industrial capitalism, financial capitalism, Laissez-Faire and as a reaction against this, there
a::: emerged an ideology called 'Socialism'.
...J
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Phases of Industrial Revolution: 0 00:22:38
I­
v,
• lt took place at the end of the 18th Century and 19th Century, representing two phases of the Industrial
C
z Revolution.

49
 • lst Phase:
► It started from 1780 to 1850 and took place in England.
► Apart from England, it occurred in France, German states like Austria, etc.
► It was completed in England and limited in France, Germany state etc.
• 2nd Phase:
► It started from around 1850 to the end of the 19th Century.
► It took place in the German state (Germany was unified in 1870- 71).
► The Industrialization process was complete in the German state.
► The Industrialization process was complete in France but in Russia, it was limited and not
completed. Besides this Industrial Revolution also took place in non- European Nations also like the
USA and Japan.
► The Industrial Revolution took place during the Civil War and post-Civil War period of America.
Industrial Revolution in England and other parts of Europe:
• There were some elements of the dissimilarities of the Industrial Revolution in England and in Europe.

Industrial Revolution in England Industrial Revolution in other parts of

Europe

• It had different social-economic conditions in which • Different social-economic conditions

it took place. For example, English society was more were absent in Europe.
dynamic and open.

• Direct role of the state was absent. • Role of state was present.

• Private players were present which played a very • Limited role of private player.
important role in the industrial revolution.

• England witnessed the Agricultural Revolution • There were no such revolutions

which led to the Industrial Revolution. (Agricultural) in other parts of Europe.

Unique case of Japan in Industrial Revolution:

z
0
j:::
• Britain, France, Germany, the USA lie in the Western part of the world while Japan falls in the Eastern ::>
...J
part.
• It is said that the Industrial Revolution that took place in Japan had different features than the Western a::
world because of the following reason: ...J

► Japan was backward i:i:

1-
l/l
► Capitalist culture trend was absent ::>
C
► Limited capital z

50
 ► Low raw material
► Private entity was absent
► State played a dominant role
► State created port infrastructure to channelize trade
Social Industrialization:
• lt took place in communist regime nations.
• It started in Russia and after the Russian Revolution, Russia became communist.
• Stalin from 1928 onwards started planning in Russia which played a major role in Social
Industrialization.
• Capitalist industrialization was dominated in the Eastern and Western parts of the world.
• A similar trend was seen in China; it became communist in 1949.
• Social Industrialization was also seen in North Korea and Cuba.
• Under the state control, all industries became state entities.

Impact of Industrial Revolution (overall): 0 00:45:26

Economic impact:
• It includes increased production, increases in the number of factories, and increasing trade processes.
Social impact:
• It includes industrial capitalism and modern labour. It also includes modern society and some negative
impacts like disparity in income and status of labour and capitalist class.
Political impact:
• It includes the emergence of trade union, imperialism and colonialism, etc.
Ideological/Intellectual impact:
• It created industrial capitalism, financial capitalism and Laissez-Faire.

1 Previous Year's Questions

• "Late.comer· Industrial revolution in Japan involved certain +actors that we.re. markedly
z
0 di++e.re.nt +rom what we.st had experience.. (UPSC 2013)
j:::
::, • Why did the. industrial revolution +irst occur in England? Discuss the. quality o+ li+e. o+ the.
...J

people. the.re. during industrialization. How does it compare. with that in India at pre.sent?
a::: (UPSC 2015)
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I­
v,
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51
 mJ BRITISH DEMOCRATIC POLITICS
1815 TO 1850
Introduction:
• The first parliamentary reform had brought some changes in Britain.
• Absolute Monarchy power came to an end after the glorious revolution in 1688.
The Background and Ideological Impulses: 0 00:02:28
• Glorious Revolution, 1688:
► End of the absolute power of a Monarch.
• American Revolution, 1776:
► Emerged as a strong struggle for freedom and rights.
• French Revolution, 1789:
► It was based upon the concept of Liberty, Fraternity, Equality.
• Industrial Revolution, 1780s onwards:
► Growth of urbanization, emergence of different classes, increase in social, political aspiration in a
society like parliamentary reforms, representation of urban areas in Parliament.
► It made urban areas important.
• European Revolution, 1830:
► It was based on Nationalism, Liberalism, and Constitutionalism.
Parliamentary Reform Act, 1832: 0 00:08:23
• The Industrial Revolution in England played an important role in the enactment of this Act.
• It was based on social-political aspirations such as:
► Reform in a parliamentary system
► Extension of voting rights
► Representation of urban areas
0
• The Representation of the People Act 1832, known as the first Reform Act or Great Reform Act:
LO
(X)
.-i
► Disenfranchised 56 boroughs in England and Wales and reduced another 31 to only one MP.
► Created 67 new constituencies.
�
LO
.-i
► Broadened the franchise's property qualification in the counties, to include small landowners,
(X)
.-i tenant farmers, and shopkeepers.
u
VI ► Created a uniform franchise in the boroughs, giving the vote to all householders who paid a yearly
j:: rental of £10 or more and some lodgers.
:J
0 • Another change brought by the 1832 Reform Act was the formal exclusion of women from voting in
a..
u Parliamentary elections, as a voter as defined in the Act as male persons. Before 1832 there were
occasional, although rare, instances of women voting.
u • Limited change had been achieved but for many, it did not go far enough. The property qualifications
0
� meant that the majority of working men still could not vote. But it had been proved that change was
w
C
possible and over the next decades, the call for further parliamentary reform continued.
VI • Before the Act, only one million of the seven million adult men in England and Wales could vote; the Act
j::
immediately doubled that number.

53
The Chartist Movement: 0 00:17:03
• It was the first mass movement driven by the working classes. It grew following the failure of the 1832
Reform Act to extend the vote beyond those owning property.
Chartists' Petition:
• In 1838 a People's Charter was drawn up for the London Working Men's Association (LWMA) by
William Lovett and Francis Place, two self-educated radicals, in consultation with other members of
LW MA.
• The Charter had six demands:
► All men to have the voting rights (universal manhood suffrage)
► Voting should take place by secret ballot
► Parliamentary elections every year, not once every five years
► Constituencies should be of equal size
► Members of Parliament should be paid
► The property qualification for becoming a Member of Parliament should be abolished

Pa rl iamenta ry
U n iversa l
e lections every
m a n h ood suffrage
yea r

The property
Mem bers of
q u a l ification fo r
Pa rl i a m e nt should
becoming a n M P
be pa i d 0
a bo l ished LO
CX)
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Unrest:
f2
LO
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• In June 1839, the Chartists' Petition was presented to the House of Commons with over 1.25 million CX)
..-i

signatures. It was rejected by Parliament. This provoked unrest which was swiftly crushed by the u
l/)

authorities. �
:J
• A second petition was presented in May 1842, signed by over three million people but again it was 0
a.
rejected, and further unrest and arrests followed. u
Chartists' Legacy:
u
0::
• The Chartists' legacy was strong. By the 1850s, Members of Parliament accepted that further reform 0
was inevitable. Further Reform Acts were passed in 1867 and 1884. �
LU
C
• By 1918, five of the Chartists' six demands had been achieved. Only the stipulation that parliamentary
:I:
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elections be held every year was u nfulfilled.
�
�
al

54
 Subsequent Democratic Moves: 0 00:26:17
• 1858: Abolition of the Property qualification for members of House of Commons.
• 1867: 2nd Parliamentary Reforms Act. Expansion of electoral voting rights (voting rights doubled).
• 1872: Introduction of Secret Ballot (Ballot Act 1872).
• 1884: 3rd Parliamentary Reforms Act: It established a uniform franchise throughout the country.
• 1918: Introduction of Franchise for Women (30 years): It was rational and corruption-free to some
extent.
• 1928: Equal Franchise Act (21 years for both man and woman): Expanded electoral rights.

Note:
• These points show a strong Legacy of the 1832 Chartist Movement.
0
• It created the ground for these reforms and subsequent movements.
LO
(X) • The Landmark development of British democratic tradition was characterized by two important
.-i
events:
�
LO
.-i
► Parliamentary Reform Act, 1832
(X)
.-i ► Chartist Movement
u
VI
j::
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55
 Ell RISE OF SOCIALIST IDEAS
Introduction 0 00:00:10
• Socialism represents a political ideology such as Liberalism, Conservatism. Ideology represents a
coherent set of ideas.
Rise of Socialism in Modern Times
• Socialist ideas can be traced back to Plato, Thomas More, Rousseau.
• But as an ideology, Socialism emerged in the early 19th Century.
► 19th Century - Britain, France, Germany, etc.
• Impact of the Industrial Revolution: Gave birth to Industrial Capitalism and modern Labour, under
which labour stood exploited. New Society was characterized by Socio-economic disparity.
► An ideological reaction that emerged against this is Socialism.
► The various thinkers who emerged during this period gave rise to these Socialist ideas.
Features of Socialism 0 00:10:28
• Anti-Capitalism
• Anti-Competition (Focus on Cooperation I Fraternity)
• Anti-Private (Focus on social or Public)

Anti­
Private

Socialism

Anti­ Anti­
Ca pitalism Competition

Socialism was against the Capitalist system and focussed on Cooperation and Anti Private Enterprises.
• Community: Social interests subsume individual interests.
(/)
• Socio Equality: Example: Liberty.
• Need: The needy in society should be distributed on the basis of primacy or priority.
• Social Class: In general, it stands for labour class.
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Dimensions of Socialism 0 00:18:19
LL • World View: An account of existing socio-economic-political order.
0
w ► The period that emerged, was the account of the capitalistic system that gave birth to the new
(/)

57
 society of socio-economic disparity and the dominance of the capitalist in the socio-economic­
political system.
• Future Model/ Goal: Socialism presents a vision of a future perfect and ideal society.
• Means to Achieve the Goal: Methods to move towards an ideal society.

Forms of Socialism 0 00:22:07

• Socialism is characterized by these ideas which emerged in the 19th Century present in Chronological
Order:
► Utopian:
o Emerged in the early 19th Century.
o Besides, this system focussed on the gradual move towards Utopia (ideal society).
o This was influenced by ideas of the Age of Enlightenment; Idea of Reason and Idea of Natural
Law of Brotherhood/ Fraternity.
o Thinkers who presented these ideas are called early socialist thinkers or Utopian Socialists.
Charles Fourier (French), Robert Owen (Britain), etc., are some of them.
► Marxian:
o Represents the ideas of Karl Marx.
o Marxian Socialism represents Marxism. The Final goal presented by Karl Marx is Communalism.
o This form came to be known as Communism later. This Socialism is also called Scientific
Socialism.
o All Marxists are eventually Communists and vice-versa.

The ideas of Karl Marx:

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (both Germans) together wrote a document known as "The Communist
Manifesto, published in 1948. This document presents all the basic ideas of Marxist Socialism. This
document presented specific doctrines or theories. Main doctrines/ theories:
• Dialectical Materialism: Refers to a conflict between two material conditions in the society; Haves and
Have nots; Having Resources and not having Resources.
• Class Struggle: In every phase of history there exist two classes.
► Marx says, " History is nothing, but a phase of Class Struggle". l/l
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• Historical Materialism: According to Marx, the economic forces of a specific period play the most 0
dominant role in shaping history/ development. I­
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► All other factors, social, political, cultural, and religious are secondary. :J
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• Revolution: Marx considered Revolution as essential for bringing social change. 0
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• Communism: This represents the final goal of Marxism. l/l
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• Marx focussed on Revolution as an instrument for social change. He urged the labour (Proletariat) all 0
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over the world to unite and to rage Revolution against the capitalistic order and destroy it. l/l

58
 • He called this system a Bourgeoisie or Bourgeois order and gave birth to a new order, what Marx
called Dictatorship of Proletariat and this order is also referred to as Socialism.
• So, the Proletariat Revolution is also known as Socialist Revolution.
• There will emerge a final order, i.e., Communism and he defines Communism as an ideal/ perfect order
characterized by a classless society, stateless society, production would be in plenty, production for
Human need and not for profit.

Co m m u n ism

• But in reality, Both the Russian Revolution and the Chinese Communist Revolution were not the
revolutions as Marx visualized.
• In the Russian Revolution, it was mainly by a party known as Bolshevik Party and in the Chinese
Communist Revolution, it was mainly by the peasants through an armed struggle, but in Marxian
Socialism, we do not find these.

• Ultra: Anarchism, i.e., anti-state ideology and stood for destruction of the State.
• Fabian: This is social change through Liberal democratic form.
• Syndicalism: Main role of Trade U nion, who would be playing a role in bringing about a new socio­
political order
(/) • Guild: The organization of all workers, manual and non-manual, should be the major force in the
socio-political system and all the economic activities should be under the control of the Guild and
Guild to play an important role in bringing about a new society.
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0
(/)
LL Lenin added the idea of:
0 • Vanguard Party
w
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► It is a revolutionary party, which will be playing a role in favour of the Proletariat. His Bolshevik Party

59
 played a role in bringing about a revolution in Russia in 1917. The Communist Party of China is an
example of the Vanguard Party.
• Proletariat and Peasants Alliance
Marxism and Stalin (Stalinism)
• Stalin was a second great leader of Russia, later the U SSR. He carried forward the ideas of Lenin and
modified and introduced new dimensions.
• "The doctrine of Socialism in one country": It means that the USSR could build Socialism without any
international Proletarian Revolution. On the other hand, Lenin's idea was that the international
Proletariat Revolution would be helping build the U SSR.
• New Economic System: This system was characterized by state control of all economies. Under this,
he introduced "Planning".
• He made the Vanguard party, called the Bolshevik Party, later named Communist Party by Lenin as
the Dominant Party. He gave birth to the Dictatorship of the Party rather than the Dictatorship of the
Proletariat.
Marxism and Mao
• The idea of Peasant Revolution
• Protracted People's War: Characterised by Guerrilla Warfare.
• Cultural Revolution: One Revolution could not play all roles, because one Revolution cannot destroy
bourgeois.
Models of Socialistic, Economic System/ Organisation
• State Socialism: All economic resources are controlled by the State. For example, the U SSR, China.
• Market Socialism: Reconciliation between the principle of Socialism and principles of the market,
guided by competition, incentives and profit, not under state control. For example, Yugoslavia (after
1949) , Hungary (after 1956), the U SSR (1985-90, under Mikhail Gorbachev) .
Socialism in the 20th Century: � 01:13:58

• Believe i n rad ica l cha nges

Revo l ut i on a ry • Th ose wh o believe i n th is
Socia l i s m are called as Commun ists
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60
 Impact of socialist Ideas:
• New ideas for changes on new lines
► Understanding in the light of the basic features and in the specific form of Communism.
• Reforms
► In Several parts of the world, the reform was influenced by Socialism.
• New Political Party: Socialist Party and Communist Party
• Revolutions: Russian Revolution under Lenin 1917 and Chinese Communist Revolution 1949.
• Labour Solidarity and Movement: Since Socialism is considered to be a form of Class Politics and
represents the interest of the workers or labour or the Proletariat. The rise of Socialism greatly
influenced trade unionism, labour unity, labour solidarity, and labour movement in many parts of the
world
• Bases for the new politico-economic social system: Social ideas became the basis for a new socio­
economic-political system. Examples: Russia/the USSR and China.

(/)

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61
 (B THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
Russia in the first half of the 20th Century witnessed three revolutions:
• First in 1905, then in Feb/ March 1917 (on the basis of Russian and English Calendar), and lastly in
Oct/ November 1917 (on the basis of Russian and English Calendar).
• These revolutions were the product of the conditions of 19th Century Russia.

Russia in 19th Century: 0 00:03:01

• Politico-Economic-Social Conditions:
o Tsar was the political head, the head of the political system, as well as the head of the Russian
Orthodox Church. The political system was characterized by autocracy, despotism, aristocracy,
and the institution of nobility, etc. The regime of Tsar was anti-change or anti-reform.
o When the western part of Europe had witnessed several changes and reforms, Russia was still
living in the medieval and the socio-economic conditions of Russia were bad and miserable
condition.
o A big part, about 80% of the population of Russia was peasantry and it was highly oppressed /
suppressed and there were about 2 million industrial workers at the turn of the 19th Century and
their lot was also miserable and pitiable. The economy of Russia was weak and poor. So, Politico­
Economic-Social Conditions were favorable of Revolution.
• Cultural Renaissance: The cultural renaissance found expression mainly in the field of arts and
literature. And they expressed their feeling and emotions through art and literature. Since political
activities were suspected and many such activities were banned art and media were the only medium
through which people expressed their dissent. These are the three names of three celebrated Russian
writers who played a significant role.
o Ivan Turgenev
o Leo Tolstoy
o Fyodor Dostoyevsky
• Revolutionary Ideas &Activities
o Decembrist Uprising, 1825: This took place in the month of December in 1825. This uprising was
by intellectuals and the young Russian patriots, but this failed.
o Nihilism: It was a revolutionary idea which means believing in nothing. Nihilism rejects all the
z traditional ideas and institutions like state, church, society, and so on
0
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follower of Anarchism, move towards the assassination of government officials and government
heads.
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63
Revolutions

March, November,
1905
19 17 1917

• The first Revolution in 1905, occurred when Russia was involved in a war with Japan. In this war,
Russia faced reverses and lowered the regime in the eyes of the people. In these war conditions,
several leaders in Russia presented a Petition, for political reforms.
• There took place a demonstration in front of the Palace of Tsar in St. Petersburg, earlier known as
Petrograd. This was a peaceful demonstration, but this was fired upon by the Palace guards. This
event is known as Bloody Sunday.
• This event exploded into large-scale demonstrations, all over the country. The result was great
pressure on Tsar.
• Tsar in 1905 issued a manifesto of reforms, which included the creation of Duma, a parliament
government. So this was a move towards a representative government. He also promised Agrarian
Reforms, Civil Liberties.
• Such promises saved Tsar. Though Duma was constituted, agrarian reform began, but these all begin
to lose significance because Duma could not work as a representative body.
• Agrarian reforms proved to be inadequate by 1911. So the result was the revolutionary sentiments
z
again emerged in Russia. In 1914, Russia became a part of the First World War. This war also Russia 0
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peasants were converted into soldiers. The result of this was the fall in agriculture and this triggered a 0::
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serious food crisis. This food crisis triggered a spontaneous revolution, ie. Revolution 1917. <
• This revolution ended the rule of Tsar. Tsar was forced to abdicate the throne and revolution means a vi
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64
 • 1917 revolution was an economic explosion, because economic crises as a result of the first world
war, triggered the revolution. It is said that the "foolishness of Tsar, made it happen earlier". Had Tsar
continued the reforms he had promised in 1905, revolution could be stopped. During March
Revolution, the people's aspirations represented 3 basic things; Land (agrarian reforms), Bread
(overcoming the food crises), Peace (withdrawal from the war) and the provisional government failed
to address these aspirations.
• The Provisional Government came under the leadership of Kerensky, and there were a lot of
expectations from him but he failed to pursue a pro-people ad pro- reform attitude. This is a time when
great revolutionary and Marxist Lenin began his role. He got involved in revolutionary activities and his
activities begin in the 1890s.
• But after 1881, i.e. After the assassination of Tsar, all such revolutionary activities were banned and all
activists were banished and exiled. Lenin, from outside Russia was planning. When the rule of Tsar
ended, he returned to Russia in April 1917.
• Lenin was a leader of a Marxist Party, known as Bolshevik. After coming he organized and
strengthened Bolshevik. He made vigorous propaganda against the Provisional Government, he
urged for another revolution, a socialist revolution on Marxist lines and he finally played a role
providing leadership and result was November 1917 Revolution. This revolution was a socialist
Revolution on Marxist lines.
• But, as Marx talked about the revolution of the Proletariat. This revolution was by Bolshevik Party and
this party was the product of Lenin's idea of the Vanguard Party. This is the reason that it is known as
the Bolshevik revolution and this revolution took place under the leadership of Lenin. Bolshevik seized
power and destroyed the provisional government under Kerensky. This is the revolution of Oct/ Nov
1917 and gave birth to the communist regime.

Why Socialist Revolution in Russia? 0 00:25:48

The idea of socialist revolution given by Marx was an idea based on conflict between the proletariat and
the capitalist. The region characterized by advanced form of industrialization would be the region where
consolidated class of capitalists and a consolidated class of labor found. According to Karl Marx, this is the
region where the clashes of interest between proletariat and capitalist would happen and became a
z favorable region for socialist revolution. It was expected that the socialist kind of revolution would be
0 taking place in industrially advanced region but such revolution took place in Russia which is industrially
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backward region.
► No Reform & Change: In Industrially advanced regions Like Britain, France and Germany, did not
c:: witness such revolutions. With the growth of Industrialization, there took place reforms and gradual
z improvement in the condition of labor and conformation of Rights. Whereas in Tsar Regime, an
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autocratic regime, with no reforms, so this created a favorable condition of revolution.
::> ► Nature of Labour- Part- Peasant & Part- Worker: The Russian workers were exploited as
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65
 ► Literacy among Labour: Literacy among the Russian labor was higher than the labors outside. The
probability of getting inspired by progressive ideas.
► Nature of Industrialization: Industrialization was confined to certain areas of Russia and they were
large industries that included all the works under one roof, so it was easy to mobilize them.
► Intelligentsia: Emerged in the Russian language, progressive ideas consisted of Liberals and
radicals. One such example is Lenin.

The Soviets
USSR in 1922
• The Soviets represent the council of workers and other commoners, like soldiers, peasants,
intellectuals.
• First Soviets emerged during the First revolution in 1905 in St. Petersburg. Many Soviets emerged
from March 19 17 onwards.
• They begin to act as the people's parliament after the provision of Duma. Soviets emerged as
platforms of revolutions in Russia and when Lenin came back, he glorified the soviets and finally
proclaimed that all powers are in the Soviets. Soviets acted as an important form of revolution in
Russia from 1905.

Russia after Socialist Revolution

Question- Socio- Economic Reconstruction in Russia after Socialist Revolution under Lenin?

Plan ning

N ew
Economic z
Policy ( N EP) 0
1918- 192 1: j:::
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Com m u nism
0::
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1918- 192 1: War Communism <
• Russia after the revolution till 1924, was under the leader Lenin. vi
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• In this phase, Lenin began to introduce the Communist system, at the same time Lenin was fighting a 0::
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war with Anti- Bolsheviks that were supported by foreign powers like Britain. This was a kind of Civil :c
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66
 war, which was won by Bolsheviks, which later came to be known as communists called Comintern,
1919 ( International Socialist Revolution).
• But the Communist system was not as successful in socially backward Russia. The idea of Lenin was
that socialism or communism would not sustain in Russia because of the opposition of many
countries.
• So, it was necessary for Russia to play a role in giving birth to such a part of the revolution in other
capitalist countries. Only then this system would be sustainable.

1921-1928: New Economic Policy (NEP)

• It was a move towards a mixed economy. Lenin begin to withdraw such socialist, communist pattern
and began to induce elements of Capitalism
• In this phase, Lenin reorganized Russia into USSR in 1922.
• Initially, USSA consisted of 4 Socialist Republics. Gradually this number increased, eventually, this
number became after 1956.

1928- 1939: Planning

• Second Socialist Revolution
• USSR came under the influence of a leader Stalin.
• He abandoned National Economic Policy.
► Introduction of the 5-year plan.
► Socialist industrialization: Only public sector, not private
► The collectivization of Agriculture: Agriculture on collective farms
► Socialism in one county: A new doctrine by Stalin. Stalin proclaimed that USSR would be
sustaining Socialism without an International revolution�
► Totalitarianism: Russia became a totalitarian state under Stalin. He created a more autocratic
system than the Tsar. He destroyed all the opposition.

Role of Lenin 1870-1924 � 00:55:37

He started Revolution in the 1890s

z
0 1. Idea of Vanguard Party, 1902
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3. Imperialism, the highest stage of Capitalism, 1956

c:: 4. April Thesis, April 1917 - AII powers to Soviets
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67
 9. USSR, 1922
Role of Stalin
• Introduction of the 5-year plan.
• Socialist industrialization: Only public sector, not private
• The collectivization of Agriculture: Agriculture on collective farms
• Socialism in one county: A new doctrine by Stalin. Stalin proclaimed that USSR would be sustaining
socialism without an International revolution.
• Totalitarianism: Russia became a totalitarian state under Stalin. He created a more autocratic system
than the Tsar. He destroyed all the opposition.

Nature of Russian Revolution

• Three Revolutions: Some historians viewed that Russian Revolution took place as three revolutions i.e.
Revolution on 1905, Revolution on March 1917 and Revolution on November 1917. All the three
revolutions are a different revolution.
• Two Revolution: Some historians also presented the view that Russian revolution represented two
revolutions i.e. March 1917 and November 1917. The revolution of 1905 provided background for the
revolution.
• One Revolutions: It was also presented that Russian revolution took place as one revolution with two
phases i.e. A political phase that took place on March 1917, and A socialist phase that took place on
November, 1917. The revolution of 1905 provided background for the revolution. This is the most
accepted view among the three.

Impact of Russian Revolution, 19 17 � 01:08:12

• Rise of New Russia
► End of Czar's Rule
► Communist Russia
► USSR
► Socio-Economic Reconstruction
► Superpower Status: After second world war
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• International Impact 0
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► Spread of Communist Ideas : China, India ::>
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► Rise of Communist Party : Indian Communist Party was founded in 1925 and Chinese Communist
Part was founded in 1921. 0::
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► Chinese Communist Revolution <
► Trade Unionism vi
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► New Perspective of Economic Development: In the 5-year plan, socialist industrialization, NEP, 0::
w
dominant role of the state in economic management. Later this became a trend in many parts of the :c
I-

68
 world, including India.
► New perspective in International Relations: Communism/ socialism was anti-imperialism, anti­
war, anti-colonialism. This revolution presented a new perspective.
► Ideological Conflict: Rise of Communist Russia, later USSR. Communism and Socialism is anti­
capitalist ideology. This was considered as a threat by the outside world, like Britain, France, and
later USA. This was a new Ideological conflict in the form of the cold war after the Second World
War.
► Comintern: Communist International. It was the consequence of the Russian Revolution because of
the Bolshevik victory and converting Russia into a Communist regime. Lenin started working for
the International Revolution and he started working for the Comintern which influenced the
communist party policies in many parts of the world.

Limitation of Russian Socialist Revolution

• 19 17 Onwards: Under Lenin
► After the seizure of power in 19 17, Lenin began to force upon the communist pattern on Russian
society, which resulted in great misery. Later, civil war also resulted in killings in a huge number
• 1928 Onwards: Under Stalin
► Brutal use of force for the introduction of policies. Depriving Russian people of all Rights and
freedom. Great purge destroying millions. A large part of Russian society emerged as the victim of
the Revolution, which was not what Marx described.

7) Previous Year's Questions

• The. N e w Economic Polic !J - 1,21 of Lenin h a d influenced t h e. policies adopted b !J India soon after
independence.. Evaluate.. (UPSC 201lt)

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69
 CHINA- 18TH CENTURY
El] ONWARDS
China in the 18th century and the first half of 19th century:
• China was in decline in political, economic, socio-cultural context.
• China was closed for the foreigner: This policy is called closed-door policy
Closed-door policy to opening: 0 00:04:36
• All ports were closed except Canton port south-eastern side.
• The Europeans were engaged in trade with China. But the business was not very favourable here due
to only one open port.
• Also, European goods had little or no demand here. So, they had a one-way trade and purchased silk
and tea.
• In this scenario, in the early 19th century, the Europeans took the initiative of the illegal trade of
opium.
• From the victory at the Battle of Buxar in 1757, the English procured opium from the Bengal and
Malwa regions and sold illegal opium in China.
• Its demands begin to rise heaps and bounds. When Chinese authorities learned about this, they
resisted, and the English were so profitable that they were ready to fight a war.
The result was Opium Wars
• Opium War 1839-42: English defeated China. A forced treaty with China caused the opening of
Chinese ports. English continued the illegal trade of opium, which highly impacted the social life of
China.
• Opium War 1856-60: Got entry inside, which was not allowed earlier, and got the opium trade
legalized.
• American and Later Japanese followed English.

V,
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• China was converted into a semi-colony, with various spheres of influence from foreign powers.
z • China was considered to be known as a 'sick man of Asia' because it was in a state of decline, then it

u
J: became the victim of colonization; this further gave a flip to the declining state of China. Manchu ruled

71
 China, but it came under the control of foreign powers.
• Chinese people became the primary victim of this state of affairs. They begin to face hardships and
suffer misery. The result was a gradual growth of dissatisfaction.

Revolts, Revolutions, and Parties:

• Taiping Rebellion, 1851-64
o This was the product of widespread dissatisfaction, both anti- Manchu and anti- foreigners. This
rebellion was suppressed, and foreign power played a significant role in this depression.
• Boxer Rebellion, 1898-99
o The foreign powers again suppressed the widespread dissatisfaction
• Chinese Revolution, 1911
o This revolution ended the rule of Manchus. Monarchy came to an end in China, and the Republic
replaced this.
o The situation was so bad that the Republic could not survive. During this time, a great nationalist
and revolutionary had emerged in China, Sun Yat-Sen.
o He aimed to create a new China. So, the revolution ended the monarchy, yet it failed to bear good
fruits.
• Foundation of Nationalist Party (Kuomintang), 1912
o By Sun Yat-Sen, for creation of a new political system in China
• May 4th Movement, 1919
o Students protested against the Versailles Treaty, which focused on gaining many Chinese territory
gains. May 4, 1919, created a suitable environment for rising of the Communist Party in China.
• Foundation of Communist Party, 1921
o The Russian revolution, 1917 under Lenin and Socialist Revolution, made communist ideas
popular among China's intellectual and China's students' circle.
o Mainly China began to think that Communism was such a revolution and a remedy. Mao became
the supreme leader of this Party in the 1920s.

- - - - - -
Ta iping Chinese May 4th
Rebel lion, Revolution, Movement,
1851-64 1911 1919

Boxer Foundation of Foundation

Rebellion, Nationalist Party of
1898-99 (Kuomintang), Commu nist
1912 Party, 1921

72
 Nationalists and the Communists
• Sun Yet-Sen founded the nationalist Party in 1912, and Mao is associated with Communist Party,
192 1
• Cooperation - 192 1-27
o Sun Yat-Sen and Communist Party worked with Russia to create a new China.
o This Cooperation continued till the death of Sun Yat-Sen.
• Conflict- 1927-28 onwards
o The Cooperation broke, and war began.
o The Nationalists were more assertive this time, had control over a larger area and created a
government called the Kuomintang government.
• Chiang Kai-shek i n itiated military campaigns.
• The communist was under pressu re, and they decided to shift to a new region from southeast China
to North- East China.
• Long March- 1934
o March from southeast China to northeast China under Mao.
• Cooperation- 1937-44
o Due to the Japanese I nvasion of China, Chiang Kai-shek was forced for Cooperation by his general.
• USA's Mediation
o Communist Party became a more robust and developed army called the Red Army.
o When the USA realized the victory of the Communists was imminent, they considered that
mitigation was the only choice. But several missions failed to bring about cooperation and
coalition.
• Conflict- 1947-49
o Decisive battles were fought
• The victory of the Communists, 1949
o Mainland China under Communists was called China. Nationalist China shifted to Taiwan.
V,
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Communist China 0 00:37:54
c::: • October 1, 1949- People's Republic of China
o 1950's Economic Reconstruction: This was based on Sta l i n's Five-Year Plan, Socialist
z
0 Industrialization and Collectivization of Agriculture.
• 1954- New Constitution
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1- • 1958- The Great Leap Forward
w
u o The failure of this Program led to Cultural Revolution
J:
• 1966-67- The Cultural Revolution
o This was to wipe out Capitalist ideology.
z o The victory of communists against the nationalists in 1949 constituted an event known as the
u
J: Chinese Communist Revolution.

73
Dr Sun Yat Sen
• He was a Nationalist, a revolutionary, a pro-people, and pro-reform.
• At the beginning of the 20th century, he founded a small revolutionary party and stood for a new
China, free from imperialism and feudalism. He actively participated in the Chinese Revolution in
1911. He was successful since it ended the monarchy and created the Republic. He founded
Nationalist Party, 1912. Kuomintang had emerged as a power in China by 1925.
• Nationalism, Democracy, People's Livelihood represented three principles of Sun Yat-Sen.

N ationa lism

I \
Peo ple's
Dem ocra cy I I Live l i hood

Mao Tse- Tung

• He organized and strengthened the Communist Party. He presented the idea of the Peasant
Revolution and the state of the Proletariat. He said that the revolution would start from the
countryside and move to Urban Areas.
• He presented the idea of Guerrilla Armed Struggle; he created the Red Army.
• Peasants as the leading force in the revolution
o He talked about the Proletariat as the main force. The Red Army rested on the strength of
Peasants
• Protracted People's War
o Long People's armed struggle was called Guerrilla warfare. He considered it essential to end
imperialism and feudalism.
• Mass Line
o Ideas that the Party should be constantly connected to the masses and act accordingly.
o Based on the idea, " Form Masses to Masses."
• New Democracy
o He considered Parliamentary democracy as the bourgeois democracy.
o He presented the idea of New Democracy, i.e., the democracy of Peasants

74
 • Cultural Revolution
o The idea of one revolution might not wipe out the bourgeois. Many revolutions may be needed.
This was initiated in China in the 1960s
• Imperialism and domestic Feudalism
o To end imperialism and domestic feudalism, he presented the idea to go through a military
struggle called the Protracted People's War.
Nature of The Communist Revolution 0 00:54:29
• Marx's Conception of Revolution-Proletariat Revolution, No party
• Russian Socialist Revolution, 1917 under Lenin- This revolution was by the Party
• Mao-Peasant became the main force. Protracted People's War, Military Struggle and Victory

Impact of Communist Revolution 0 00:58:03

The event of 1949 is known as the Chinese Communist Revolution. It gave birth to:
• New China & Two China
o Communist China is Mainland China. Nationalist in Taiwan.
o China even today urges world countries not to accept the two China policy but accept "One China
Policy".
• New China-
o China was no longer a colony; domination of foreign powers or domestic feudal lords exists.
Whatever socio-economic reconstruction is taking place now also represents New China.
• International Impact
o The Russian Revolution took the idea of Communism to height, and Chinese Communism took it
to a greater size. It played a role in the spread of Communism, particularly in various parts of the
world
• Decolonization- It inspired the anti-colonial struggle in Asia and Africa.
• Cold War- Cold war was going, and the rise of Communism added new strength to the communist
V, bloc and gave a new dimension to the cold war.
Cl
c:::

z
0

:::)

z
1-
w
u
J:

z
u
J:

75
 JAPAN M O D ERN IZATION TO I M PERIALISM
(TH E 1860S TO 1945)
Japan Modernization to Imperialism (the 1860s to 1945) :
• It is the period of modern, robust, industrial Japan. Japanese modernization was not exclusively the
product of Western imperialism by any means. Medieval Japan was a monarchy.
• For 300 years before the opening of the ports, Japan had been developing a form of commercial
capitalism.
• During the same period, the feudal polity had become more centralized.
• Modernization was a link between the treaty port system and the emergence of Japan's imperialism.
Shogunate-End of 12th Century to 1867: 0 00:01:19
• Japan modernization to imperialism issue is connected with the medieval history of Japan. This
connection is essential for the rise of modern Japan.
• Before the emperors, every clan was ruled by a few powerful nobles, who were also the religious
leaders of the family.
• In Japan, various Clan leaders enjoyed political authority under the emperor's control. These clans
fought with each other. lt was the fight for Central authority.
• The emperor was the nominal head of the system, and the clan leader was given the title Shogun.
• Shogunate kept changing its character as the dominant clan leader became Shogun and kept
changing later.
• Ruling head was just a puppet in the hand of Shogun. This continued to the modern period of history;
io
...,. the last organ was Tokugawa Shogunate .
....
O"l
Tokugawa Shogunate 1603 to 1867:
g
(/)
• Military feudalism was led by Shogun (Supreme General).
0 • Closed Door Policy to the opening of Japan,
(.0
....
CX)
o USA Perry mission was associated with opening up of Japan. It forced Japan to enter into
w
J: commercial treaties. It also threatened Tokugawa Shogunate to open the door for treaties favouring
!:.
the USA.
�
(/) • Western encroachment: Japan came under the Western encroachment.
:::i
<( • Several domestic problems: The Tokugawa Shogunate faced internal problems that gave rise to
w discontent against the Tokugawa Shogunate.
C.
� Meiji Restoration: 0 00:14:13
g • Meiji Restoration was the political revolution in 1868 in Japanese history that brought about the final
z demise of the Tokugawa shogunate (military government) thus ending the Tokugawa period
0
(1603-1867) and, at least nominally, returned control of the country to direct imperial rule under the
zc:: emperor M utsuhito (the emperor Meiji).
w • The Meiji era was the era of enlightenment, modernizing Japan and the rise of Japan.
C
0 Modernization of Japan:
�
z • It took place with the help of the following events:

<(

77
 o End of Feudalism
o National Army
o The shift of Capital (old imperial Capital was Kyoto it shifted to Tokyo)
o New Constitution, 1889 (created parliament in Japan)
o Development of Transport system
o Post & Telegraph
o Port System
o Industrial Revolution
o Banking
o New Education System
Japanese Imperialism (1890 to 1945):
0 00:26:00

• Powerful Japan gave rise to Japanese imperialism. The following events can represent it:
o War with China, 1894-95 (Acquired Formosa): First Sino-Japanese War, the conflict between
Japan and China in 1894-95 that marked the emergence of Japan as a significant world power and
demonstrated the weakness of the Chinese empire.
o Russia-Japan War, 1904-05: Military conflict in which a victorious Japan forced Russia to
abandon its expansionist policy in East Asia, becoming the first Asian power in modern times to
defeat a European power.
o Control over Korea, 1910: The Japanese gained influence in Korea. By 1910, Japan officially took
control of Korea and renamed it "Chosen." Japanese occupation of Korea lasted until 1945, when
the Japanese were defeated in World War II.
o Participation in the First World War: Japan participated in World War I from 1914 to 1918 in an
alliance with Entente Powers .
o Invasion of Manchuria, 193 1: The Japanese invasion of Manchuria began on 18 September 193 1,
when the Kwantung Army of the Empire of Japan invaded Manchuria immediately following the
Mukden Incident.
o Attack on China 1937: Japan invaded China in 1937. Japan was a small island that lacked
essential resources. They knew that they could get some of these resources and cheap labour
from China by invading China.
o Control over S-E Asia, 1939-45: Japan attacked nearly all of its Asian neighbors, allied itself with
Nazi Germany and launched a surprise assault on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor during
World War II (1939-45).

z
�
w
�
u
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78
 ED EASTERN QUESTION
Introduction: � 00:00:10
• The word 'Eastern Question' was coined in western Europe in the first half of the 19th century
(around the 1820s) .
• Western Europe consists of three parts. From their perspective, the eastern regions were divided
into- the Far East, Middle East, and Near East.
• The eastern question was related to the Near East. Therefore, it is also known as the Near Eastern
Question.
• The nearest region was Turkey. Turkey is known as the Turkish Empire or Ottoman Empire, whose
nucleus was Turkey. This question is essentially a diplomatic problem that emerged as a
disintegration of the Ottoman Empire from the 19th century till the early 20th century.

Eurasian Steppes

Maohreb

Sahara Desert

Fig: 15. 1 Ottoman Empire 16th and 17th century

• Osman founded the Ottoman Empire. Eventually, they made a massive empire in Asia, Europe, and
Africa. Ottoman Empire was at its peak during 16th and 17th century
o Europe - Upto Hungary, and entire Balkan peninsula
o African regions
z
0 o A big part of the Arab region. This was also known as the Ottoman Caliphate.
• The empire began to disintegrate in the 18th century and intensified in the 19th century. There was
w
::::>
a a political vacuum, and disarray which led to complex diplomatic problems.
z • Many European powers began to get involved. This became an Eastern question.
c::
w •
tii Eastern question was from the Early 19th Century to 1914.

79
Aspects of Eastern Question: 0 00:19:18
• Balkan Nationalism
o The Balkan people and Ottoman Turks have differences in religion and geographical region. So,
Balkan considered Ottoman Turk's rule as foreign empire rule. They came under the influence of
progressive ideas from western Europe.
o Nationalists' awakening took place among the Balkan People. Balkan Nationalism stood for
independence of the Balkan region from Ottoman control. Due to ethnic similarities Russia
supported Balkan people.
o Austria had an interest in the Balkan region. Besides, Austria Balkan this was also considered by
other European powers like Britain and France.
o So, Balkan Nationalism represents the central question of the Eastern Question.
• Russian Encroachment
o The disintegration of the Ottoman provided Russia with an opportunity to encroach upon the
territory. Russia gave Turkey the new appellation "Sick Man of Europe" because Turkey was
disintegrating at that time. Russia believed in having control of the Black Sea region. Besides,
Russia was concerned with the fate of the Ba Icon People and supported them.
o Now this alarmed other European Powers.
• British Involvement
o The British considered the Russian encroachment a threat because Britain considered that such
encroachment would boost the Russian expansion, that would pose a threat to trade in the
Mediterranean. Also, Russia might move its development to the east to Afghanistan, which might
pose a threat to India. So, integrating the Ottoman Empire was in the interest of Britain, Britain
stopped Russia.
• French Involvement
o French also considered the Russian encroachment as a threat because it traded in the
Mediterranean, French had its investment in turkey, and French also wanted to preserve the
Ottoman Empire
• Attitude of Austria
o Austria also considered Russia a threat. Moreover, Austria had eyes on the Balkan region.
o This trend altogether constituted a complex question and became an International Question. This
question destabilized European powers' relations, created tensions and conflict, and even gave
birth to wars. z
0
Independence of Greece (1821-1829) j:::
V)
• Greece being a part of the Balkan, belonged to the Ottoman Empire. LU
:::)
• Greece in 1821 became a Liberation Struggle and became free in 1829. This is considered the first Cf
z
significant event related to the eastern question. The Liberation Struggle in Greece and its freedom c::
gave a great impetus to Balkan Nationalism. This became a highly volatile region and is sometimes

80
 called the "Cockpit of Europe". Both Russia and Austria were involved here.

ROMANIA
lka n s
Black
Sea

Crimean War (1854-56) & Paris Treaty 1856

• Crimean War was a war between Russia and Britain, France, Turkey, and Sardinia- Piedmont
• Russia was encroaching upon the declining Ottoman Empire, Britain, France, and Turkey wanted to
stop Russia.
• The war ended in 1856, was followed by the Conference in Paris; also, Paris Congress 1856 and this
congress gave birth to Paris Treaty 1856, and these Powers signed the treaty
• A vision of this treaty
o Autonomy of Serbia
o The neutrality of all powers in the Black Sea Region
o Guarantee for the territorial integrity of Turkey
o Surrender of some regions of Russia
Russia-Turkey War, 1877-78 & Treaty of San Stefano
• The Russia- Turkey War, 1877-78 was again the result of Russian encroachment. This resulted in the
z victory of Russia. Russia imposed a Treaty of San Stefano on Turkey.
0 • Terms were in favour of Russia. This again alarmed Britain, France, and Austria. They protested
w against a Russian move. This created tension and resulted in the Berlin Conference.
::>
a Berlin Conference, 1878
z • This was a move to again put a check upon Russia.
c::
w
• It was signed by Britain, Germany, Austria, Turkey and Russia.

81
 • The Berlin Conference played a role in subsiding the war tensions. But it failed to solve Eastern
Question.
o Surrender of some territories by Russia
o I ndependence of Serbia, Romania & Montenegro accepted
o Bosnia- Herzegovina placed under the protection of Austria
o Creation of smaller Bulgaria
o Macedonia remained under Turkey
o Britain got Cyprus
The statement of British Prime Minister
"I have brought peace with Honour. "
Lord Beaconsfield (Benjamin Disraeli)
• Peace was a tem porary peace. (ln the context of World War 1)

Balkan Wars 0 00:43:36

First Balkan War (19 12)
Tukey Vs Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro
• The war was to free Macedonia, and the result was that Turkey lost almost all of its remaining
European territory.

Second Balkan War (19 13)

• This was among the Balkan States. Bulgaria Vs Serbia, Greece, Romania. The war was due to the
distribution of Macedonia among them. Bulgaria was defeated, and Serbia gained territories. Since
Austria- Serbia conflict was always there, and this made the situation more volatile. Austria was
always interested in acquiring Balkan regions, and now the emergence of powerful Serbia gave birth
to the Pan- Slav movement.
• This caused unrest in Bosnia- Herzegovina that Austria annexed in 1908. The people of Bosnia­
Herzegovina wanted to be free, and one such expression of turmoil was the assassination of the
Crown prince by a person of Bosnia- Herzegovina. This became an immediate cause of World War 1
because Austria accused Serbia of provoking such unrest and considered Serbia responsible for such
assassination. This triggered a conflict, and this took the form of war.
"The Second Balkan War gave birth to the First World War."
z
0
"The Eastern Question Always remained an International Question. " j:::
V)
LU
- Lipson :::)
Cf
The question began in the early 19th century and continued till 100 years, and ended after the 1st World z
c::
War in 1914- 18- 19. LU

82
 Rise of Modern Turkey ( 1923-1938) 0 00:55:22
• The Ottoman Empire was reduced to the nucleus of Turkey and some neighbouring regions. The
Ottoman Empire, or Turkey, participated in the first World War, siding with the central powers;
Austria, Germany and Hungary, and Bulgaria.
• The Central Powers were defeated in the first world war by Allies, consisting of Great Britain, France,
Russia and later the United States.
• Since it was defeated in the war, some more areas were also taken away from it by the Paris Peace
Conference in 1919. So, the eastern question also came to an end.
• The nucleus was still the seat of power, so the Ottoman Caliphate was there. Ottoman rule was still
there.
• Nationalist Movement in Turkey began by Mustafa Kemal Pasha. He was a great Nationalist and a
Military General, and he finally played a significant role, and his movement acquired a popular base
and finally, he came to power in 1923.
• After coming to power, he introduced drastic reforms in Turkey. He abolished the Ottoman Caliphate
and made Turkey a secular and republican State.
• He introduced reforms in social-economic-political life and the legal system and remained the most
critical leader until he died in 1938.
• He created an entirely new Turkey, and the old Turkey, which was Islamic, Orthodox and Backward,
was converted into a fresh Turkey that was Western, European, and Modern.
• Mustafa Kemal Pasha was given the title "Ataturk" which means Father of Turkey. This title was
given by the Parliament of Turkey in recognition of his great work in creating a new Turkey, and came
to be known as Mustafa Kemal "Ataturk ". He presented 6 Principles:
• 6 Principles of Kemalism:

z
0

w
::::>
a
z
c::
w
tii
�

83
 Em ARAB NATIONALISM
Introduction:
• Arab nationalism emerged in the 19th Century and continued till the 20th Century. It was a
representation of the Nationalist Sentiment of Arabs.
• The Arab World expand over two continents: Africa and Asia. Here, people represent specific groups.
Most historians believe that Islam originated in Mecca and Medina at the start of the 7th century CE.
• The rise of Islam is linked with the Prophet Muhammad, believed by Muslims to be the last in a long
Iine of prophets.
• Islam emerged with the teaching of Prophet Muhammad and the successor of him called Calipha or
Khalifa. The Caliphate presented the system of Khalifa. They are considered as the religious head of
the Muslim world. Arab nationalism represents specific ethnic groups.

Kuwait
Bahrain
Qatar
U.A.E

The Arab world

or
Arab Nation
Fig: Arab Map
• Factors responsible for Arab Nationalism are related to the foreign influences of Turks and western
power. Turk had a different culture and tradition, which later created anti-Ottoman sentiments in
Arab Nationalism.
• Ottoman Turks were considered warriors, and they built an Empire in the 16th and 17th Centuries in
Europe, Asia and Africa. Big part of the Arab region was captured by Ottoman Turks.
�
• Office of the Khalifa became the Ottoman Caliphate.
::::i
V)

0 00:09:18
z
<( Anti-Ottoman Sentiments:
0 • Anti-Turkish sentiment is hostility, intolerance, or racism against Turkish or Turkic people, Turkish
z culture, or Turkic countries.
• Many parts of the Arab region came under the Ottoman Empire.
• Ottoman Turks and Arab were different groups in terms of ethnicity, language and culture only
<(

85
 similarity is that they both follow Islam.
• It is believed that Turk invaders were not Islamic people, but they converted into Islam later. These
issues raised discontent in Arabs.
• The Wahabi Movement was launched in order to purify Islam; it was an anti-Ottoman Movement.
• Earlier, there were Arab Khalifa, but Ottoman destroyed Arab Khalifa and declared themselves Khalifa
(holding the title of Khalifa) .
• The Arab nationalism concept was based on Independence from Ottoman rule. Decline of the
Ottoman started in the 18th century onwards.
�
Wa h a b i
Anti-Tu rk H osti l ity &
Movement to
senti ment I ntolera nce
p u rify I s l a m

�----��
I ndependence Tussle over
from Ottom a n
Rule
Ara b
Nationalism 0 the title of
Khal ifa

• Ottoman Empire was defeated in the First World War. The British, for their part, incited the Sharif of
Mecca to launch the Arab Revolt during the First World War.
• The Ottomans were defeated, and the rebel forces entered Damascus in 1918. Damascus became the
coordinating center of the Arab Nationalist Movement.
• The nucleus of the Ottoman Empire was Turkey.
• The "sick man of Europe" is a phrase to refer to the struggling Ottoman Empire in the 19th Century,
Tsar Nicholas I of Russia is credited for coining the phrase.
• The empire was at war with Russia for regional control, and during the mid- 19th Century, the
Ottoman Empire suffered from numerous challenges, including economic problems, military defeats,
and ethnic unrest. Due to these difficulties, the empire was compared to an ailing old man.
• Tsar Nicholas described the Ottoman Empire as a sick man in the hands of Russia and England.
• Almost all major European countries have been labeled "the sick man of Europe" at some time in their
history.
�
Anti-West Sentiments 1919 onwards: 0 00:26:21 (/)
:J
• Mandate System: The Paris Peace Conference convened in January 1919 at Versailles just outside
z
<(
Paris. The conference was called to establish the terms of the peace after World War I. Nearly thirty 0
nations participated, including the representatives of the United Kingdom, France, the United States,
z
and Italy. They created a system known as the Mandate System. The idea was that certain regions
were not safe and needed protection. In the name of protection, the regions were placed under big
<(

86
 nations . Ideas were put forward that after some time they will be freed. This led to Arab Nationalism.
► British: Iraq, Trans Jordan and Palestine were placed under British Mandate.
► French: Syria and Lebanon were placed under the French.
• British Control over Egypt
• Oil Imperialism: In the Middle East, Oil discovered in Arab Regions is associated with it. This region
has a new trend of encroachment by western powers.
• Ba'ath Party, thinkers 1943 - By Pan-Arabist: This Party founded its branches in Arab regions led by
Arab Nationalism.
Freedom: 1945 onwards: 0 00:32:32
• Arab League, 1945: Regional organization of Arab states in the Middle East and parts of Africa formed
in Cairo on March 22, 1945, as an outgrowth of Pan-Arabism.
• Rise of Israel, 1948: It is home of Jews and Arab, it gave impetus to Arab Nationalism.
• Suez Crisis, 1956: In 1956, British and French forces invaded Egypt in collusion with Israel.
• United Arab Republic (Egypt and Syria) , 1958-61
• Gama I Abdel Nasser was the most important proponent of pan-Arabism.
• OPEC, 1960: The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a permanent,
intergovernmental Organization, created at the Baghdad Conference by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi
Arabia and Venezuela.

7) Previous Year's Questions

• What were t h e events that l e d to t h e Suez Crisis in 1,%? H o w d i d i t deal a +inal blow t o
Britain's sel+-image a s a world power ?(UPSC 201't)

�
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V)

z
<(
0

<(

87
 EB THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND
NAPOLEON
French Revolution:
• The Revolution began in 1789 and ended around 1803-1804.
• Rise of Napoleon in 1799.
Causes of the French Revolution: 0 00:04:53
• Political:
► France in the 18th century was an absolute form of monarchy, extravagant, and not pro-change.
► These created favourable conditions for the French Revolution in 1789. Louis XVI was the Monarch
when the French Revolution started.
• Social:
► There were 3 classes known as Estates:

First • Clergy,
Estate Churchmen

L. Second
Estate
• N o bles

L. Third
Estate
• Businessmen,
peasa nts and
the rest

z
0
w ► The privileges were given to first and second classes and were also exempted from paying taxes
..J
0 and the third state was unprivileged.
a.
<( ► The famous statement "the French Revolution was not an attack on Property but on Privileges".
z
C • Economic:
z
<( ► Monarchy was involved in many wars. One such war was the Seven Year War in 1756- 64.
z
0 ► This was a war between the French and Britain.
j::
::,
..J ► 1776 onwards American war of Independence where the French had participated.
► Their involvement in the War caused financial crises. In 1788-89, Financial Crises emerged, and it
c:: triggered the revolution.
:::r:
u • Ideological Crisis:
z
w ► 18th Century France is known for its French Enlightenment. Many thinkers emerged such as
c::
w Rousseau, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and physiocrats.
:::r:

89
 ► They played a significant role in awakening and creating favourable conditions for the French
Revolution.
External Factors in the French Revolution
• British Influence:
► The ideas of John Locke; Natural Rights, Representing the ideas of Democracy and Popular
Sovereignty.
► British Political System: Parliamentary System because of Glorious Revolution.
• American Influence:
► American War of Independence symbolized Struggle for Freedom
► French Participation: Several French Participating Soldiers were eye- witness for inspiration
► Financial Crises
► The 1776 American Declaration influenced the declaration in May 1789.

"Similar Conditions prevailed in continental Europe, but the Revolution occurred in France".
• Nobility: In other parts of Europe, Nobility, had certain duties, which was missing in France
• Peasantry: French peasantry was more awakened than other parts in the Europe.
• Middle Class: Several thinkers and philosophers were Enlightened, the characteristics which were
present in other parts.
• Economic Crises: French went through serious Financial Crisis.
• Political System: Since the System was Centralised, the French Revolution began in Paris, and this
impacted other parts of France, Whereas, in other parts, there was a certain decentralization.
• External Influences: British and American influences were absent in other parts of Europe.

z
0
Progress of the Revolution: (!, 00:34:05 w
...J
• 1789: 0
a.
► Leaders of the third state created a body called the Constituent Assembly. They became a de-facto <z
Political Authority. A declaration was made by the Constituent Assembly, the Declaration of 0
z
" Rights of men". It was inspired by the American Declaration of 1776. This was the declaration of <
z
Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson. 0
j::
► Peasant revolting in several parts ::,
...J
► Attack in Bastille
► Women's Movement c::::

u
J:
• 1791:
► The Constituent Assembly wrote a new Constitution. This was an attack on the Ancient Regime;
z
w
c::::
the socio-economic-political-religious fabrics of the regime.
LU
► This Constitution provided for Elections, Natural Rights, attacks on Feudal privileges. J:

90
 ► This provided for a new central body, that would replace a Constituent Assembly on the basis of
election. Though Monarchy was still there, the Constituent Assembly was behind to play the role of
De-Facto Political Authority.
• 1792-1798:
► Revolution was under the National Convention.
►Jacobian, a group of radical revolutionaries, became powerful. Their Leader was Robespierre.
• 1793-1794:
► Reign of Terror, Reign of Jacobian Terror.
► Monarchy ended, replaced by Republic.
► But the terror policy of Jacobians also caused resentment and other groups stood against it.
► Napoleon was a soldier, an ordinary officer. Success in wars made him the most important Military
General in France.
• 1795:
► The fall of the Jacobians.
► Creating a new Body Directory.
► But the rule of the Directory was also turning hopeless.
► Napoleon was a man who rose during this time.
• 1799:
► Napoleon seized power of the Directory and created a new system called Consulate.
o First Consulate
o Second Consulate
o Third Consulate
► Napoleon became First Consul. Under the consulate, he began widespread socio-economic-

z political reform.
0
w ► The revolution was progressing under consulates.
..J
0 ► The revolution continued under these reforms from 1799 to till 1803-04.
a.
<( ► Napoleon proclaimed the end of the Revolution and the end of consulate reforms.
z
C ► Napoleon created a new France which was a combination of old and New France.
z
<( Napoleon merged Old France and New France
z
0 • Old:
j::
::,
..J ► Elements of Roman Law: Like Authority of husband in the family system, subordination of women.
o He created the Code of Napoleon 1804- Napoleon Law
c:: o So, it shows Napoleon's role towards the role of Women was conservative, the right to
:::r: education and right to property was limited.
u
z
w ► Centralized Control: Centralised system which was imitating the feature of Monarchy.
c::
► Agreement with Pope, 1801: People had a lot of resentment against clergy, but Napoleon re­
w
:::r: established the Church.

91
 ► The French Revolution stood for 3 ideas: Equality, Liberty, Fraternity.
o The idea of Liberty was made negative by Napoleon by creating highly Centralised rule,
Characterised by a lot of regulations and control. And he justified, by saying that French people
do not want Liberty, they want Equality.
• New:
► Civil Equality
► Religious Tolerance
► Emancipation of Serfs
► Abolition of Feudal Privileges
Napoleon Empire: 0 01:01:12

1793- O rd i n a ry 1799- Fi rst

office r Con s u l

• • • •
1795- M i l ita ry 1804- E m pero r
G e n e ra l o f Fra nce

• Napoleon's empire was at its peak in 1807-08.

• The many German States, Italian States, Holland, Spain, Belgium, etc. were part of the Napoleon
Empire.
• Napoleon destroyed the old existing Political System by creating a new one based on the French
Revolutionary ideal of Equality. z
• He destroyed their Liberty completely that symbolized foreign countries. He was the first one to play a 0
w
...J
role in making revolutionary change as in France (played a role in awakening) . 0
a.
• He also begins to suppress and oppress these regions. This generated anti- Napoleon sentiments <z
over there and this finally played a role in the fall of Napoleon. 0
z
Napoleon - Child of Revolution: <
z
• Napoleon emerged as the representative of Revolutionary ideas, Equality, Liberty and Fraternity 0
j::
• He reorganized the principles of Equality. ::,
...J
Napoleon- Destroyer of Revolution:
• Out of Equality, Liberty, and Fraternity. Liberty was completely destroyed by suppressing and c::::

u
controlling them. Besides fighting a war and regulating them, he also destroyed the idea of Liberty in J:

an International Context. In the context of the Empire, he destroyed the idea of Fraternity. z
w
c::::
• In this context, he was the Destroyer of Revolution.
LU
J:

92
 Bonapartism:
• Bonapartism is a system that was created by Napoleon.
• I nternal System was New France and
• External System - In the reorganization of Empire
• So, Bonapartism was both the child of Napoleon and the Revolution.
Fall of Napoleon: 0 01:17:00
Continental System
• This was economic warfare raised by Napoleon against the British. Napoleon was of the opinion that
the strength of Britain was Economic Strength. So, he wanted to break the economic strength of
Britain.
• He had fought a war with Britain, Battle of Trafalgar, 1805. But Napoleon was not successful.
• Therefore, when the Military approach failed against Britain, Napoleon adopted the Economic
Approach. This was Continental System.
• He made a declaration that No European country will trade with Britain. He wanted to isolate Britain
with respect to trade relations.
• But this did not happen. Though, this system weakened Britain to some extent. But eventually, this
proved more disastrous for France.
• The famous statement:
"Continental System was a two-edged sword."
• This aroused anti- Napoleon sentiments in Europe. Many neutral European countries also became
anti-Napoleon. This policy needed a very strong navy to implement this policy, and Napoleon didn't
have a very strong navy.
• This factor is considered in the fall of Napoleon's empire.

z Peninsular War, 1808- 1813

0 • The I berian Peninsula includes Spain. Spain was made a part of Napoleon's Empire and Napoleon
w
..J
0 installed his brother as the King of Spain.
a.
• This gave birth to the Nationalist reaction on part of Spain. This finally exhausted Napoleon and
z
<(
C Spain became free in 1813.
z "Spanish ulcer ruined Napoleon"
<(
z Russian Campaign, 1812- 1813
0
j:: • He created a grand Army as an instrument to subdue Russia. This campaign eventually failed. A huge
::,
..J
number of his soldiers died.
Battle of Leipzig, 1813
c::
• This battle is also known as the Battle of Nations. This was a battle between France and Britain,
u
:::r:
z
w
Russia, Prussia, Austria and its allies.
c:: • In this battle, Napoleon was defeated and in 1814, the coalition army captured Paris. Napoleon was
w forced to abdicate the throne.
:::r:

93
Battle of Waterloo, 1815
• In this Battle, Napoleon was defeated by Coalition forces again.
• Both the Revolution and the child of revolution collapsed in 1814-15. This ended the great phase of
European History (1789-1814-15)

Russian
Continenta l Campaign, 1812- Battle of
System 1813 Waterloo, 1815

Peninsular War, Battle of Leipzig,

1808-1813 1813

Fig - Timeline of the Fall of Napoleon

Impacts of the French Revolution 0 01:32:12
Rise of New Political Culture
• Liberty, Equality and Fraternity became the three great ideals of 19th Century Europe.
• Right, Left and Centre
► This represents the Modern form of Democracy, sometimes the rightist, leftist and centrist.
• Revolution: Revolution as an instrument of Change emerged as an idea in 19th Century Europe
witnessed two more revolutions later, the revolution of 1830 and 1848.
• Nationalism and Liberalism:
► These became two major ideologies of 19th Century Europe and influenced socio-political
changes and inspired the Revolution.
• Laissez- Faire: French Revolution made an attack on Mercantilism and established a new economic
doctrine Laissez- Faire z
• Plebiscite: This means seeking opinions from the people on certain issues. This was used during the 0
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• Socialism: though Socialism as a political creed, emerged in the early 19th Century, yet we find the <z
elements of Socialism occurring during the French Revolution. This is found in the ideas of Babeuf 0
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Jacobians. Jacobians focussed on socio-economic equality, which is the major element of Socialism.
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 • Inspired Latin American Liberation Movement Struggle
Nature of the French Revolution
• Social Revolution - George Lefebvre
► This view advocated that the French Revolution was essentially a Social Revolution. It brought
about a transformation in French Society. It brought about an end to a feudal society and gave birth
to a capitalist society.
• Political Revolution - G.V Taylor
► According to this view, the French Revolution was essentially a revolution against French
Monarchy and French Nobility. It was about controlling the political authority or the government.
So, it was a Political Revolution that had social consequences.
• Popular Revolution - George Rude
► The French Revolution had a strong popular character. The masses, in general, played a role in
overthrowing the existing government, and masses were greatly awakened by French thinkers and
philosophers. Role of Peasantry, Women, etc.

Sample Question:
• Do you think the French Revolution was a political Revolution?
• Was the French revolution a social Revolution?
• Throw light on the nature of the French Revolution?

?> Previous Year's Questions

z • Explain h o w t h e foundations of t h e modern world were laid by t h e American a n d French

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 !'ffl Eu rope after the French Revol ution
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Mainstream European History is a term used for the major European history trends, which began with the
French Revolution and Napoleon Era (1789 - 1814-15), to the Second World War (1939 -1945).
Vienna Congress 1814-1815 0 00:09:33
• Four powers played a dominant role, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain.

Austria Prussia

Vie n n a Congress

Russia Britain

o Metternich represented Austria, and the Austrian Congress was conservative.

o The Vienna Congress was the product of the end of the French Revolution and the fall of Napoleon.
• The dismemberment of Napoleon Empire and Restoration of Bourbon Monarchy.
• German Confederation of 39 States.
o Two major German states Prussia and Austria separated from the French empire and a new
union was created for the German States.
C • Divided Italy
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Concert of Europe/ Congress System: 0 00:22:46
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 • This was the system of Periodical Conference i.e. International Conferences, to keep the unity,
maintain the Vienna order (old order) and keep on controlling the spread of progressive ideas.
• This was the brainchild of Metternich.
• It began to be in effect during 1814-15 till 1825.
Metternich System:
• Metternich was an Austrian Chancellor, a conservative, greatest reactionary (one who opposed the
change in reforms) .
• The Metternich System refers to all his policies and methods to pursue the two visions.
• This system was considered within Austria and the rest of Europe.
• He had a significant role in the Vienna Order.
• He influenced the foreign government.
• He was the main person behind the Concert of Europe.
• He used force to put a check on change in status-quo.

"For a tired and timid generation, Metternich was a necessary man."

- Alison Phillips
The generation that believed in the old order and this generation found solace in the ideas and actions of
Metternich. Because of Metternich, the whole period from 1814-15 to 1848 is called the Age of Metternich.

Note: Question may be asked on the personality of Metternich.

Positive Aspects of the Events of 1814-15:

• Long term peace plan for Europe: This provided peace and Stability C
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Criticism of Events of 1814-15: �
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 1830 and 1848.
July Revolution of 1830: 0 00:47:19
• In France, hereditary Monarchy was restored by the Vienna Treaty. However, the French Revolution
had given progressive ideas which couldn't be suppressed completely.
• Revolutionary ideas again emerged in France and in 1830, Revolution began, which destroyed the
Hereditary Monarchy which was replaced by the Constitutional Monarchy.
• This Revolution spread to other parts of Europe. It was no longer the French Revolution, but the
European Revolution.
• This Revolution was inspired by Nationalism and Liberalism against the Vienna Order and
Metternich system.
• Belgium too was a part of this Revolution, and it became free from the Netherlands.

February Revolution of 1848: 0 00:53:21

• The Constitutional Monarchy, which was formed after the 1830 Revolution, was again replaced by
Republic.
• This spread in other parts of Europe, and it spread in Austria as well. Thus, resulted in the Fall of the
Metternich and Metternich System.
• This Revolution is also called People's Spring, which is based on the ideas of Nationalism and
Liberalism.
• This was the first and the last time the people came on the streets and raised demands for new
progressive ideas and this Revolution also destroyed the Vienna Order.
• So, the Revolution of 1830 and 1848, was known as the European Revolution of the 19th Century.
Both began in France and spread beyond France.
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 IEJ U N I FI CATI O N O F G ERMANY
• Germany was divided into many states for centuries and they eventually united in 1870-71.
• Many German States became part of Germany and Austria remained a separate sovereign state.

Status of German States before Unification: 0 00:05:31

• Holy Roman Empire: Early 10th Century to 1806
► Two major German States were Austria and Prussia. The emperor of Austria was the emperor of
the whole Empire.

• Napoleon Empire:
► 1806 to 1814-15: Napoleon fought a war with Austria and incorporated many parts of the
Empire into Napoleon's Empire. This was called the "Confederation of Rhine". Ideas of Equality
were introduced, also there were suppressive policies.
► Nationalist feelings arose in the German States. An ironic statement is " Napoleon was the
creator of Modern German".

• Vienna Order:1815 -1865

► The New German Confederation had 39 states. This loose union was created by the Vienna
Order.
► The Diet is a kind of Parliamentary body created in Frankfurt in Germany.
► The Diet consisted of representatives of German States. Finally, from 1866-1871, the German
Confederation, including Prussia and Austria, became a part of Today's Germany.

Role of Forces of Coal and Iron:

• Coal and Iron represent Industrialisation. The Industrial Revolution after 1815 gave rise to new
industries, new social classes represented new socio-economic-political aspirations and
strengthened liberal thinking.

• They stood for a Unified Germany, since these forces were progressive forces and strengthened
the economic base of the German States.

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• Dismantling of tariff barriers on goods was the key, which marked the beginning of Free trade among
many German states except Austria.
• This Political Unification, which took place in 1870-71, was preceded by Economic Unification.

Movement of Liberals:
• Progressive forces that emerged in Germany in the 1820s onwards, the centres of the movement of
the Liberals were initially the German Universities. The movement of Germans stood for Unified <�
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 • The movement of Liberals was known as the German Movement for Unification. But this movement
collapsed because of parochial German Nationality.
• But it created a significant role in creating an awakening.

Debate after 1848:

• Bismarck a great German Chancellor of the major German State. He was interested in the idea of a
Little German State in which Prussia would dominate.

Ideas of Bismarck: � 00:51:57

• Little German
• Anti-Austria
• Policy of Blood and Iron: Blood means Militarism and Iron means with a strong hand. Pursuing ideals
with a strong hand and fighting wars.
• Union from above: Not union from below, i.e. Creation of German Union in which Prussia would
provide Leadership
• Prussianisation of Germany: Not Unification of Germany
► The new German state in 1870-7 1 , was created whose emperor was Prussian Emperor and
Chancellor was Bismarck.
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 • He believed in strengthening the Prussian Military. He said that speeches and majority resolutions
would not play any role in order to create a new German Union.
• The only thing which would be playing a role in the German Union is the policy of Blood and Iron which
means policy to be pursued with a strong hand and Militarism.

The Three Wars of Bismarck:

The Three Wars of

Bismarck

1864- Denmark- 1866- Au stria (Plus

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Schleswig and Bavaria, Hanover, 1870- Fra nce
Holstein Saxony, etc.)
I

1864- Denmark- Schleswig and Holstein

• Schleswig and Holstein were ruled by Denmark. Bismarck wanted to incorporate Schleswig and
Holstein to Prussia. So, he fought a war with Denmark and incorporated these two regions in Prussia in
1864.
• Through diplomacy, Bismarck kept Austria silent.

1866- Austria (Plus Bavaria, Hanover, Saxony, etc.)

• This war emerged as the German Civil War, in which one party was Austria and another party was
Prussia.
• In this, the Battle of Sadowa took place. Prussia defeated Austria and defeated all the German States
as well.
• After defeating , he created the big Prussian Kingdom incorporating by force the many German States,
uniting Northern states.
• In this war, he made France neutral. <�
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This took place first in 186 7 (Unification of Northern states of Germany and then in 1871. u::::
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 Forces of Coal and Iron & Blood and Iron:
• German Unification was a product of Coal and Iron or Blood and Iron.
► Forces of blood and Iron played a role in unifying Germany and Forces of Coal and Iron created a
background for this. Because of coal and Iron, there emerged progressive force, a liberal movement.
This created a strong ground.

Unification or Division of Germany

• I n a perfect sense, it was not U nification because Austria was not part of this Unification. This could
be a division of Germany. But it can be Unification also, since all the major states were united except
Austria.

"Unification of Germany was one thing; Bismarck was determined to prevent it. "
S. B. Seaman

Rise of Master and Fall of M istress:

• Fall of France with the Battle of Sedan 1870, symbolically France represented the M istress of
Europe. It was a very important power that played an important role in European Affairs and European
relations collapsed.
• With the fall of France Europe lost a Mistress and gained a Master.
• It was related to the Battle of Sadowa, 1866.

I mpact of German Unification: 0 0 1:32:42

• Rise of New Nation-State
• Change in the Political Map of Europe
• A great impetus to Nationalism in Europe
• Change in Balance of Power
• Impact on International Relation
• First World War
• New Imperialism 1870s- 1914
• Rise of new nation-states; Germany and Italy

The rise of a newly powerful Germany influenced new European Relations, creating a new system of
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 fZE U N I FI CATI O N O F ITALY
The unification of Italy was accomplished in the late 19th century. It was marked by a series of events.
Status of Italian States before Unification � 00:03:24
Holy Roman Empire: Early 10th Century to 1806
• The Italian States were a part of the Holy Roman Empire that came into existence in the Early 10th
Century and remained in existence till 1806. lt was dissolved by Napoleon.
• Napoleon defeated Austrian Empire and the Austrian Emperor was the Emperor of the Holy Roman
Empire. Napoleon thus incorporated it into his empire.
Napoleon Empire: 1806 to 18 14- 15
• Italy became a part of the Napoleon Empire.
Vienna Order: 1815 - 1865
• Italy was part of the Vienna Order
Italy in 1815
M

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Italy before Unification

• Piedmont-Sardinia was the most powerful Italian State and this was the only Italian ruled by the
Italian Rulers.
� • Lombardy and Venetia were under Austrian control.
� • Romagna to Marches ad Umbria was called the Papal States because this was under the Sovereignty
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 • Austria
• Foreign control
• Geography
• Pope
• Nationalism and
• Economic Disparity
Role of Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872): 0 00:25:34
• He was the main leader of the Italian movement for Unification. He was considered the Prophet of
unified Italy. He was a great Nationalist, a great revolutionary, and believed in the Republican system.
He played a significant role in bringing about a Nationalist Awakening. He proclaimed the idea that
"Italy is not a Geographical Expression; it is a Nation".
• The Carbonari was a secret, revolutionary society. Such forums were treated with disdain by the rulers
of the Italic States. Mazzini became a member of Carbonari and got involved in Revolutionary
activities. He presented the view that "Italy will grow alone" and linked Nation with Humanity.
• He established a revolutionary society, Young Italy established represented a unified Italy and Young
Europe was established to spread the ideas.

Role of Victor Emmanuel II (1849-1878) & Count Camillo Cavour (1810-1861) 0 00:34:50

Victor Emmanuel II was the ruler of Piedmont - Sardinia

• Crimean War, 1854-56: Britain and France fought against Russia, and Piedmont- Sardinia was on the
side of Britain and France.
• Paris Congress, 1856: Piedmont- Sardinia participated in Paris Conference and became closer to
Britain and France
• Compact of Plombiers (France), 1858: This was an agreement between Piedmont - Sardinia, and
France. The agreement was for the French Support to Piedmont- Sardinia in the war against Austria to
gain control over Lombardy and Venetia and Piedmont- Sardinia will transfer Nice and Savoy regions
to France.
• Austria- Piedmont War, 1859: Support of France to Piedmont- Sardinia. The result was that the
Austrian country by Lombardy was dismantled. But Napoleon Ill withdrew the support.
• Truce of Villafranca (France & Austria): In the northern German states there took place revolts during
�
the war i.e. in Tuscany, Parma, Modena, Romagna. Romagna repudiated the authority of the Pope
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because it was a Papal State. The other three states overthrew their rulers and they urged union with LL
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Piedmont. Piedmont was the only state having an Italian Leader. There was a possibility that these z
regions could get with Piedmont- Sardinia, leading it to become a powerful nation, which could pose a 0

challenge to France. Also, France did not want to take a fight with big powers like Austria and German
States, because fighting with Austria would get Prussia into the war as well, supporting Austria.
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 Compact of
Crimean Wa r, Plombiers Truce of
1854-56 (France), 1858 Villafranca

Paris Austria­
Congress, Piedmont
1856 Wa r, 1859

A chain of events leading to Unification:

• As per the terms of Truce of Villafranca, Piedmont would be getting Lombardy, but not Venetia. But
this gave birth to a long chain of events leading to unification. During this time when the battle was on
and even later the people Tuscany, Parma, Modena, Romagna had revolted and wanted to form a
union with Piedmont.
• Napoleon Ill wanted that; the rulers overthrown should be restored. But they could not be restored
because of the revolting scenario here. In this scenario, the British made proclamation supporting the
Italian people. Britain proclaimed that the Italian affairs should be settled by the Italians themselves
and foreign powers should not involve.
• Besides Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II were smart statesmen. They did not want to offend Napoleon
Ill. Cavour entered into a new alliance with Napoleon 111, urging him to all allow Piedmont to unify
these.
• The offers of Savoy and Nice, in 1860, Napoleon Ill also agreed and British support was already there.
So Cavour held a Plebiscite in Tuscany, Parma, Modena, Romagna. On the basis of Plebiscite, this
region was also unified. Savoy and Nice were given to France.

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 • The unification of Northern Italy except Venetia in 1860. The development in the Northern states,
Tuscany, Parma, Modena, Romagna gave birth to a revolutionary scenario in the Southern States.
• This was the time, the people made an appeal to Garibaldi, a military General. He was a representative
of unified Italy and was anti-Pope and anti-to many rulers. People appealed to conduct a military
campaign in southern states and free them from their rulers. Garibaldi started from Genoa, following
the sea route came to Sicily and here he captured Sicily from its ruler, then he moved to
Naples and
captured it. He did this in the name of Victor Emmanuel II.
• Garibaldi volunteers were known as Red-Shirts. This Military campaign is popularly known as
"Garibaldi's thousand Red Shirts".
• After Naples, Garibaldi wanted to capture Rome, but Rome was having authority, he was having
Catholic Church. Pope was having the support of France; a French garrison was there for the
protection of Pope. So, Garibaldi was stopped after this in Southern Italy.
• Victor Emmanuel II started from Piedmont and entered the Papal states and captured Marche and
Umbria and then moved towards South to Naples. Then Garibaldi transferred the two Sicily to Victor
Emmanuel II and then, Plebiscite was conducted in two Sicily and Umbria. The result was in favour of a
union with Piedmont. Thus, Marche, Umbria, and two Sicily were incorporated in Piedmont in 1861.
• In 1861, the whole of Italy, except Venetia and Rome was unified under Piedmont.
• 1866: A war between Prussia and Austria and Austria was supported by the other German States.
This was known as the Battle of Sadowa. In this battle Piedmont was with Prussia. Victor Emmanuel
II was with Bismarck. In this battle, Austria was defeated and Bismarck was able to unify Northern
Germany and Piedmont Emmanuel II got Venetia, which was under Austrian control.
• In 1870, the war took place between Prussia and France. In this war also, Piedmont is with Prussia. In
this war, the Battle of Sedan, France was defeated. During this time, France was under great pressure
and so the French withdrew soldiers from Rome. Victor Emmanuel II seized this opportunity and
captured Rome.
• Pope resisted and he was made prisoner in Vatican and Rome was captured and made the capital of
new Italy. Earlier the capital was Florence from 1859.
Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807- 1882)
• Garibaldi is known as the sword of Italian Unification, and Mazzini was known as the Prophet.
• Garibaldi was a soldier, a military Commander. He was a Guerrilla fighter. He was anti- Pope and a
Nationalist, revolutionary, and a believer in Republic.
3 phases of the role of Garibaldi: �
• In the Revolutionary movement of Mazzini. He became a member of Mazzini Young Italy and �
LL
participated in revolts ad movements under the leadership of Mazzini. 0
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• In Piedmont- Austria War 1859: A volunteered to support Piedmont against Austria. 0
• Military expedition in the kingdom of Two Sicily in 1860, also known as "Expedition of 1000
Redshirts."
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110
 Role of Foreign Elements
• France: Supporting the war against Austria and supporting the idea of Plebiscite and the four
Northern States.
• Britain: By a Proclamation of no foreign intervention.
• Prussia: two wars in 1866 and 1870 were fought with Prussia.

Risorgimento and Italia lrredenta

• Risorgimento refers to the Political Unification of Italy that took place in 1870-71.

Sample Question: Throw the light on Risorgimento.

• Italia lrredenta means Unredeemed Italy, which means that though Italy became unified in 1870-71,
certain regions couldn't become a part of Italy. This is unredeemed Italy.
• Trieste in the North-Eastern part of Italy and Trent in the North.
• These two regions became a part of Italy after first World War.

Impact of Unification of Italy 0 01:14:57

• Rise of New Nation-State
• Change in the Political Map of Europe
• A great impetus to Nationalism in Europe
• Impact on International Relations
• Italy became a part of New Imperialism from the 1870s
• It destroyed the Vienna Order

Both the Italian and German Unification completed the destruction of the Vienna Order, a conservative order.

Question:
• Elements of S i m i l a rities betwee n Germ a n a n d Ita l i a n U n ification.
• Elements of Dissi m i l a rities between Germ a n a n d Ita l i a n U n ifi cation.
� • Co m p a rison of C a m i l l o Benso Cou nt of Cavo u r a n d B i s m a rck.
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 M a i nstrea m Eu ropea n H istory
Fi rst World Wa r ( Pa rt- 1)
Introduction
The First World War (World War-I) began in 1914 and ended in 1918 followed by a Paris peace conference
in 1919. The 1870, marked the Unification of Germany and Italy. After 1870-71, new trends emerged which
gave the birth to l s' world war in 1914.

Bismarck's Foreign Policy 0 00:05:02

Maintenance of Balance of Power & Isolation of France

• Germany unified in 1870-71 under leadership of Prussia (emperor) & Prussian Chancellor Bismarck.
• Bismarck's foreign policy creates ground for First World War
• Before 1871, Bismarck foreign policy was to Unify Germany.
• New Germany created after defeating France in 1870. So, France is considered as a new threat for
Germany by Bismarck.
• Bismarck created a new system of alliances which represent the core of Bismarck's Foreign Policy.
• The term 'new system of alliances' denotes the peace time alliances. It was a diplomatic alliance.
• Objective of the alliance are:
► To isolate France and make it weak.
► To maintain a balance of power.
• Finally, he could create 'Triple alliance' which was formed in 1882.
• Triple alliance constitutes Germany, Austria and Italy.
• This new system of alliance provoked counter alliance and paved the ground for 1st world war.

System of Alliances

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113
 in 1907.
• Serbia had a bilateral conflict with Austria and later it transformed into an international conflict.
• Germany supported Austria and Russia, France and Britain supported Serbia, thereby transforming a
st
local conflict to a full-fledged 1 world war in 1914.
• Italy remained neutral though she was a part of Triple Alliance. Later Italy signed secret agreement and
joined war inside of Triple Entente.
• U.S., Japan also joined Triple Entente and known as Allies.
• Germany and Austria are also joined by Bulgaria and Turkey and known as Central power.

Central Powers Allies

• Germany • France

• Austria • Russia

• Bulgarian • Britain

• Turkey • U.S.

• Japan

• Italy

• Serbia

Nationalism 0 00:21:36
• Marked the growth of Radical Nationalism (1870-71 to 1914).
...
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111
• Nationalism is strengthened by the revolutions and u nifications happening across Europe. It was
further strengthened by thinkers, writers, and philosophers.
• During these periods, Nationalism gives an impetus to militaristic imperialism.
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 Militarism
• Period of 1870- 7 1 to 19 14, there began:
► Armament Race
► Conscription (essential m i l itary services)
► U niversal m i l itary trai n i ng
• So, this period is marked as Period of Armed Peace (Peace prevai led yet armed).

Imperialistic Rivalry
• 187 1 - 1 9 1 4 marked New I m perial ism which gave birth to I m perial ist and economic Rival ry.
• Example: Moroccan Crisis (1905- 1908- 19 1 1) , Bosn ian Crisis ( 1 908) .

Disruption of Balance of Power � 00:31:07

• Balance of power means powers are balanced and it plays an i m portant role i n checki ng confl ict and
war.
• U neq ual d istri bution of balance of power can trigger confl ict and war.
• Before 1870- 7 1 , Britai n , Russia, Austria, Prussia established balance of power.
• After 1870- 7 1 , it marked the emergence of New Germany.
• From 1888 onwards Germany was ru led by Kaiser William I I who was a great nationalist, imperialist
and an expansionist.
• The emergence of new powerfu l Germany created a d isru ption of balance of power.

Eastern Question
• The eastern question was the issue of the pol itical and economic i nstabil ity i n the Ottoman Empire
th th
from the late 18 to early 20 centu ry.
• The central problem of Eastern question was: What was to take the place of Tu rkish Empire i n the
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;: event of her d isintegration?
� Example: Bal kan wars 1 9 1 2 - 1 3 served as a prel ude to WWI .
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t Responsibility of Germany for World War I

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The Immediate Cause
• Serbia-Austria confl ict over Austria annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908.
• Assassination of crown pri nce of Austria i n Bosnia- Herzegovina which became the i m med iate cause.

First World War- A War of Tension Not Intention 0 00:46:28

• No cou ntry wants to fight a world war but it happened because high tension prevai led i n Europe
( 1870's- 19 14).
• Why h igh tension?
► New system of al liance
► Aggressive national ist
► Economic I m perialistic rival ries
► M i l itarism

Europe was Sick (1870's - 19 14)

• The whole Europe was sick with imperialism, aggressive nationalism, militarism etc. wh ich was
l i n ked to prevai ling h igh tension.

Entry of Japan & USA 0 00:52:28

• Japan wanted to fu rther strengthen her imperialistic interest in far-eastern region, and she joi ned
war supporting All ies.
• Causes of entry of the U.S. i n World War 1
► Economic I nterests: H uge loans provided to British and French Govt. by USA Govt. and
Busi nessmen
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► Germany's Invasion & Atrocities in Belgium: This gives rise to strong anti -German feel ing in
America.
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► Sinking of Lusitania: German U- boat sunk British passenger ship wh ich had many American 1:

citizens. �
► Resumption of submarine attacks by Germans after Lusitan ia sin kage. �
► Zimmerman Telegram asked Mexico to declare war on the U.S. if U.S. declare war on Germany.
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Victory of Allies and Defeat of Central Powers (1918)
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Reasons for defeat of central powers and victory of Al lies a,

• Effective Leadership of Lloyd George (British PM) :::,

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• U n ity of com mand of All ies.
• Support of Colonies to Al l ies. tiC:
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• Power of Central Powers rested mai n ly on Germany.

116
 • Entry of USA.

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Previous Year's Questions

• To what extent can Germany be held responsible for causing the two World Wars?
Discuss critically. (UPSC 2015)

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 MAI NSTREAM EU ROPEAN H ISTO RY
FI RST WO RLD WAR - PART I I
Introduction
The First World War (1914-1918) was followed by Paris Peace conference on 1919.

Paris Peace Conference (1919)

0 00:01:07
st
• It marked the end of 1 World War.
• It was a conference of victors/Allies i.e. U.S, Britain, France Italy &Japan
• Woodrow Wilson (U.S.) - Lloyd George (British PM) - Georges Clemenceau (France) - Orlando (Italy
later retreated) played a major role.
• Objectives
► To deliberate on issues of resettlement
► To deliberate on issues of future peace.
► Germany was hold responsible for the war by the conference.

Conflicts In Paris Peace Conference

• Conflicts of Personalities: The four representatives had different personalities and approaches
thereby having frequent ideological clashes.

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• Conflicts of National interests: Each of the four countries had different national interests.
For example, France wanted to weaken Germany considerably whereas U.S.A & Britain wanted to
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maintain dominance in world power.
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I • Conflict between Idealism & Materialism:
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► European Materialism: Territorial gains & war compensation money. In the conflict, it's said that
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t;;c:: Wilson's 14 Points 0 00: 14:46
• Open diplomacy without secret treaties
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• Economic free trade on the seas during war and peace
• Equal trade conditions

I • Decrease armaments among all nations

z • Adjust colonial claims
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a. • Evacuation of all Central Powers from Russia and allow it to define its own independence
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c:: • Belgium to be evacuated and restored
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• Readjust Italian borders
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Austria-Hungary to be provided an opportunity for self-determination
Redraw the borders of the Balkan region creating Romania, Serbia and Montenegro
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 • Creation of a Turkish state with guaranteed free trade in the Dardanelles
• Creation of an independent Polish state
• Creation of the League of Nations

Principle of Nationalism & Self-Determination In Paris Peace Conference

• Territories of the defeaters viz Germany, Austria, Bulgaria, Turkey, and retreater Russia were slashed in
order to create new states.
• For example, Hungary created from Austria, Finland created from Russia.
• Rise of new states rested on the principle of nationalism & self-determination. But this principle was
not implemented in full-fledged manner.
• Mandate system- Certain regions placed under big power in name of safeguarding them. Example,
Palestine placed under Britain.
• This mandate system is the negation of principle of nationalism and self-determination.

Paris Treaty 0 00:27:53

• Treaty of Versailles: Deprived Germany of certain territories, colonies, population, resources, the
treaty puts heavy war compensation and checks on her military.
• Treaty of St. Germain-Austria: It separated several territories of Austria to create new states.
• Treaty of Neuilly-Bulgaria �
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• Treaty of Serves (Treaty of Lausanne, 1923) -Turkey I
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• Treaty of Trianon- Hungary- meant for separation of Hungary

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Treaty of Yersaltles. 1919

�fo��i3o; Danzig r��:� ��J�. 1945

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 Treaty of Versailles, not a Peace Treaty but a Ceasefire of 20 years
• A dictated Peace.
• This national humiliation created a ground for arise of Nazi Germany (an aggressive nationalism) and
nd
resulted in the birth of 2 World War.
nd
• Treaty of Paris, 1919- 2 World War, 1939, marked the 20years period of cease fire.
nd
• Treaty of Versailles sowed the seeds of 2 World War.

League of Nations
• It was a product of Wilson's mind, a move towards internationalism.
• Its headquarters was in Geneva.
• The organs of the League of Nations are: General Assembly, Council (consists of four permanent
member and four non-permanent member) , Permanent Court of Justice - located at the Hague, and
Secretariat.
• Objectives: Collective security and Peace and economic problems as well.
• It provided the model for United Nations, 1945.

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� • It brought about fall of four empires ie. Austria, Germany, Hungary and Turkey.
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• It gave birth to League of Nations.
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 • It gave impetus to nationalism. Example, nationalism in Turkey, and aggressive nationalism in
Germany & Italy.
• It created a crisis situation which gives fillip to the growth of socialistic ideas. Example, Russian
Revolution.

Economic
• Massive losses of both economic & human.
• Great destruction of industries.
• Extreme fall of supplies.
• Sharp rise of Inflation.
• International trade were greatly impacted.
• Debt crises, for example, huge war compensation.

Social
• Massive causalities which brought a dramatic demographic change.
• Awakening of women rights and freedom. A movement of women liberation aroused.
• Strengthening of Trade Union.
• Rise of Anti-war literature.
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• Emergence of an atheistic attitude in Europe which eventually gave rise of a new society in Europe.
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Disillusionment (Disappointment) - The Most Lasting I mpact
• Anti-war literature 0
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• Atheistic trend c::
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• Middle class disillusionment
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• Western Liberals disillusionment (because of deliberations of Paris Peace Conference) . The way the (/)
c::
government dictating the economists and representatives on the conference regarding reparation
money. E.g., J M Keynes, a British economist wrote critical analysis about reparation money.
• Disillusionment of Germany.
• Disillusionment of Italy (promises kept by France and Britain not fulfilled) I
• Disillusionment of Turkey.
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• To some extent Europe was eclipsed due to rising power of U SA.

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1 22
 USA Isolation
• 1829- 1917, a period of US isolation.
• 1917-1912, U.S. preparation in war.
• 1919-1941, period of U.S. isolation.
• This isolation was the result of revulsion against war that took place in U.S.

How this revulsion found expression?

• Democrats lost 3 presidential elections.
• U.S. refused to ratify treaty of Versailles
• U.S. refused to join League of Nations.
• U.S. imposed immigration restrictions in 1920s
• U.S. imposed higher tariff in foreign goods.

Economic Crisis (19 19- 1939)

After 1919 Economic 1929 1939
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2 nd world war
= crisis I Economic crisis II
Impacts: I mpacts:
� 1. Nazism in Germany
1. Rise of fascism In Italy
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3. Fall of monarchies in Europe

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c:: War to End All Wars
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� The proclamation Of 1 World War as 'War To End All Wars' failed Miserably because in 1939 the World
t;;c:: War II began.
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Total War
• Term coined by a German Commander Erich Von Ludendroff
I • Total war means total involvement of nations.
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► Entire nation (military as well as non-military + economic and human) involved while in previous
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scientist, educationist etc.
Therefore, World War 1 in many ways is different from all the past wars.
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1 23
 � MAI NSTREAM EU ROPEAN H ISTO RY
� SECO N D WO RLD WAR
Introduction
• The Second World War was started in 1939 and ended in 1945.
• 1919-1939 marked the emergence of new trends.

Paris Peace Conference and Disillusionment 0 00:02:20

• After the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, there was a rise of disillusionment in Europe.
• For example,
► Disillusionment in Italy which results in the rise of Fascism.
► Disillusionment in Germany results in the rise of Nazism.
• Seeds of the Second World War were sowed in the Paris Peace Conference.

Treaty of Versailles-not a peace treaty but a cease fire of twenty years

• The Treaty caused a great national humiliation in Germany, and this triggered the rise of
aggressive nationalism in the form of Nazism in Germany under Hitler.
• Hitler attack on Poland in 1939 and it became the immediate cause of the 2nd World War.

Ideological Fronts and Conflicts

c::: Ideologica l
Fronts
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0 Ca pitalism a n Aggressive
Li bera l Com munism nationalism and
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democracy militarism
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;'.5 government movement.
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representing fascist.
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1 25
 • The Republic was supported by the USSR whereas Falange was supported by Germany and Italy.
• This civil war give rise to a full-fledged military conflict.
• The result of this war is the victory of Fascist Falange in Spain on 1939 under Gen. Francisco Franco
• It is said that the Spanish civil war served as the rehearsal for the 2nd world war.

Policy of Appeasement 0 00:23:02

• Policy of appeasement means the policy pursued by Britain and France to pacify the aggressive
nationalist Germany and Italy.
• The factors behind policy of appeasement are:
► Since Britain and France didn't want to pursue another war, they did not pursue any policy to stop
aggressive nationalism.
► The western power believed that mistakes were committed at the Paris Peace Conference and
some of the German grievances were quite genuine.
► Great Depression, 1929 - a massive economic crisis which weakened Britain and France.
► Fear of communism - They believed that Germany and Italy would act as a buffer for the spread of
Communism.
• The results of this policy were that it strengthened the moral of aggressive nationalist of fascist
powers.
• Thus, the policy of appeasement was a parochial policy. It played a role in the failure of the League of
Nations because Britain and France were supposed to maintain peace by providing meaningful a::
leadership to the league.
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Munich Conference, 1938 0

• The agreement allowed for the cessation to Germany of Sudetenland.

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agreement. LU
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• Czechoslovakia was forced to agree to the deal under pressure from Great Britain and France which
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had a military alliance with the country. g!!1
• After the transfer, Britain and France assured Czechoslovakia of her territorial integrity.
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• But, Nazi Germany annexed whole of Czechoslovakia and it was an eye opener for Britain and France.
• So, Munich Conference, 1938 was a policy of appeasing Germany. �
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Quest for Security LU
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Locarno Pact, 1925-26
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• It was a multilateral treaty between Britain-France-Germany-Italy Czechoslovakia-Poland­
Belgium. z
• France wanted a guarantee for the security of the French eastern border so that Germans won't be <i:
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1 26
 aggressive further.
• Therefore, Locarno Pact was signed in 1925-26.
• It's based on the principle of non-aggression.
• Germany accepted her western frontier permanently as defined in the Treaty of Versailles.
• The Locarno pact marked the end of the era of conflict and began the era of arbitration /non­
aggression.
• Later, the Locarno Pact became meaningless as Hitler repudiated the pact in 193 3.
• The quest for peace and security failed and prepared ground for the 2nd world war.

The Great Depression 1929 0 00:45:26

• The Great Depression 1929 give birth to the trend of- economic nationalism, imperialism and Nazism
in Germany.

Economic
c:::
nationa lism
I m peria l ism Nazism
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c::: Failure of League of Nations
0
Major objective of the League of Nations was to maintain collective security and peace. But it failed

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0 • The league of nations was not a truly representative organization. It had limited membership and the
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(/) U.S.A. did not join it. It's viewed as an organization of only France and Britain.
� • The League of Nations failed to check any violations of the frontiers established after WWI through
g5!! peace treaties.
J: • For example, Germany annexed Austria, Czechoslovakia, Italy invaded Ethiopia, Russia invaded
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Finland and Japan invaded Manchuria.
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The Immediate Cause 0 00:15:18
w • The immediate cause was Nazi Germany's attack on Poland in 1939. Britain and France resisted the
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Responsibility of Germany for the War
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127
 • Imperialistic and Militaristic aggression. Hitler presented the doctrine of Lebensraum (living space for
Germans).
• He glorified war and his actions were anti-internationalism.

Hitler wanted a short war with Poland not a major war

• It signifies that 'Hitler's policy is characterized by making moves step by step in order to expand
Germany towards the east. He didn't want to fight a major war. But, many historians refused the view
because
► Nazi Documents of 1920's and Mann-Kempt both suggests that Hitler nurtured a world war.
► In his autobiography, there is a mention that 'State Boundaries are created by man and destroyed
by man'. It implies that we are not bound to follow the state boundary.
► Thus, the historians claimed that Hitler had nurtured a great war for a long time.

Two Parties in the War

• Allies powers are France, Britain, USSR, USA and Nationalist China under Chiang kai Shel.
• Axis powers are Germany, Italy and Japan.
• The result of the war is that Axis power got defeated and Allied power emerged victorious.

Entry of USA
a::
• On December 1941, the US joined the war.
• The U.S.A. and Japan clashes emerged in Pacific region. 0
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• Japan proceeded aggressive policies towards China and the U.S. was supporting Nationalist China a::
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under Chiang Kai Shek.
• The U.S. demanded Japanese withdrawal from China in which Japan refused. The U.S. staged a naval 0
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blockade of Japan and it resulted in cutting off the oil supplies to Japan. 0
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• Eventually, Japan made preparations for the offensive and in Dec. 1941 made a surprise attack on U.S. LU
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naval base Pearl Harbor in Hawaii Island. �

• This surprise attack hardened the attitude of U.S. towards the Japan. and became the factor of U.S. g!!1
entry in the 2nd world war. :I:
• Because of the entry of the U.S. and Japan, the Pacific also emerged as a major front from 1942
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Impacts 0 01:10:00 LU
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• Fall of Fascist and Militarist Powers.
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• Fall of Europe (militarily and economically exhausted). a::
• Change in Balance of Power (emergence of U.S. and U.S.S.R.). z
• Communism in Eastern Europe <i:
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1 28
 • Cold war (conflicting scenario between superpowers U.S. and U SSR
• Division of Europe between Communist & Capitalists.
• Division of Germany and Korea
• Change in Political map of the world.
• Decolonization
• Rise of Third World and NAM.
• Foundation of international organization U NO-IBRD-IMF-GATT
• Age of Human Rights. (1948 U N Declaration of Human Rights)

Europe was Eclipsed

• Europe was partially eclipsed for the first time because of the rise of the U.S. after WWI.
nd
• For the 2 time, Europe was totally eclipsed because of rise of two superpower nations U.S.A. and
nd
U.S. S. R. after the 2 World War. This marked the fall of Europe-end of European hegemony

Second World War as a Total War

• The second world war was a total war because of the involvement of the entire nation (economic
resource as well as military resources) .
• New capability such as,
► Military aviation on a large scale.
c:::
► Nuclear bombings- (U.S. used 2 nuclear bombs against Japan) .

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Previous Year's Questions
0
C • To what extent can Germany be he.Id responsible. -for causing the two World Wars? Discuss
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1 29
 POST- 1945 WO RLD - CO LD WAR

Introduction
• The Second World War ended in 1945 and the history thereafter is known as Contemporary World
History or Post 1945 World History.

The Cold War 0 00:02:01

• The Cold War represents a major trend of the post 1945 world and this refers to having a war like
situation; a situation of conflict and tension, but not actual war in which there is military engagement.
• The term Cold War was coined by American journalist Walter Lippmann in his book "The Cold War"
• The cold war began in 1946 and ended in 1991.
• The two parties involved in the Cold War were the capitalist bloc, USA and communist bloc, USSR

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Origin of Cold War
C View 1: George Kennan:
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0 • Emerged in the 19 50s and presented mainly by the American and the British historians; one of whom
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is George Kennan. He presented the view that the USSR was responsible for the origin of the cold
C
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war. The USSR was headed by an aggressive leader Stalin, who embarked upon a policy to expand
0 communist regime in Eastern Europe and gradually the entire Eastern Europe came under communist
LO rule. So, according to him, the state of communism in Eastern Europe, emerged as a threat or challenge
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• The capitalist world, especially the USA, began to respond by way of self-defense and triggered the
0 Cold War.
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131
View 2: Gabriel Kolko
• This view was presented mainly by Soviet historians and they held the US responsible for the Cold
War.
• Their view is that the USA was unnecessarily obsessed with the threat of communism. In fact, the
spread of communism in Eastern Europe was a move on the part of the Soviet Union to create a friendly
environment. But since the USA was obsessed with this threat, the U SA began to respond too
offensively and that triggered the Cold War.

View 3: Martin Mccauley

• It's was a recent view emerged in 1980s.
• According to this view, both the USSR and USA were responsible for the origin of the Cold War. The
Second World War created a political vacuum after the fall of Germany in Europe and the fall of major
power Japan in the Far East. No other countries except the U SSR and U SA were in a position to fill the
vacuum because the rest were exhausted because of the war. Since this vacuum couldn't be filled
through mutual agreement, conflict began and both the U SA and U SSR embarked upon policies to
dominate international politics particularly the Western politics which resulted in the Cold war.

Nature of the Cold War

• Not a hot war: No actual military conflict took place between the U SA and U SSR.
• Proxy Wars: Proxy wars refer to the war supported by the leaders of the blocs. For eg: Korean wars
between North Korea and South Korea 1952-53, Vietnam War 1954-1973, etc.
• Ideological conflict: It was characterized by the conflict between capitalism and communism;
between liberal democracy and dictatorship of the proletariat
• Politics of Balance of Power: In the light of the theory of political vacuum, there was a kind of renewal
of the old politics of balance of power. The leaders of the U SA and USSR embarked upon policies to
dominate and began to compete with each other. This was a new form of the politics of balance of
power.
• Armament Race: There began a massive investment in building arms and armament, huge investment
in space, developing military technology. The result of this armament race is the rise of several new c::
military products eg. Stealth Technology, Nuclear bombs, Intercontinental ballistic missile.
• Military Alliances: Both the blocs got engaged in forging military alliances against each other. For eg. C
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Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), North Atlantic 0
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Treaty Organization (NATO), Warsaw Pact
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► NATO and the Warsaw Pact emerged as two major alliances. NATO was a military alliance of the ...I
capitalist bloc, and Warsaw Pact was a military alliance of communist bloc
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• First European, then Global: Cold War initially it's early phase i.e. 1946-1949 was European in
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character. But 1950 onwards with the Korean wars, the Cold War acquired a global character. .-1

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 Progress of the Cold War

1946 1960s 1970s 199 1

PROG RESS OF THE COLD WAR

1946: Beginning of Cold War
1960s: Peak of Cold War
1970s onwards: Trend of declining
1991: Mark the end of cold war
• The Cold war was European in character till 1949, 1950 onwards it became global with the Korean
Wars. The wars between North Korea and South Korea during the period 1950-1953; north was
supported by a communist and South supported by the capitalist. So it was an expression of the Cold
a:: War in Asiatic region and an expression of proxy war.
• By the 1960s, the Cold war was at its peak which is clearly manifested in the Cuban Missile Crisis.
C • By the 1970s onwards, a trend of decline began. This trend is known as Detente, French word
...I
0 meaning easing of tension. It happened because of three factors:
u
• The change in the attitude of USA
C
a:: • The change the attitude of USSR
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0 • The change in attitude of the Western European powers like West Germany, France Britain.
LO • This change in attitude was because they began to consider that the cold war scenario was not gainful.
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.-i Also, there were some events such as the Vietnam War in which the USA participated in order to put a
check on the rise of communism in Vietnam against the nationalists in Vietnam who were communist
0 under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh. The USA miserably failed.
a.

1 33
 • Such events also played a role in changing USA attitudes as they involve a huge cost with no success.
• Germany got divided in this cold war situation because the East Germany area that came under
Soviet control emerged communist. Germany Chancellor Willy Brandt initiated a policy called
Ostpolitik that stood for cooperation and unity of German people. So that changed the attitude of the
two superpowers and the Western European powers particularly West Germany, France and UK
played a role in bringing about what is known as Detente, that means relaxation of tension.
• This relaxation of tension had certain setbacks i.e not complete relaxation. For example, in 1979, the
USSR invaded Afghanistan. The period 1980-90 is considered the period of the second or the new
Cold War. Earlier it was an ideological conflict between communist bloc and the capitalist bloc. But
now, this was not essentially an ideological conflict, it was essentially a conflict between USA and
USSR
• For Eg; China the communist nation was with the USSR in the first phase of the Cold war, but during
this time, China was with the USA.

In 1985 a new leader emerged in the USSR; Mikhail Gorbachev. He was an advocate of international peace
and cooperation. He presented the idea of international cooperation and peace and development. So the
ideas of Gorbachev representing International Peace and Cooperation played a role in giving a boost to
Detente. The move was reciprocated by the US president as well. This finally led to the end of the Cold War in
1991.

Phases of the Cold War

1. 1946-49 European character
2. 1950s onwards Global character
3. 1970s onwards Detente (relaxation of tension)
4. 1980s onwards New Cold war

Landmark Events 0 00:38:30

• Fulton Speech, March 1946 - Fulton is a place in the United States. Winston Churchill delivered his c::
speech in the presence of American President Truman. He openly proclaimed that communism was a
threat to the free world. Moreover, there was need to stop it urgently. In this speech, he used the term C
...I
0
"Iron Curtain" which represents a divide between capitalist and communist. u
• Truman Doctrine, March 1947: Truman was an American president; he pursued an anti-communism C
c::
...I
policy which is known as policy of containment. It is a policy to stop the spread of communism.
0
• Marshall Plan, April 1947: This was a plan for the rehabilitation and restructuring of Western
Europe. It was an expression of the tremendous victory of the policy of containment of communism. So ..,.
LO

m
Marshall Plan was a move to contain communism in Europe, to stop it from moving beyond Eastern .-I

Europe. Huge investment was made and this plan became successful.
0
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1 34
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• Brussels Treaty, March 1948: It was the first military alliance as an expression of cold war on the part
of the capitalistic world against communism. Many capitalistic nations were involved like Britain,
Belgium, the Netherlands, but the US was not the part of it. So it provided a major ground for the next
military alliance NATO.
• Berlin Blockade, 1948-49 & Berlin Wall, 1961: Germany got divided into two parts Western and
Eastern Part where the Western part became the part of the American, British and French sector
0::: which signifies capitalist and the Eastern Part came under Soviet which signifies Communist.

C The Berlin Blockade was an attempt by the Soviet Union to limit the ability of Allied countries to travel to
...I
0 their sectors of Berlin. On August 13, 1961, the Communist government of the German Democratic
u
C
Republic began to build a barbed wire and concrete wall (Berlin Wall) between East and West Berlin. It
...I
0::: primarily served the objective of stemming mass emigration from East Berlin to West Berlin. The Berlin Wall
0 fell in 1989, marking a symbolic end to the cold war.
LO
"=I'
en • NATO, 1949: NATO was established by the North Atlantic Treaty (also called the Washington Treaty)
.-4

on 4th April, 1949, by the United States, Canada, and several Western European nations to provide
0 collective security against the Soviet Union.
a.

1 35
 • Korean Wars, 1950-53: I n 1 9 50, there beg a n a wa r between North Korea representi ng com m u n ist
and South Korea representi ng ca pita l i st. This wa r is known as Korean wa rs. In this wa r, the north was
su pported by the com m u n ist bloc and South Korea s u p ported by the ca pita l ist bl oc. This is an exa m p l e
o f p roxy wa r d u ri n g t h e C o l d Wa r period .
• Warsaw Pact, 1945: The Wa rsaw Pact ( 1 9 55) was sig ned between Russia and her satellite states
shortly after West Germa ny was a d m itted to NATO. The Pact was a m utu a l defense a g reement, which
the Western cou ntries perceived as a reaction agai nst West Germa ny's members h i p of NATO.
• Vietnam War 1954-73: U SA partici pated i n order to put a check on the rise of com m u n ism i n Vietn a m
agai nst t h e national ist i n Vietn a m w h o were a l s o com m u n ist u nder t h e leaders h i p o f Ho Chi Minh. The
U SA miserably fa iled.
• Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962: Cuba g ot i nvolved i n the Cold Wa r when the US broke off its d i p l om atic
relations with Cuba i n 196 1 , and the Soviet U n ion i ncreased their economic aid to Cuba. In 196 1 , the
U SA p l a n ned the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba, i ntending to overth row the head of Cuban state (Fidel
Castro), who was backed by the Soviet U n ion . H owever, the operation fa iled. Fidel Castro then
a p pealed to the Soviet U n ion for m i l ita ry help, to which the Soviet U n ion decided to set u p a nuclear
missile l a u ncher i n Cuba a i med at the U SA. The Cuban M issile Crisis brought two su perpowers on the
brink of a nuclear war. H owever, the crisis was averted d i p l o m atica l ly.

Impact of the Cold War 0 00:59:44

• It created a confl icti ng I nternational Relations; created a situ ation of i nternational relations based on
ideology i.e. ca pitalism and socialism .
• It g ave a boost to m i l ita ris m .
• It g ave boost to a rm a ment race
• It g ave boost to m i l ita ry a l l i a nces
• lt g ave birth to proxy war
• It wea kens U n ited N ations beca use U N itself beca me a victim of Cold Wa r

End of Cold War

• View 1: Detente 1970's
• View 2: Fra g i l ity of Soviet Economy c::
• View 3: Role of U SA i n 1980's
C
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Role of Gorbachev in the End of Cold War 0 01:05:13 0
u
• Gorbachev g ave a fi l l i p to Detente. He was a n advocate of i nternational peace a n d cooperation. H e
C
c::
p resented t h e i d e a o f i nternati o n a l cooperation a n d peace a n d developm ent. T h e move was ...I
reciprocated by the U S president as wel l . This fi n a l ly led to the end of the Cold Wa r i n 199 1 . 0

Impact of the End of the Cold War ..,.

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• It g ave birth to a new worl d ; cha racterized by de-ideolog ization of i nternational rel ations, moves
towa rds Envi ron menta l i s m , m a rked by economic cooperation etc. 0
a.

1 36
 POST- 1945 WORLD - FALL O F
CO M M U N ISM & US H EG EM O NY
Introduction
• The cold war began in 1946 and ended during the years 1989-1991.
• After the end of the Cold war, the Communist regime began to fall.
• The term "fall of communism" refers to two specific sub-events -
► Disintegration of the USS R, the leader of the Communist Bloc by 1991.
► The collapse of or the end of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe.
• US became a dominant nation after the fall of communism and it's referred to as US hegemony

The Existence of USSR 0 00:0 3 : 1 6

The short life span of the USSR between 1917 and 1991 was dominated by the five leaders.

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C The USSR was both a union of several component republics and a huge massive union called Russia.
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0 Disintegration of the USSR 0 00:07:53
1. Economy: Massive expenditure in space and defence after USSR involvement in cold war. Gradually the
LO
'q' economy of the USSR began to dwindle. By the 1980's USSR was confronted with a serious economic
m
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crisis, the economy was on the verge of collapse. The economy of the USSR became a factor in its
� disintegration.
0
a.

137
2. Party system: The party system refers to the communist party system. Lenin gave the idea of a Vanguard
party for the proletariat. His Vanguard party was Bolshevik Party, and that party was later renamed as
Communist Party. There emerged a dictatorship of the party, in a state of dictatorship of the proletariat. It
was not progressive, orthodox element began to dominate and it resulted in the crumbling of the party
system.
3. Regime of Control: Control was there from the beginning since the time of Lenin. But with the rise of a
Stalin as a leader, he created a kind of totalitarian culture in the USSR. Every walks of life were controlled
viz polity, society, economy and even cultural aspects. Such control implies denial of rights and this causes
discontent but it was suppressed by force.
4. Nationalities: USSR incorporated several nationalities within it and many of them were by force. Because
of it, the USSR was called a 'Prison of Nations'. So, the incorporation of so many ethnic groups and the
racial elements became problematic and USSR lost internal harmony. There emerged contradictions and
many of these nations wanted freedom and later demanded for freedom. And finally, in the years 1989-
1991 these Republics began to declare independence one by one.
5. Gorbachev's Reforms: When Gorbachev coming to power in 1985, USSR was already confronted with
collapse of economy, orthodoxy of party system and regime of control. He wanted to strengthen the
communist system, the economy and also wanted to dismantle certain elements of control in order to give
people some kind of freedom and rights. Based on this reason, he embarked upon a policy of reforms. But
those reforms eventually went out of control. It was because of, to some extent catastrophic handling of

-
the reforms to some extent because of the rise of several reactions with interests.

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138
 Gorbachev's Reforms 0 00:18:26
The USSR economy was in a collapsing situation where GDP, Industrial production, agricultural production
and exports were falling drastically. The USSR was to import huge amount of food grains from outside. So
there was a need to give it a great push in which Gorbachev introduced the following reforms:
1
• I t mea ns acceleration'

Uskorenie •Accele rating the economy

leaving a great boost to
economic growth
• It means 'restructuring'
• Restructu ring of political,
Pe restroi ka economic and the communist
party system
• Based on market socialism

• It mea ns 'openness'
G l asnost •Al lowing people freedom of
expression and open ness

Fig - Gorbachev's Reforms

Because of the openness policy, people began to react. People began to present their grievances.
Republic's began to demand more autonomy. Orthodox sections within the party began to oppose such
reforms. So the result of this scenario was a kind of confusion emerging in the USSR and Gorbachev
>­
z gradually becoming helpless. There was even a coup against Gorbachev. In this scenario, the Republics
0 began to declare independence and the reason for this was a disintegration of the USSR.
�
w
l!)
w Gorbachev wanted to strengthen communism but finally ended up bringing about its fall. In this context,
J:
V,
:::> should we consider Gorbachev responsible for the disintegration of the USSR?
�
� • His basic intention was to strengthen communism. But there are certain aspects of mishandling of
V,
z reforms and not addressing the situation in a very effective manner. Several aspects of the factors
:::>
� began to emerge and they were not favourable for Gorbachev. For eg. Orthodox element in the party,
�
0 the urges and aspirations of the Republics.
u
11. • To some extent, he created a situation not favourable for him, but to a large extent, he became the
0
...I
...I
victim of the new rising situation. Eventually he became helpless and resigned as a leader of the
USSR in December 1991 and this marked the end of the USSR.
C
...I
a::: A house can be put in order only by a person who feels he is the owner - Gorbachev
0 • This means the people of the USSR should be the participants in strengthening the USSR. For this,
LO people were supposed to be made free and have some freedom of expression. The system would not
'q'
m
.-i be corrected by the role of the government alone, people are equally important. So he wanted to say
that till people felt that they were a part of the nation, they wouldn't be actively involved in making the
0 nation strong.
a.

1 39
By 1980's, the USSR lost vitality to play the role of a superpower
• By the 1980s, the U SSR was confronted with several serious problems, mainly a serious economic
crisis. A strong economy was the basis of the U SSR for a role as a superpower. But since the economy
was weakening gradually, it began to show several downhill trends in the 1980s. It began to show
fragility; it became evident that the role of the U SSR as a superpower too would be hampered.
• So this statement is related to the crisis situation U SSR was confronted with mainly the economic crisis
situation and finally this crisis situation led to its disintegration.

U SSR USA
North
America
East & South
Ea st Asia Australi a
Eastern
Europe Western
Europe

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0
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Emergence of Russia w
C,
• After the disintegration of the U SSR, Russia emerged as the biggest sovereign nation. The permanent w
J:
seat occupied by the U SSR earlier i.e. permanent seat of United Nations Security Council now U)
:)
occupied by Russia. �
• There were move towards creating a new union in the place of Soviet Union which is known as
�
U)

Commonwealth of Independent States but CIS represent the kind of loose confederate union where all z
:)
the units are sovereign estates, unlike the previous union that were the U SSR. �
�
0
u
Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe 0 oo:35:19 LL
0
From 1944 onwards, there emerged communist regimes in almost all of Eastern Europe and during the ...I
...I
period 1989 - 1991, all these communist regimes collapsed.

C
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Causes of fall of communism in Eastern Europe a:::
• Lack of strong mass base - The communist regime emerged in 1944 and towards the end of the 0
Second World War in Eastern Europe. It was not the product of democratic processes. It emerged
..,.
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amidst the political and economic upheavals of the Second World War. It was not based on election .-1

processes. So they didn't have even any strong mass base.

• Widespread dissatisfaction - The communist regimes in Eastern Europe were orthodox regimes, not 0
a.

140
 progressive, not pro-reform, not pro change. So the people of Eastern Europe began to feel that they
were not progressing the way their fraternity was progressing in western part of Europe that was
capitalist. Even with respect to Germany, they found that those living in western part of Germany were
far more developed than the eastern communist regime. So this caused widespread dissatisfaction.
• Soviet leaders always supported suppression in these countries. But when Gorbachev came to power
in 1985, the situation changed. He was liberal, progressive, and a believer in reforms not only in the
USSR but also at eastern part of Europe. But, the USSR was grinning and reforms couldn't play a
significant role. It was heading towards the disintegration and countries of Eastern Europe too.
• Massive demonstrations - So towards the late 1980s, the protest demonstrations began to intensify
in the eastern part of Europe and finally the communist regime succumbed to these massive
demonstrations and protests.
• This fall of com munism along with disintegration of the USSR constitute the event "Fall of communist
bloc".

US Hegemony
• US hegemony refers to US dominance post 1991.
• US hegemony or dominance is visible in the political field, in the military, in economic field and even
cultural field.
• The USSR was the only challenge to the US that disintegrated. Its successor Russia was militarily
>­
z powerful, but no longer a challenge to the power of the US.
0 • US hegemony is given the name unipolarity because there was only one pole of power that was the
�
w USA.
l!)
w • Manifestations of US hegemony
J:
V, ► The US became the most dominant power in the United Nations Security Council.
:::>
� ► Unchallenged military power. For eg. War on terror, War in Afghanistan, War in Iraq
� ► Strong economic power
V,
z ► The social and cultural values of American life began to influence the rest of the world that began a
:::>
� process sometimes known as Americanization. For eg: HBO, Facebook, Apple, Blue jeans etc
�
0
u
11. Communist USSR disintegrated but Communist China has sustained
0
...I • Reasons-
...I
► Reforms without freedom
C ► Socio-economic reforms not overall restructuring
...I ► Absence of liberal approach
a:::
0 ► Less party divide
LO ► Absence of economic fragility
'q'
m
.-i ► Stronger social base of the party
► Not prison of nationalities
0
a.

141
 POST 1945 WO RLD - N EW WO RLD
ORDER
Introduction
• New world order refers to any period of history characterized by fundamental changes in dramatic
way in two fields-
► Balance of Power
► World Political thoughts
• In historical perspective, this term 'new world order' is used for two period of history
► Post 1945 world
► Post 1991 world
But, some historians used this term for the period of post 1919 world.

The World - 1945 to 1990 0 00:04:28

c::: The Post - 1991 World - (New World Order)

0 00:09:17
w
0 • Unipolar Word
c:::
0 ► By 1991, the USSR disintegrated. After 1991, the USA emerged as a lone superpower. The world
0
...J becomes a unipolar.
c:::
0 • Universalization of capitalism and liberal democracies.
� ► Communist blocks were collapsed in post 1991.
�
w • New Doctrines
z
► End of history - presented by Francis Fukuyama in 1989.
0
...J
c::: o Progress of history is over
0 o Communism collapsed and capitalism and liberal democracy could only sustain.
�
in o This theory glorifies capitalism and liberal democracies.
-.:t'
a, ► Clash of civilizations -presented by S.P. Huntington in early 1990's
�
o He stated that the age of conflict is not over yet . There will be a conflict on cultural and
0 civilizational lines.
a.

1 43
 o His view manifested in conflict between western world and Islamic world.
► Dialogue among civilization :
o Presented the idea that in order to save the world from civilizational conflict, there is a need to
bring corporate and harmony that can be done through dialogue among various civilizational
groups.
► Moves towards Disarmament
o Emergence of Non-Proliferation Treaty 1970 and revival of the treaty after 1991.
o Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
o Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty 1993.
► UN Reforms
o Creation of U N Human Rights Council
o Creation of U N Democracy Fund
o Creation of U N Peace Building Commission
o Creation of U N Peace Building Fund.
► End of Military Pacts: Several military alliances were dissolved except NATO. The role of NATO has
been redefined though the basic objective is same i.e collective security
► Multi-ethnic states in crisis: Several multi ethnic states were confronted with serious crises and the
extreme form of this crisis was that they disintegrated. For eg: Disintegration of USSR in 1991,
Split of Czechoslovakia into Czech Republic and Slovakia, Disintegration of Yugoslavia.
► Moves towards Environmentalism: Environmental consciousness or awareness began to emerge
across the world in 1970s and onwards but the world was badly engaged in the Cold War. After the
cold war, nations began to move towards the conservation and the preservation of the Earth's
environment. For eg:United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio
de Janeiro in 1992. Agenda 21, a 300 pages plan to protect the Earth's environment and to
promote sustainable development was framed at this conference.
► Question marks on NAM: It emerged in 1961 which stood for independence and anti-Cold War.
When the cold war came to an end, there were several question marks on non-alignment because
most of the western political analysts considered that NAM was a product of the Cold War and it c::
w
stood for not to align with the communist bloc or with the capitalist bloc. But it lost its relevance after C
c::
the end of the cold war. 0
► Regional Economic Cooperation: After 1991, the world was marked by economic cooperation. For C
...J
eg. Rise of European Union under Maastricht Treaty 1992 that came into force in 1993.
c::
0
�
Reactions to Unipolarity � 00:34:54 �
w
• Unipolarity represents U S hegemony and ' Reactions to Unipolarity' simply means reactions to US z
hegemony. Later, there began to emerge the idea known as Multipolarity. So, multipolarity refers to an C
...J
European Union, India-Russia-China
idea that represents a reaction against unipolarity. For eg: c::
0
TROIKA, BRICS, IBSA
�
• In the debate for defining today's world as unipolar or multipolar, most of the political analysts would Ill
'It
opine that it is neither unipolar nor multipolar. 0)
.-1

0
a..

1 44
 POST-1945 WORLD - THIRD
WORLD & NAM
Introduction
NAM stands for Non-alignment Movement.

The Three Worlds 0 00:00:42

Three worlds concept emerged in the late 1940s and early 1950s.This was a period of the Cold War and the
three world's concept had economic character as well as political character.

• The industrialised west

• Small er population ( 15%) but higher GDP (63%)
• The capitali st bloc - USA, Western Europe

• Largely i ndustrialised countries

• Bigger population (33%) and comparatively lower G D P ( 19%)
• The Communist bloc - USSR, Eastern Europe

• Non-industrialized and economically dependent

• Largest population (52%) and lowest GDP (18%)
• Mostly non-aligned - I ndia, Indonesia, Ghana, etc.

But this concept lost relevance during the years 1989-1991 when the cold war was ending, and became
almost irrelevant after the end of the Cold War (post 1991 world).

�
<( The Third World 0 00:07:38
z • It constitutes:
�
0 ► Latin America
...I
c:: ► Africa
0
� ► Asia
0
c::
J: There existed a huge number of colonies in these continents which eventually became free. Latin American
l-

o
...I
colonies became free mostly in the 1820s, the colonies in Africa became free post 1945 period and the
c:: colonies in Asia also became free in the post 1945 period that is after the Second World War. The reason for
0 independence became a common reason among them. These Free states, most of them did not align with
�
LO either the capitalist bloc, or the communist bloc. They largely pursued a policy known as non-alignment.
'q'
m
.-i
• Non alignment means not to align with the communist bloc or the capitalist bloc. This came to be
known as the third world. The expression third world was coined in 1952 by a French demographer,
0 Alfred Sauvy.
a.

1 45
 • From 1952 onwards, the expression third world became common and because of their weak economic
status, they also came to be known as developing world. Due to their geographical location in the
southern hemisphere, they also came to be known as The South and cooperation among them came to
be known as South-South cooperation. Their talks with the developed world representing the north
came to be known as North-South dialogue. This word was also known as Tiers-Monde in French.
• This nomenclature began to lose relevance when the cold war was ending and the end of the Cold War
in 1991 gave a catastrophic blow to the Third World model.

The Third World Solidarity

• The third world represented in fact, the highly heterogeneous grouping. Yet, there was a common link
and that was they were all colonies that were all struggling for independence. And after becoming free,
they wanted to pursue a free policy. Also, they all had a common interest that was developmental
interest after independence. This reason fostered third world solidarity. This eventually gave birth to a
movement what is known as the non-alignment movement.
► Asian Nations Conference -1947- New Delhi
► Asian Nations Conference -1949- New Delhi
► Asian Nations Conference -1954- Colombo
► Asian African Nations Conference-1955- Bandung
► First summit of NAM-1961-Belgrade
► G-77-1964
► G-24-1971
► G-15-1989

The first three conferences are for strengthening Asian Solidarity. The 4th one represents Asian-African
Solidarity. The 5th one represents the beginning of the non-alignment movement in 1961. The 6'\ 7'\ 8th
�
represent third world groupings. <(
z
ell
Rise of Non Alignment Movement (India-Yugoslavia-Egypt-Indonesia-Ghana) 0 00:22:13 0
...I
• These nations struggled hard for independence after becoming free. To remain independent, became 0:::
0
a major reason for the establishment of the non-alignment movement. The vision of independence �
0
has a wider meaning such as pursuing independent policies, pursuing independent foreign policy, 0:::
independent economic development policy etc.
• This vision of independence necessitated that the third world must not align with either the capitalist o
...I
or the communist blocks. This is the reason this came to be known as a non-aligned world. 0:::
• This non-alignment became the basis for a movement known as non-alignment movement. This 0
�
moment originated in 1961 in Belgrade, capital of erstwhile Yugoslavia
..,.
LO

m
• India, Yugoslavia, Indonesia, Egypt, Ghana played a dominant role in the foundation of NAM .-1

• Some leaders played a dominant role, one amongst them was former Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru. 0
a.

1 46
 Features of NAM

Role of NAM
• Imperialism/Colonialism
• Racism/ Apartheid
• Cold war Conflicts
• New International Economic Order
• Disarmament
• Third World Interests
• Democratization

Limitations of NAM 0 00:41:11

�
<( • Internal Contradictions: All NAM countries did not present a uniform voice. For example, when the
z
� USSR invaded Afghanistan in 1979 some NAM countries supported the USSR while some were
0 against the USSR.
...I
c:: • Intra- NAM Conflict: Internal conflict among the NAM nations For eg. India Pakistan, Iran Iraq
0
� • Relations with Superpower: Some NAM members had shown a leaning towards superpower nations
0
c:: Eg. Pakistan United States relations, Cuba USSR relations
J: • Organizational Weakness: It was just a summit based movement. It didn't have any Secretary.
l-

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LO • The Cold war scenario gave an impetus to NAM not to align with any of the blocs' i.e. Capitalist bloc and
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Cold war in 1991, there were no blocs.

0 • The Western world began to question the relevance of NAM after the cold war. Also many member
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 countries began to show indifference, some even refused to hold the NAM summit. After 1991, a new
international scenario emerged new equations in international relations. For eg G20, BRICS
• In this scenario, NAM began to get weakened; its unity began to get weakened. Then again there was a
question mark on the utility of NAM, on the activism of NAM, on the role of NAM.
• But many NAM countries in the 1990s and decade of 2000 presented the view that NAM was still
relevant. They presented the idea that NAM was a major international peace movement. They said
the Cold War conflict was over but new kinds of conflicts emerged. As a peace movement, NAM is
relevant. Also NAM played a role in the democratization of the world order.
• But in recent times, even those countries who were showing interest after the end of the Cold War,
have also begun to show indifference. It does not appear to be any active dynamic movement and it is
showing the downhill trends.

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