CB2 All Sheets GCSE Biology

CB2a.
1 Investigating root squashes
Your teacher may watch to see if you can:

● work safely while using a microscope.
Aim
To identify the different phases of mitosis in a root tip squash.
Method
Apparatus Safety
● garlic clove with roots ● pencil with rubber end Do not touch hydrochloric acid
● distilled water ● dilute hydrochloric acid, or stain solution with bare
heated in bottles/tubes to hands. Wash immediately with
● paper towel
55 °C in water bath plenty of water if they touch skin
● microscope slides and or clothes, and tell your teacher.
coverslips ● bottle or tube of water
● toluidine blue stain in a Wear eye protection when
● watch glass or small dish
dropping bottle preparing the slide. Wear
● microscope with ×100 and gloves and dispose of these
×400 magnifications ● soft tissue paper
immediately after the slide has
● fine forceps ● beaker of tap water been prepared.
● eye protection ● gloves
A Use the forceps to gently place one glove of sprouted garlic into one of the bottles/tubes in the water bath.
The bottles/tubes contain hydrochloric acid.
B After 5 minutes, take your clove out of the acid and place it into the tube containing water.
C After another 5 minutes, remove the clove and dry it briefly on some pieces of paper towel.
D Find the creamy colour in the last 5 mm of a garlic root (which is the part containing rapidly dividing cells).
E Use the forceps to remove these last 5 mm from a root. Use the forceps to divide the piece of root into two.
F Place the two pieces of root in the centre of a slide. Carefully draw any excess water away from the root
pieces with the corner of a piece of tissue.
G Add one drop of toluidine stain to the root pieces.
H Carefully place a coverslip over the root pieces. With the rubber end of the pencil, touch the coverslip
gently and move it back and forth to squash the root pieces and spread them out. You will probably find
that some of the root tissue remains white and unstained.
I Place about six sheets of soft tissue paper in a stack and fold in half. Put the slide in the fold of the tissue
paper stack. Fold the top half over the slide and press gently to draw off any excess stain. Do not worry
about air bubbles – this is normal in this kind of preparation.
J View the slide under ×100 magnification on the microscope. Look for cells that are box shaped and in
chains. The cell cytoplasm should be nearly colourless and the nuclei dark blue. Change to ×400 and look
for dividing cells.
K If your preparation has not worked, put the slide in a beaker of water and try again. Adjust what you do to
avoid the problem. For example, if the cells were not spread out enough, squash the coverslip over cells a
little harder with the pencil end. Or, if the cells were too dark or light, adjust the amount of stain you use.
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1
CB2a.1 Investigating root squashes
Name Class Date
Recording your results

1 Look for cells that are dividing. Try to match the cells to the diagram shown below.
2 In the box, draw examples of the cells you find at different stages of the cell cycle. Label each stage and
add a description of what is happening to the cells. Note: You will not see the chromosomes in interphase.

2
CB2a.2 Cell cycle
The table below contains all the information you need to put together your own labelled
diagram of the cell cycle.
1 Cut out the diagrams of the cells, the names of the stages of the cell cycle and the labels indicating what
happens at each stage.
2 Arrange the cells, with the right titles, in the correct order so that they form a circle, and join them with
arrows.
3 Add the labels in the correct places.
4 On your completed diagram, label which stages are part of mitosis.
a b c d e
interphase anaphase telophase

f g
prophase metaphase cytokinesis
The The Spindle fibres The nuclei start The cell is

chromosomes chromosomes form in the cell to reform. between cell
are copied. line up in the and the nuclear divisions.
middle of the membrane
cell. starts to
disappear.
The A cell
chromosomes membrane
are pulled apart divides the cells.
by the spindles.

3
Mitosis
CB2a.3 Strengthen
Name Class Date
1 The stages of the cell cycle (below) are in the correct order. Draw lines to link the stages with what happens.
Stage of the cell cycle What happens
interphase The membrane around the nucleus breaks down.
The cytoplasm of the cell is separated as a cell

prophase membrane divides the cell into two daughter
cells.
Each of the chromosome X-shapes splits to form

metaphase two single chromosomes. The single
chromosomes move away from each other.
The single chromosomes arrive at opposite ends

anaphase of the cell. The membranes around each nucleus
start to form again.
The DNA in the cell is copied (making X-shapes,

each containing a chromosome and its copy).
telophase
Sub-cellular parts (such as mitochondria) are also
copied.
cytokinesis The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.
S1 Draw a flow chart to show mitosis.
2 State two reasons why mitosis needs to take place in cells.
3 The cells produced by mitosis are diploid and genetically identical. Define each underlined term.
4 Suggest what will happen if cells keep dividing and do not stop.

4
Cell division
CB2a.4 Homework 1
Name Class Date
1 State two parts of a cell that make copies of themselves before mitosis begins.
2 Look at the diagram below and draw what the cell looks like in the next stage of mitosis.
3 Which part of the cell cycle is taking place when:
a the chromosomes line up on the equator of the cell
b the nucleus membrane is breaking down
c DNA and sub-cellular parts are copied
d the cytoplasm of the cell is separated?
4 Why is mitosis important for organisms? Tick three boxes to show three reasons.
 growth  evolution  respiration
 repair  reproduction  digestion

5 The cells produced from mitosis are genetically identical, diploid cells.
a Describe what ‘genetically identical’ means.
b Explain what ‘diploid’ means and why it is important to the cell. (Hint: What would happen to a cell if it
was not diploid and went through two rounds of the cell cycle?)

5
Cell division and cancer
CB2a.5 Homework 2
1 State two processes that take place during interphase.
2 The stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis. Write a brief
description of what happens in each stage.
3 A student writes this in an exam: ‘Mitosis is important for growth and repair but not for asexual
reproduction.’ Explain whether you agree with each part of this statement or not.
4 The cells produced from mitosis are genetically identical diploid cells.
a Describe how the cell produces genetically identical daughter cells.
b Describe what ‘diploid’ means.
c Explain why most cells in the body need to be diploid.
Extra challenge
5 Mitotic inhibitors are substances that are found naturally in plants. These substances stop the formation of
spindle fibres. Mitotic inhibitors can be used to treat some cancers.
a Explain why mitotic inhibitors can be used to treat cancers.
b Suggest one problem that might be caused by mitotic inhibitors.
c It is possible to watch some cells dividing, using certain types of microscope. Suggest what you might
see through this type of microscope if you looked at cancer cells that had just been treated with a
mitotic inhibitor.
Cell division and cancer

CB2a.5 Homework 2
1 State two processes that take place during interphase.
2 The stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis. Write a brief
description of what happens in each stage.
3 A student writes this in an exam: ‘Mitosis is important for growth and repair but not for asexual
reproduction.’ Explain whether you agree with each part of this statement or not.
4 The cells produced from mitosis are genetically identical, diploid cells.
a Describe how the cell produces genetically identical daughter cells.
b Describe what diploid means.
c Explain why most cells in the body need to be diploid.
Extra challenge
5 Mitotic inhibitors are substances that are found naturally in plants. These substances stop the formation of
spindle fibres. Mitotic inhibitors can be used to treat some cancers.
a Explain why mitotic inhibitors can be used to treat cancers.
b Suggest one problem that might be caused by mitotic inhibitors.
c It is possible to watch some cells dividing using certain types of microscope. Suggest what you might
see through this type of microscope if you looked at cancer cells that had just been treated with a
mitotic inhibitor.

6
CB2a Progression Check
Name Class Date
Progression questions
Answer these questions.
1 Why is mitosis important?
2 What happens in the different stages of mitosis?
3 How do cancer tumours occur?
Now circle the faces in the ‘Start’ row in the table showing how confident you are of your answers.
Question 1 2 3
Start
Assessment
Using a different colour, correct or add to your answers above. You may need to use the back of this sheet or
another piece of paper. Then circle the faces in the ‘Check’ row in the table.
Question 1 2 3
Check
Feedback
What will you do next? Tick one box.
 strengthen my learning  strengthen then extend  extend
Note down any specific areas you need to improve.
Action
You may now be given another activity. After this, note down any remaining areas you need to improve and
how you will try to improve in these areas.

7
CB2b.1 Specialised human cells

● work collaboratively with others in a group.
Introduction
Your teacher will display a list of specialised human cells that you will see in prepared microscope slides. You
should use the list to identify the cells on the slides, then draw and label one cell from each slide to show how it
is specialised.
Aim
To identify specialised human cells and describe how they are adapted to their function.
Method
Apparatus Safety
● prepared slides of human cells and tissues Eye protection should be worn at all
● light microscope and light source times.
Take care not to cut yourself when
using glass slides.
Do not angle microscope mirrors
towards the Sun.
A Move the low-power objective into position above the microscope stage.
B Place a slide on the stage, and focus on a part of the slide that shows cells clearly.
C Using your knowledge of cells and the list provided by your teacher, try to identify which type of specialised
cell is shown on the slide. Record the letter of the slide you are looking at, the type of cell that you think is
on the slide, and the reason why you think it is that type.
D Move the slide so that one of the cells is directly under the objective. Make sure the cell is in focus, then
move a higher power objective into position.
E Using the fine focusing wheel only, bring the cell clearly into focus.
F Draw one cell clearly using a sharp pencil, and label its specialised features.
G Repeat steps A to F for another slide.
Considering your results/Conclusion

1 Discuss in your group which slide shows which type of specialised cell. If you do not agree on a slide, try to
find out why you disagree.
2 Using your science knowledge about how different types of cell work and where they are found, discuss
how the special features are adapted for the function of each cell.
Evaluation
3 Share your drawings with the rest of your group. For each drawing identify one good point, and one point
that could be improved to make sure the specialised features are shown clearly. For each of the drawings
you made, improve the drawing as discussed, and add notes to explain how the cell is adapted to its
function.
4 Use your findings to explain why it is important that animals have different types of cells in their bodies.

1
Growth in animals
CB2b.2 Strengthen
Name Class Date
1 A human egg cell is a single unspecialised cell. After the cell is fertilised, two processes cause it to develop
into a large organism formed of billions of different types of cells.
a Name and describe the process that produces more cells from one cell.
b Which process changes unspecialised cells into specialised cells?
S1 Describe how a single fertilised human egg cell develops into the billions of different cells in a human
adult.
Some robots can carry out many actions that humans can do, such as walk, or pick up and move other objects.
2 A robot arm is moved by pistons that can get longer and shorter. The pistons are attached to the outer shell
of the arm.
a Which organs in a human arm cause the arm to move?
b Which type of specialised human cell in those organs causes movement?
c How is the structure of those specialised human cells adapted to their function of causing movement?
3 To make a tall robot from a shorter one, you could remove the legs and replace them with longer ones.
Use the words in the box to help you write a sentence that explains how a child gets taller as they get older.
cell division cell size growth
4 A baby's length is measured at 3 months old, and plotted on a percentile growth curve chart. The chart
shows that the baby's length lies on the 25th percentile curve. Explain what this means.

2
Growth in animals
CB2b.3 Extend
E1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using percentile curves to assess the growth and
development of a young baby?
The graphs show the growth of a

baby boy from 2 weeks after birth until
he was 1 year old.
1 What is happening to cause the
change in mass and length in the
baby's body?
2 a Which percentile curve does
the baby's length lie on when
he is 3 months old?
b What does this mean?
3 Look at the growth curve for the
baby's length. Does this curve
show 'normal' growth over the
baby's first year? Explain your
answer.
4 Compare the growth of the baby
on the two curves. At which point
might a health professional be
concerned about the baby's
growth? Give a reason for your
answer. mass of a baby boy (thick line) displayed on percentile curve
5 Use your answer to question 4 to

justify why it is important to
monitor different measurements of
a baby's growth rather than just
one.
6 Name three kinds of specialised
cell in the baby’s body and explain
how the structure of those cells is
adapted to their function.
length of a baby boy (thick line) displayed on percentile curve

3
Specialised human cells
CB2b.4 Homework 1
Name Class Date
1 Growth of an animal can be defined as cell division followed by cell differentiation. Explain what the bold
words mean.
cell division
cell differentiation
2 The diagrams in the table show some specialised human cells.

Complete the table to describe how each cell is specialised and the function of each cell.
Cell A B
How the cell is

specialised
Function of the cell
3 The mass of a boy was measured every month

after birth for his first year, and recorded on
percentile curves, as shown in the graph.
a The boy's mass lay on the 25th percentile
when he was 3 months old. What does this
mean compared with the mass of other 3-
month-old baby boys? Explain your
answer.
mass of a baby boy (thick line) displayed on

percentile curves
b Suggest how old the boy was when the doctor became concerned about his growth. Explain your
answer.

4
Growth in space
CB2b.5 Homework 2
Astronauts staying on the International Space Station (ISS) are being closely studied to investigate the effects
of long periods in space. The results will help with planning how to keep people healthy on long trips in space,
such as to Mars.
Initial studies have shown that height can increase by up to 8 cm while in space. This is because there is little
gravity far from Earth. On Earth, the much greater gravitational force on a vertical backbone causes the
vertebrae to squash together a little. A stretched backbone causes backache and nerve problems.
A bigger problem is the effect of minimal gravity on muscles. It is a case of ‘use it or lose it’, because up to 20
per cent of the mass of leg, back and neck muscles may be lost over just one week in space.
Loss of mass also occurs with bones. Two types of specialised cell control how much hard tissue is formed in a
bone. Some bone cells (osteoblasts) create new hard tissue where the bone is most under stress, and other
bone cells (osteoclasts) break down hard tissue where there is no force on the bone. As we grow and the
forces on different parts of our body change, these two types of cell mean our bones can also change size and
shape. Bone loss in space can be 1–2 per cent every month. This means that back on Earth after a long space
trip there is a much greater risk of breaking the weakened bones.
Studies are continuing to find the right kinds of exercises for astronauts to keep them strong and healthy.
Studies are also being carried out on cells to see if they will divide and develop properly in space. This could
help predict problems that any children might have if they travel to live on Mars.
1 Can the increase in height of astronauts on the ISS be called ‘growth’? Explain your answer.
2 Describe how muscle cells are specialised to carry out the function of muscles.
3 Suggest why an astronaut's leg, back and neck muscles are the muscles that lose the most mass. Explain
your answer.
4 The diagram shows the shapes of an adult’s and a child's upper leg bone.
The bones differ in size and shape. Use the information above about bone cells to help explain how the
changes from child to adult leg bone are brought about.
5 Use the example of osteoclasts and osteoblasts to explain why differentiation of cells is important in an
animal's body.
6 Imagine a space station was set up on Mars, and that people living there might have babies. Explain why a
new set of percentile growth curves would be needed to assess the growth of those babies.
Extra challenge
7 Suggest what the percentile growth curves for head circumference, mass and length for babies growing on
Mars might look like, bearing in mind that gravity on Mars is about one third that on Earth. Explain your
answer.

5
CB2b Progression Check
Name Class Date
1 Which processes in animals result in growth and development?
2 How are percentile charts used to monitor growth in children?
3 Why is cell differentiation important in animals?
Question 1 2 3
Start
Assessment
Question 1 2 3
Check
Feedback
Action

6
CB2c.1 Measuring plant growth

● handle seedlings carefully
● measure mass accurately.
Introduction
In this practical you will measure the mass of seedlings, and calculate the percentage gain in mass
over time. As seedlings vary in mass, each time you will take 10 seedlings and calculate the mean
mass of one seedling.
Aim
To calculate percentage gain in the mass of seedlings.
Method
Apparatus Safety
● tray of seedlings Wash hands thoroughly after handling plant
● forceps material.
● accurate balance
● beaker of water
● sheet of paper towel
● Petri dish
A Look at the tray of seedlings and select 10 that show a range of heights. Use the forceps to carefully
remove each of the 10 seedlings from the tray. Gently rinse the roots in the beaker of water to remove any
support medium. Lay the seedlings out to dry on a piece of absorbent paper towel.
B Measure the mass of the Petri dish to two significant figures and record it.
C Place the 10 seedlings on the Petri dish and measure the total mass to two significant figures. Record this
in Table 1 below.
D Gently water the remaining seedlings in the tray so that they are moist but not soggy. Return them to a well-
lit area until the next lesson.
E Repeat steps A to D every three to four days until you have four sets of measurements.

1 Copy Table 1 below and record your measurements.
Table 1
Row Date of measurement
A Mass of Petri dish (g)
B Mass of dish + 10 seedlings (g)

1
CB2c.1 Measuring plant growth
2 Copy Table 2 below. Set the date of your first measurement as day 0 and calculate the number of days
since then for each of the other measurements. Record those values in the left-hand column of your table.
Table 2
Column 1 2 3 4
Day Mass of 10 Mean mass of Increase in mean mass Percentage increase in mean
seedlings (g) one seedling (g) of one seedling since mass of one seedling since
day 0 (g) day 0 (%)
0 0 0
3 Calculate the mass of the 10 seedlings on each date in your copy of Table 1 using this formula:
mass of 10 seedlings = mass of dish + 10 seedlings (row B) – mass of Petri dish (row A)
Use these values to complete column 1 of your Table 2.
4 Calculate the mean mass of one seedling for each date using:
mass of 10 seedlings
mean mass of one seedling =
10
5 Calculate the increase in mass of one seedling for each day after the start using:
increase in mass = mass in column 2 for that day – mass in column 2 on day 0
6 Calculate the percentage increase since day 0 for each day using:
increase in mass (column 3)
percentage increase =  100 %
starting mass (day 0, column 2)
Use these values to complete column 4 of Table 2.
7 Use the values in column 4 to draw a graph of percentage increase in mass (on y-axis) against time (on x-
axis).
8 Describe and explain the shape of your graph.
Evaluation
9 Describe any problems that you had with carrying out this experiment.
10 Suggest one way of improving the practical so that you could get better results another time.

2
CB2c.2 Plant cell map
Name Class Date
1 Use the diagram below to map where in a plant you can find the following cells:
meristem cells xylem vessels root hair cells palisade cells guard cells
Think carefully before you start about how best to do this, as the cells may be found in more than one part
of a plant.
2 Add notes to each type of specialised cell to:

a describe its function
b describe adaptations of the cell that help it carry out its function well.
3 Add notes to meristem cells to explain their relationship with specialised types of cell.

3
Growth in plants
CB2c.3 Strengthen
Name Class Date
S1 The tree in photo A grew from a small seedling. Use bullet points to describe how the seedling increased
in size and developed into the tree.
1 a Circle the two processes that result in growth of the seedling.

cell differentiation cell division cell elongation
b Name the part of a shoot or root tip where cell division occurs.
c The cells produced by cell division all look the same. Name the process that results in cells becoming
different from one another.
2 The diagram shows cells along the outer surface of a tree root.
a Name the type of cell labelled A.

b What feature does this cell have that makes it different from other types of root cell?
c Explain how this type of cell is adapted to its function.
d Explain why the adaptation of these cells is important for the plant.
3 One month after germination the tree seedling has a mass of 65 g. One year later it has a mass of 345 g.
Use this formula to calculate the percentage gain in mass of the tree seedling:
final mass - starting mass
percentage change in mass =  100 %
starting mass

4
Plant growth
CB2c.4 Homework 1
Name Class Date
1 Select the statement that best describes how plants grow. Tick one.
 Cell elongation is followed by cell differentiation then cell division.
 Cell division is followed by cell elongation and then cell differentiation.
 Cell division is followed by cell differentiation and then cell elongation.

2 What name is given to the kind of cell division that happens in plant growth?
3 Explain why measuring the change in mass of a plant over time can be used to measure the plant’s growth.
4 The diagram shows a xylem vessel from a plant.
a Add labels to the lines to describe the features of a xylem vessel that are not found in other plant cells.
b Describe the function of a xylem vessel.
c Explain how the features of a xylem vessel help it to carry out its function.
5 Describe one other kind of specialised plant cell and explain how it is adapted to carry out its function.

5
Environment and tree growth
CB2c.5 Homework 2
Trees and other woody plants grow not only from the tips of their shoots and roots, but also from a layer
just below the bark. This layer is called the ‘vascular cambium’. Cells on the outside of the vascular
cambium will become phloem cells, which carry sugars around the plant. Cells on the inside of the layer
will develop into xylem vessels.
Deciduous trees that grow in places that are seasonal (have winters and summers) develop rings in the woody
parts of the trunk. These rings are formed by different sizes of cell – small cells close together look darker than
large cells. Some pale rings have smaller cells than others.
1 Vascular cambium is a plant meristem. Explain what this means.

2 Name the process by which cells produced from cambium cells become xylem cells.
3 Describe the special features of xylem vessels made from xylem cells, and explain how these features
allow the xylem to be adapted to its function.
4 Use the diagram to suggest one environmental factor that affects the rate of growth of a tree. Explain your
answer.
5 Suggest how tree rings could be used to compare the rate of growth of a tree in different years.
Scientists are studying growth of young trees to see if the predicted increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations will have an impact. The tables below show the results from a study that measured the dry
mass of different parts of spruce tree seedlings growing in different carbon dioxide concentrations.
Carbon dioxide concentration Dry mass at 30 days (mg) Dry mass at 100 days (mg)
root stem leaf root stem leaf
normal atmospheric 0.005 0.001 0.009 0.298 0.069 0.595
high 0.009 0.002 0.015 0.428 0.069 0.656
6 Calculate the percentage gain in mass of roots between 30 and 100 days for normal and high carbon
dioxide concentrations.
Extra challenge
7 Calculate the percentage gain in mass of stem and of leaf between 30 and 100 days at the high carbon
dioxide concentration. Use your calculation to identify which part of the plant grew fastest when carbon
dioxide concentrations were increased.

6
CB2c Progression Check
Name Class Date
1 How do plants grow?
2 How are some specialised plant cells adapted to their function?
3 Why is cell differentiation important in plants?
Question 1 2 3
Start
Assessment
Question 1 2 3
Check
Feedback
Action

7
CB2d.1 Cauliflower tissue culture

● work safely
● carry out good aseptic technique.
Introduction
Tissue culture is the production of new complete plants from tiny pieces (explants) of meristems in adult plants.
In this practical you will use explants of meristems in cauliflower florets (pieces of the white part that we eat).
The plant material must be kept as clean as possible, using aseptic (sterile) techniques, to reduce the risk of
contamination by mould (fungus), which can kill the explants.
Aim
To grow new cauliflower plants from explants.
Method
Apparatus Safety
● forceps in beaker of Eye protection should be worn at all
sterilising solution (SDICN) times.
● 70% ethanol Sterilising solution (SDICN) is toxic
● paper towel and a bleach that removes colour
● small piece of cauliflower from clothing. Wear a protective
apron/lab coat and gloves when
● scalpel
handling SDICN, in case of leaks or
● screw-lid jar of sterilising splashes. Do not breathe in the
solution (SDICN) vapours from the SDICN.
● empty beaker (for collecting
Take care when using sharp scalpels.
waste)
Wash hands thoroughly after handling
● tube containing growth plant material.
medium
● clean tile
● marker pen
A Wipe down the surface of the bench and the tile using the paper towel and a small amount of ethanol.
B Use the scalpel to carefully cut the piece of cauliflower lengthways into small 3–5 mm3 pieces. These are
your explants.
C Use the forceps from the sterilising solution to place the explants in the jar of SDICN to sterilise them. Put
the lid on and swirl the jar gently for 5 seconds.
D Every 2–3 minutes, swirl the jar gently for 5 seconds. Repeat until 15 minutes have passed.
E Carefully strain the liquid from the jar into a waste beaker. Use the forceps to stop the explants falling into
the beaker. Put the forceps back in the beaker of sterilising solution.
F Take the lid off the tube containing the agar plant growth medium. Put the lid face down on a clean tile.
G Using the forceps, pick up the best explant from the jar and transfer it to the agar, pressing the stalk end
into the agar slightly. Replace the lid and use the pen to label the tube with your name and the date. Try not
to lean over your working area, to minimise contamination.
H Incubate the tube in a warm place near to a window or light bank. Examine the tube weekly and record any
details of growth or greening. Do not open the tube during these checks.

1
CB2d.1 Cauliflower tissue culture
Name Class Date

1 Write up a description of how the explant changed over time. Include information about its size, colour and
the development of any plant organs such as shoots and roots.

2 Suggest what the growth medium contained. Explain your answer.
3 Explain your results, using the terms ‘meristem’ and ‘stem cells’ in your answer.
4 Explain why it was important to use aseptic (sterile) methods to prepare the explants.
Evaluation
5 Describe any problems that you had with this practical.
6 Suggest ways of improving the method to reduce the problems you had.

2
Stem cells
CB2d.2 Strengthen
Name Class Date
1 a Complete the table to show where the different kinds of stem cell are found and what range of
specialised cell they can produce.
Type of stem cell Where found Produces many/few types of

specialised cell
embryonic stem cell
adult stem cell
plant stem cell
b For each statement, tick one box to show whether it is a benefit or a risk of using stem cells.
● Stem cells may continue to divide inside the body to produce

cancer.  benefit  risk
● Stem cells can be used to replace damaged or diseased cells.  benefit  risk
● Stem cells can be used for testing new drugs before they are tried
on people.  benefit  risk
● Stem cells can be studied to show how some cells become

damaged, so that new treatments can be developed.  benefit  risk
● Stem cells from another person may be rejected by the patient's

immune system.  benefit  risk
S1 a Describe the functions of the different kinds of stem cell in animals and plants.
b Describe one benefit and one risk of using stem cells in medicine.
2 Give an example of a disease that could be treated using stem cells.
3 Use one of the risks and one of the benefits from the bullet list in question 1b to explain why you are or are
not in favour of using stem cells.
These words may help you to answer question 1a.
A meristem B animal embryo
C differentiated tissue D many
E many F few

3
Stem cells
CB2d.3 Extend
Female zebrafish lay hundreds of egg cells in the water, where they are fertilised by sperm cells from a male
zebrafish. It takes about 3 months for zygotes (fertilised egg cells) to develop into adult fish that are able to
reproduce.
The zygotes first develop into young zebrafish that are transparent. This makes it easy to study what is
happening inside their organs as they develop. Fish are vertebrates, like humans, so the processes that
happen in zebrafish are often similar to those that happen in humans.
1 Are scientists studying embryonic or adult stem cells in young zebrafish? Explain your answer.
2 What is the function of these stem cells in young zebrafish?
3 How do embryonic stem cells differ from adult stem cells:
a in where they are found
b in what they can produce?
4 Leukaemia is a disease of the blood, caused by faulty blood stem cells producing damaged white blood
cells. Explain how treatment with bone marrow from another person can help to overcome the disease.
5 Type 1 diabetes is caused when insulin-producing cells in the pancreas are damaged and stop making
insulin. There are few stem cells in the pancreas, and it would take a long time to grow enough to use as a
treatment. So scientists are looking at ways of 'reprogramming' blood stem cells to make them behave like
embryonic stem cells. Explain how this could help the development of treatments for other diseases.
E1 In 2014, scientists studying zebrafish discovered that ‘buddy' cells are needed to help one type of stem
cell become blood stem cells.
a Suggest how this research could lead to new treatments for people with diseases.
b Suggest what risks must be overcome before these treatments can be given to patients.
6 One problem with using stem cells from one person to treat another person is rejection by the immune
system. Explain what this means.
7 Construct an argument for or against the use of stem cell treatments in humans.

4
Stem cells
CB2d.4 Homework 1
Name Class Date
1 Select the correct sentence ending.

A stem cell is:
 a cell found in the middle of a plant stem
 an unspecialised cell that produces different types of specialised cell
 a cell that is specialised for a particular function.

2 In which parts of a plant can you find stem cells?
3 Name one animal tissue that contains stem cells.

4 What is the function of stem cells:
a in a young organism
b in a fully grown organism?
5 Stem cells are also found in young embryos. State one way in which these stem cells are different from
those found in mature organs.
6 Leukaemia is a disease of the blood, which produces faulty blood cells that replace healthy blood cells. This
causes many problems in the body. Blood stem cells can be used to treat leukaemia. Complete the
sentences below to show how this can be done.
a Healthy blood stem cells are taken from .
b The healthy blood stem cells are inserted into .
c The healthy blood stem cells produce .
7 Explain how treatment with stem cells could cause each of the following problems:
a cancer
b rejection of the stem cells by the patient's immune system
These phrases may help you with the answers to questions 4, 5 and 6.
the bone marrow of the patient with leukaemia to repair diseased or damaged cells
the bone marrow of a healthy person to produce new cells for growth.
new cells that differentiate into healthy blood cells they can produce a wider range of specialised cells

5
Stem cell issues
CB2d.5 Homework 2
Use information in the following text and from your own knowledge to answer the questions below.
Large numbers of stem cells are needed for research into how they work and to develop treatments for
diseased and damaged cells. This research uses ‘stem cell lines’, which are developed by extracting a few
stem cells from tissue or embryos. The cells are then grown on special growth media for many divisions, to
check that they will continue to divide without differentiating, and also to see which specialised cells they can
produce. This can take many months and is not guaranteed to work each time.
There are different issues with different sources of stem cells. It is easy to remove cells from an embryo, but
this destroys the embryo. The embryos used for this are left over from other medical treatments, so scientists
think that using them is acceptable. Some people, however, see this as the destruction of life and are very
much against it. The use of embryos in research is controlled by law, so that only scientists who are licensed
can carry out this work.
It is much more difficult to remove stem cells from specialised tissue, and it can also be more difficult to get
these stem cells to develop into a stem cell line. However, once any cell line has been developed, it can
continue for many years without the need to source new stem cells again.
A lot of research is being carried out into how stem cells produce specialised cells. The process of
differentiation usually occurs over several divisions, with the daughter cells becoming more specialised each
time. Partly specialised cells can also be stem cells, but the range of specialised cells they can produce is more
limited than with stem cells that are less specialised.
Research has shown that fully specialised cells can be reprogrammed to behave like embryonic stem cells.
This produces iPSCs (induced pluripotent stem cells) and means that easily accessible cells, such as skin
cells, can be used to produce stem cells. However, reprogramming these cells to make stem cells that produce
particular kinds of specialised cell is still difficult, and much more research is needed. It is hoped that this
research will lead to new treatments that use a patient’s own cells to produce stem cells which can then be
used to replace diseased or damaged cells in the patient.
1 Three different sources of stem cells are embryos, stem cells in specialised tissue, and reprogrammed
specialised cells (iPSCs). Compare the ranges of specialised cells that these stem cells can produce.
2 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of developing cell lines from each source of stem cell.
3 Describe one medical treatment that is currently carried out using stem cells.
4 Describe two other medical treatments that could be carried out in the future using stem cells. Explain your
answers.
5 Scientists are trying to produce iPSCs from the skin cells of patients who have diseases of other cells.
Explain why this treatment could be more successful than using stem cells from the other two sources.
6 Describe one other problem with using stem cells in medical treatments that is different from the problem
you identified in question 5.
7 Why do differentiated cells have the potential to be ‘reprogrammed’ and become stem cells?
Extra challenge
8 Money for scientific research is limited. Imagine you are the director of a research institute that wishes to
carry out stem cell research. You have only enough budget to fund research into one source of stem cells
for developing new medical treatments. Which source would you choose as the most promising and why?

6
CB2d Progression Check
Name Class Date
1 Where are stem cells found?
2 What is the function of stem cells?
3 What are the advantages and risks of using stem cells in medicine?
Question 1 2 3
Start
Assessment
Question 1 2 3
Check
Feedback
Action

7
CB2e.1 Skin sensitivity

● work safely
● measure accurately
● treat others with respect.
Introduction
Your skin can detect many different stimuli, including touch, pressure, pain, heat and cold. For each of these
stimuli there is a different sort of receptor cell. You are going to find out if these receptors are spread evenly
through your skin.
Aim
To test the hypothesis that the skin on different parts of the arms and hands contains different densities of
touch receptors.
Method
Apparatus Safety
● blindfold Do not touch the sharp points on the touch tester
● ruler when pressing objects into sticky tack or cork.
● touch tester (e.g. U-shaped piece of wire, or Do not press down hard when placing the points
two cocktail sticks pressed into sticky tack or onto your partner’s skin.
cork)
A With your partner, decide who will be tested
and who will do the testing. If there is time you
may be able to swap roles and repeat the
experiment.
B Decide on five or six areas on the arms and
hands to test (e.g. tip of middle finger, upper
arm). You will also need to decide on the
number of gap sizes (the distance between the
points on the touch tester) that you are going
to try.
C Blindfold your partner.
D Alter the touch tester so that there is a gap of
1 mm between the two points.
E Place the two points onto your partner’s skin
and ask how many points can be felt, one or
two. Repeat this for the different areas of skin
that you have decided to test. Your partner will
know that there are two points, so sometimes
use one point instead. Do not record the
results when using one point, but doing this
helps to prevent bias.
F Repeat step E using different gap sizes.

CB2e.1 Skin sensitivity
Name Class Date

1 Record your data in this table. Write in the number of points (1 or 2) that your partner can feel in each of the
parts of the arm/hand that you test.
Distance between points (mm)

Part of arm or hand 1 2 3 5 10 20
tip of middle finger
base of middle finger
back of hand
palm
lower arm
upper arm

2 Draw a bar chart to show your results. Put the names of the parts that you tested on the x-axis and the
minimum distance that could be detected as two points on the y-axis.
3 a Which is the most sensitive part of the arm or hand that you tested?
b How can you tell?
c Why do you think this part should be more sensitive than other parts?
4 How sensitive a part of the skin is depends on the density of the receptor cells.
a What does the phrase ‘density of receptor cells’ mean?
b Which area contained the greatest density of receptor cells?
c How can you tell?
Evaluation
5 a How would you improve the way in which you tested your partner’s skin?
b How would this improvement increase the quality of your data?

The nervous system
CB2e.2 Strengthen
Name Class Date
1 The sentences below describe how you feel something that touches the heel of your foot. Write in numbers
1 to 7, to show the order in which the events occur.
impulses transmitted through sensory object touches the heel

neurone
you feel the object touching your heel
brain processes the impulses
impulses transmitted through
impulses generated in receptor cell neurones in the spinal cord
impulses reach the brain
S1 Draw a flow chart to show how information about something touching the heel of your foot gets to your
brain.
2 Unmuddle the letters to show the names of the three main parts of the nervous system.
REV ENS
RANCID SLOP
IN BAR
3 a What sort of cell is shown in the diagram below?
b Add in the two missing labels.

c Describe one function of the myelin sheath.

The nervous system
CB2e.3 Extend
1 The sentences below describe some of the events that occur when you pick up an ice cube. The sentences
are in the wrong order. Write out the letters for the sentences in the correct order.
A brain processes impulses and you feel ice cube
B brain processes impulses and you see ice cube
C brain sends range of impulses to muscle cells in arm and hand
D brain sends range of impulses to muscle cells in arm and hand
E finger muscles grip ice cube and arm muscles lift up
F impulses sent down optic nerve to brain
G impulses sent to brain via spinal cord
H receptor cells in eye detect light from ice cube
I receptor cells in skin detect pressure and cold
J you touch ice cube
E1 You pick up an ice cube. Explain how your nervous system allows you to do this.
2 The diagram shows a nerve.
a Explain why nerves are classified as organs.
b List the two organs found in the central nervous system.
3 a What sort of cell is shown in the diagram below?
b What are the missing labels, W, X, Y and Z?

c Explain the function of the myelin sheath.
d State one other way in which this cell is adapted to its function.

Senses
CB2e.4 Homework 1
Name Class Date
1 On the diagram, label the two parts of the body in the central
nervous system.
2 Certain cells in your body detect changes in your surroundings
(stimuli). They send information in electrical signals to the
brain. Rearrange the letters on the lines to answer the
questions.
a What cells detect stimuli?
(SCEPTRE OR CELL)
b What are the electrical signals called?
(SUMS PILE)
c What cells carry these electrical signals?
(ONE RUNE)
d What does the brain do with the information that it

receives?
(ROSE SPECS)
3 a Label the diagram below with the following:
axon axon terminal dendrite dendron receptor cell
b Add arrows below the diagram to show the direction in which electrical signals are transmitted.
c What substance is the sheath made out of? Tick one.
 myelin  melamine  mica  malolactate
d State the name of this cell.
e Describe two ways in which the cell is adapted to its function.
4 Anthony picks up an ice cube. Explain how Anthony can feel that the ice cube is cold.

Skin senses
CB2e.5 Homework 2
You do not need to remember the details of the skin receptors on this sheet, but you could be asked to apply
your knowledge to unfamiliar situations.
1 a Give the names of three organs

shown in the diagram on the right.
b What system do these organs form?
The skin is the body’s largest sense organ,

with an adult’s skin covering an area of about
1.8 m2 (the size of a shower curtain) and
having a mass of between 3 and 5 kg.
Although we think of the skin as being
responsible for the sense of touch, it has
many different sorts of receptor cells in it.
There are actually many
different types of skin.
The three main ones are:
● hairy – skin with hair!
● glabrous – skin
without hair
● mucous membrane –
skin that can produce
sticky mucus.
The different types of skin
have some or all of the
receptor cells shown in
the diagram on the right.
2 a Your skin contains receptor cells for different stimuli. What is a stimulus?
b What is an organ that contains receptor cells called?
c Name one area of your body where you would expect to find many touch receptors. Explain your
answer.
d You touch a cold stone. Which receptor cells would be activated?
e In what form is information from receptor cells carried to the brain?
3 In glabrous skin, some receptors detect light pressure and others detect stronger pressure. Which of the
receptors in the diagram do you think detect light pressure and which detect strong pressure? Explain your
answers.
4 Meissner corpuscles are not found in hairy skin. Suggest why they are not needed.
5 Receptor cells link to sensory neurones. Explain a function of each of these sensory neurone adaptations:
a long axons and dendrons
b many dendrites and axon terminals
c myelin sheath.
Extra challenge
6 a Name one area of your body where you would find a mucous membrane.
b Name one receptor cell you would not expect to find in a mucous membrane.

CB2e Progression Check
Name Class Date
1 What is the nervous system?
2 How does the nervous system allow the body to respond to stimuli?
3 How is a sensory neurone adapted to its function?
Question 1 2 3
Start
Assessment
Question 1 2 3
Check
Feedback
Action

CB2f.1 Measuring impulse speeds

● treat others with respect.
Introduction
You are going to try to find out how fast impulses travel through someone by measuring the time it takes for
someone to feel a squeeze in one elbow and pass the squeeze on to a neighbour.
Prediction
1 a Describe the route impulses will take through each person in this experiment.
b How long do you think the ‘squeezing message’ will take to go through one person?
c Why do you think this?
Aim Apparatus
To work out the mean speed of impulses through the human body. ● stop clock
● tape measure
Method
A Stand in a circle in your group. Each person holds their neighbour’s right elbow with their left hand.
B Get one person to be the ‘timer’ and hold a stop clock in their right hand.
C The ‘timer’ squeezes the elbow of the person to their left at the same time as starting the stop clock.
D As soon as the next person feels their elbow being squeezed, they squeeze the person on their left.
E When the person with the stop clock feels the squeeze, they stop the stop clock and record the time.
F Calculate the time taken for the impulses to travel through one person.
G Measure the route an impulse takes from the right elbow to the brain and to the left hand. This gives an
idea of the distance travelled through a person. Multiply this value by the number of people in your group.
total distance
H Calculate average speed (in m/s), using: average speed =
total time taken
I Repeat the experiment several times and record all your results.

2 Record your results in a neat table.

3 Work out the mean (average) speed of an impulse.
4 Is your result different from your prediction? If it is, explain why you think it is different.
5 a In this experiment, what is the stimulus and what is the response?
b Which neurones carry impulses to the effectors in your hand?
c Explain why the speed you calculated in step H is a mean (average) speed.
d How are impulse speeds increased when the body needs to respond very rapidly to a stimulus?

1
CB2f.2 Impulse speeds
1 Scientists calculated the speeds of impulses in some Neurone Diameter Impulse
brain neurones in macaque monkeys. Their results are of axon speed
shown in the table. (µm) (m/s)
a Give the letter of the neurone in which impulses C 0.82 6.42

travel fastest. F 0.69 5.4
b Draw a suitable graph to find out if there is any
M 1.04 8.14
correlation between impulse speed and axon
diameter. P 0.89 6.82
c What correlation does your graph show? S 1.13 8.9
d If impulses travel through many neurones linked T 0.77 6.02
end to end, they are slower than if they travel the
same distance along a single neurone. Explain V 0.95 7.46
why.
2 a Descriptions of some human neurones taken from different places in the body are given in the tables
below. Some impulse speeds are also given. Use your findings from question 1 and your own
knowledge about neurones to match each description with a speed.
b Cut out and place your neurone and speed cards in an ordered list (slowest at the top). Discuss in your
group how you each arranged the cards and then reach a final decision about the order.
Neurone Description Total length Axon diameter Myelin?

(mm) (µm)
120 m/s
A motor neurone 100 13 yes

(mm) (µm)
B two neurones 100 1 no

10 m/s
with synapse

(mm) (µm)
C sensory 100 20 yes

35 m/s
neurone

(mm) (µm)
80 m/s
D motor neurone 100 17 yes

(mm) (µm)
E connecting 100 13 no
100 m/s
neurone

2
Neurotransmission speeds
CB2f.3 Strengthen
Name Class Date
1 Add numbers (1−5) next to these sentences to show the order in which the events occur:
impulse reaches axon terminal neurotransmitter released into synapse
impulse travels along relay neurone new impulse generated
neurotransmitter detected by dendrite
S1 Draw a flow chart to show how an impulse in a relay neurone causes an impulse in a motor neurone.
2 Sasha picked up her scarf. She felt that it was cold and wet, and so she dropped it again.
What effectors did Sasha use?
3 Look at the cells A and B.
A B
a State the names of cells A and B.

b State the names of the parts W, X, Y and Z.
c Look at the axons in the diagrams. In which cell would you expect impulses to be slowest? Explain your
reasoning.
4 Explain why the body uses reflex arcs.

3
Neurotransmission
CB2f.4 Homework 1
Name Class Date
1 Annabel catches a ball she sees flying towards her.

a What is the stimulus?
b What is the response?
c What part of the nervous system processes information to produce the response?
2 a Name cells P and Q shown in the diagrams.
Cell P is a Cell Q is a
b Explain one adaptation of cell P to its function.
c Which cell, P or Q, would connect to light receptor cells in the retina of the eye?
d Which cell, P or Q, would connect to a muscle cell?
e Which cell, P or Q, would connect to an adrenal gland cell?
f The diagram here on the right shows three cells in a
reflex arc. Label cells P and Q.
g State the name of the other neurone.
h Describe the function of a reflex arc.
i Explain how the structure of the reflex arc helps with this function.
3 This statement is incorrect: ‘Impulses travel through synapses to get from one neurone to another.’
a Explain why this is incorrect.
b Why are synapses used by the nervous system? Tick one.
 so that one impulse can generate many impulses  so that impulses do not travel too quickly through
with equal ‘strength’ the nervous system
 so that neurotransmitters can be released  so that neurones are separated from each other

4
The knee jerk
CB2f.5 Homework 2
You do not need to remember the details on this sheet, but you could be asked to apply your knowledge to
unfamiliar situations.
Inside all your muscles are muscle spindles that contain receptor cells. The muscle spindles are stretched
when a muscle is stretched. When this happens an impulse is generated, which is sent along a sensory
neurone. The impulse is transmitted through a reflex arc, causing the muscle to contract (or contract even
more). Even if you are standing still, minute variations in position are occurring all the time, and these are
detected by muscle spindles and cause reflexes that automatically make slight alterations to muscle tensions,
so that you stay upright.
The knee jerk reflex (or patellar reflex) is one of these reflexes and it occurs using a monosynaptic (single
synapse) reflex arc. However, it is not quite as simple as that!
Another sensory neurone runs from a receptor called the Golgi tendon organ. As the quadriceps muscle
contracts, it pulls on the tendon and stretches it. If the quadriceps muscle contracts too much, and there is a
danger that the tendon could be damaged, the Golgi tendon organ sends impulses to a relay neurone, which
connects to the motor neurone going to the quadriceps. This relay neurone uses a neurotransmitter called
glycine in its synapse with the motor neurone, and this inhibits (decreases the chances of) an impulse being
generated in the motor neurone. Most synapses use a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine (ACh) that
stimulates (increases the chances of) impulses being generated.
1 a What is a monosynaptic reflex arc?
b State a purpose of reflex arcs.
c Explain what happens at a synapse.
d State one drawback of synapses in the nervous system.
e State one benefit of synapses in the nervous system.
2 What part of a muscle detects stretching?
3 a What is the effect on the quadriceps muscle when the tendon is stretched too much?
b Why is this useful?
c Weightlifters have been known to inject themselves with local anaesthetic near their Golgi tendon
organs. Why do you think they do this?
4 a Name each type of neurone labelled P to U in the diagram.
b State whether each neurone is inhibitory or stimulatory.
5 Describe, in as much detail as you can, what happens when the muscle spindle is stretched.
Extra challenge
6 If a bacterium called Clostridium tetani gets into humans it can produce a poison that causes a serious
condition called tetanus. The poison blocks the release of glycine into synapses. What do you think the
symptoms of tetanus are? Explain your reasoning.

5
CB2f Progression Check
Name Class Date
1 How is a motor neurone adapted to its function?
2 How do neurotransmitters allow a connection between neurones?
3 How does the structure of a reflex arc allow faster reactions to stimuli?
Question 1 2 3
Start
Assessment
Question 1 2 3
Check
Feedback
Action

6
CB2 Word Sheet
CB2a Mitosis
Word Pronunciation Meaning
anaphase an-na-fays The stage of mitosis in which the separated
chromosomes move away from each other.
asexual reproduction Producing new organisms from one parent only.
These organisms are genetically identical to the
parent.
cancer cell Cell that divides uncontrollably.
cell cycle A sequence of growth and division that happens in
cells. It includes interphase and mitosis, and leads to
the production of two daughter cells that are identical
to the parent cell.
clone Offspring from asexual reproduction. All the cells in a
clone are genetically identical to each other and to
the parent’s cells.
cytokinesis site-O-kY-nee-sis When the cytoplasm of the cell is separated as the
cell membrane is pinched to divide the cell into two
daughter cells.
daughter cell New cell produced by cell division.
diploid dip-loyd A cell with two sets of chromosomes.
DNA replication rep-li-kay-shun The copying of the DNA within a cell.
haploid hap-loyd A cell with one set of chromosomes.
interphase in-ter-fays The stage when the cell prepares itself for the
process of cell division, and DNA replication takes
place. The cell also makes more of its sub-cellular
structures.
metaphase met-a-fays The stage of mitosis when the chromosomes line up
across the middle of the cell.
mitosis my-toe-sis The process of cells dividing to produce two daughter
cells that are genetically identical to the parent.
multicellular mul-tee-sell-U-lar An organism that is made of many cells.
prophase prO-fays The stage of mitosis in which the nucleus starts to
break down and spindle fibres appear.
spindle fibre spin-del fY-ber Filament formed in a cell during mitosis, which helps
to separate chromosomes.
telophase tee-lO-fays The stage of mitosis in which the chromosomes
arrive at opposite ends of the cell and the nucleus
membrane reforms.
tumour tyoo-mer Lump formed of cancer cells.

1
CB2 Word Sheet
CB2b Growth in animals
differentiation diff-er-en-shi-ay-shun When a group of similar things, such as cells,
become different in form from each other.
growth A permanent increase in the number or size of cells
in an organism.
percentile pur-sent-iyl A th division of a group. For example, 10 per cent
of the data items are below the 10th percentile and
50 per cent are below the 50th percentile.
CB2c Growth in plants

differentiate To change into different types, for example when
meristem cells differentiate into specialised cells such
as xylem or root hair cells.
elongation When something gets longer (such as a cell in a
plant root or shoot before it differentiates into a
specialised cell).
meristem A small area of undifferentiated cells in a plant, such
as near the shoot tips and root tips, where cells are
dividing rapidly by mitosis.
root hair cell Cell found on the surface of plant roots that has a
large surface area to absorb water and dissolved
mineral salts quickly from the soil.
xylem cell zy-lem sell Cell that joins with other xylem cells to form long,
thick-walled vessels after they die. The vessels carry
water and dissolved mineral salts through the plant.
CB2d Stem cells

adult stem cell Stem cell found in specialised tissue that can
produce more of the specialised cells in that tissue
for growth and repair.
cancer can-ser Disease caused by the uncontrolled division of stem
cells in a part of the body.
embryonic stem cell Stem cell from an early embryo that can produce
specialised cells of many different types.
meristem cell Stem cell found in a plant meristem.
rejection When the immune system attacks and kills cells and
tissue that come from another person, such as blood
(after transfusion) or stem cells.
stem cell Unspecialised cell that continues to divide by mitosis
to produce more stem cells and other cells that
differentiate into specialised cells.

2
CB2 Word Sheet
CB2e The nervous system
axon The long extension of a neurone that carries an
impulse away from the dendron or dendrites towards
other neurones.
axon terminal Small ‘button’ at the end of the branches that leave
an axon.
central nervous The main part of the nervous system – the brain and
system spinal cord. Abbreviated to CNS.
CNS Stands for central nervous system.
dendrite A fine extension from a neurone, which carries
impulses towards the cell body.
dendron Large, long extension of a sensory neurone that
carries impulses from dendrites towards the axon.
impulse Electrical signal transmitted along a neurone.
myelin sheath my-ell-in sheeth Fatty covering around the axons of many neurones. It
speeds up the transmission of impulses along their
length and helps to insulate them from one another.
nerve cell Another term for neurone.
nervous system An organ system that contains the brain, spinal cord
and nerves, and carries impulses around the body.
This system helps us to sense and respond quickly to
changes inside and outside our bodies.
neurone nyor-own A cell that transmits electrical impulses in the
nervous system.
neurotransmission new-rO-trans-mish-un Impulses passing from neurone to neurone.
receptor cell re-sep-tor sell Cell that receives a stimulus and converts it into an
electrical impulse to be sent to the brain and/or spinal
cord.
response Action that occurs due to a stimulus.
sense organ Organ that contains receptor cells.
sensory neurone sens-or-ee nyor-own Neurone that carries impulses from receptor cells,
towards the central nervous system.
spinal cord spy-nal cord Large bundle of nerves, leading from the brain and
down the back.
stimulus Change in a factor (inside or outside the body) that is
detected by receptors. Plural: stimuli.

3
CB2 Word Sheet
CB2f Neurotransmission speeds
effector Muscle or gland in the body that performs an action
when an impulse from the nervous system is
received.
motor neurone mO-ter nyor-own Neurone that carries impulses to effectors.
neurotransmitter new-rO-trans-mit-ter Substance that diffuses across the gap between two
neurones at a synapse, and triggers an impulse to be
generated in the neurone on the other side of the
synapse.
reflex ree-flex Response to a stimulus that does not require
processing by the brain. The response is automatic.
Also called a reflex action.
reflex arc ree-flex ark Neurone pathway consisting of a sensory neurone
passing impulses to a motor neurone (often via a
relay neurone), which allows reflexes to occur.
relay neurone ree-lay nyor-own A short type of neurone, found in the spinal cord and
brain. Relay neurones link with sensory, motor and
other relay neurones.
synapse sY-naps Point at which two neurones meet. There is a tiny
gap between neurones at a synapse, which cannot
transmit an electrical impulse.

4

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CB2a.

1 Investigating root squashes

Your teacher may watch to see if you can:

© Pearson Education Ltd 2016. Copying permitted for

Recording your results

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interphase anaphase telophase

prophase metaphase cytokinesis

The The Spindle fibres The nuclei start The cell is

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Stage of the cell cycle What happens

interphase The membrane around the nucleus breaks down.

The cytoplasm of the cell is separated as a cell

Each of the chromosome X-shapes splits to form

The single chromosomes arrive at opposite ends

The DNA in the cell is copied (making X-shapes,

cytokinesis The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.

S1 Draw a flow chart to show mitosis.

2 State two reasons why mitosis needs to take place in cells.

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Name Class Date

3 Which part of the cell cycle is taking place when:

a the chromosomes line up on the equator of the cell

b the nucleus membrane is breaking down

c DNA and sub-cellular parts are copied

d the cytoplasm of the cell is separated?

 growth  evolution  respiration

 repair  reproduction  digestion

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Cell division and cancer

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2 What happens in the different stages of mitosis?

3 How do cancer tumours occur?

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Note down any specific areas you need to improve.

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Considering your results/Conclusion

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Name Class Date

b Which process changes unspecialised cells into specialised cells?

cell division cell size growth

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The graphs show the growth of a

5 Use your answer to question 4 to

length of a baby boy (thick line) displayed on percentile curve

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Name Class Date

2 The diagrams in the table show some specialised human cells.

How the cell is

Function of the cell

3 The mass of a boy was measured every month

mass of a baby boy (thick line) displayed on

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2 How are percentile charts used to monitor growth in children?

3 Why is cell differentiation important in animals?

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Note down any specific areas you need to improve.

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Recording your results

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