7 Welding and Allied Processes 7.1, Introduction. 7.2. Advantages, disadvantages and applications of welding. 7.3. Classification a welding procenrs. 74. Forge welding. 7.5. Resistance electric spot welding—resistance seam welding—resistance projection welding—resistance ott weld welding-upset welding-—flash welding. 76. Gas weldingfusion welding general ‘aspects—advantages and disadvantages of gas welding—applications of gas welding— ‘oxy-acetylene welding. 7.7. aacshe are welling “ictendaction: “olonizgne sad Heliecone-— “iin " ° jtomic are welding— irc blow~comparison between A.C. and D.C. arc welding-types of welded joints. 7.8. Thernat welding. 7.9. Tungsten inert-gas (TIG) welding. 7.10. Metal inert-gas (MIG) welding—difference between TIG and MIG welding processes. 7.11. Submerged arc welding. 7.12. Electro-slag and electro-gas welding—electro-slag welding—electro-gas welding. 7.13. Electron-beam welding. 7.14, Ultrasonic welding, 7.18. Flasen are weing. 7.16. Laser beam welding. 7.17. ection Diffusion welding. 7.20. Induction welding. 7.21. Cold Hydrodynamic welding. 7.24. Under-water welding. state bonding eoidering and brasing. soldering procedure—characteristics of @ good joint—important tips for effective soldering operation—advantages of soldering— applications of soldering—types of soldered joints, 7.28. Brazing—in orepneet—tensing methods—brazing procedure—advantages and limitations of brazing— applications of brazing—silver soldering (or silver brazing)—comparison between soldering and brazing. 7.29. Electrodes—electrode materials—electrode coat 's designation— typical data on use of “mild steel electrodes”. 7.30. Welding of various metals. 7.31. Rebuilding. 7.82. Hard facing. 7.33. Characteristics of good weld. 7.34. Defects in welds. 7.35. Weldability. 1.36. Testing of welded joints. 7.37. Effect of welding on the grain size of the metal. 7.98, Principles of welding design. 7.39. Comparison of welding and allied process—Worked Examples— 7.1, INTRODUCTION I. Welding : It is method of joining metals by applications of heat, without the use of solder or any other metal or alloy having a lower melting point than the metals being joined. Or Welding is defined as “a localised coalescence of metals, wherein coalescence is obtained by heating to suitable temperature, with or without the applications of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal”. The filler metal has a melting point approximately the same as the base metal. — The large bulk of materials that are welded are metals and their alloys, although the term welding is also applied to the joining of other materials such as thermoplastics. Welding joins different metals/alloys with the help of a number of processes in which heat is sup- plied either electrically or by means of a gas torch. In order to join two or more pieces of metals together by one of the welding processes, the most essential requirement is heat. Pressure may also be employed, but this is not, in many processes essential. — A good welded joint is as strong as the parent metal. The product is known as “weldment”. 292WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 293 IL. Soldering and brazing : Soldering. It is a process of joining two pieces of metal with a different fusible metal applied in @ molten state. The fusible metal is called ‘solder’ Or His a process of joining two metals with low melting point metal. Brazing, It is a process of joining two metal pieces in which a non-ferrous alloy is introduced in the liquid state between the pieces to be joined and allowed to solidify. "Fe Soldering and brazing are two common solid/liquid-state bonding processes. These are different from welding as bonding here requires capillary action and that some degres of allaying action between the filler and the base metal always occurs. Also the composition of filler metal is significantly different and its strength and melting point are substantially lower than that of the base metal. — In ‘soldering’ (very similar to brazing) the filler material is usually a lead-tin based allay which has much lower strength and melting temperature (about 250°C). Also, lese alloying action between the base and filler metals gives lower joint strength. Since in this process much lower temperatures are involved, it is usually carried out with electric resistance heating. — In brazing’ the joint is made by heating the base metal red hot and filling the gap with molten filler metal whose melting temperature is above 427°C but below the temperature of base metal. The filler metals, generally used for brazing are copper alloys, This process. is usually carried out with a gas flame. Joining processes. Base on the composition of the joint, the joining processes may be clas- sified as following : (@ Autogeneous process. In this type of joining process, no filler material is added during the joining process as in the case of resistance welding, cold welding, friction welding, diffu- sion welding and hot forge welding. (i) Homogeneous process. This process make use of filler metal but of same composition as the parent metal as in the case of arc, gas and thermit welding. (iii) Heterogeneous process. In this process the filler material is soluble in both the parent metals which themselves are insoluble in each other. 7.2. ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS OF WELDING Following are the advantages and disadvantages of welding : Advantages : 1. A large number of metals/alloys both similar and dissimilar can be joined by welding. 2, Welding can join workpieces through spots, as continuous pressure tight seams, end-to- end and in a number of other configurations. 3. A good weld is as strong as the base metal. 4. Welding permits considerable freedom in design. 6. General welding equipment is not very costly. 6, Portable welding equipments are available. 7. Welding results in a good saving of material and reduced labour content of production. 8. Low manufacturing costs, 9. Welding is also used as a method for repairing broken, worn or defective metal parts. Due to this, the cost of reinvestment can be avoided.294 ‘A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY Disadvantages : 1. Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the workpieces. 2. Welding heat produces metallurgical changes. The structure of the welded joint is not ‘same as that of parent metal. 8. Jigs and fixtures are generally required to hold and position the parts to be welded. 4. A welded joint, for many reasons, needs stress-relief heat treatment. 5, Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the workpieces. 6. Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter. 7. For producing a good welding job, a skilled worker is a must. Applications : ‘The welding process finds wide applications in almost all branches of industry and construction. @ Extensively employed in the fabrication of : — Structural members of bridges and buildings, etc ; - Vessaa of welded plate construction, ‘steel reservoirs, boilers, pressure vessel tanks and pipelines, etc. — Concrete reinforcement. © Chief means of fastening panels and members together into automobile bodies and in aviation industry. 7.8. CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES A. The welding processes may be classified as follows : L Pressure Welding : 1. Forge welding. 2, Resistance electric welding. @ Butt welding (ii) Flash welding (iii) Spot welding (iv) Seam welding (v) Projection welding (vi) Percussion welding. © The characteristics of a pressure weld is that the metal joined is never brought to a molten stage, it is heated to a welding temperature and the actual union is brought about by application of pressure. IL. Fusion Welding : 1. Gas welding. 2. Electric arc welding. (@ Metallic are welding (i Carbon are welding (iii) Atomic hydrogen welding (iv) Shielded arc welding. 3. Thermit welding. . ‘Tha characersto of «fusion weld is thatthe materia! being joined 1 a actually melted and the union is produced on subsequent solidificatWELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 295 IIL Modern/Miscellaneous Welding Techniques : (@ Tungsten inert-gas (TIG) welding or GTAW (Ges tungsten are welding) (i Metal inert-gas (MIG) welding (iii) Submerged are welding (jv) Electro-slag and electro-gas welding B. The welding processes may also be classified as follows : 1, Solid-state welding processes : (i) Forge welding (i) Friction welding (ii) Explosive welding (jv) Ultrasonic (v) Diffusion. 2. Liquid-state (or fusion) welding processes : @ Gas welding (ii) Electric are welding (ii) TIG welding Gv) Resistance welding (v) Thermit welding, etc. 8. Solid/liquid-state bonding processes : (@ Soldering @) Brazing. Note : For ISO 4063 classification of welding processes, Refer to Q. 7.28. 74. FORGE WELDING @ In this method of welding the surfaces to be joined are heated in an open hearth until they reach the welding temperature of metal, which is below its melting point. The blacksmith will judge this temperature by the colour of the metal, which may be between red-hot and @ In this welding process there is a risk of oxide and other inclusion when the metal is heated in an open fire and accurate judgement of the temperature is called for if the296 A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY structure of metal is not to be changed. Modern alloy steels can be ruined by injudicious heating. @ When the wide range of light alloys is considered, it becomes imperative to use a more scientific method. However, {in prccece te stl widely pend fx hensior clesens of woes, such as manufacture of anchor chains, while controlled heating furnaces and fern machines hve ben died opt open-toe and the act — A meer version of welding in this catgury is manafactre of ut wlded pps. a this process, the skulp heated upto the required welding temperature is pulled through a die which forces the two edges of a heated skulp to come into contact under pressure 1. Poor joint strength 2. Labour intensive process (low production rate). ‘3. Weld quality dependent on operator's skill. 4, Can be used only when hammering is possible. 7.5. RESISTANCE ELECTRIC WELDING 7.5.1. General Aspects Itis the method of uniting two pieces of metal by the passage of a heavy electric current while through them. The heat is developed around the point to which they touch, forcing them together (by pressure mechanically applied), and at the same time switching off the current, completes the weld. A special feature of resistance welding is the rapid heating of the surface being welded (in hundredths of a second) due to application of currents of high amperage. . Successful operation of « resistance welding process depends upon correct application and proper control of the following factors (@ Welding current. (ii) Welding pressure. (iii) Time of application (cycle time) : — Weld time — Squeeze or forge time — Hold time — Off-time (iv) Contact area of electrodes. Electrodes. The electrodes in resistance welding should have higher electrical conductivity ‘as well as higher hardness. — Steel though strong, do not have conductivity required for electrodes. Hence, copper in allaved form i generally wed for making electrodes (Pure copper is yor in mechanical — Copper cadmium (0.5 to 1.0%) alloys have the highest electrical conductivity with moder- ate strengths and are used for welding non-ferrous materials such as aluminium and magnesium alloys.WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 27 — Copper chromium (0.5 to 0.8%) alloys have slightly lower electrical conductivities than the above but better mechanical strength. These are used for resistance welding of low strength steels such as wild steel and low alloy steels. Advantages and disadvantages/Limitations of resistance welding process : Advantages : 1. The heat is localised, action is rapid and no filler metal is needed. 2. The operation requires little skill and can be easily mechanised and automated. 3. A high degree of reliability and reproducibility can be achieved. 4. Very well suited for mass production (owing to high production rate). 5. Very economical process. 6 It is possible to weld dissimilar metals as well as metal plates of different thicknesses. 7. Heating of workpiece is confined to a very small part which results in less distortion. Disadvantages/Limitations : 1. High cost of equipment. 2. Certain resistance welding processes are limited only to lap joints. Ge ralintetliie | Butt Jolats weed These process are discussed in the following articles. 7.5.2. Resistance Spot Welding ‘Spot welding is the simplest and most commonly used resistance-welding process. Refer to Fig,7.1. Spot welding, as the name implies, is carried out by overlapping the edges of two sheets of metal and fusing them together between copper electrode tips at suitably spaced inter- vals by means of a heavy electrical current. The resistance offered to current as it passes through the metal raises the temperature of the metal between the electrodes to welding heat. The current is cut-off and mechanical pressure is then applied by the electrodes to forge the welds. Finally the electrodes open. =H ‘Transtormer Fig. 7.1. Spot welding. When sheets of unequal thickness are joined, the current and pressure setting for the thinner sheets are used. Similarly four thickness may be welded, using the same settings as for two thickness.298 A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY © Currents usually range from 3000 A to 40,000 A, depending on the materials being welded and their thickness. Modern equipment for spot welding is computer controlled for optimum timing of exrent cad pressure ond the sporaelding guns are manipulated by programmable © Steel, Ghote, copper and light elo can be ined by this method, which ms cheap and satisfactory substitute for riveting. The area of fusion at each spot weld, in fact, is approximately equal to the cross-sectional area of the rivet which would be employed for a similar gauge of material. Applications : ‘Spot welding is widely used for fabricating sheet-metal products. Examples of its applications range from attaching handles to stainless-steel cookware to rapid spot welding of automobile bodies, using multiple electrodes. 6. No edge preparation is needed. 7. Operation may be made automatic or semi-automatic. 8. Dependability. 9. Small heat affected area. 10. More general elimination of warping or distortion of parts. Limitations : 1. Suitable for thin sheets only. 2. High equipment cost. ‘Spot welding machines : ‘The following three types of spot welding machines are in common use : 1, Standard machines. — Rocker arm type — Press type spot or projection welders of rollers ; and the work moves in direc- tion perpendicular to roller axis. The A.C. main supply Eniea to bo dient current is interrupted 300 to 1500times "tough ‘a minute to give a series of overlapping _‘"anstormer spot welds. The welding is usually done under water to keep the heating of the welding rollers and the work to a mini- Clamp mum, and thus to give lower roller "7 maintenance and less distortion of the work. ‘ Fig. 7.2. Seam welding.WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 299 @ Welding currents range from 2000 A to 5000 A while the force applied to the rollers may be as high as 5 KN to 6 kN. © The typical welding speed is 1.5 m/min for thin sheet. © With intermittent application of current to the rollers a series of spot welds at various intervals can be made along the length of the seam, a procedure called roll spot welding. Applications : Itis employed on many types of pressure (light or leak proof) tanks, for oil switches, transformers, refrigerators, evaporators and condensers, aircraft tanks, paint and varnish containers, etc. 7.5. Resistance Projection Welding Welding preseure Refer to Fig. 7.3. It is in effect, a form of multi-spot welding in which a number of welds are made simultaneously. — The pioces to be welded are arranged Mew pale between two flat electrodes which exert amt pressure as the current flows. — The projections, and the areas with which they make contact, are raised to welding Projections heat and are joined by the pressure exerted by the electrodes. Die block — The projections are flattened during the Laminate] welding. Fig. 7.3. Projection welding. Applications : The process is used chiefly to join pressings together since it is relatively simple to make the ‘Press-tools #0 that the projections are produced during the main forming operation in the press. — The materials like brass and aluminium cannot be projection welded satisfactorily. . $n asa petacptn la won in sn cnnn welling ofa: ssber af wren or sda fa mabe a 7.5.5. Resistance Butt Welding ‘There are two types of butt welding : Upset and Flash. 7.5.5.1. Upset welding Refer to Fig. 7.4. In this type of welding which is employed to join bars and plates together ‘end-to-end, one bar is held in a fixed clamp in the butt welding machine ; and the other bar in movable clamp, the clamp being electrically insulated, the one from the other, and being connected | Fig. 7.4. Butt welding. to a source of current. When the two ends to be joined are brought into contact and current is switched on, the resistance at the joint causes the ends to heat up to welding temperature. Current300 A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY is then switched off and the movable clamp forced up, so that pressure applied upsets or forges the parts together. The voltage applied across the clamps is a low one, from 2 to 6 volts, and the current is usually alternating. If the bars being joined are different in cross-section the amounts they project from their clamps may have to be adjusted 80 as to modify the heat losses and ensure both bars being brought to the welding temperature simultaneously. Applications : © Upset welding is used principally on non-ferrous materials for welding bars, rods, wire. © This process is being used for welding such things as steel rails whose cross-sectional area is as much as 6.25 cm’, 1.5.5.2. Flash welding Refer to Fig 7.5. In this process, the parts to welded are clamped to the electrode fixtures, as in butt welding but the voltage is cpplid before the parts are butted together. he the parts touch each other, an arc is established which continues as long as the parts advance at the correct speed. This arc bursts away a ; portion of the material from each piece. When the welding temperature is reached, the speed of travel is increased, the power switched off and weld is upset. — The upsetting action forces out the impurities caused by flashing. The forced-out metal is called flash. The inner weld is then sound and free of oxides and cast metal. peed — Many different materials and combination can be [rere flash butt welded ; steels and the ferrous alloys other than cast iron are probably the most easily Fig. 7.5. Flash welding. welded. Those materials which cannot be flash butt welded are lead, tin, zinc, antimony, bismuth and their alloys, and the copper alloys in which these metals are present in large percentage. Flash welding claims the following advantages over upset method of welding : (® Power consumed is less once the arc creates more heat with a given current. (ii) The weld is made in clean virgin metals as the surfaces are burned away. (iii) More quicker. Applications : © tis widely used in automobile construction on the body, axles, wheels, frames and other parts. © [tis also employed in welding motor frames, transformer tanks and many types of sheet steel containers such as at barrels and floats. Percussion welding : © It isa very fast method of welding. © It consists of holding the parts at a smiall distance with their end faces opposite to each other, bringing them closer at a fast speed after switching on the current, thus creating an are between their end faces just before they come in contact and completing the weld under impact. Some of the metal may squeeze out of the joint, but it is very small. © The use of this process is limited to very thin wires, with their diameters ranging between 0.05 mm and 0.38 mm. It can also be used for joining wire of dissimilar metals, such as ‘copper to nichrome and copper to stainless steel.WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 301 7.6. GAS WELDING 7.6.1. Fusion Welding—General Aspects In fusion (or liquid state) welding the material around the joint is melted in both the parts to be joined. If necessary a molten filler metal is added from a filler rod (or otherwise). The important zones in fusion welding are : @ Fusion zone ; (id) Heat affected unmelted zone around the fusion zone. (iii) The unaffected original part. — The characteristics of a fusion weld is that the metal being joined is actually melted and the union is produced on subsequent solidification. Factors affecting fusion welding process : () Nature of weld pool. (i) Chemical reaction in the fusion zone. (iii) Characteristics of heat source. (iv) Contraction, residual stresses and metallurgical changes. (v) Heat flow from the joint. @ The fusion welding group includes : 1. Gas welding ; 2. Electric are welding ; 3. Thermit welding. Gas welding : It isa method of fusion welding in which a flame produced by a combustion of gases is employed to heat and melt the parent metal and filler rod of a joint. It can weld most common materials, 7.6.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas Welding : Advantages : 1. The oxy-acetylene torch is versatile. It can be used for brazing, bronze welding, soldering, heating, heat treatment, metal cutting, metal cleaning, ete. 2. It is portable and can be moved almost everywhere for repair of fabrication work. 3. The oxy-acetylene flame is easily controlled and not as piercing as metallic are welding, hence, extensively used for sheet metal fabrication work. 4. Welder has considerable control over the temperature of the metal in the weld zone. When the rate of heat input from the flame is properly coordinated with the speed of welding, the size, viscosity and surface tension of the weld puddle can be controlled, permitting the pressure of the flame to be used to aid in positioning and shaping the weld. 5. The cost and maintenance of the gas welding equipment is low when compared to that of some other welding processes. 6. The rate of heating and cooling is relatively low. In some cases, this is an advantage. 7. Good weld quality. Disadvantages : 11, As compared to are welding, it takes considerably longer time for the metal to heat up. 2. Owing to prolonged heating harmful thermal effects are aggravated which results is a larger heat affected area, increased grain growth, distortion and less of corrosion resistance. 3. Oxygen and acetylene gases are expensive.302 A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY 4. Flux applications and the shielding provided by the oxy-acetylene flame are not so positive as those supplied by the inert gas in TIG, MIG or CO, welding. 5. ‘The handling and storing of gas necessitate lot of safety precautions. 6. Heavy sections cannot be joined economically. 7. Flame temperature is less than the temperature of the arc. 8. Skilled operator required. 9. Difficult to prevent contamination. 10. Large heat affected zone. 7.6.3. Applications of Gas Welding Following are the applications of gas welding : 1. To join most ferrous and non-ferrous metals, g., carbon steels, alloy steels, cast aluminium, copper, nickel, magnesium and its alloys, ete. 2. To join thin materials. 3. Tojoin materials in whose case excessively high temperatures would cause certain elements in the metal to escape into the atmosphere. 4 pie ameter ale fn hee cove emo esek rely Bice Seipemet ence vet Meine aslo of the job would produce unwanted or harmful changes in the 5. Automative and Aircraft industries. 6. Sheet metal fabricating plants, etc. 7.6.4. Oxy-acetylene Welding The oxy-acetylene welding process can be used for welding almost all metals and alloys used in engineering practice. The advantage of using acetylene, instead of other fuels, with oxygen is that it produces a comparotioely higher tomperaturs and also un inert gus ancelop, consisting of CO, and water vapours, which presents the molten metal from oxidation. Refer to Fig. 7.6. The principle of oxy-acetylene welding is the ignition of oxygen and acetylene gases, mixed in a blow pipe fitted with a nozzle of suitable diameter ; this flame is applied to the edges of the joint and to a wire filler of the appropriate metal, which is thereby melted and run into the joint. When the acetylene is burned in an atmosphere of oxygen an intensely hot flame with a temperature of about 3300°C is produced. As the melting point of stee! is approximately 1300°C, the metal is fused very rapidly at the point at which the flame is applied. Fig. 7.6. Oxy-acetylene welding. There are two systems of oxygen acetylene welding : (@ High pressure aystem. In this method both oxygen and acetylene are derived for use (ii) Low pressure system. In this system oxygen is taken as usual form a high pressure cylinder but acetylene is generated, by action of water on carbide (usually calcium carbide), in a low pressure acetylene generator.WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES. 303 © The use of an oxy-acetylene flame is the most widely employed method of welding iron, steel, aluminium, cast-iron and copper, the equipment required (Fig 7.6) being considerably cheaper and simpler than that needed for electric welding. For a certain class of mass production work, however, electric welding will always prove superior both in quickness and cheapness. Methods of welding : ‘There are two methods of welding by means of the oxy-acetylene blow pipe : @ Leftward or forward welding. (ii) Rightward or backward or backhand welding. @ Leftward (or forward or forehand) welding : In leftward welding after suitable preparation of the joint the weld is commenced at the right-hand side of the joint and blow pipe is teady forward movement, with a slight sideways motion, zigzagging along the weld towards the left as shown in Fig. 7.7. The blow pipe is kept at an angle of 60° to 70° to the surface of the work so that the flame plays ahead of it, and the filler rod held at an angle of 30° to 40°, is held just ahead of the flame and progressively fed into it. — Vertical joints are welded by this technique. © This technique is restricted to welding of mild steel plates upto 5 mm thick, cast iron and _ non-ferrous metals. * (ii) Rightward (or backward or backhand) welding : In this welding technique the flame is directed towards the completed part of the joint and welding proceeds from left to right as shown in Fig. 7.8. The filler rod is given a circular movement as it is fed into the flame. © The technique is used for thicker materials, chiefly steel. Advantages : Fig. 7.8. Rightward welding. (@ Rightward welding is faster by 20 to 25% from and 15 to 25% less acetylene is needed in comparison to leftward welding. (ii) The mechanical properties of the weld are better due to the annealing effect of the flame which is directed on the completed weld. (iii) The amount of distortion in the work is minimum. ‘Note : The angle at which the torch is inclined to the surface being welded depends upon the thick- ness of the metal. Thicker metals require a higher concentration of heat and cousequently a larger torch angle. ‘Types of flames : Following are the three types of flames of oxygen and acetylene mixture : 1. Neutral flame 2. Carburising flame Buish-wtite Lighttue = PUP 3. Oxidising flame. J The brief description of these flames is given below : li amprremmist 1. Neutral flame. Refer to Fig. 7.9. @ When the ratio of oxygen and acetylene is equal, a Fig. 7.9. Neutral flame (3250°C). neutral flame is obtained. :304 ‘A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY @ This type of flame has a temperature of about 3250°C, is white in colour and has a sharply defined central cone with a reddish purple envelope. ‘© Itdoes not react chemically with the parent metal and protects it (the metal) from oxidation. © The neutral flame is used to weld carbon steels, cast iron, copper, aluminium, ete. 2. Carburising flame. Refer to Fig. 7.10. © The ratio of oxygen to acetylene is 0.9 to 1.It.con- _Buish-whte sists ofthe following three zones : we rT — Luminous zone, F — Feather or intermediate cone of white colour, ~—— and Fig. 7.10. Carburising flame — Cuter exvelope. (8160°C) (Excess acetylene). © Its also called as reducing flame and has a temperature of 3150°C. @ The carburising flame is used for the following purposes : — Tojoin those materials which are readily oxidised. Thus, it is used to weld aluminium since it prevents the formation of aluminium oxide at the time of welding. — To weld monel metal, high carbon steel and alloy steel. — To give a hard facing material in some cases. 3. Oxidising flame. Refer to Fig. 7.11. © Theratio of oxygen to acetylene varies from about 12 to 1.5. ‘© It is used in the following cases : — To weld copper, brass and bronze and zinc- bearing alloys. — For gas cutting. ig. 7.11. Oxidising flame Other fuel gases. It may be noted that although, lao) (ames (Excess oxygen). in gas welding, oxygen and acetylene mixture is popular, other fuel gases like propane, hydrogen and coal gas may also be used, along oxygen to produce gas flames for welding. — Methyl acetylene propadiene (MAPP) gas is replacing acetylene gas particularly when ility is important, because : Portability @ It is more dense, thus providing more energy for a given volume. (@) It can be stored safely in ordinary pressure tanks. Qualities of welding flame : ‘The welding flame should possess the following qualities : (@ Must not burn the metal (oxidise it). (i) High temperature to melt the metals. (iii) Products of combination should not be toxic. (iv) Very intense concentrated flame so that a spot under the flame becomes molten and forms a liquid puddle. (v) Must not add dirt or foreign material to the metal. Equipment : For gas welding following equipments are used : 1. Gas cylinders. 2. Pressure regulators. 3. Pressure gauges. 4. Welding torch.WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 5. Hoses and hose fittings. 6. Safety devices, etc. ‘The brief description of the above equipments is given below : 1. Gas cylinders : A. Oxygen cylinder : — For safety purposes oxygen cylinders are filled at a pressure 12500 to 14000 kN/m? and cylinder capacity is 6.23 m°. — The cylinder is provided with a right hand thread valve and is painted black. — The cylinders are usually provided with fragile disc and fusible plug to relieve the cylinder of its contents if subjected to overheating or excessive pressure. B. Acetylene cylinder : — The cylinder is usually filled to pressure of 1600 to 2100 kN/m?. — The cylinder is provided with left hand threads for accommodating pressure regulator and is painted maroon. — Acetylene gas above one atmospheric pressure is highly explosive. Hence, acetylene is stored with calcium silicate saturated with acetone. Acetone can absorb 25 times its own volume of acetylene for each atmosphere pressure. 2. Pressure regulators. The cylinders are provided with pressure regulators to control the working pressure of oxygen and acetylene to the welding torch. The pressure of oxygen and acetylene depends on the thickness of the metal to be welded/cut. 3, Pressure gauges. Two pressure gauges are fitted on each pressure regulator. While one pressure gauge shows the pressure inside the cylinder, the other one shows the working pressure of the fuel gas and oxygen. ‘Mixing Chamber <—Onygen high pressure Injector nozzle ae i. Pressure Interchangeable tip Fig. 7.12. Low pressure blow pipe. ‘Mixing Chamber Dagon ich warn ‘Interchangeable tip Fig. 7.13. High pressure blow pipe. 4. Welding torch/blow pipe. It is a device ; for moving oxygen and acetylene in the required ‘volume and igniting it at the mouth of its tip. Generally, following two types of torches are available : 1, Low pressure blow pipe (Injector type). 2. High pressure blow pipe.306 ‘A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY 5. Hose and hose fittings : © Hoses are the rubber and fabric pipes used to connect gas cylinder to blow pipe and are painted black or green for oxygen and red or maroon for acetylene. It should be strong, durable, non-porous and light. © Special fittings are used for connecting hoses to equipment. 6. Safety devices : © Goggles fitted with coloured glasses should be used to protect the eyes from harmful heat ultraviolet rays. © Gloves made of leather, canvas and asbestos should be worn to protect hands from any injury. Gloves should be light so that the manipulation of the torch may be done easily. Other requirements include spark-lighter, apron, trolley, wire brush, spindle key, spanner set, filler rods and fluxes and welding tips. Welding rods (Filler materials) for gas welding : ‘The welding wire or rod used as filler material in gas welding should have a chemical compo- sition similar to that of the base metal. The welding rod diameter, d= +1 mm (app), where tis the thickness of the base metal, mm. © Gas welding “fluxes” (composing of borates or boric acid, soda ash and small amount of other compounds ¢.g., sodium chloride, ammonium sulphate and iron oxide) must melt at a lower temperature than the metals being welded so that surface oxides will be dissolved before the metal melts. 7, ELECTRIC ARC WELDING 7.7.1. Introduction ‘Aro webding i the aytem in which the metal ie melted by the hat of en electric are Item ba done with the following meth DMaalie arealting (ii) Carbon are welding. (iii) Atomic hydrogen welding. (iv) Shielded are welding. 7.7.2, Advantages and Limitations Following are the advantages and limitations of electric are welding : Advantages : 1. Portable and relatively inexpensive equipment. 2. Very versatile process. Limitations : 1. Large heat affected zone. 2, Weld quality depends upon operator's skill in normal operations. 8, Not suitable for thin sections. 1.7.8, Metallic Are Welding Refer to Fig. 7.14. In metallic arc welding an arc is established between work and the filler metal electrode. The intense heat of the arc forms a molten poo! in the metal being welded, and at the same time melts the tip of the electrode. As the arc is maintained, molten filler metal from the electrode tip is transferred across the arc, where it fuses with the molten base metal. Arc may be formed with direct or alternating current. Petrol or diesel driven generators are widely used for welding in open, where a normal electricity supply may not be available. D.C. may also be obtained from electricity mains through the instrumentality of a transformer and rectifier. A simple transformerWELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 307 Flux coated electrode . ‘Blectrode holder Dopoated Flame Lead camped to the work Crater Loads of generator ‘or transformer Fig. 7.14. Metallic arc welding. is, however widely employed for A.C. arc welding. The transformer sets are cheaper and simple having no maintenance cost as there are no moving parts. ©. With Arc system, the covered or coated electrodes are used, whereas with D.C. system for cast iron and non-ferrous metals, bare electrodes can be used. © Inorder to strike the arc an open circuit voltage of between 60 to 70 volts is required. For maintaining the short arc 17 to 25 volts are necessary ; the current required for welding, however, varies from 10 amp. to 500 amp. depending upon the class of work to be welded. @ The great disadvantage entailed by D.C. welding is the presence of arc blow (distortion of are stream from the intended path owing to magnetic forces of a non-uniform magnetic field). With A.C. are blow is considerably reduced and use of higher currents and large electrodes may be restored to enhance the rate of weld production. Applications : © The field of application of metallic are welding includes mainly low carbon steel and the high-alloy austenitic stainless steel. @ Other steels like low and medium-alloy steels can however be welded by this system but many precautions need be taken to produce ductile joints. 1.1.4. Carbon Arc Welding Refer to Fig. 7.15. Here the work is connected to negative and the carbon rod or electrode connected to the positive of the electric circuit. Are is formed in the gap, filling metal is supplied by fusing a rod or wire into the are by allowing the current tojump over it and it produces porous and brittle weld because of inclusion of carbon articles in the molten metal. It is therefore used for filling blow holes in the castings which are not subjected to any of the stresses. ‘© The voltage required for striking an arc with carbon electrodes is about 30 volts (A.C.) and 40 volts (D.C.). © A disadvantage of carbon arc welding is that approximately twice the current ix required to raise the work to welding temperature as compared with a metal electrode, while a carbon electrode can only be used economically on D.C. supply.from an alternating current are drawn between two tungsten electrodes in an atmosphere of hydrogen. As the hydrogen gas passes through the arc, the hydrogen molecules they recombine ‘on contact with the cooler base metal generating intense heat sufficient to melt the surfaces to be welded, together with the filler rod, if used. The envelop of hydrogen gas also shields the molten metal from oxygen and nitrogen A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY 7.1.8. Atomic Hydrogen Welding Refer to Fig. 7.16. In this system heat is obtained are broken up into atoms and and thus prevents weld metal from deterioration. Fig. 7.16. Atomic hydrogen welding. protected from the action of atmosphere by an envelope of chemically reducing or inert gas. and nitrogen, it will, if exposed to the gases forming oxides and nitrides. Due to this injurious chemical combination metal becomes weak, brittle and corrosion resistant. Thus, © The welds obtained are homogeneous and smooth in appearance because the hydrogen keeps the molten pool. Advantages : 1, No flux or separate shielding gas is used ; hydrogen itself acts as a shielding gas and avoids weld metal oxidation. 2. Due to high concentration of heat, welding can be carried out at fast rates (specially when filler metal is not needed) and with less distortion of the workpiece. 3, Welding of thin materials is also possible which otherwise may not be successfully carried out by metallic are welding. 4, The job does not form a part of the electrical circuit, The arc remains between two tung- sten electrodes and can be moved to other places easily without getting extinguished. Limitations : 1. For certain applications, the process becomes uneconomical because of higher operating cost as compared to that of other welding processes. 2. The process cannot be used for depositing large quantities of metals. 8, Welding speed is leas as compared to that of metallic arc or MIG welding. Applications : © Atomic hydrogen welding being expensive is used mainly for high grade work on stainless ‘steel and most non-ferrous metals. 7.1.8. Shielded Arc Welding In this system molten weld metal is As molten steel has an affinity for oxygen. iter into combination with these methods of shielding have been developed. The simplest (Fig. 7.17) is the use of a flux coating on the electrode which in addition to producing a slag which floats on the top of the molten metal and protects it from atmosphere, has organic constituents which turn away and produce an envelope of inert gas around the are and the @ Welds made with a completely shielded arc are more superior to those deposited by an ordinary arc.WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES - 309 1.1.1. Are Blow @ Arc blow is the phenomenon of wandering of arc and it occurs in D.C. welding. © When a current flows in any conductor, a magnetic field is formed around the conductor at right angles to the current. Since in the case of D.C. arc welding, there is current through the electrode, workpiece and ground clamp, magnetic field exists around each of these components. The arc thus lacks control as though it were being blown to and by the influence of these complex magnetic fields. This is more common in welding with very high or very low currents, and especially in welding in corners or other confined spaces. Usually arc blow results from the interaction of magnetic fields of the electrode workpiece with that of the arc, The movement of arc blow causes atmospheric gases to be pulled into the arc, resulting in porosity or other defects. ‘The severity of arc blow problem can be reduced by taking the following corrective measures : 1. Change to A.C. welding, if possible (since due to change in the polarity, the effect of magnetic field is nullified). 2. Reduce the current used s0 that the strength of magnetic field is reduced. 8. Use a short arc length so that filler metal would not be deflected but carried easily to the arc crater. 4. Place more than one ground lead from the base metal (preferably on each from the ends of the base metal plate). 5. ‘Toe ground cable may be wrapped around the workpieces such that the current flowing in it sets up a magnetic field in a direction which will counteract the are blow. 7.1.8. Comparison between A.C. and D.C. Are Welding ‘The Comparison between A.C. and D.C. arc Welding is given below : [sno] ‘Aspects AC. Welding D.C. Welding 1. | Power consumption Low High 2. | Are stability ‘Are unstable Are stable 3. Cost Less More 4. | Weight Light Heavy 5. | Bfficiency High Low 6 Operation Noiseless. Noisy 7. | Suitabitity Non-ferrous metals cannot Suitable for both ferrous and be joined non-ferrous metals 8. | Blectrode used Only coated Bare electrodes are also used 9. Welding of thin sections Not preferred Preferred 10. | Miscellaneous ‘Work can act as cathode Electrode is always negative while electrode acts as anode and the work is positive. and vice versa. Specifications of A.C. Transformer/D.C. generator : A.C. transformer : Step down, cil cooled = 3 phase, 50 Hz ; Current range = 50 to 400 A ; Open circuit voltage = 50 to 90 V ; Energy consumption = 4 kWh per kg of metal deposit ; Power factor = 0.4 ; Efficiency = 85%. D.C. generator : Motor generator—3 phase, 50 Hz ; Current range = 125 to 600 A ; Open circuit voltage = 30 to 80 V ; Arc voltage = 20 to 40 V ; Energy consumption = 6 to 10 kWh/kg of deposit ; Power factor = 0.4 ; Efficiency = 60%.310 ‘A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY Electrodes : ‘The electrodes may be of the following two types : 1. Consumable electrode : @ Base electrode (i) Flux coated electrode. 2. Non-consumable electrode : 1. Consumable electrode : (@ Bare electrode : © These electrodes do not prevent oxidation of the weld and hence the joint is weak. They are used for minor repairs where strength of the joint is weak. © Employed in automatic and semi-automatic welding. (ii) Flux-coated electrode : © The flux is provided to serve the following purposes : — To prevent oxidation of the weld bead by creating a gaseous shield around the arc. — To make the formation of the slag easy. — To facilitate the stability of the arc. 2. Non-consumable electrode : © These electrodes are 12 mm in diameter and 450 mm long. © These are not consumed during the welding process. Examples of these electrodes are : Carbon, graphite and tungsten. 1.1.9. Types of Welded Joints ‘The type of joint is determined by the relative positions of the two pieces being joined. ‘The following are the five basic types of commonly used joints : 1. Lap joint 2. Butt joint 3. Corner joint 4. Edge joint 5. T-joint. 1. Lap joint. Refer to Fig. 7.18. Fig. 7.18. Lap joint. Fig. 7.19. Butt joint. © The lap joint is obtained by overlapping the plates and then welding the edges of the plates. © The lap joints may be single traverse, double traverse and parallel lap joints. © These joints are employed on plates having thickness less than 3 mm. 2. Butt joint © The butt joint is obtained by placing the plates edge to edge as shown in Fig. 7.19. @ In this type of joints, if the plate thickness is less than 5 mm, bevelling is not required. When the thickness of the plates ranges between 5 mm to 12.5 mm, the edge is required toWELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 31 be bevelled to V or U-groove, while the plates having thickness above 12.5 mm should have a V or U-groove on both sides. © The various types of butt joints are shown in Fig. 7.20. = f= aie sagas =a Sagem Fig. 7.20. Various types of butt joints. 8. Corner joint. Refer to Fig. 7.21. ‘© A.corner joint is obtained by joining the edges of two plates whose surfaces are at an angle of 90° to each other. © In some cases corner joint can be welded, without any filler metal, by melting off the edges of the parent metal. © This joint is used for both light and heavy gauge sheet metal. ce € Fig. 7.21. Corner joint. Fig. 7.22. Bdge joint. 4. Edge joint. Refer to Fig. 7.22. © This joint is obtained by joining two parallel plates. © It is economical for plates having thickness less than 6 mm. ‘© It is unsuitable for members subjected to direct tension or bending. 5. T-joint. Refer to Fig. 7.23. © Its obtained by joining two plates whose surfaces are approxi- mately at right angles to each other. © These joints are suitable up to 3 mm thickness. @ joint is widely used to weld siffeners in aircraft and other thin walled structures. Fig. 7.23. Tjoint,312 A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY Note : The lap joints, corner joints and T-joints are known as fillet weld joints. The fillet cross- section is approximately triangular. Fig. 7.24 shows the three types of fillet welds. | (2) Flush filet (©) Convex filet (6) Concave fitet Fig. 7.24 Welding positions : It is easiest to make welds in flat positions, i.e., both the parent metal pieces lying in horizon- tal plane over a flat surface. But, several times it becomes unavoidable to weld the workpieces in some other positions also, The common welding positions are : 1. Flat position 2. Horizontal position 3. Vertical position 4. Overhead position. 1. Flat position. Refer to Fig. 7.25. © In this welding position, the welding is done from the upper side of the joint and the welding material is normally applied in the downward direction. © On account of the downward direction of application of welding material this position is also sometimes called as downward position. a: Fig. 7.25. Flat position. Fig. 7.26. Horizontal position. 2. Horizontal position. Refer to Fig. 7.26. In this case, the weld is deposited upon the side of a horizontal and against a vertical surface. 8. Vertical position. Refer to Fig. 7.27. © In this position, the axis of the weld remains either vertical or at an inclination of less than 45° with the vertical plane. © The welding commences at the bottom and proceeds upwards. © The tip of the torch is kept pointing upwards so that the pressure of the outcoming gas mixture forces the molten metal towards the base metal and prevents it from falling down. Fig. 727. Vertical position.WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 33 4. Overhead position. Refer to Fig. 7.28. © In this case, the welding is performed Workpiece from the underside of the joint. The Wate workpieces remain over the head of the welder. i © The workpieces as well as axis of the weld all remain in approximately hori- zontal plane. Fig. 7.28, Overhead position. © [tis reverse of flat welding. 7.8. THERMIT WELDING Refer to Fig. 7.29, It is the method of uniting iron or steel parts by surrounding the joint with steel at a sufficient high temperature to fuse the adjacent surfaces of the Parts together. — Here a wax pattern of desired size and shape is prepared around the joint or region where the weld is to be affected. box and the space be- ‘tween box and pattern is filled and rammed with sand. — After cutting, pouring and heating gates and risers a flame is directed into the heating ‘oven due to which the wax pattern melts and drains out, the heating is continued to raise the temperature of the parts to be welded. — The thermit mixture (finely divided aluminium iron oxide) is packed in the crucible of conical shape formed from a sheet-iron casting lined with heat resisting cement and is ignited with magnesium or torch yielding a highly superheated (nearly 300°C) molten-iron and a slag of aluminium oxide (the reaction is : 8Al + 3 Fe,0, = 4 Al,O, + 9Fe + heat). — The molten iron is then run into the mould which fuses with the parts to be welded and forms a thermit collar at the joint. The welds thus obtained are metallurgically very sound and strong. Advantages : 1, Can be used anywhere. 2. Low set-up cost. 8. Not a highly skilled operation. 4. Most suitable for welding of thick sections. Limitations : 1. Only thick sections can be welded. 2. High set-up and cycle time.314 A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY Applications : © The process is widely employed in the shipping, steel and railroad industries. © It can also be used for welding non-ferrous parts by selection of a mixture of oxides which on reduction with aluminium will provide an alloy approximating the material to be welded. 1.9. TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS (TIG) WELDING This welding process is also called Gas Tungsten Are Welding (GTAW) Refer to Fig. 7.30. In this process the heat necessary to melt the metal is provided by a very intense electric arc which is struck between a virtually non-consumable tungsten electrode and metal workpiece. The electrode does not melt and become a part of the weld. On joints where filler metal is required, a welding rod is fed into the weld zone and melted with base metal in the same manner as that used with oxyacetylene welding. The weld zone is shielded from the atmosphere by an inert-gas (a gas which does not combine chemically with the metal being welded) which is ducted directly to the weld zone where it surrounds the tungsten. ‘The major inert gases that are used are argon and helium. TIG process offers the following advantages : 1. TIG welds are stronger, more ductile and more corro- sion resistant than welds made with ordinary shield arc welding. 2, Since no granular flux is required, it is possible to use a wide variety of joint designs than in conventional shield are welding or stick electrode welding. 8, There is little weld metal splatter or weld sparks that damage the surface of the base metal as in traditional shield are welding. Applications : (@ The TIG process lends itself ably to the fusion welding of aluminium and its alloys, stainless steel, magnesium alloys, nickel base alloys, copper base alloys, carbon steel and low alloy (ii) TIG welding can also be used for the combining of dissimilar metals, hard facing, and the surfacing of metals. 7.10. METAL INERT-GAS (MIG) WELDING This welding process is also called Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). Refer to Fig. 7.31. The inert-gas consumable electrode process, or the MIG process is a refinement of the TIG process, however, in this process, the tungsten electrode has been replaced with a consumable electrode. The electrode is driven through the same type of collet that holds a tungsten electrode by a set of drive wheels. The consumable electrode in MIG process acts as a source for the arc column as well as the supply for the filler material. MIG welding employs the following three basic processes. 1. Bare-wire electrode process 2. Magnetic flux process 3. Flux-cored electrode process.WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 315 Advantages : 1. It provides higher deposition rate. 2. It is faster than shielded metal-are welding due to continuous feeding of filler metal. 3, Welds produced are of better quality. 4. There is no slag formation. 5. Deeper penetration is possible. 6. The weld metal carries low hydrogen content. 7. More suitable for welding of thin sheets. Limitations : 1. Less adaptable for welding in difficult to reach portions. 2. Equipment used is costlier and less portable. 3. Less suitable for outdoor work because strong wind may blow away the gas shield. Applications : © Practically all commercially available metals can be welded by this method. © It can be used for deep groove welding of plates and castings, just as the submerged arc Brocose can, but itis more advantageous on light gnuge metal where hich epeeds are possible. 7.10.1. Difference between TIG and MIG Welding Processes ‘The difference between TIG and MIG welding processes is given in tabular form below : [sno Aspects TIG welding MIG welding | 1. [Name of the process | Tungsten inert-gas welding, ‘Metal inert-gas welding. | 2. | Type of electrode used | Non-consumable tungsten electrode. | Consumable metallic electrode. 3. | Blectrode feed Blectrode feed not required. Blectrode need to be fed at « constant] speed from a wire reel. 4. | Electrode holder It is called welding torch and has got | It is called welding gun or torch. It a cap filled on the back to cover the | has facility to continuously feed wire tungsten electrode. It has also got | electrodes ; shielding inert-gas, cool- ose . ‘ 5. | Welding current Both A.C. and D.C. can be used. D.C. with reverse polarity is used. Filler metal may or may not be used.| Filler metal in the form of fire wire is used. ‘Thickness limited to about 40 mm. Fast. 7.11, SUBMERGED ARC WELDING ‘The submerged arc process (which may be done manually or automatically) creates an arc column between a base metallic electrode and the workpiece. — The are, the end of the electrode, and the molten weld pool are submerged in a finely divided granulated powder that contains appropriate deoxidizers, cleansers and any other fluxing elements.36 A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY — The fluxing powder is fed from a hopper that is carried on the welding head. The tube from the hopper spreads the powder in continuous mount in front of the electrode along the line of the weld. — This flux mound is of sufficient depth to submerge completely the arc column so that there is no splatter or smoke, and the weld is shielded from all effects at atmospheric gases. As a result of this unique protection, the weld beads are exceptionally smooth. — The flux adjacent to the are column melts and floats to the surface of the molten pool ; then it solidifies to form a slag on the top of the welded metal. The rest of the flux is simply an insulator that can be reclaimed easily. — The slag that is formed by the molten flux solidi- fies and is easy to remove. In fact, in many ap- plications, the slag will crack off by itself as it cools. — The unused flux is removed and placed back into the original hopper for use for the next time. — Granulated flux is a complex, metallic for silicate that can be used over a wide range of metals. © The process is characterised by high welding currents. The current density in the electrode is 5 to 6 times that used in ordinary manual stick electrode are welding, consequently the melting rate of the electrode as well as the speed of welding is much higher than in the manual stick electrode process. Fig. 7.32 shows an apparatus used in manual submerged are welding. © Welds made by the submerged are welding process have high strength and ductility with low hydrogen or nitrogen content. Advantages : 1. Higher welding speeds can be employed, effecting saving in welding time. 2. Very high deposition rate. 3. Flux acts as a deoxidiser to purify the weld metal. 4. Shallow grooves can be used for making joints, requiring less consumption of filler metal. In some cases no edge preparation is at all needed. 5. No chance of weld spatter (since the arc is always covered under flux blanket). 6. If required, the flux may contain alloying elements and transfer them to the weld metal. 7. Can be employed with equal success for both indoor and outdoor welding work. 8. Less distortion. 9, Few passes are required due to deep penetration. 10. It is often used in automatic mode. Limitations : 1. This process can be performed only in flat and horizontal welding positions. 2. In order to obtain good weld the base metal has to be cleaned and made free of dirt, grease, oil, rust and scale. 3. Flux may get contaminated and lead to porosity in weld. 4. Normally unsuitable for welding of metal thickness less than 4.8 mm. 5. Removal of slag is an additional follow-up operation. In multiplass beads it has to be done after every pass.WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESS! 317 Applications : © This process is suitable for welding low-alloy, high tensile steels as well as the mild, low- carbon steels. © This process is also capable of joining medium carbon steels, heat resistance steels, and many of high-strength steels. © Also the process is adaptable to nickel, monel and many other non-ferrous metals. © The submerged are process is also capable of welding fairly thin gauge materials. 7.12, ELECTRO-SLAG AND ELECTRO-GAS WELDING These methods are employed to fuse two sections of thick metal, forming a seam in a single pass. Elimination of the need for making multiple passes and special joint preparations make these methods commonly used welding processes when heavy ferrous metals are to be joined. These proc- esses have reduced costly time in fabrication of large vessels and tanks. There is theoretically no limit to the thickness of the weld bead. 7.12.1. Electro-slag Welding Refer to Fig. 7.33. This process is a vertical and uphill ; two copper shoes, dams, or moulds must be placed on either side of the joint that is to be welded in order to keep the molten metal in the joint area, a — One or more electrodes may be used to weld eee a joint, depending upon the thick-ness of the ule metal. The electrodes are fed into the weld joint almost vertically from special wire Electrode: Molten, guides. Electrodes need not be of a special ‘Slag poo! deoxidized nature but they may contain a Cooled: Liquid metal flux, if it is needed. = pool — A mechanism for raising the equipment as Weld bead Soliditied the weld is completed and A.C. power source motel that has approximately 100 amperes output Paies Pend and a 100 per cent duty cycle are needed. ; © Electro-slag welding depends upon the Fig. 7.52. Rleatro-clag welding. generation of heat that is produced by passing an electric current through molten slag. Applications : Welding of heavy steel forgings, large steel castings, thick steel plates and heavy structural members. 7.12.2, Electro-gas Welding Refer to Fig. 7.34. Electro-gas welding works on the same general principle as electro-slag welding, with the addition of some of the principles of submerged arc welding. Fier oe metal Base metal [Sieg] ‘Shiei -~ Shielding gas wee | Puddie Weld zone aaa Water cooling ‘Metal Wold boas Starter tab Fig. 7.34. Electro-gas welding.318 ‘A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY ‘© The major difference between electro-slag and electro-gas welding is that an inert gas, such as CO,, is used to shield the weld from oxidation, and there is continuous arc, such as in submerged arc welding, to heat the weld pool. The joints and the use of flux to cleanse the weld are the same as in electro-slag process. The shoes that are used to form the weld, as in electro-slag process, are also used in the electro-gas process to control the weld zone through water cooling. However, the flux, instead of being issued to the weld zone through a hopper mechanism, is incorporated within the electrode itself in the form of cored wires. Applications : ‘Wehdhng of lnw dart Sih ‘ins enua ahaeDa, id pels peelntans ee aay steels and stainless steels as well. — Thickness ranges commonly welded are from 12 mm to 75 mm ; for thinner sections other processes prove more economical and for thickness above 75 mm electro-slag process proves superior. 7.18, ELECTRON-BEAM WELDING Electron-beam welding fusion joins metal by bombarding a specific confined area of the base metal with high velocity electrons. The operation is performed in a vacuum to prevent the reduction of electron velocity. If a vacuum were not used, the electrons would strike the small particles in the atmosphere, reducing their velocity and decreasing their heading ability. © The electron beam welding process allows fusion welds of great depth with a minimum width because the beam can be focused and magnified (Fig. 7.35). The depth of the weld bead can exceed the width of the weld bead by as much as 15 times. © The process joins separate pieces of base metal by fusing of molten metals. The melting is achieved by a concentrated bombardment of a dense stream of electrons, which are acceler- ated at high velocities, sometimes as high as the speed of light. Under most circumstances the entire process is done inside a vacuum chamber. ‘© Most chambers house not only the workpiece but also the cathode, the focusing device and the remainder of the gun, preventing contamination of the weldment and the electron- beam gun itself (Fig. 7.36). — [— pump Bevel Cathode (electron ‘emitting heating ta ‘flament) FL ht Positioning i ee $1 Werkpiece Fig. 7.35. Electro-beam welding. Fig. 7.36. Electron-beam gun. 1.'The greatest advantage of electron-beam welding is that it eliminates contamination of both the weld zone and the weld head because of the vacuum in which the weld is done because of the electrons doing the heating.319 2. Even though initial costs are high, operating costs are low due to the low power usage. Many of the more costly fabrication methods could be replaced by electron beam process. 3. The narrow beam reduces the distortion of the workpiece, making the replacement of costly jigs and fixtures lese necessary than when using other types of welding processes. 4. The speed may be as fast as 2500 mm/min and it will weld or cut any metal or ceramic, diamond, sometimes as thick as 150 mm. 5. Clean and sound welds. 6. Energy conversion efficiency is high, about 65%. 8. Limitations of the vacuum chamber. Work size is limited by the size of the chamber. 4. High cost of precision joint preparation and precision tooling. Applications : Welding of automobile, airplane, aerospace, form and other types of equipment including ball bearing over 100 mm. 7.14. ULTRASONIC WELDING A schematic diagram of a typical ultrasonic welding is shown in Fig. 7.37. The welding equipment consists of two units : Clamping force (0 A power source of frequency converter coped teough which converts 50 cycle line power mount 89) | Vibration into high frequency electric power. cna (i) A transducer which changes the high frequency electric power into vibra- tory energy. Frequency ‘Transducers Coupler ima Weldment ‘The components to be joined are simply converter clamped t ‘a welding tip and Fig. 7.37. Ultrasonic welding. anvil with just enough pressure to hold them in close contact, The high frequency vibratory energy is then transmitted to the joint for the required period of time. The bonding is accomplished without applying external heat, filler rod or melting metal. © Either spot-type welds or continuous-seam welds can be made on a variety of metals ranging of thickness from 0.000425 mm (aluminium foil) to 0.25 mm. © Thicker sheet and plate can be welded if the machine is specifically designed for them. © High strength bonds are possible both in similar and dissimilar metal combinations. Advantages : 1, High productivity. 2. Thin pieces can be welded to thicker pieces. 8. Welds are free from foreign inclusions. 4. Post cleaning of welds is usually not necessary. 5. Very little preparation is required for the weld ; usually it involves degreasing. Applications : Ultrasonic welding is particularly adaptable for : 1. Joining electrical and electronic components. 2. Thermatic sealing of materials and devices.