General Characteristics of Negative-Feedback Amplifiers

Sensitivity of transfer Amplification: The fractional change in

amplification with feedback divided by the fractional change without
feedback is called the sensitivity of the transfer gain.
Mathematically, the sensitivity of the dA f / A f
transfer gain can be written as follows: S
dA / A

A
We know that, Af 
1  A
d (1  A) dA
A  (1  A)
So,
dA f
 dA dA  A  1  A   1
dA (1  A) 2 (1  A) 2 (1  A)2

dA f 1 A 1 Af
  
dA (1  A)2 1  A A(1  A) A(1  A)

dA f / A 1 1
S  Hence, the sensitivity is S
dA / A 1  A 1  A
dA f dA
For example, if S=0.1 then  0.1
A A
That means the percentage change in gain with feedback is one-tenth
the percentage variation in amplification if no feedback is present.
Desensitivity of transfer Amplification: The reciprocal of the
sensitivity is called the desensitivity D, or D  1  A (13  7)
From Eq. (13-4) [Af=A/(1+bA)], it is seen that the transfer gain is
divided by the desensitivity after feedback is added.
Thus Af  A/ D (13  8)
A A 1
If A  1, Then A f    (13  9)
1  A A 
and the gain may be made to depend entirely on the feedback network.

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 1

 Frequency Distortion:
It is seen from Eq. (13-9) [Af=1/] that if the
feedback network is purely resistive, the gain
with feedback is not depend on frequency even
though the basic amplifier gain is frequency
dependent.
So the frequency distortion arising because of
varying gain, A, with frequency is considerably
reduced in a negative feedback amplifier.

Nonlinear Distortion:
Suppose that a large amplitude signal is applied to a
stage of an amplifier so that the operation of the
device extends slightly beyond its range of linear
operation, and as a consequence the output signal is
slightly distorted.
Negative feedback now introduced, and the input
signal is increased by the same amount by which the
gain is reduced, so that the output signal amplitude
remains the same.
It is clear from Eq. (13.9) that the negative feedback
reduces the dependence of the overall closed-loop
gain (Af) on the open-loop gain (A) of the amplifier.

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 2

 Let’s understand this
through this example:
Say the open loop gain
drops from 1000 (A1) to
100 (A2) had we a negative
feedback gain with =0.01
then
1000
Af 1   90.9
11000 0.01
100
Af 2   50
1100 0.01
That means the closed-loop gain drops from 90.9 to 50.
This means it gets linearized.

Reduction of Noise:
Negative feedback can be employed to reduce the
noise in an amplifier (i.e. to increase the signal-to-
noise ratio, SNR).
The signal-to-noise (SNR) for the amplifier A1 is
S Vs

N Vn

We may precede the original amplifier A1 by the

clean amplifier A2 and apply negative feedback

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 3

 V AA V A
Vo  s 1 2  n 1
1 A1A2 1 A1

So the signal-to-noise ratio in the output is obtained as

follows: S Vs A1A2 Vn A1 V
 /  s A2
N 1 A1A2 1 A1A2 Vn
It is seen from above equation that the signal-to-noise
ration is increased by the use of negative feedback.

Increase Bandwidth: By employing the negative feedback the

bandwidth can be increased.
Let an amplifier have the upper and lower cutoff frequency wH and wL
without feedback. The gain of high frequency and low frequency gain
Ao (=Amid) as Ao Ao
AH  and AL 
1 jw / w H 1  jwL / w
For high frequency, the overall gain with negative feedback can be
obtained as follows:
Ao
AH 1  jw / wH Ao
AHf   
1  AH 1  Ao 1  Ao  jw / wH
1  jw / wH
The upper cutoff frequency with negative feedback is the frequency at
which the real and imaginary parts of the denominator of above
equation are equal, thus w
wHf  H
1  Ao

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 4

 It is seen from the previous equation that the upper cutoff
frequency is increased by applying negative feedback.
Similarly, the lower cutoff frequency is obtained as follows:
wL
wLf 
1  Ao
It is revealed in the above equation that the lower cutoff frequency is
decreased by applying negative feedback.
From the above discussion it can be stated that negative feedback
increases the bandwidth of an amplifier.

wH
wHf 
1  Ao

Input Resistance
If the feedback signal is returned to the input in series
with the applied voltage, it increases the input resistance.
Since the feedback voltage Vf oppose Vs, the input current
Ii is less than it would be if Vf were absent.
Hence the input resistance Rif=Vs/Ii is greater than the
input resistance without feedback Ri.
For this type of feedback topology Rif=Ri(1+A)=RiD.
If the feedback is returned to the input in shunt with the
applied current, it decreases the input resistance.

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 5

 Since Is=Ii+If, then the current Ii (for a fixed value
of Is) is decreased from what it would be if there
were no feedback current.
Hence the input resistance Rif=Vi/Is= RiIi/Is is
decreased because of this type of feedback.
For this type of feedback topology
Rif=Ri/(1+A)=Ri/D.

Output Resistance
Negative feedback which samples the output voltage, regardless
of how this output signal is returned to the input, tends to
decrease the output resistance (Rof<<Ro).
Negative feedback which samples the output current, regardless
of how this output signal is returned to the input, tends to
increase the output resistance (Rof>>Ro).
The output resistance for the feedback amplifier can be defined
as the resistance with feedback Rof looking into the output
terminals with RL disconnected.
The output resistance is determined by applying a voltage V,
resulting in a current I, with Vs (Vs =0 where input source is
voltage) shorted out or Is (Is =0 where input source is current)
opened out. So, Rof=V/I.

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 6

 Input Resistance of Voltage-Series Feedback
Fig. 13-10 shows the topology of Fig. (a) in which the amplifier is
replaced by its Thevenin’s model.
From Fig. 13-10 the input impedance with feedback is Rif=Vs/Ii.
Also, Vs  Ii Ri  V f  Ii Ri  Vo (13  11)
AVR A I RR
and Vo  v i L  v i i L  AV Ii Ri (13  12)
Ro  RL Ro  RL
V A R
where, AV  o  v L (13  13)
Vi Ro  RL

From Eqs. (13-11) and (13-12)

Vs  Ii Ri  AV Ii Ri  Ii Ri (1  AV )
V
Rif  s  Ri (1  AV )  Ri D (13  14)
Ii

Here, D 1  AV

Whereas Av represents the open-circuit voltage gain

without feedback, Eq. (13-13) indicates that AV is the
voltage gain without feedback taking the load RL into
account.
Therefore
Av RL
Av  lim AV  lim (13  15)
RL  RL  Ro  RL

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 7

 Output Resistance of Voltage-Series Feedback
Replacing the output voltage Vo by V of Fig. 13-10 and setting Vs=0,
we obtained V  AvVi
I and Vi  V f   V
Ro
From this equations, we V  AvV V (1  Av )
obtained as follows: I  (13  28)
Ro Ro
V Ro
Hence, Rof   (13  29)
I 1  Av

Note that Ro is divided

by the desensitivity
factor 1+Av, which
contains the open-
circuit voltage gain Av
(not AV).

The output resistance with feedback which includes RL as part of the

amplifier is given by Rof in parallel with RL, or

Ro
R
' R R
of L 1  Av L
Rof  Rof RL  
Rof  RL Ro
 RL
1  Av
Ro RL Ro RL /( Ro  RL )
 
Ro  RL  Av RL 1  Av RL /( Ro  RL )

'  Ro RL /( Ro  RL ) Ro'
Rof  (13  30)
1  Av RL /( Ro  RL ) 1  AV

where, Ro’=Ro||RL is the output resistance without feedback but

with RL considered as part of the amplifier.

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 8

 Input Resistance of Current-Series Feedback
Fig. 13-10.1 shows the topology of Fig. (b) in which the amplifier is
replaced by its Thevenin’s input model and Norton’s output model.
From the above figure the input impedance with feedback is Rif=Vs/Ii.
Also Vs  Ii Ri  V f  Ii Ri  I o (13  11.1)
G VR G I RR
and, I o  m i o  m i i o  GM Ii Ri (13  12.1)
Ro  RL Ro  RL
I G R
where, GM  o  m o (13  18)
Vi Ro  RL

From Eqs. (13-11.1) and (13-12.1)

Vs  I i Ri  GM I i Ri  I i Ri (1  GM )

V
Rif  s  Ri (1  GM )  Ri D (13  16)
Ii

Here, D 1  GM

Whereas Gm represents the short-circuit transconductance without

feedback, Eq. (13-18) indicates that GM is the transconductance
without feedback taking the load RL into account.
Therefore

Gm Ro
Gm  lim GM  lim (13  17)
R L 0 R L 0 Ro  R L

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 9

 Output Resistance of Current-Series Feedback
Replacing the output voltage Vo and Io by V and -I, respectively, of Fig.
13-10.1 and setting Vs=0, we obtained
V
 GmVi  I and Vi  V f  I
Ro
V
From this equations, we obtained as follows:  Gm I  I
Ro
V
Rof   Ro (1  Gm ) (13.38.1)
I
Note that Ro is
multiplied by the
desensitivity factor
1+Gm, which
contains the
transconductance
Gm (not GM).

The output resistance with feedback which includes RL as part of the

amplifier is given by Rof in parallel with RL, or
' R Rof RL
Rof of RL 
Rof  RL

'  Ro (1  Gm ) RL
Rof
Ro (1  Gm )  RL

'  Ro RL (1  Gm )
Rof
Ro  RL  Gm Ro

'  Ro RL (1  Gm ) /( Ro  RL )
Rof
1  Gm Ro /( Ro  RL )

'  R' 1  Gm

Rof (13.38.2)
o
1  GM

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 10

 Input Resistance of Current-Shunt Feedback
The topology of Fig. (c) is indicated in Fig. 13-11, with the amplifier
replaced by its Norton’s model.
From the Fig. 13-11 the input impedance with feedback is Rif=Vi/Is.
Also I s  I i  I f  I i  I o (13  19)
Ai Ii Ro
and Io   AI Ii (13  20)
Ro  RL
I AR
where, AI  o  i o (13  21)
Ii Ro  RL

From Eqs. (13-19) and (13-20)

I s  Ii (1   AI ) (13  22)
From Fig 13-11, Rif=Vi/Is and Ri=Vi/Ii. Using (13-22), we obtain
V Vi V 1
Rif  i   i
I s I i (1   AI ) I i 1   AI
Ri R
Rif   i (13  23)
1   AI D
Here, D  1   AI
Whereas Ai represents the short-circuit current gain without feedback,
Eq. (13-23) indicates that AI is the current gain without feedback
taking the load RL into account.
Therefore Ai Ro
Ai  lim AI  lim (13  24)
RL 0 RL 0 Ro  RL

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 11

 Output Resistance of Current-Shunt Feedback
Replacing the output voltage Vo and Io by V and -I, respectively, of
Fig. 13-11 and setting Is=0, we obtained
V
 Ai Ii  I and I i   I f   I o  I
Ro
V
From this equations, we obtained as follows:  Ai I  I
Ro
V
Rof   Ro (1  Ai  ) (13  35)
I
Note that Ro is
multiplied by the
desensitivity factor
1+Ai, which
contains the short-
circuit current gain
Ai (not AI).

The output resistance with feedback which includes RL as part of the

amplifier is given by Rof in parallel with RL, or

' R Rof RL '  Ro (1  Ai  ) RL

Rof RL  Rof
of
Rof  RL Ro (1  Ai  )  RL

'  Ro RL (1  Ai  ) '  Ro RL (1  Ai  ) /( Ro  RL )
Rof Rof
Ro  RL  Ai Ro 1  Ai Ro /( Ro  RL )

'  R ' 1  Ai

Rof (13  37)
o
1  AI

For RL=, AI=0 and , so that Eq. (13-37) reduces to

'  R (1  A ) that means R'  R

Rof o i of of

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 12

 Input Resistance of Voltage-Shunt Feedback
Fig. 13-11.1 shows the topology of Fig. (d) in which the amplifier is
replaced by its Norton’s input model and Thevenin’s output model.
From the Fig. 13-11.1 the input impedance with feedback is Rif=Vi/Is.
Also I s  Ii  I f  Ii  Vo (13.19.1)
R IR
and Vo  m i L  RM Ii (13.20.1)
Ro  RL
Rm RL
where, RM  (13  26)
Ro  RL

From (13-19.1) and (13-20.1)

I s  I i  I f  I i  RM I i  I i (1  RM )
From Fig 13-11, Rif=Vi/Is and Ri=Vi/Ii. Using (13-22), we obtain
V Vi V 1
Rif  i   i
I s I i (1  RM ) I i 1  RM
Ri R
Rif   i (13  25)
1  RM D
Here, D  1  RM

Whereas Rm represents the open-circuit transresistance without

feedback, Eq. (13-26) indicates that RM is the transresistance without
feedback taking the load RL into account.
Therefore Rm RL
Rm  lim RM  lim (13  27)
RL  RL  Ro  RL

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 13

 Output Resistance of Voltage-Shunt Feedback
Replacing the output voltage Vo and Io by V and -I, respectively, of Fig.
13-11.1 and setting Is=0, we obtained
V  Rm Ii
I and Ii   I f   Vo   V
Ro
V  VRm
From this equations, we obtained as follows: I
Ro
V Ro
Rof   (13  32.1)
I 1  Rm
Note that Ro is
divided by the
desensitivity factor
1+Rm, which
contains the
transresistance Rm
(not RM).

The output resistance with feedback which includes RL as part of the

amplifier is given by Rof in parallel with RL, or
Ro
Rof RL RL
' R 1  Rm
Rof of RL  '
Rof 
Rof  RL Ro
 RL
1  Rm

' 
Rof
Ro RL '  Ro RL /(Ro  RL )
Ro  RL  Rm RL Rof
1  Rm RL /(Ro  RL )

'  Ro'
Rof (13  32.2)
1  RM
where, is the output resistance without feedback but with RL
considered as part of the amplifier.
Note that is now divided by the desensitivity factor D=1+RM
which contains the voltage gain RM that takes RL into account.

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 14

 Table 13-4 summarizes the different components for
different topologies.

Method of Analysis of a Feedback Amplifier

It is desirable to separate the feedback amplifier into two blocks, the
basic amplifier A and the feedback network , because with a knowledge
of A and , we can calculate the important characteristics of the feedback
system, namely, Af, Rif, and Rof.
The basic amplifier configuration without feedback but taking the
loading of the  network into account is obtained by applying the
following rules:
To find the input circuit:
1. Set Vo=0 for voltage sampling. In other words, short the output node.
2. Set Io=0 for current sampling. In other words, open the output loop.
To find output circuit:
1. Set Vi=0 for shunt comparison. In other words, short the input node.
2. Set Ii=0 for series comparison. In other words, open the input loop.

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 15

 The complete analysis of a feedback amplifier is obtained
by carrying out the following steps:
1. Identify the topology.
(a) Is the feedback signal Xf a voltage or a current?
In other words, is Xf applied in series or in shunt with
the external excitation?
(b) Is the sampled signal Xo a voltage or current?
In other wards, is the sampled signal taken at the
output node or from the output loop?
2. Draw the basic amplifier circuit without feedback,
following the rules listed above.

3. Use the Thevenin’s source if Xf is a voltage and a

Norton’s source if Xf is a current.
4. Replace each active device by the proper model (for
example, hybrid- model for a transistor at high
frequency or the h-parameter model at low frequency).
5. Indicate Xf and Xo on the circuit obtained by carrying
out steps 2, 3, and 4. Evaluate = Xf / Xo.
6. Evaluate A by applying KVL and KCL to the
equivalent circuit obtained after step 4.
7. From A and , find D, Af, Rif, Rof, and Rof ’.

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan 16