Professional Documents
Culture Documents
on Exercise ®
Nearly two decades after the debut of the first ACE Personal Trainer Manual,
the American Council on Exercise continues to lead the way by providing the
most comprehensive resource on personal training you will ever find. This all-
new fourth edition of ACE’s best-selling textbook offers expanded coverage of
a personal trainer’s primary job responsibility—assessing each client’s current
level of health and physical fitness and then developing a safe and effective
fitness program that will lead to a lifelong commitment to a more active lifestyle
and better health.
A central feature of this new manual is the ACE Integrated Fitness TrainingTM
Model, which walks the personal trainer through the process of working
with clients anywhere on the health—fitness—performance continuum and
then building an individualized program based on both physical ability and
psychological readiness for change. Whether a client is just beginning to exercise
after years of sedentary living or is an elite-level athlete trying to fine-tune
performance, this manual provides everything you need to develop safe, effective
programs with appropriate rates of progression.
The ACE Personal Trainer Manual, Fourth Edition, is not only an excellent study tool
for the ACE certification exam, but also a valuable reference filled with practical tools
and resources that you will utilize throughout your career.
Editors
Cedric X. Bryant, Ph.D., FACSM
Daniel J. Green
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2009911158
ISBN 9781890720292
Copyright © 2010 American Council on Exercise® (ACE®)
Printed in the United States of America
All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in any information retrieval system, is
forbidden without the written permission of the American Council on Exercise.
DEFGH
Distributed by:
American Council on Exercise
4851 Paramount Drive
San Diego, CA 92123
(858) 576-6500
(858) 576-6564 FAX
www.acefitness.org
NOTICE
The fitness industry is ever-changing. As new research and clinical experience broaden our knowledge, changes
in programming and standards are required. The authors and the publisher of this work have checked with
sources believed to be reliable in their efforts to provide information that is complete and generally in accord with
the standards accepted at the time of publication. However, in view of the possibility of human error or changes
in industry standards, neither the authors nor the publisher nor any other party who has been involved in the
preparation or publication of this work warrants that the information contained herein is in every respect accurate
or complete, and they are not responsible for any errors or omissions or the results obtained from the use of such
information. Readers are encouraged to confirm the information contained herein with other sources.
P12-005
Table of contents
Reviewers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Studying for the ACE Personal Trainer Exam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
PART I – Introduction
Chapter 1 – Role and Scope of Practice for the Personal Trainer Todd Galati. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Daniel Cipriani, P.T., Ph.D., is a licensed physical therapist and an associate professor in the
School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences at San Diego State University. His areas of teaching
and research include applied biomechanics, rehabilitation sciences, and measurement. Prior to
his appointment at SDSU, Dr. Cipriani served on the Physical Therapy faculty at the University
of Toledo, with a focus on orthopaedic rehabilitation. Dr. Cipriani serves on the editorial boards
of the Journal of Physical Therapy and the Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy.
Fabio Comana, M.A., M.S., is an exercise physiologist and spokesperson for the American
Council on Exercise and faculty at San Diego State University (SDSU) and the University of
California San Diego (UCSD), teaching courses in exercise science and nutrition. He holds
two master’s degrees, one in exercise physiology and one in nutrition, as well as certifications
through ACE, ACSM, NSCA, and ISSN. Prior to joining ACE, he was a college head coach
and a strength and conditioning coach at SDSU. Comana also managed health clubs for Club
One. He lectures, conducts workshops, and writes on many topics related to exercise, fitness,
and nutrition both nationally and internationally. As an ACE spokesperson and presenter, he is
frequently featured in numerous media outlets, including television, radio, Internet, and more
than 100 nationwide newspaper and print publications. Comana has authored chapters in vari-
ous textbooks.
Todd Galati, M.A., is the certification and exam development manager for the American
Council on Exercise and serves on volunteer committees with the Institute for Credentialing
Excellence, formerly the National Organization for Competency Assurance. He holds a bach-
elor’s degree in athletic training and a master’s degree in kinesiology and four ACE certifications
(Personal Trainer, Advanced Health & Fitness Specialist, Lifestyle & Weight Management
Coach, and Group Fitness Instructor). Prior to joining ACE, Galati was a program direc-
tor with the University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, where he spent 14 years
designing and researching the effectiveness of youth fitness programs in reducing risk factors
for cardiovascular disease, obesity, and type 2 diabetes. Galati’s experience includes teaching
classes in biomechanics and applied kinesiology as an adjunct professor at Cal State San Marcos,
conducting human performance studies as a research physiologist with the U.S. Navy, working
as a personal trainer in medical fitness facilities, and coaching endurance athletes to state and
national championships.
Carolyn Kaelin, M.D., M.P.H., FACS, is founding director of the Comprehensive Breast
Health Center at Brigham and Women’s Hospital, a major teaching hospital of Harvard
Medical School. She is a surgical oncologist at Dana Farber Cancer Institute, a leading
researcher in quality of life after breast cancer, and author of the award-winning book Living
Through Breast Cancer.
viii American Council On exercise
Len Kravitz, Ph.D., is the program coordinator of exercise science and researcher at the
University of New Mexico, where he won the “Outstanding Teacher of the Year” award. Dr.
Kravitz was honored with the 2009 Canadian Fitness Professional “Specialty Presenter of the
Year” award and was chosen as the American Council on Exercise “Fitness Educator of the
Year” in 2006. He has also received the prestigious Canadian Fitness Professional “Lifetime
Achievement Award.”
John R. Martínez, P.T., M.P.T., is the sole principle and president of Executive Operations
Management, which provides executive-level business consulting to companies in and around
New York City. Additionally, he is the owner and clinical director of Physical Therapy
Experts, P.L.L.C., and the Australian Physiotherapy Centers in Manhattan. Martinez has a
B.A. in psychology from Swarthmore College, a B.S. in health sciences and an M.S. in physi-
cal therapy from the University of the Sciences in Philadelphia, and is a doctoral candidate in
physical therapy at Temple University. He also brings his knowledge and skills to the class-
room, teaching neurology and anatomy and physiology to local undergraduate students.
Pete McCall, M.S., is an exercise physiologist with the American Council on Exercise
(ACE), where he creates and delivers fitness education programs to uphold ACE’s mission
of enriching quality of life through safe and effective exercise and physical activity. Prior to
working with ACE, McCall was a full-time personal trainer and group fitness instructor in
Washington, D.C. He has a master’s of science degree in exercise science and health promo-
tion from California University of Pennsylvania and is an ACE-certified Personal Trainer.
Sabrena Merrill, M.S., is a former full-time faculty member in the Kinesiology and Physical
Education Department at California State University, Long Beach. She has a bachelor’s
degree in exercise science as well as a master’s degree in physical education/biomechanics
from the University of Kansas, and has numerous fitness certifications. Merrill, an ACE-
certified Personal Trainer and Group Fitness Instructor and ACE Faculty Member, educates
other fitness professionals about current industry topics through speaking engagements at
local establishments and national conferences, as well as through educational videos. She is a
spokesperson for ACE and is involved in curriculum development for ACE continuing edu-
cation programs.
American Council On exercise ix
Reviewers
David Ohton has been the director of strength and conditioning at San Diego State
University since 1985. After graduating from Arizona State University (ASU), he signed
a free agent contract with the Kansas City Chiefs and attended graduate school at ASU
with an emphasis in sports psychology and biomechanics while serving as a member of the
strength and conditioning staff. Ohton is a long-time member of the National Strength and
Conditioning Association and has published several articles in their periodical journal.
Justin Price, M.A., is the owner of The BioMechanics, a private training facility located in
San Diego, Calif., that specializes in providing exercise alternatives for sufferers of chronic
pain. He is the creator of The BioMechanics Method, a method for pain reduction that
combines structural assessment, movement analysis, corrective exercise, and life coaching
and teaches trainers how to help clients alleviate chronic pain and improve their function.
He is also an IDEA Personal Trainer of the Year and an educator for the American Council
on Exercise, PTontheNet, PTA Global, and the National Strength and Conditioning
Association.
David K. Stotlar, Ed.D., serves as the director of the School of Sport & Exercise Science at
the University of Northern Colorado and teaches on the faculty in the areas of sport man-
agement and sport marketing. He has had more than 70 articles published in professional
journals and has written more than 40 textbooks and book chapters on sport marketing and
management. During his career, Dr. Stotlar has given more than 200 presentations and work-
shops at national and international professional conferences.
L
ike the American Council on Exercise itself, the ACE Personal Trainer Manual has long
stood as the standard of excellence in the fitness industry. And like previous editions of
this manual, this Fourth Edition of the ACE Personal Trainer Manual was written based
on feedback from individuals who are active in the fitness world—practicing personal
trainers, university professors, and industry experts—who worked together to create the Exam
Content Outline (see Appendix B). This document presents the skills and knowledge that a per-
sonal trainer needs to have a successful career and should serve as a guide as you prepare for the
ACE exam.
That said, this textbook also marks a shift in the way that ACE is presenting this content to
aspiring and practicing fitness professionals. Gone are the days when a personal trainer could study
resistance training, cardiorespiratory training, and flexibility training as isolated components of
physical fitness. Modern fitness consumers demand comprehensive programs that are truly indi-
vidualized based on their physical-activity levels, current health status, and needs and desires. And,
though clients may not even know it, the programs must also take into account each individual’s
psychological readiness for change. The core challenge for any fitness professional is to somehow
translate all of the feedback he or she receives from health-history forms, physical assessments,
and conversations with the client into a successful program. The all-new ACE Integrated Fitness
TrainingTM Model (ACE IFTTM Model) meets this challenge head on.
The ACE IFT Model addresses some of the most common concerns and questions offered by
personal trainers. What is the best way to take advantage of that initial contact with a prospective
client? What should be accomplished during a client’s first handful of sessions? When is the best
time to perform the seemingly endless array of available assessments, and how does the trainer
know which ones are appropriate for a specific client? How does the personal trainer use the results
of those assessments to design an exercise program for a client? And, finally, how does the trainer
keep clients motivated and progressing over the long haul?
Answering that final question is really the key to becoming a successful personal trainer and
having a long, rewarding career. Passing the ACE Certification Exam is only the first step. By
joining the more than 50,000 current ACE-certified Fitness Professionals, you will be earning a
distinguished mark of excellence. It is then up to you to become a leader in your community as we
work together to make the world a more active and healthy place.
Make good use of this textbook and all else that ACE has to offer—and don’t hesitate to contact
us if you need any additional guidance. In closing, good luck and congratulations on taking this
important first step.
Scott Goudeseune
President and CEO
i n tr o d u c ti o n
T
he American Council on Exercise is proud to introduce the Fourth Edition of its
ACE Personal Trainer Manual. This all-new textbook, which was written by a group
of 14 industry experts, is designed to fill an important need in the fitness industry.
In the past, many newcomers to personal training would read a textbook presenting
fitness assessments, detailing resistance-, flexibility-, and cardiorespiratory-training programs,
and providing motivational tools, and ask the same question—“Okay, so now what?” In other
words, how does the reader assimilate all of this seemingly disparate information into a safe
and effective training program for each of his or her clients?
The ACE Integrated Fitness TrainingTM (ACE IFTTM) Model, which is a central feature of
this new manual and is presented in Part III: The ACE Integrated Fitness Training Model
(Chapters 5–12), should serve as a blueprint when meeting, assessing, and training clients,
from recently sedentary adults who are just getting started and seek improved overall health
to elite-level athletes working to enhance a specific aspect of their athletic performance. After
introducing the various components of the ACE IFT Model, detailing the various assessments
that personal trainers have at their disposal, and covering functional, resistance, and cardio-
respiratory training, this part of the textbook closes with Chapter 12: The ACE Integrated
Fitness Training Model in Practice. This chapter offers six case studies that are representa-
tive of the types of clientele that personal trainers can expect to see over the course of their
careers. Each case study presents the health history of the client, along with his or her goals,
and then follows the client over the course of the program, offering progression templates,
discussing obstacles, and offering solutions along the way. This chapter is designed to help
the reader synthesize the material presented in the previous seven chapters in a very practical
sense. By combining the ACE IFT Model with appropriate leadership and implementation
strategies as presented in Part II: Leadership and Implementation (Chapters 2–4), personal
trainers can provide a truly individualized, integrated approach to achieving optimal health,
fitness, and performance.
Of course, to be successful as a personal trainer, there is other foundational information that
individuals need to understand and be able to utilize. Chapter 1: Role and Scope of Practice
for the Personal Trainer defines the personal trainer’s role within the healthcare continuum
and details the scope of practice. In addition, this chapter discusses various avenues of career
development for personal trainers.
Chapter 13: Mind-body Exercise explains how mind-body fitness, which includes
everything from classical forms of yoga and tai chi to more contemporary options like the
Alexander Technique and Nia, fits into the modern fitness industry. Chapter 14: Training
Special Populations presents essential information for working with individuals with various
diseases and disorders once they have been cleared to exercise by their physicians. These two
chapters comprise Part IV: Special Exercise Programming Topics.
Part V: Injury Prevention and First Aid is also composed of two chapters. Chapter 15:
Common Musculoskeletal Injuries and Implications for Exercise begins by explaining
common tissue injuries before presenting guidelines for managing these common injuries,
including rotator cuff injuries, carpal tunnel syndrome, ankle sprains, and plantar fasciitis.
Chapter 16: Emergency Procedures discusses emergency policies and procedures for fit-
ness facilities. Common emergencies are also discussed, ranging from choking and asthma to
stroke and neck injuries.
The final two chapters combine to form Part VI: Professional and Legal Responsibilities
and Business Strategies. Chapter 17: Legal Guidelines and Professional Responsibilities
xiv American Council On exercise
addresses many of the standard legal and business concerns that personal trainers may have
regarding business structure, employment status, contracts, insurance, and risk management.
Chapter 18: Personal-training Business Fundamentals presents a topic new to ACE text-
books: how to thrive on the business side of your personal-training career. This chapter covers
creating a brand, financial planning, choosing a business structure, and effective marketing
practices.
Our goal when putting together this textbook was to meet the needs of personal trainers at
every stage of their careers, from deciding whether to work as an employee or independent
contractor to owning one’s own fitness facility, from training people who walk in off the street
to specializing in a niche clientele that allows you to increase your income and become a rec-
ognized expert in your community. We wish you good luck in your efforts and sincerely hope
that this manual serves you well as you prepare to become an ACE-certified Personal Trainer
and remains a trusted resource throughout your career.
Daniel J. Green
Project Editor
Studying for the ACE
Personal Trainer Exam
ACE has put together a comprehensive package of study tools that should serve as your core mate-
rials while preparing for the ACE Certification Exam. Using the following study tips will optimize
your chances of success.
Begin by studying ACE’s Essentials of Exercise Science for Fitness Professionals. This book covers
the foundational knowledge that you will need to take full advantage of the training-specific infor-
mation presented in the ACE Personal Trainer Manual, Fourth Edition. The authors of the Personal
Trainer Manual wrote with the assumption that readers had already mastered the content pre-
sented in the Essentials book. For example, Chapter 10: Resistance Training: Programming and
Progressions assumes an understanding of human anatomy and the physiology of training, both of
which are presented in the Essentials book. If at any point in your reading you come across a topic that
you are not entirely confident with, revisit the Essentials book to sharpen your understanding.
Each chapter of ACE’s Essentials of Exercise Science for Fitness Professionals includes a Study Guide
that will help you identify areas that require additional study time and more focused attention. In
addition, multiple-choice questions are included that mirror the style and types of questions that are
included on the ACE certification exams.
Review the Exam Content Outline, which is presented in Appendix B of this book. This docu-
ment was created by active members of the fitness industry and is the basis from which the ACE
Personal Trainer Exam is written. Using this document to target your studies and identify areas of
weakness will be a powerful study tool.
Use the Master the Manual to focus your studies as you work your way through the ACE Personal
Trainer Manual. The Master the Manual uses the same format as the Study Guides in the Essentials
book, with the addition of chapter summaries that point out key topics, and will be an invaluable tool
as you prepare for the ACE Exam.
Other ACE study materials include the following:
• Flashcards: ACE’s flashcards focus on foundational anatomy and physiology topics and feature
detailed illustrations that will help strengthen your understanding of these essential topics.
• Companion DVD for the ACE Personal Trainer Manual: This DVD, which is included in
the back of this book, presents many of the exercises and drills discussed in the textbook
in a user-friendly, practical format. This will be a valuable tool whether you are teaching
basic exercises to beginner clients or more advanced movement exercises for your more fit
and experienced clients.
• Glossary and Index: Keep an eye out for boldface terms as you read. Each of these important
terms is included in the book’s glossary as a quick reference whenever a new concept is
introduced. If you need more in-depth information on the topic, check the indexes of both the
Personal Trainer Manual and the Essentials book.
• www.acefitness.org: The ACE website offers everything from calculators using equations
commonly utilized in the fitness setting to online continuing education courses—which means
that it will remain a valuable resource for tools and information throughout your fitness career.
• ACE Resource Center: ACE’s Resource Center specialists are available to answer your questions
as you prepare for the exam. The Resource Center can be reached at (800) 825-3636, ext. 796.
PART I
Introduction
Chapter 1
Role and Scope of
Practice for the
Personal Trainer
In T his C hapter :
The Allied Healthcare Accreditation of Allied Career Development Summary
Continuum Healthcare Credentials Continuing Education
Through the NCCA
The ACE Personal Trainer Degrees
Certification Recognition From the Fitness
Additional Fitness
and Health Industry
Defining “Scope of Practice” Certifications
Recognition From the
Scope of Practice for ACE- New Areas of Expertise
Education Community
certified Personal Trainers Within Allied Healthcare
Recognition From the
Knowledge, Skills, and
Department of Labor
Abilities of the ACE-certified
Personal Trainer
Professional Responsibilities
and Ethics
Todd galati, M.A., is the certification and exam development manager for the American Council on
Exercise and serves on volunteer committees with the Institute for Credentialing Excellence, formerly the
National Organization for Competency Assurance. He holds a bachelor’s degree in athletic training and a
master’s degree in kinesiology and four ACE certifications (Personal Trainer, Advanced Health & Fitness
Specialist, Lifestyle & Weight Management Coach, and Group Fitness Instructor). Prior to joining ACE, Galati
was a program director with the University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, where he spent
14 years designing and researching the effectiveness of youth fitness programs in reducing risk factors
for cardiovascular disease, obesity, and type 2 diabetes. Galati’s experience includes teaching classes in
biomechanics and applied kinesiology as an adjunct professor at Cal State San Marcos, conducting human
performance studies as a research physiologist with the U.S. Navy, working as a personal trainer in medical
fitness facilities, and coaching endurance athletes to state and national championships.
C hapter 1
T
he benefits resulting from regular physical activity are well documented (Table 1-1).
After a comprehensive review of the research linking physical activity to health, the
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services released the 2008 Physical Activity
Guidelines for Americans, the first comprehensive guidelines on physical activity to
be issued by the U.S. government. These guidelines list the following major research findings
regarding physical activity and its associated health benefits:
• Regular physical activity reduces the risk of many adverse health outcomes.
• Some physical activity is better than none.
• For most health outcomes, additional benefits occur as the amount of
physical activity increases through higher intensity, greater frequency, and/
or longer duration.
4 Chapter One
in effective exercise programs that result in registrations, and/or licensure and provide
positive health and fitness improvements. services to identify, prevent, and treat
In the past, personal trainers have primarily diseases and disorders. Physicians are at
worked with fitness enthusiasts in traditional the top of the allied healthcare pyramid,
fitness facilities. This role is changing due to evaluating patients to diagnose ailments and
the increasing number of adults and children implement treatment plans that can include
who are overweight or obese and have related medication, surgery, rehabilitation, or other
health issues. Personal trainers must now be actions. Physicians are assisted in their
prepared to work with clients ranging in age efforts by nurses, physician’s assistants, and
from youth to older adults, and ranging in a number of other credentialed technicians.
health and fitness status from overweight and When ailments or treatment plans fall
sedentary to athletic. The need for personal outside their areas of expertise, physicians
trainers to help combat the rising obesity refer patients to specialists for specific
epidemic has led to a positive outlook for medical evaluations, physical or occupational
personal training as a profession. therapy, psychological counseling, dietary
planning, and/or exercise programming.
The Allied Healthcare Physicians and nurses teach patients the
importance of implementing their treatment
Continuum plans. Physical therapists and occupational
T
he allied healthcare continuum is therapists lead patients through therapeutic
composed of health professionals who exercise and teach them to perform additional
are credentialed through certifications, exercises at home to facilitate rehabilitation.
Figure 1-1
Specialty areas within Mental
allied healthcare Health
• Psychiatrist
• Psychologist
Nutritional • Social worker
Support Alternative
• Support groups Healthcare (Licensed)
• Registered
dietitian • Chiropractor
• Clinical • Acupuncturist
weight-loss “Gatekeeper” • Massage therapist
program
Physician/nurse
practitioner
Note: AHFS = Advanced Health & Fitness Specialist; LWMC = Lifestyle & Weight Management Coach
Chapter one 7
Role and Scope of Practice for the Personal Trainer
who is responsible for his or her general medical board exams does not mean that the
medical care. If the client is referred by his individual knows everything there is to know
or her physician, the personal trainer should about medicine. Instead, by earning an ACE
obtain written permission from the client to Personal Trainer Certification, the professional
communicate with the referring physician has proven his or her competence in applying
to provide regular reports regarding the knowledge to make safe and effective exercise-
client’s progress with the exercise program. programming decisions in a variety of practical
Even when clients do not have a physician’s situations, while minimizing client risk and
referral, it is important for the personal exposure to harm (e.g., physical, emotional,
trainer to maintain confidential records that psychological, financial, or other harm).
include the client’s program, progress, and
health-history information. Defining “Scope of Practice”
A scope of practice defines the legal range
The ACE Personal of services that professionals in a given field
can provide, the settings in which those
Trainer Certification services can be provided, and the guidelines
T
he decision to pursue certification as or parameters that must be followed. Many
a personal trainer is an important step factors go into defining a scope of practice,
in being recognized as a competent including the education, training, and
professional. The ACE Personal Trainer certifications or licenses required to work
Certification Program was developed to in a given field, the laws and organizations
assess candidate competency in making safe governing the specific profession, and the laws
and effective exercise program decisions for and organizations governing complementary
apparently healthy clients. Candidates who professions within the same field. Most
achieve a passing score on the ACE Personal laws defining a profession are determined
Trainer Certification Exam meet or exceed and regulated by state regulatory agencies,
the level of competency required to work as a including licensure. As a result, the scope of
professional personal trainer with minimum practice for licensed practitioners can vary from
supervision. In the credentialing world, this state to state in a given profession. In addition,
threshold of professional competence is referred most professions have organizations that serve
to as the “minimum competency” required as governing bodies within the profession that
for a person to work in the profession. The set eligibility requirements to enter educational
primary purpose of a certification is always programs or sit for certification exams, and
to protect the public from harm by assessing establish codes for professional conduct and
if the professional meets established levels disciplinary procedures for professionals who
of competence in the knowledge, skills, and break these codes.
abilities necessary to perform the job in a safe The laws, rules, and regulations that
and effective manner. For the professional, govern a profession are established for the
a certification can separate him or her from protection of the public. The laws governing
others who have not proven themselves to be at a personal trainer’s scope of practice and the
the same level of competence. ramifications faced by trainers who provide
Fitness professionals who earn the ACE services that fall outside the defined scope
Personal Trainer Certification are competent are detailed in Chapter 17. The eligibility
to work as professional personal trainers for and certification requirements to work
apparently healthy individuals and small groups within this legal scope of practice are defined
with minimal supervision. This does not mean by the professional organizations that
that an ACE-certified Personal Trainer knows offer personal-trainer certifications. These
everything there is to know about personal organizations also establish codes of ethical
training, just as successfully passing one’s conduct and mandate that they are upheld
8 Chapter One
by certified professionals and applicants in the specific scope of practice for his or her
all actions related to personal training. It is credential. The ACE-certified Personal
crucial for practitioners in every industry to Trainer scope of practice is presented in
be aware of the scope of practice for their Figure 1-2. ACE-certified Personal Trainers
given profession, to ensure that they practice must work within this defined scope of
within the realm of the specific education, practice to provide effective services to their
experience, and demonstrated competency of clients, gain and maintain support from the
their credential. healthcare community, and avoid the legal
ramifications of providing services outside
Scope of Practice for their professional scope.
ACE-certified Personal Trainers Personal trainers should never provide
Fitness professionals as a collective group services that are outside their defined scope of
have a general scope of practice (Table 1-2). practice. For example, a personal trainer may
While this table provides general guidance, be asked nutrition questions by clients wanting
each professional must know what is within to reduce weight and/or body fat. Personal
Table 1-2
IDEA Personal Fitness Trainers’ Scope of Practice
Fitness Professionals DO NOT: Fitness Professionals DO:
Diagnose • Receive exercise, health, or nutrition guidelines from a physician, physical therapist, registered dietitian, etc.
• Follow national consensus guidelines for exercise programming for medical disorders
• Screen for exercise limitations
• Identify potential risk factors through screening
• Refer clients to an appropriate allied health professional or medical practitioner
Rehabilitate • Design an exercise program once a client has been released from rehabilitation
Counsel • Coach
• Provide general information
• Refer clients to a qualified counselor or therapist
IDEA Health & Fitness Association’s Opinion Statement: Benefits of a working relationship between medical and allied health practitioners and personal fitness trainers. IDEA
Health and Fitness Source, September 2001. www.ideafit.com. Reprinted with permission.
Chapter one 9
Role and Scope of Practice for the Personal Trainer
Figure 1-2
The ACE-certified
ACE-certified Personal Trainer Scope of Practice Personal Trainer
The ACE-certified Personal Trainer is a fitness professional who has met all requirements of the Scope of Practice
American Council on Exercise to develop and implement fitness programs for individuals who have no
apparent physical limitations or special medical needs. The ACE-certified Personal Trainer realizes that
personal training is a service industry focused on helping people enhance fitness and modify risk factors
for disease to improve health. As members of the allied healthcare continuum with a primary focus on
prevention, ACE-certified Personal Trainers have a scope of practice that includes:
• Developing and implementing exercise programs that are safe, effective, and appropriate for
individuals who are apparently healthy or have medical clearance to exercise
• Conducting health-history interviews and stratifying risk for cardiovascular disease with clients in
order to determine the need for referral and identify contraindications for exercise
• Administering appropriate fitness assessments based on the client’s health history, current fitness,
lifestyle factors, and goals utilizing research-proven and published protocols
• Assisting clients in setting and achieving realistic fitness goals
• Teaching correct exercise methods and progressions through demonstration, explanation, and proper
cueing and spotting techniques
• Empowering individuals to begin and adhere to their exercise programs using guidance, support,
motivation, lapse-prevention strategies, and effective feedback
• Designing structured exercise programs for one-on-one and small-group personal training
• Educating clients about fitness- and health-related topics to help them in adopting healthful
behaviors that facilitate exercise program success
• Protecting client confidentiality according to the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
(HIPAA) and related regional and national laws
• Always acting with professionalism, respect, and integrity
• Recognizing what is within the scope of practice and always referring clients to other healthcare
professionals when appropriate
• Being prepared for emergency situations and responding appropriately when they occur
trainers can help clients with their weight-loss legal domain of services provided by registered
goals by designing effective exercise programs dietitians in most states.
that bring about positive body composition There is overlap among professions
changes and helping them to adopt more within the healthcare field that must be
healthful behaviors. This can include showing understood if fitness professionals are
clients how to utilize the tools available at www. going to stay within the realm of their
ChooseMyPlate.gov or educating them about professional qualifications and training.
the recommendations in the Dietary Guidelines For example, the same registered dietitian
to help them gain a better understanding of who can create specific meal plans for
healthful foods and make better choices (U.S. clients can also provide general guidelines
Department of Agriculture, 2010). Clients about exercise to help them understand the
who are looking for more detailed nutritional important role that physical activity plays
programming, such as specific meal plans, in improving health and creating a negative
recipes, or recommendations for nutritional energy balance. However, if a client working
supplements should be referred to a registered with a registered dietitian wants a thorough
dietitian, as these services are beyond the scope exercise plan, he or she should be referred to
of practice of personal trainers and are in the a qualified personal trainer.
10 Chapter One
A personal trainer should not make individuals looking to enter the profession of
recommendations that contradict those of personal training. To become an ACE-certified
the client’s healthcare team. For example, Personal Trainer, a candidate must show that he
if a client’s physician’s release has specific or she is able to apply the knowledge required
guidelines for exercise intensities, modalities, to be a safe and effective personal trainer by
or exercises, the trainer must follow these passing the ACE Personal Trainer Certification
guidelines when designing the client’s exercise Exam. There are many paths to reaching this
program. While the physician generally will goal, including self-study using preparatory
not have the same knowledge about specific materials from ACE or other sources that
exercises as a personal trainer, the physician’s cover the ACE Personal Trainer Certification
guidelines will be based on the knowledge Exam Content Outline, preparatory courses or
of the client’s health, medications, ailments, workshops delivered live or online, educational
injuries, and diseases, and must be followed internships, professional experience, and college
for the health and safety of the client. Each courses. Each candidate must select his or her
state, province, and country has specific laws own path based on time, financial resources,
about the responsibilities of different healthcare learning styles, and personal factors. As a
professions. It is the responsibility of the general rule, ACE recommends that candidates
personal trainer to learn and adhere to the laws allow three to six months of study time to
in his or her geographical area, as well as adhere adequately prepare for the ACE Personal
to the ACE-certified Personal Trainer scope of Trainer Certification Exam.
practice (see Figure 1-2). The growth in personal training has led
numerous colleges and universities to offer
Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities of the programs to help students prepare to become
ACE-certified Personal Trainer qualified fitness professionals. These programs
The ACE Personal Trainer Certification is help students prepare for certification exams
designed for fitness professionals wanting to by offering courses that teach the specific
provide one-on-one and small-group exercise knowledge and skills required to become
instruction to apparently healthy individuals. personal trainers or group fitness instructors,
The certification program is continually or to work with clients who have special
evaluated to ensure that it is up to date with the needs. ACE has an Educational Partnership
most current research and industry standards. Program that provides colleges, universities, and
In addition, every five years a group of industry technical/professional schools with curricula,
experts analyzes the specific job requirements instructor materials, and discounts to students
for personal trainers to update the outline of preparing for ACE certification programs.
tasks, knowledge, and skills required to perform These programs are not required to earn an
the job of personal training effectively. After ACE certification, but they provide students
being validated by several thousand ACE- with helpful instruction from people with
certified Personal Trainers, this outline is advanced degrees and experience in the field.
published as the ACE Personal Trainer Exam
Content Outline (Appendix B), which serves Preparation and Testing
as the blueprint for the ACE Personal Trainer The knowledge, skills, and abilities tested
Certification Exam and provides a template for include developing and enhancing rapport
candidates preparing for the exam. It is also a with clients, collecting adequate health-
written job description of the knowledge, skills, history information and determining the
and abilities required to be an effective ACE- appropriateness of referral, conducting
certified Personal Trainer. appropriate assessments, designing and
modifying exercise programs to help clients
Education and Experience progress toward their goals, motivating clients
There is no single course of study for to exercise and adhere to their programs, and
Chapter one 11
Role and Scope of Practice for the Personal Trainer
always acting in a professional manner within and professional practices for all ACE-
the personal trainer’s scope of practice. certified Professionals. This code is enforced
Fitness professionals interested in sitting through the ACE Professional Practices and
for the ACE Personal Trainer Certification Disciplinary Procedures (www.acefitness.org/
Exam should download the ACE Certification getcertified/certified-code.aspx). All ACE-
Candidate Handbook from the ACE website certified Professionals and candidates for
(www.acefitness.org/getcertified/pdfs/ ACE certification must be familiar with,
Certification-Exam-Candidate-Handbook. and comply with, the ACE Code of Ethics
pdf ). This complimentary handbook explains and ACE Professional Practices and
how ACE certification exams are developed, Disciplinary Procedures.
what the candidate should expect, and the
procedures for earning and maintaining an ACE Code of Ethics
ACE certification. The handbook also includes The ACE Code of Ethics governs the ethical
explanations about the multiple-choice and professional conduct of ACE-certified
and client-scenario questions found on the Professionals when working with clients, the
ACE certification exams, along with sample public, or other health and fitness professionals.
questions to help candidates understand Every individual who registers for an ACE
the difference between questions that assess certification exam must agree to uphold the
recall knowledge and those that assess applied ACE Code of Ethics throughout the exam
knowledge. In addition, the handbook provides process and as a professional, should he or she
candidates with test-taking strategies and a list earn an ACE certification. Exam candidates
of available study resources. and ACE-certified Personal Trainers must have
a comprehensive understanding of the code
Professional Responsibilities
and the consequences and public harm that can
and Ethics come from violating each of its principles.
The primary purpose of professional
certification programs is to protect the ACE Professional Practices and
public from harm (e.g., physical, emotional, Disciplinary Procedures
psychological, financial). Professionals who The ACE Professional Practices and
earn an ACE Personal Trainer Certification Disciplinary Procedures are intended to assist
validate their capabilities and enhance their
and inform ACE-certified Professionals,
value to employers, clients, and other healthcare
candidates for ACE certification, and the public
providers. This does not happen simply because
about the ACE application and certification
the individual has a new title. This recognition is
standards relative to professional conduct and
given because the ACE credential itself upholds
disciplinary procedures. ACE may revoke
rigorous standards established for assessing an
or otherwise take action with regard to the
individual’s competence in making safe and
application or certification of an individual in
effective exercise-programming decisions. ACE
the case of:
has established a professional ethical code of
conduct and disciplinary procedures, and ACE • Ineligibility for certification
certifications have all received third-party • Irregularity in connection with any
accreditation from the National Commission certification examination
for Certifying Agencies (NCCA). • Unauthorized possession, use, access, or
To help ACE-certified Professionals distribution of certification examinations,
understand the conduct expected from them score reports, trademarks, logos, written
as healthcare professionals in protecting the materials, answer sheets, certificates,
public from harm, ACE has developed the certificant or applicant files, or other
ACE Code of Ethics (Appendix A). This confidential or proprietary ACE documents
code of conduct serves as a guide for ethical or materials (registered or otherwise)
12 Chapter One
Although the client–trainer relationship does However, if the client feels that he or she still
not currently have the same legal requirements wants to aim for the original weight-loss goal,
for confidentiality as client–physician or client– the personal trainer should refer him or her to
psychologist relationships, personal trainers a registered dietitian who has experience with
should maintain that same level of security for body image and related issues.
each client’s personal information. Failure to Referrals can also come to the personal
do so could prove detrimental for the client and trainer from other health professionals. For
the client–trainer relationship, and may violate example, a physician may provide a patient
the ACE Code of Ethics and state or federal with exercise guidelines and then refer him
privacy laws. or her to an ACE-certified Personal Trainer.
To help prevent violations of client privacy, In a situation like this, the trainer should
ACE-certified Professionals should become provide the physician with regular updates on
familiar with, and adhere to, the Health the client’s progress and program direction. It
Insurance Portability and Accountability is always important for clients to be referred
Act (HIPAA), which addresses the use to the appropriate healthcare professional
and disclosure of individuals’ protected and for all health professionals involved to
health information. By following HIPAA correspond regularly regarding each client’s
regulations, personal trainers can maintain the progress, provided they have the client’s written
confidentiality of each client’s protected health permission to do so.
information according to the same rules that
govern most healthcare professions. More
details about client privacy and keeping clients’ Developing a Referral Network
protected health information secure can be It is important for a personal trainer to develop a
found in Chapter 17 and Appendix A. network of referral sources to meet the varying needs
of his or her clientele. Trainers should identify allied
Referral health professionals who are reputable and aspire to
It is important for healthcare professionals, the same professional standards as an ACE-certified
including personal trainers, to understand their Personal Trainer. Potential referral sources include
professional qualifications and boundaries, the following:
and to always refer clients who require • Mind/body instructors (e.g., yoga, tai chi,
services outside their scope of practice to the qigong)
appropriate qualified healthcare professionals. • Smoking cessation programs
Doing so ensures that clients are provided with • Aquatic exercise programs
appropriate care from qualified providers and • Support groups (e.g., cardiac rehabilitation,
prevents healthcare professionals from offering cancer survivors, Overeaters Anonymous)
services that they do not have the education, • Massage therapist
training, credentials, and/or legal right to offer. As the personal trainer develops a referral
Sometimes a personal trainer will need to network, it is important to research instructors,
investigate a bit further to determine if referral programs, or organizations before recommending any
is warranted. For example, if a client wants to programs or services to a client. Do they have the
lose more weight than would be advisable based proper licensure or certification? Can they provide
on his or her current body composition, the a list of references? How many years of experience
trainer can first explain healthy body-fat ranges, do they have? The personal trainer does not want to
point out that the client’s body composition jeopardize his or her reputation by referring clients
is within the normal range, and work with to substandard health and fitness “professionals.”
him or her to determine a safe and achievable With proper networking, the personal trainer may
weight-loss goal. If the client is comfortable also gain referrals from the other health and fitness
with this new goal, the personal trainer can professionals within the network.
design a program to help the client achieve it.
14 Chapter One
H
For example, if a client tells a trainer that ealthcare professionals recognize the
he or she experiences muscle soreness important role that physical activity plays
following long training runs, the trainer in improving and maintaining good health.
can provide education about the benefits Unfortunately, the lack of professional credentials
of massage, but cannot perform hands-on held by some individuals working in fitness has
massage therapy for the client, as this would slowed the acceptance of fitness professionals as
constitute the practice of massage without legitimate members of the allied healthcare team
a license. All responses listed in Table 1-3 by some healthcare providers. As a result, ACE
as “Inappropriate for an ACE-certified and other top professional fitness organizations
Table 1-3
Appropriate Scope of Practice
Client Scenario Inappropriate for an Appropriate for an
ACE-certified Personal Trainer ACE-certified Personal Trainer
Client stands with a lordosis posture Diagnosing the cause of the client’s lordosis Implementing a core conditioning
program to improve strength and
flexibility imbalances in muscles
acting on the hips and spine
Client wants to lose weight by Helping the client to understand Helping the client to make more
trying the latest commercial diet and implement the diet healthful choices using the
Dietary Guidelines and tools on
www.ChooseMyPlate.gov
Client is cleared for exercise following Continuing the PNF shoulder mobilization Implementing exercises to improve
physical therapy for rotator cuff exercises used during physical therapy shoulder stability and building on the
impingement work done in physical therapy
Client has tight iliotibial (IT) bands Providing deep tissue massage to relieve Teaching the client self–myofascial
tightness in the IT bands release techniques for the IT bands
using a foam roller
Client has soreness following a Recommending use of over-the-counter Discussing proper techniques for icing
weekend tennis tournament anti-inflammatory medications
Client tells you she is depressed Listening to the client and providing her with Listening to the client with empathy and
due to problems with her spouse recommendations for improving the situation maintaining her confidentiality
have earned third-party accreditation from the medical fitness facilities hire only fitness
NCCA for their fitness certification programs. professionals who hold NCCA-accredited
For a complete list of NCCA-accredited certifications.
fitness certifications organizations, visit • ACSM’s Health/Fitness Facility Stan-
www.credentialingexcellence.org. dards and Guidelines (ACSM, 2007)
The NCCA is the accreditation body of the recommends that clubs hire only fitness
Institute for Credentialing Excellence (ICE) directors, group exercise directors, fitness
[formerly known as the National Organization instructors (including personal trainers),
for Competency Assurance (NOCA)] a non- and group exercise instructors who hold a
profit, 501(c)(3) organization. Formed in 1977, “certification from a nationally recognized
ICE originated as the National Commission and accredited certifying organization”
for Health Certifying Agencies (NCHCA). [American College of Sports Medicine
Originally funded through the U.S. (ACSM), 2007]. It then states that “In
Department of Health & Human Services, the this instance, the term accredited refers to
NCHCA had a mission to develop standards certification programs that have received
for quality certification in allied health fields third-party approval of its certification pro-
and to accredit organizations that met those cedures and practices from an appropriate
standards. The NCHCA evolved into NOCA agency, such as the National Commission
(in 1987) and then ICE (in 2009) to expand for Certifying Agencies (NCCA).”
accreditation globally to certification programs • The International Health, Racquet,
outside healthcare that met the rigorous and Sportsclub Association (IHRSA)
standards of the NCCA. recommends that club owners only hire
The NCCA has reviewed and accredited personal trainers with certifications from
the certification programs for most professions agencies accredited by the NCCA or an
within allied healthcare. This includes the equivalent accrediting organization.
credentials for registered dietitians, occupational There are other professional organizations
therapists, athletic trainers, podiatrists, nurses, currently in the process of developing voluntary
nurse practitioners, massage therapists, personal fitness facility standards that will include
trainers, group fitness instructors, and advanced requirements for hiring fitness professionals
fitness professionals. By earning NCCA that recognize the NCCA accreditation.
accreditation for all four of its certification In reference to the ACSM and IHRSA
programs, the American Council on Exercise recommendations, the only other organization
has taken the professional and responsible steps for possible consideration as a credible
necessary for ACE-certified Professionals to accreditation organization for certifying agencies
be accepted as legitimate members of the allied is the American National Standards Institute
healthcare continuum. (ANSI), which focuses primarily on third-party
accreditation of industrial and workplace safety
Recognition From the and quality standards.
Fitness and Health Industry
In the fitness industry, NCCA accreditation Recognition From the
has become recognized as the third-party Education Community
standard for accreditation of certifications for The ACE Educational Partnership
personal trainers and other fitness professionals, Program offers four separate college curricula
as seen in the following professional standards, that instructors can use to teach courses in
guidelines, and recommendations: personal training, group exercise, exercise for
• The Medical Fitness Association (MFA), weight management, and exercise for special
the professional membership organization populations, and to help students prepare for
for medically integrated health and fitness the corresponding ACE certification exam.
facilities, has made it a standard that The ACE Personal Trainer curriculum is
Chapter one 17
Role and Scope of Practice for the Personal Trainer
the most widely utilized of the four, with important, especially for personal trainers.”
more than 150 ACE Educational Partners The DOL then goes on to state that, “One
using this curriculum in their regular course way to ensure that a certifying organization
offerings. The ACE Personal Trainer is reputable is to see that it is accredited by
curriculum helps instructors with course the National Commission for Certifying
design, provides discounts for students, and Agencies.” The American Council on
helps exercise science departments meet Exercise is one of the few organizations
one of the primary outcome assessments specifically identified by the DOL as offering
stated in the Standards and Guidelines for quality certifications for personal trainers.
the Accreditation of Educational Programs for Other professions listed as fitness workers by
Personal Fitness Training from the Commission the DOL include group exercise instructors,
on Accreditation of Allied Health Education fitness directors, and those teaching
Programs (CAAHEP, 2007). specializations such as yoga and Pilates.
The CAAHEP is the largest programmatic
accreditor in the health sciences field. The Career Development
I
Committee on the Accreditation for the t is important for every personal trainer to
Exercise Sciences (CoAES) was formed under have a general idea of the career path that
the guidance and sponsorship of CAAHEP he or she wants to follow. Career paths can
to establish standards that academic programs include becoming a fitness director or general
in kinesiology, physical education, and exercise manager of a larger club, opening a personal-
science must meet to become accredited by training studio, opening a home-based
CAAHEP (2007). personal-training business, or simply working
One of the primary outcomes assessed part-time as a personal trainer. Career goals are
by the CAAHEP Standards and Guidelines personal. They are based on the specific needs
for the Accreditation of Educational Programs of the professional to meet his or her career
for Personal Fitness Training is the students’ objectives and are balanced with his or her
performance on a national credentialing other commitments.
examination accredited by the National Career paths should be viewed as
Commission for Certifying Agencies. This guidelines to help the professional reach
recognition of NCCA-accredited personal- certain career goals, with the flexibility to be
trainer certifications as the standard for modified as needed based on new clientele,
this outcome assessment is an important changes in family, industry recessions,
endorsement of the NCCA accreditation and other important events. A career plan
by the educational community. The ACE can help a professional determine if a
Personal Trainer Certification Program, with new opportunity or continuing education
its NCCA accreditation, helps universities offering is in line with his or her goals. After
and colleges meet this outcome assessment setting a career plan that spans one, three,
standard for exercise science departments to five, or more years, a personal trainer can
earn accreditation from CAAHEP. use this plan as a template for researching
and selecting continuing education to work
Recognition From the
toward his or her goals.
Department of Labor
The Department of Labor (DOL) reports Continuing Education
that most personal trainers must obtain ACE-certified Professionals are
certification in the fitness field to gain encouraged to select continuing education
employment, explaining that there are many based on areas of interest, client needs,
fitness organizations that offer certifications and desired career path. By completing
and that “becoming certified by one of the continuing education in one or more areas of
top certification organizations is increasingly focus, a personal trainer can advance his or
18 Chapter One
years into their careers to earn a degree in registered dietitian, earning a doctorate in
exercise science, nutrition, business, or other physical therapy and becoming a licensed
subject areas. Upon earning the degree, the physical therapist, or going to medical school
trainer can advance his or her career, fulfill and becoming a medical doctor. In all of
a personal goal, and earn ACE continuing these situations, the trainer earning the new
education credits for courses that provide credential will advance his or her career and the
education related to fitness and health. services that he or she can provide, becoming
an advocate for exercise and personal training
Additional Fitness Certifications in his or her new professional arena.
Another way for a personal trainer to earn
continuing education and advance his or
her career is to earn additional certifications.
Summary
I
ACE encourages professionals to earn t is important for people interested in
certifications that provide them with new areas becoming personal trainers to realize
of expertise. ACE offers four certifications, that it is a service profession. The U.S.
each providing a different area of expertise Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
for fitness professionals. For a personal Statistics (2009), reports that people planning
trainer looking to become a better leader or fitness careers should be:
motivator, or simply to pick up some group • Outgoing
exercise classes to supplement his or her • Excellent communicators
personal-training income, ACE offers its • Good at motivating people
Group Fitness Instructor (GFI) certification. • Sensitive to the needs of others
To meet the needs of the growing number of • In excellent health and physical fitness,
individuals who are trying to change behaviors due to the physical nature of the job
and lose weight, ACE offers an advanced • Good at sales if they want to work as
credential titled the ACE Lifestyle & Weight personal trainers, particularly in large
Management Coach (LWMC) certification. commercial fitness centers
And, for advanced fitness professionals • Personable and motivating to attract and
who want to work with clients who have retain clients
special needs or are post-rehabilitation Understanding the ACE-certified
for cardiovascular, respiratory, metabolic, Personal Trainer’s scope of practice can be
or musculoskeletal diseases and disorders, empowering, as it defines a unique profession
ACE offers the Advanced Health & Fitness dedicated to helping people improve their
Specialist (AHFS) certification. fitness, health, and quality of life through
physical activity. Many of the professions in
New Areas of Expertise healthcare are devoted to treating disease,
Within Allied Healthcare while a personal trainer primarily helps
A personal trainer who wants to expand people avoid disease. In a society where
the services that he or she provides into almost two-thirds of the adult population is
another area of allied healthcare must earn overweight and physically inactive, and youth
the appropriate credentials to ethically and are projected to possibly live shorter lives than
legally provide those services. This could their parents, the role that ACE-certified
include becoming a licensed massage therapist, Personal Trainers play in the healthcare
earning a nutrition degree and becoming a continuum has never been more important.
20 Chapter One
American College of Sports Medicine & American American Council on Exercise (2009). ACE
Heart Association (2007). Physical Activity and Advanced Health & Fitness Specialist Manual. San
Public Health Guidelines. www.americanheart.org/ Diego, Calif.: American Council on Exercise.
presenter.jhtml?identifier=3049282
American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada
& American College of Sports Medicine (2007).
Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health
Joint Position Statement: Nutrition and Athletic
Education Programs (2007). Standards and
Performance. www.ms-se.com/pt/pt-core/template-
Guidelines for the Accreditation of Educational
journal/msse/media/0309nutrition.pdf
Programs for Personal Fitness Training.
www.caahep.org/documents/Personal%20 Eickhoff-Shemek, J.M., Herbert, D.L., &
Fitness%20Standards%20January%202007.pdf Connaughton, D.P. (2009). Risk Management for
Health/Fitness Professionals: Legal Issues and
IDEA Health & Fitness Association (2001).
Strategies. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &
IDEA Opinion Statement: Benefits of a working
Wilkins.
relationship between medical and allied health
practitioners and personal fitness trainers. IDEA Janot, J. (2004). Do you know your scope of
Personal Trainer, 13, 6, 26–31. practice? IDEA Fitness Journal, 1, 1, 44–45.
Institute of Medicine (2002). Dietary reference intake Riley, S. (2005). Respecting your boundaries. IDEA
for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, Trainer Success, 2, 4, 12–13.
cholesterol, protein and amino acids. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services
(2003). Summary of the HIPAA Privacy Rule.
Saris, W.H. et al. (2003). How much physical activity is www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/hipaa/understanding/
enough to prevent unhealthy weight gain? Outcome of summary/privacysummary.pdf
the International Association for the Study of Obesity
1st Stock Conference and consensus statement.
Obesity Reviews, 4, 2, 101–114.
Additional Resources
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services
(2008). 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Ethics Resource Center: www.ethics.org
Americans: Be Active, Healthy and Happy.
www.health.gov/paguidelines/pdf/paguide.pdf Institute for Credentialing Excellence (ICE):
www.credentialingexcellence.org
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services
(1996). Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the International Health, Racquet, and Sportsclub
Surgeon General. Atlanta, Georgia: U.S. Department Association: www.cms.ihrsa.org/
of Health & Human Services, Public Health Medical Fitness Association: www.medicalfitness.org
Service, CDC, National Center for Chronic Disease
Prevention and Health Promotion. Medline Plus Reference on Drugs and Supplements
(A service of the National Library of Medicine and
U.S. Department of Agriculture (2010). 2010 Dietary National Institutes of Health): www.medlineplus.gov
Guidelines for Americans. www.dietaryguidelines.gov
P
roviding safe and effective instruction types and order of assessments are dictated by
involves a variety of responsibilities for the client’s/participant’s health status, fitness
ACE-certified Professionals. Safe means level, symptoms, and/or use of medications.
that the instruction will not result in physical, Remember that each assessment has specific
protocols and only those within your scope
mental, or financial harm to the client/partici-
of practice should be administered. Once
pant. Effective means that the instruction has a
the assessments are completed, evaluate and
purposeful, intended, and desired effect toward
discuss the results objectively as they relate
the client’s/participant’s goal. Great effort and
to the client’s/participant’s health condition
care must be taken in carrying out the respon-
and goals. Educate the client/participant and
sibilities that are essential in creating a positive
emphasize how an exercise program will ben-
exercise experience for all clients/participants.
efit the client/participant.
Screening Program Design
ACE-certified Professionals should have
You must not prescribe exercise, diet, or
all potential clients/participants complete an
treatment, as doing so is outside your scope
industry-recognized health-screening tool
of practice and implies ordering or advising a
to ensure safe exercise participation. If sig-
medicine or treatment. Instead, it is appropri-
nificant risk factors or signs and symptoms
ate for you to design exercise programs that
suggestive of chronic disease are identified,
improve components of physical fitness and
refer the client/participant to a physician or
wellness while adhering to the limitations of
primary healthcare practitioner for medical a previous injury or condition as determined
clearance and guidance regarding which types by a certified, registered, or licensed allied
of assessments, activities, or exercises are health professional. Because nutritional laws
indicated, contraindicated, or deemed high and the practice of dietetics vary in each state,
risk. If an individual does not want to obtain province, and country, understand what type
medical clearance, have that individual sign a of basic nutritional information is appropri-
legally prepared document that releases you ate and legal for you to disseminate to your
and the facility in which you work from any client/participant. The client’s/participant’s
liability related to any injury that may result preferences, and short- and long-term goals
from exercise participation or assessment. as well as current industry standards and
Once the client/participant has been cleared guidelines must be taken into consideration
for exercise and you have a full understanding as you develop a formal yet realistic exercise
of the client’s/participant’s health status and and weight-management program. Provide as
medical history, including his or her current much detail for all exercise parameters such
use of medications, a formal risk-manage- as mode, intensity, type of exercise, duration,
ment plan for potential emergencies must be progression, and termination points.
prepared and reviewed periodically.
Program Implementation
Assessment Do not underestimate your ability to influ-
The main objective of a health assess- ence the client/participant to become active
ment is to establish the client’s/participant’s for a lifetime. Be sure that each class or
baseline fitness level in order to design an session is well-planned, sequential, and docu-
appropriate exercise program. Explain the mented. Instruct the client/participant how to
risks and benefits of each assessment and safely and properly perform the appropriate
provide the client/participant with any per- exercises and communicate this in a manner
tinent instructions. Prior to conducting any that the client/participant will understand
Appendix A 661
ACE Code of Ethics
and retain. Each client/participant has a ethnic background, age, national origin, basis
different learning curve that will require dif- of religion, or physical disability.
ferent levels of attention, learning aids, and The Americans with Disabilities Act
repetition. Supervise the client/participant protects individuals with disabilities against
closely, especially when spotting or cueing any type of unlawful discrimination. A dis-
is needed. If supervising a group of two or ability can be either physical or mental, such
more, ensure that you can supervise and pro- as epilepsy, paralysis, HIV infection, AIDS,
vide the appropriate amount of attention to a significant hearing or visual impairment,
each individual at all times. Ideally, the group mental retardation, or a specific learning dis-
will have similar goals and will be performing ability. ACE-certified Professionals should,
similar exercises or activities. Position yourself at a minimum, provide reasonable accommo-
so that you do not have to turn your back to dations to each individual with a disability.
any client/participant performing an exercise. Reasonable simply means that you are able
to provide accommodations that do not
Facilities cause you any undue hardship that requires
Although the condition of a facility may additional or significant expense or difficulty.
not always be within your control, you are Making an existing facility accessible by
still obligated to ensure a hazard-free envi- modifying equipment or devices, assessments,
ronment to maximize safety. If you notice or training materials are a few examples
potential hazards in the health club, com- of providing reasonable accommodations.
municate these hazards to the client and the However, providing the use of personal items
facility management. For example, if you or providing items at your own expense may
notice that the clamps that keep the weights not be considered reasonable.
on the barbells are getting rusty and loose, This ethical consideration of providing
it would be prudent of you to remove them fair and equal treatment is not limited to
from the training area and alert the facility behavioral interactions with clients, but also
that immediate repair is required. extends to exercise programming and other
business-related services such as communica-
Equipment
tion, scheduling, billing, cancellation policies,
Obtain equipment that meets or exceeds
and dispute resolution.
industry standards and utilize the equipment
only for its intended use. Arrange exercise
equipment and stations so that adequate
Stay Up-to-Date on the Latest
space exists between equipment, participants, Health and Fitness Research
and foot traffic. Schedule regular mainte-
nance and inspect equipment prior to use
and Understand
to ensure it is in proper working condition. Its Practical Application
O
Avoid the use of homemade equipment, as btaining ACE-certification required
your liability is greater if it causes injury to a you to have broad-based knowledge of
person exercising under your supervision. many disciplines; however, this credential
should not be viewed as the end of your profes-
Provide Equal and Fair sional development and education. Instead, it
Treatment to All Clients/ should be viewed as the beginning or founda-
tion. The dynamic nature of the health and
Participants fitness industry requires you to maintain an
A
CE-certified Professionals are obligated understanding of the latest research and profes-
to provide fair and equal treatment for sional standards and guidelines, and of their
each client/participant without bias, impact on the design and implementation of
preference, or discrimination against gender, exercise programming. To stay informed, make
662 Appendix A
time to review a variety of industry resources health and fitness professionals in advertising,
such as professional journals, position state- marketing, and business practices. Do not create
ments, trade and lay periodicals, and cor- false or misleading impressions of credentials,
respondence courses, as well as to attend claims, or sponsorships, or perform services
professional meetings, conferences, and edu- outside of your scope of practice that are illegal,
cational workshops. deceptive, or fraudulent.
An additional benefit of staying up-to-date All information regarding your business must
is that it also fulfills your certification renewal be clear, accurate, and easy to understand for all
requirements for continuing education credit potential clients/participants. Provide disclo-
(CEC). To maintain your ACE-certification sure about the name of your business, physical
status, you must obtain an established amount address, and contact information, and maintain
of CECs every two years. CECs are granted a working phone number and email address. So
for structured learning that takes place within that clients/ participants can make an informed
the educational portion of a course related to choice about paying for your services, provide
the profession and presented by a qualified detailed information regarding schedules,
health and fitness professional. prices, payment terms, time limits, and condi-
tions. Cancellation, refund, and rescheduling
Maintain Current CPR information must also be clearly stated and easy
to understand. Allow the client/participant an
Certification and Knowledge opportunity to ask questions and review this
of First-aid Services information before formally agreeing to your
A
services and terms.
CE-certified Professionals must be pre-
Because employment laws vary in each city,
pared to recognize and respond to heart
state, province, and country, familiarize yourself
attacks and other life-threatening emer-
with the applicable employment regulations and
gencies. Emergency response is enhanced by
standards to which your business must conform.
training and maintaining skills in CPR, first
Examples of this may include conforming to
aid, and using automated external defibrilla-
specific building codes and zoning ordinances or
tors (AEDs), which have become more wide-
making sure that your place of business is acces-
ly available. An AED is a portable electronic
sible to individuals with a disability.
device used to restore normal heart rhythm
The understanding of intellectual property
in a person experiencing a cardiac arrest and
law and the proper use of copyrighted materials
can reduce the time to defibrillation before
is an important legal issue for all ACE-certified
EMS personnel arrive. For each minute that
Professionals. Intellectual property laws pro-
defibrillation is delayed, the victim’s chance of
tect the creations of authors, artists, software
survival is reduced by 7 to 10%. Thus, survival
programmers, and others with copyrighted
from cardiac arrest is improved dramatically
materials. The most common infringement of
when CPR and defibrillation are started early.
intellectual property law in the fitness industry
is the use of music in an exercise class. When
Comply With All Applicable commercial music is played in a for-profit
Business, Employment, and exercise class, without a performance or blanket
license, it is considered a public performance
Intellectual Property Laws and a violation of intellectual property law.
A
s an ACE-certified Professional, you Therefore, make sure that any music, handouts,
are expected to maintain a high level of or educational materials are either exempt from
integrity by complying with all applicable intellectual property law or permissible under
business, employment, and copyright laws. Be laws by reason of fair use, or obtain express
truthful and forthcoming with communication written consent from the copyright holder
to clients/participants, coworkers, and other for distribution, adaptation, or use. When in
Appendix A 663
ACE Code of Ethics
doubt, obtain permission first or consult with a you and/or the appropriate individuals have
qualified legal professional who has intellectual access to it. Also, the client’s/participant’s files
property law expertise. must only be accessed and used for purposes
related to health and fitness services. If client/
Maintain the Confidentiality participant information is stored on a personal
of All Client/Participant computer, restrict access by using a protected
password. Should you receive any inquiries
Information from family members or other individuals
E
very client/participant has the right to regarding the progress of a client/participant
expect that all personal data and discus- or other personal information, state that you
sions with an ACE-certified Professional cannot provide any information without the
will be safeguarded and not disclosed without client’s/participant’s permission. If and when a
the client’s/participant’s express written consent client/participant permits you to release confi-
or acknowledgement. Therefore, protect the dential information to an authorized individual
confidentiality of all client/participant infor- or party, utilize secure methods of commu-
mation such as contact data, medical records, nication such as certified mail, sending and
health history, progress notes, and meet- receiving information on a dedicated private fax
ing details. Even when confidentiality is not line, or email with encryption.
required by law, continue to preserve the confi-
dentiality of such information. Refer Clients/Participants
Any breach of confidentiality, intentional or
unintentional, potentially harms the produc-
to More Qualified Health or
tivity and trust of your client/participant and Medical Professionals When
undermines your effectiveness as a fitness pro-
fessional. This also puts you at risk for potential
Appropriate
A
litigation and puts your client/class participant fitness certification is not a professional
at risk for public embarrassment and fraudulent license. Therefore, it is vitally important
activity such as identity theft. that ACE-certified Professionals who do
Most breaches of confidentiality are unin- not also have a professional license (i.e., physi-
tentional and occur because of carelessness and cian, physical therapist, dietitian, psychologist,
lack of awareness. The most common breach of and attorney) refer their clients/participants to
confidentiality is exposing or storing personal a more qualified professional when warranted.
data in a location that is not secure. This occurs Doing so not only benefits your clients/
when a client’s/participant’s file or information participants by making sure that they receive
is left on a desk, or filed in a cabinet that has the appropriate attention and care, but also
no lock or is accessible to others. Breaches of enhances your credibility and reduces liability
confidentiality may also occur when you have by defining your scope of practice and clarify-
conversations regarding a client’s/participant’s ing what services you can and cannot reason-
performance or medical/health history with ably provide.
staff or others and the client’s/participant’s first Knowing when to refer a client/partici-
name or other identifying details are used. pant is, however, as important as choosing
Post and adhere to a privacy policy that com- to which professional to refer. For instance,
municates how client/participant information just because a client/participant complains of
will be used and secured and how a client’s/par- symptoms of muscle soreness or discomfort
ticipant’s preference regarding unsolicited mail or exhibits signs of fatigue or lack of energy is
and email will be respected. When a client/ not an absolute indication to refer your client/
participant provides you with any personal data, participant to a physician. Because continual
new or updated, make it a habit to immediately referrals such as this are not practical, famil-
secure this information and ensure that only iarize and educate yourself on expected signs
664 Appendix A
and symptoms, taking into consideration the fitness professionals. Novice fitness profes-
client’s/participant’s fitness level, health status, sionals can benefit from your experience
chronic disease, disability, and/or background and skill as you assist them in establishing a
as they are screened and as they begin and foundation based on exercise science, from
progress with an exercise program. This helps both theoretical and practical standpoints.
you better discern between emergent and non- Therefore, it is a disservice if you fail to
emergent situations and know when to refuse provide helpful or corrective information—
to offer your services, continue to monitor, especially when an individual, the public,
and/or make an immediate referral. or other fitness professionals are at risk for
It is important that you know the scope of injury or increased liability. For example, if
practice for various health professionals and you observe an individual using momentum
which types of referrals are appropriate. For to perform a strength-training exercise, the
example, some states require that a referring prudent course of action would be to suggest
physician first approve visits to a physical a modification. Likewise, if you observe a
therapist, while other states allow individu- fitness professional in your workplace con-
als to see a physical therapist directly. Only sistently failing to obtain informed consents
registered or licensed dietitians or physicians before clients/participants undergo fitness
may provide specific dietary recommen- testing or begin an exercise program, recom-
dations or diet plans; however, a client/ mend that he or she consider implementing
participant who is suspected of an eating these forms to minimize liability.
disorder should be referred to an eating dis- Finally, do not represent yourself in an
orders specialist. Refer clients/participants to overly commercial or misleading manner.
a clinical psychologist if they wish to discuss Consider the fitness professional who places
family or marital problems or exhibit addic- an advertisement in a local newspaper stating:
tive behaviors such as substance abuse. Lose 10 pounds in 10 days or your money
Network and develop rapport with poten- back! It is inappropriate to lend credibility
tial allied health professionals in your area to or endorse a product, service, or program
before you refer clients/participants to them. founded upon unsubstantiated or misleading
This demonstrates good will and respect for claims; thus a solicitation such as this must be
their expertise and will most likely result in avoided, as it undermines the public’s trust of
reciprocal referrals for your services and fit- health and fitness professionals.
ness expertise.
Establish and Maintain Clear
Uphold and Enhance Public
Professional Boundaries
Appreciation and Trust for the
W
orking in the fitness profession requires
Health and Fitness Industry you to come in contact with many
T
he best way for ACE-certified different people. It is imperative that
Professionals to uphold and enhance pub- a professional distance be maintained in rela-
lic appreciation and trust for the health tionships with all clients/participants. Fitness
and fitness industry is to represent themselves professionals are responsible for setting and
in a dignified and professional manner. As the monitoring the boundaries between a working
public is inundated with misinformation and relationship and friendship with their clients/
false claims about fitness products and services, participants. To that end, ACE-certified
your expertise must be utilized to dispel myths Professionals should:
and half-truths about current trends and fads •N
ever initiate or encourage discussion of a
that are potentially harmful to the public. sexual nature
When appropriate, mentor and dispense •A
void touching clients/participants unless
knowledge and training to less-experienced it is essential to instruction
Appendix A 665
ACE Code of Ethics
• Inform clients/participants about the pur- If you find yourself unable to maintain
pose of touching and find an alternative if appropriate professional boundaries with
the client/participant objects a client/participant (whether due to your
• Discontinue all touching if it appears attitudes and actions or those of the client/
to make the client/participant
participant), the prudent course of action
uncomfortable
is to terminate the relationship and, per-
• Take all reasonable steps to ensure that
haps, refer the client/participant to another
any personal and social contacts between
themselves and their clients/participants professional. Keep in mind that charges of
do not have an adverse impact on the sexual harassment or assault, even if ground-
trainer–client or instructor–participant less, can have disastrous effects on your
relationship. career.
For the most up-to-date version of the
Exam Content Outline please go to
www.acefitness.org/PTexamcontent
and download a free PDF.
I
t is the position of the American Council on Exercise (ACE) that it is outside the defined scope of
practice of a fitness professional to recommend, prescribe, sell, or supply nutritional supplements
to clients. Recommending supplements without possessing the requisite qualifications (e.g., R.D.)
can place the client’s health at risk and possibly expose the fitness professional to disciplinary
action and litigation. If a client wants to take supplements, a fitness professional should work in con-
junction with a qualified registered dietitian or medical doctor to provide safe and effective nutritional
education and recommendations.
ACE recognizes that some fitness and health clubs encourage or require their employees to sell
nutritional supplements. If this is a condition of employment, fitness professionals should protect them-
selves by ensuring their employers possess adequate insurance coverage for them should a problem
arise. Furthermore, ACE strongly encourages continuing education on diet and nutrition for all fitness
professionals.
Glossary
Abduction Movement away from the midline of the Adenosine trisphosphate (ATP) A high-energy
body. phosphate molecule required to provide energy for cellular
Abrasion A scraping away of a portion of the skin or function. Produced both aerobically and anaerobically and
mucous membrane. stored in the body.
Absolute contraindication A situation that makes a Adherence The extent to which people stick to their
particular treatment or procedure absolutely inadvisable. plans or treatment recommendations. Exercise adherence
is the extent to which people follow, or stick to, an
Absolute strength The maximal amount of weight an
exercise program.
individual can lift one time.
Adipose Fat cells stored in adipose tissue.
Absorption The uptake of nutrients across a tissue or
membrane by the gastrointestinal tract. Adipose tissue Fatty tissue; connective tissue made up
of fat cells.
Acclimatize To physiologically adapt to an unfamiliar
environment and achieve a new steady state. For example, Adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) A hormone
the body can adjust to a high altitude or a hot climate and released by the pituitary gland that affects various
gain an increased capacity to work in those conditions. important bodily functions; controls the secretion in the
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) A adrenal gland of hormones that influence the metabolism
syndrome of the immune system caused by the human of carbohydrates, sodium, and potassium; also controls
immunodeficiency virus (type HIV-1 or HIV-2) and the rate at which substances are exchanged between the
characterized by opportunistic infection and disease. blood and tissues.
Act of God An unforeseeable and uncontrollable Aerobic In the presence of oxygen.
•
occurrence, such as an earthquake or flash flood, that may Aerobic capacity See VO2max.
cause injury.
Agonist The muscle directly responsible for observed
Actin Thin contractile protein in a myofibril. movement; also called the prime mover.
Action The stage of the transtheoretical model of Agreement to participate Signed document that
behavioral change during which the individual started a indicates that the client is aware of inherent risks and
new behavior less than six months ago. potential injuries that can occur from participation.
Active isolated stretching (AIS) A stretching technique Air displacement plethysmography (ADP) A body-
modeled after traditional strength-training workouts. composition assessment technique based on the same
Stretches are held very briefly in sets of a specified body volume measurement principle as hydrostatic
number of repetitions, with a goal of isolating an
weighing; uses air instead of water.
individual muscle in each set.
Alexander Technique Teaches the transformation of
Activities of daily living (ADL) Activities normally
neuromuscular habits by helping an individual focus on
performed for hygiene, bathing, household chores,
sensory experiences. It is a simple and practical method
walking, shopping, and similar activities.
for improving ease and freedom of movement, balance,
Acute Descriptive of a condition that usually has a rapid support, and coordination, and corrects unconscious
onset and a relatively short and severe course; opposite of habits of posture and movement, which may be
chronic. precursors to injuries.
Acute coronary syndrome A sudden, severe coronary Allergen A substance that can cause an allergic
event that mimics a heart attack, such as unstable angina. reaction by stimulating type-1 hypersensitivity in atopic
Adduction Movement toward the midline of the body. individuals.
690 Glossary
Alveoli Spherical extensions of the respiratory testosterone and other androgens; has been
bronchioles and the primary sites of gas used as a supplement to increase muscle
exchange with the blood. strength.
Alzheimer’s disease An age-related, Anemia A reduction in the number of red
progressive disease characterized by death blood cells and/or quantity of hemoglobin per
of nerve cells in the brain leading to a loss of volume of blood below normal values.
cognitive function; the cause of the nerve cell
Anemic See Anemia.
death is unknown.
Aneurysm A localized abnormal dilation of a
Ambient temperature The temperature of
blood vessel; associated with a stroke when the
the surrounding air; room temperature.
aneurysm bursts.
American Society of Composers, Artists
Angina A common symptom of coronary
and Publishers (ASCAP) One of two
artery disease characterized by chest pain,
performing rights societies in the United States
tightness, or radiating pain resulting from a
that represent music publishers in negotiating
lack of blood flow to the heart muscle.
and collecting fees for the non-dramatic
performance of music. Angina pectoris Chest pain caused by an
inadequate supply of oxygen and decreased
Amortization phase The transition period
blood flow to the heart muscle; an early sign of
between the eccentric and concentric actions
coronary artery disease. Symptoms may include
during plyometrics; a crucial part of the stretch-
pain or discomfort, heaviness, tightness,
shortening cycle that contributes to power
pressure or burning, numbness, aching, and
development.
tingling in the chest, back, neck, throat, jaw, or
Anabolic Muscle-building effects. arms; also called angina.
Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) Angioplasty A surgical procedure that
Synthetic derivatives of the male sex hormone involves inserting a catheter into a blocked
testosterone; used for their muscle-building coronary artery. A narrow balloon is then
characteristics. inflated inside the artery, to widen the artery.
Anaerobic Without the presence of oxygen. Also called percutaneous transluminal coronary
Anaerobic capacity The ability of an angioplasty (PTCA).
individual to perform high-intensity, anaerobic Ankylosing spondylitis Inflammatory
activity. arthritis of the spine, resembling rheumatoid
Anaerobic glycolysis The metabolic pathway arthritis, that may progress to bony ankylosis
that uses glucose for energy production without with slipping of vertebral margins; the disease is
requiring oxygen. Sometimes referred to as the more common in males.
lactic acid system or anaerobic glucose system, Anorexia See Anorexia nervosa.
it produces lactic acid as a by-product.
Anorexia nervosa An eating disorder
Anaerobic threshold The point during high- characterized by refusal to maintain body
intensity activity when the body can no longer weight of at least 85% of expected weight;
meet its demand for oxygen and anaerobic intense fear of gaining weight or becoming
metabolism predominates. Also called lactate fat; body-image disturbances, including a
threshold. disproportionate influence of body weight on
Android Adipose tissue or body fat self-evaluation; and, in women, the absence of
distributed in the abdominal area (apple- at least three consecutive menstrual periods.
shaped individuals). Antagonist The muscle that acts in
Androstenedione A steroid produced opposition to the contraction produced by an
by the adrenal glands that is a precursor to agonist (prime mover) muscle.
Glossary 691
ACE Personal Trainer Manual
cardiovascular system, the digestive tract, and Beta blockers Medications that “block” or
the genital organs. limit sympathetic nervous system stimulation.
Autonomous stage of learning The third They act to slow the heart rate and decrease
stage of learning a motor skill, when the skill maximum heart rate and are used for
has become habitual or automatic for the cardiovascular and other medical conditions.
performer. Beta cell Endocrine cells in the islets of
Avulsion A wound involving forcible Langerhans of the pancreas responsible for
separation or tearing of tissue from the body. synthesizing and secreting the hormone insulin,
which lowers the glucose levels in the blood.
Axial skeleton The bones of the head, neck,
and trunk. Binge eating disorder An eating disorder
characterized by frequent binge eating (without
Axis of rotation The imaginary line or point
purging) and feelings of being out of control
about which an object, such as a joint, rotates.
when eating.
Balance The ability to maintain the body’s
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) A
position over its base of support within stability
body-composition assessment technique
limits, both statically and dynamically.
that measures the amount of impedance, or
Ballistic stretching Dynamic stretching resistance, to electric current flow as it passes
characterized by rhythmic bobbing or bouncing through the body. Impedance is greatest in
motions representing relatively high-force, fat tissue, while fat-free mass, which contains
short-duration movements. 70–75% water, allows the electrical current to
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) The energy pass much more easily.
required to complete the sum total of life- Biomechanics The mechanics of biological
sustaining processes, including ion transport and muscular activity.
(40% BMR), protein synthesis (20% BMR), and
Blood pressure (BP) The pressure exerted by
daily functioning such as breathing, circulation,
the blood on the walls of the arteries; measured
and nutrient processing (40% BMR).
in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) with a
Base of support (BOS) The areas of contact sphygmomanometer.
between the feet and their supporting surface
Body composition The makeup of the body
and the area between the feet.
in terms of the relative percentage of fat-free
Basic activities of daily living Any daily mass and body fat.
activity performed for self-care, including
Body fat A component of the body, the
personal hygiene, dressing and undressing,
primary role of which is to store energy for
eating, transferring from bed to chair and
later use.
back, voluntarily controlling urinary and fecal
discharge, elimination, and moving around (as Body mass index (BMI) A relative measure of
opposed to being bedridden). body height to body weight used to determine
levels of weight, from underweight to extreme
Behavior chain A sequence of events in
obesity.
which variables both preceding and following
a target behavior help to explain and reinforce Bone formation The processes resulting in
the target behavior, such as participation in an the formation of normal, healthy bone tissue,
exercise session. including remodeling and resorption.
Benign A non-cancerous growth or tumor; Bone mineral density (BMD) A measure
mild disease or condition that is not life of the amount of minerals (mainly calcium)
threatening. contained in a certain volume of bone.
ß-alanine A naturally occurring amino acid Bone resorption The breaking down of bone
formed within the body. by osteoclasts.
Glossary 693
ACE Personal Trainer Manual
cardiorespiratory endurance or aerobic fitness. Can accumulate in the arteries and lead to a
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) A general narrowing of the vessels (atherosclerosis).
term for any disease of the heart, blood vessels, Chondromalacia A gradual softening and
or circulation. degeneration of the articular cartilage, usually
Cardiovascular drift Changes in observed involving the back surface of the patella
cardiovascular variables that occur during (kneecap). This condition may produce pain
prolonged, submaximal exercise without a and swelling or a grinding sound or sensation
change in workload. when the knee is flexed and extended.
Cognitive domain One of the three domains Contracture An abnormal and usually
of learning; describes intellectual activities and permanent contraction of a muscle
involves the learning of knowledge. characterized by a high resistance to passive
Cognitive stage of learning The first stage of stretching.
learning a motor skill when performers make Contraindication Any condition that
many gross errors and have extremely variable renders some particular movement, activity, or
performances. treatment improper or undesirable.
Collagen The main constituent of connective Contralateral The opposite side of the body;
tissue, such as ligaments, tendons, and muscles. the other limb.
Comorbidities Disorders (or diseases) in Contributory negligence A legal defense
addition to a primary disease or disorder. used in claims or suits when the plaintiff’s
Comparative negligence A system used in negligence contributed to the act in dispute.
legal defenses to distribute fault between an Contusion A wound, such as a bruise, in
injured party and any defendant. which the skin is not broken; often resulting in
Complex carbohydrate A long chain of sugar broken blood vessels and discoloration.
that takes more time to digest than a simple Coronary artery disease (CAD) See Coronary
carbohydrate. heart disease (CHD).
Concentric A type of isotonic muscle Coronary atherosclerotic disease The end
contraction in which the muscle develops result of the accumulation of atherosclerotic
tension and shortens when stimulated. plaques within the coronary arteries that
Congestive heart failure (CHF) Inability of supply the muscle of the heart with oxygen and
the heart to pump blood at a sufficient rate to nutrients. Also call atherosclerotic heart disease.
meet the metabolic demand or the ability to do Coronary heart disease (CHD) The major
so only when the cardiac filling pressures are form of cardiovascular disease; results when
abnormally high, frequently resulting in lung the coronary arteries are narrowed or occluded,
congestion. most commonly by atherosclerotic deposits of
Connective tissue The tissue that binds fibrous and fatty tissue; also called coronary
together and supports various structures of the artery disease (CAD).
body. Ligaments and tendons are connective Corporate veil Shields individual investors
tissues. in a corporation from financial or legal liability
Consequences Variables that occur following beyond their initial investment.
a target behavior, such as exercise, that Corporation A legal entity, independent of its
influence a person’s future behavior-change owners and regulated by state laws; any number
decisions and efforts. of people may own a corporation through
Contemplation The stage of the shares issued by the business.
transtheoretical model of behavioral change Corticosteroid One of two main hormones
during which the individual is weighing the released by the adrenal cortex; plays a major
pros and cons of behavior change. role in maintaining blood glucose during
Contract A binding agreement between prolonged exercise by promoting protein and
two or more persons that is enforceable by triglyceride breakdown.
law composed of an offer, acceptance, and Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) A
consideration (or what each party puts forth to hormone and neurotransmitter released by the
make the agreement worthwhile). hypothalamus in response to stress.
Contractile proteins The protein myofila- Cortisol A hormone that is often referred
ments that are essential for muscle contraction. to as the “stress hormone,” as it is involved
696 Glossary
in the response to stress. It increases blood strenuous exercise, the exact cause of which is
pressure and blood glucose levels and has an unknown.
immunosuppressive action. Dementia A deteriorative mental state
Creatine A non-prescription dietary characterized by absence of, or reduction in,
supplement that is promoted for its ability intellectual faculties; may be caused by disease
to enhance muscle strength and physical or trauma.
endurance. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) A large,
Creatine phosphate (CP) A storage form of double-stranded, helical molecule that is the
high-energy phosphate in muscle cells that can carrier of genetic information.
be used to immediately resynthesize adenosine Depression 1. The action of lowering a
triphosphate (ATP). muscle or bone or movement in an inferior
Crepitus A crackling sound produced by or downward direction. 2. A condition of
air moving in the joint space; also called general emotional dejection and withdrawal;
crepitation. sadness greater and more prolonged than that
warranted by any objective reason.
Cross-training A method of physical training
in which a variety of exercises and changes in Diabetes See Diabetes mellitus.
body positions or modes of exercise are utilized Diabetes mellitus A disease of carbohydrate
to positively affect compliance and motivation, metabolism in which an absolute or relative
and also stimulate additional strength gains or deficiency of insulin results in an inability to
reduce injury risk. metabolize carbohydrates normally.
Cultural competence The ability to Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) The
communicate and work effectively with people pressure in the arteries during the relaxation
from different cultures. phase (diastole) of the cardiac cycle; indicative
Cyanosis A bluish discoloration, especially of total peripheral resistance.
of the skin and mucous membranes, due to Digestion The process of breaking down food
reduced hemoglobin in the blood. into small enough units for absorption.
Decisional balance One of the four Diminishing returns Principle stating
components of the transtheoretical model; that after a certain level of performance has
refers to the numbers of pros and cons an been achieved, there will be a decline in the
individual perceives regarding adopting and/or effectiveness of training at furthering a person’s
maintaining an activity program. performance level.
Deep Anatomical term meaning internal; Distal Farthest from the midline of the body,
that is, located further beneath the body surface or from the point of origin of a muscle.
than the superficial structures.
Diuretic Medication that produces an
Degenerative disc disease (DDD) A increase in urine volume and sodium excretion.
condition of advancing age, and/or the result of
Dorsiflexion Movement of the foot up
the development of post-traumatic arthritis.
toward the shin.
Dehydration The process of losing body
Double taxation The imposition of taxation
water; when severe can cause serious, life- on corporate earnings at both the corporate
threatening consequences. level and again as a stockholder dividend.
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) A steroid Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA)
hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex with a An imaging technique that uses a very low
wide range of biological effects. dose of radiation to measure bone density. Also
Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) can be used to measure overall body fat and
Soreness that occurs 24 to 48 hours after regional differences in body fat.
Glossary 697
ACE Personal Trainer Manual
Dynamic balance The act of maintaining Emergency medical services (EMS) A local
postural control while moving. system for obtaining emergency assistance
Dynamic stretching Type of stretching from the police, fire department, or ambulance.
that involves taking the joints through their In the United States, most cities have a 911
ranges of motion while continuously moving. telephone number that will automatically set
Often beneficial in warming up for a particular the EMS system in motion.
sport or activity that involves the same joint Empathy Understanding what another person
movements. is experiencing from his or her perspective.
Dysarthria A group of speech disorders Emphysema An obstructive pulmonary
caused by disturbances in the strength or disease characterized by the gradual destruction
coordination of the muscles of speech as a of lung alveoli and the surrounding connective
result of damage to the brain or nerves. tissue, in addition to airway inflammation,
Dyslipidemia A condition characterized by leading to reduced ability to effectively inhale
abnormal blood lipid profiles; may include and exhale.
elevated cholesterol, triglyceride, or low-density Employee A person who works for another
lipoprotein (LDL) levels and/or low high- person in exchange for financial compensation.
density lipoprotein (HDL) levels. An employee complies with the instructions
Dyspnea Shortness of breath; a subjective and directions of his or her employer and
difficulty or distress in breathing. reports to them on a regular basis.
Eating disorders Disturbed eating behaviors End-diastolic volume The volume of blood
that jeopardize a person’s physical or in a ventricle at the end of the cardiac filling
psychological health. cycle (diastole).
Electrolyte A mineral that exists as a charged Etiology The cause of a medical condition.
ion in the body and that is extremely important Eversion Rotation of the foot to direct the
for normal cellular function. plantar surface outward.
698 Glossary
Exculpatory clause A clause within a waiver Fat An essential nutrient that provides energy,
that bars the potential plaintiff from recovery. energy storage, insulation, and contour to the
Exercise-induced asthma (EIA) See Exercise- body. 1 gram of fat equals 9 kcal.
induced bronchospasm (EIB). Fat-free mass (FFM) That part of the body
composition that represents everything but
Exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB)
fat—blood, bones, connective tissue, organs,
Transient and reversible airway narrowing
and muscle; also called lean body mass.
triggered by vigorous exercise; also called
exercise-induced asthma (EIA). Fatty acids Long hydrocarbon chains with an
even number of carbons and varying degrees of
Expiration The act of expelling air from the
saturation with hydrogen.
lungs; exhalation.
Feedback An internal response within a
Express partnership A partnership created
learner; during information processing, it is
through formal paperwork.
the correctness or incorrectness of a response
Extension The act of straightening or that is stored in memory to be used for
extending a joint, usually applied to the future reference. Also, verbal or nonverbal
muscular movement of a limb. information about current behavior that can be
External rotation Outward turning about the used to improve future performance.
vertical axis of bone. Feldenkrais Method Consists of two
Extinction The removal of a positive stimulus interrelated, somatically based educational
that has in the past followed a behavior. methods. The first, awareness through
movement (ATM), is a verbally directed
Extrinsic motivation Motivation that comes technique designed for group work. The
from external (outside of the self) rewards, such second, functional integration (FI), is a
as material or social rewards. nonverbal manual contact technique designed
Fartlek training A form of training during for people desiring more individualized
which the exerciser randomly changes the attention.
aerobic intensity based on how he or she is Fetal hypoxia Brain injury occurring during
feeling. Also called speed play. and/or shortly after birth wherein the infant
Fascia Strong connective tissues that perform suffers a lack of oxygen to the brain.
a number of functions, including developing FEV1 The volume of air that a person can
and isolating the muscles of the body and exhale in the first second during a forced
providing structural support and protection. expiration test. FEV1 stands for “forced
Plural = fasciae. expiratory volume in one second.”
Fasciae See Fascia. Fibromyalgia Diffuse pain in the muscles
Fasciitis An inflammation of the fascia. and surrounding connective tissues, usually
accompanied by malaise.
Fast glycolytic system Anaerobic process
of metabolism that breaks down glucose and First ventilatory threshold (VT1) Intensity
glycogen into ATP during high-intensity of aerobic exercise at which ventilation starts to
physical activity; also called the lactate system. increase in a non-linear fashion in response to
an accumulation of metabolic by-products in
Fast-twitch muscle fiber One of several types
the blood.
of muscle fibers found in skeletal muscle tissue;
also called type II fibers and characterized as Flexibility The ability to move joints through
having a low oxidative capacity but a high their normal full ranges of motion.
gylcolytic capacity; recruited for rapid, powerful Flexion The act of moving a joint so that
movements such as jumping, throwing, and the two bones forming it are brought closer
sprinting. together.
Glossary 699
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private health data. The Standards for Privacy Heat syncope A sudden dizziness experienced
of Individually Identifiable Health Information after exercising in the heat.
(“Privacy Rule”), issued by the HHS, addresses Heimlich maneuver First aid for choking,
the use and disclosure of individuals’ health involving the application of sudden, upward
information—called “protected health pressure on the upper abdomen to force a
information”—by providing federal protections foreign object from the windpipe.
and giving patients an array of rights with
respect to personal health information while Hematoma A large bruise or collection of
permitting the disclosure of information blood under the skin, producing discoloration
needed for patient care and other important and swelling in the area; usually caused by
purposes. trauma.
heart rate deflection point and is related to the diabetic and characterized by symptoms such as
onset of blood lactate accumulation. fatigue, dizziness, confusion, headache, nausea,
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) A or anxiety.
retrovirus (family Retroviridae, subfamily Hyponatremia Abnormally low levels of
Lentvirinae) that is about 100 nm in diameter sodium ions circulating in the blood; severe
and is the etiologic agent of AIDS. hyponatremia can lead to brain swelling and
Hydrolysates A product of hydrolysis, death.
in which water reacts with a compound to Hypoperfusion A diminished blood supply to
produce other compounds. the tissues.
Hydrostatic weighing Weighing a person Hypotension Low blood pressure.
fully submerged in water. The difference Hypothermia Abnormally low body
between the person’s mass in air and in water temperature.
is used to calculate body density, which can be
used to estimate the proportion of fat in the Hypoxia A condition in which there is an
body. inadequate supply of oxygen to tissues.
Hypertension High blood pressure, or the Incision A cut in the skin, frequently from a
elevation of resting blood pressure above sharp object.
140/90 mmHg. Independent activities of daily living
Hypertension fibrinolysis Elevated blood Activities often performed by a person who is
pressure related to fibrinolysis, or increased living independently in a community setting
blood platelet activity. during the course of a normal day, such as
managing money, shopping, telephone use,
Hyperthermia Abnormally high body traveling within the community, housekeeping,
temperature. preparing meals, and taking medications
Hypertonic Having extreme muscular correctly.
tension. Independent contractor A person who
Hypertonicity See Hypertonic. conducts business on his or her own on a
Hypertrophy An increase in the cross- contract basis and is not an employee of an
sectional size of a muscle in response to organization.
progressive resistance training. Inferior Located below.
Hypoglycemia A deficiency of glucose in the Informed consent A written statement
blood commonly caused by too much insulin, signed by a client prior to testing that informs
too little glucose, or too much exercise. Most him or her of testing purposes, processes, and
commonly found in the insulin-dependent all potential risks and discomforts.
702 Glossary
which is formed when sugars are broken down investment and does not have any formal input
for energy without the presence of oxygen. regarding partnership operations.
Lactate threshold (LT) The point during Limits of stability (LOS) The degree of
exercise of increasing intensity at which blood allowable sway from the line of gravity without
lactate begins to accumulate above resting a need to change the base of support.
levels, where lactate clearance is no longer able
Line of gravity (LOG) A theoretical vertical
to keep up with lactate production.
line passing through the center of gravity,
Lactic acid A metabolic by-product of dissecting the body into two hemispheres.
anaerobic glycolysis; when it accumulates it
Linear periodization A form of periodization
increases blood pH, which slows down enzyme
used in resistance training that provides a
activity and ultimately causes fatigue.
consistent training protocol within each
Lapses The expected slips or mistakes that are microcycle and changes the training variables
usually discreet events and are a normal part of after each microcycle.
the behavior-change process.
Lipid The name for fats used in the body and
Lateral Away from the midline of the body, bloodstream.
or the outside.
Lipoprotein An assembly of a lipid and
Lateral epicondylitis An injury resulting from protein that serves as a transport vehicle for
the repetitive tension overloading of the wrist fatty acids and cholesterol in the blood and
and finger extensors that originate at the lateral lymph.
epicondyle; often referred to as “tennis elbow.”
Locus of control The degree to which people
Laxity Lacking in strength, firmness, or attribute outcomes to internal factors, such as
resilience; joints that have been injured or effort and ability, as opposed to external factors,
overstretched may exhibit laxity. such as luck or the actions of others. People
Lean body mass The components of the body who tend to attribute events and outcomes
(apart from fat), including muscles, bones, to internal factors are said to have an internal
nervous tissue, skin, blood, and organs. locus of control, while those who generally
Lever A rigid bar that rotates around a fixed attribute outcomes to external factors are said
support (fulcrum) in response to an applied to have an external locus of control.
force. Lordosis Excessive anterior curvature of the
Liability Legal responsibility. spine that typically occurs at the low back (may
also occur at the neck).
Ligament A strong, fibrous tissue that
connects one bone to another. Lordotic See Lordosis.
Limited liability corporation (LLC) A Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) A
corporation that limits investors’ personal lipoprotein that transports cholesterol and
financial and legal liabilities but provides flow- triglycerides from the liver and small intestine
through taxation for investors. It is not limited to cells and tissues; high levels may cause
to a certain number of shareholders and owners atherosclerosis.
do not have to be U.S. citizens. Macrocyle The longest timeframe in a
Limited liability partnership (LLP) A periodized training program, usually a period
partnership in which some or all partners of six months to one year. The goals of a
(depending on the jurisdiction) have limited macrocycle are long-term and require multiple
liability; exhibits elements of both partnerships steps to be achieved.
and corporations. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) A
Limited partner An individual who retains diagnostic modality in which the patient is
no legal liability beyond his or her initial placed within a strong magnetic field and
704 Glossary
Mortality The death rate; the ratio of deaths appearance to skeletal muscle.
that take place to expected deaths. Myofibrillar hypertrophy The increase in the
Motivation The psychological drive that gives size of muscle cells (myofibrils).
purpose and direction to behavior. Myoglobin A compound similar to
Motivational interviewing A method of hemoglobin, which aids in the storage and
questioning clients in a way that encourages transport of oxygen in the muscle cells.
them to honestly examine their beliefs and
Myosin Thick contractile protein in a
behaviors, and that motivates clients to make a
myofibril.
decision to change a particular behavior.
Negative reinforcement The removal
Motor learning The process of acquiring and
or absence of aversive stimuli following
improving motor skills.
an undesired behavior. This increases the
Motor unit A motor nerve and all of the likelihood that the behavior will occur again.
muscle fibers it stimulates.
Negligence Failure of a person to perform as
Muscle afferents Neurons that conduct a reasonable and prudent professional would
impulses from sensory receptors into the central perform under similar circumstances.
nervous system.
Neuromuscular efficiency The ability of the
Muscle spindle The sensory organ within neuromuscular system to allow muscles that
a muscle that is sensitive to stretch and thus produce movement and muscles that provide
protects the muscle against too much stretch. stability to work together synergistically as an
Muscular endurance The ability of a muscle integrated functional unit.
or muscle group to exert force against a Neuromuscular integrative action (Nia) An
resistance over a sustained period of time. expressive fitness and awareness movement
Muscular power The product of muscular program and a holistic approach to health
force and speed of movement. that combines movements from tai chi, yoga,
Muscular strength The maximal force a martial arts, and modern ethnic dances.
muscle or muscle group can exert during Neuropathy Any disease affecting a
contraction. peripheral nerve. It may manifest as loss of
Myocardial infarction (MI) An episode nerve function, burning pain, or numbness and
in which some of the heart’s blood supply is tingling.
severely cut off or restricted, causing the heart Neurotransmitter A chemical substance such
muscle to suffer and die from lack of oxygen. as acetylcholine or dopamine that transmits
Commonly known as a heart attack. nerve impulses across synapses.
Myofascial release A manual massage Nia See Neuromuscular integrative action
technique used to eliminate general fascial (Nia).
restrictions; typically performed with a device
Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus
such as a foam roller.
(NIDDM) See Type 2 diabetes.
Myofascial sling A continuous line of action
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
formed by muscles, tendons, ligaments, fascia,
(NSAID) A drug with analgesic, antipyretic
joint capsules, and bones that lie in series or in
and anti-inflammatory effects. The term
parallel to actively moving joints or muscles.
“nonsteroidal” is used to distinguish these drugs
Myofibril The portion of the muscle from steroids, which have similar actions.
containing the thick (myosin) and thin
(actin) contractile filaments; a series of Norepinephrine A hormone released as part
sarcomeres where the repeating pattern of of the sympathetic response to exercise.
the contractile proteins gives the striated Obesity An excessive accumulation of body
706 Glossary
fat. Usually defined as more than 20% above system subjected to above-normal stress will
ideal weight, or over 25% body fat for men respond by increasing in strength or function
and over 32% body fat for women; also can be accordingly.
defined as a body mass index of >30 kg/m2 or a Overtraining syndrome The result of
waist girth of ≥40 inches (102 cm) in men and constant intense training that does not provide
≥35 inches (89 cm) in women. adequate time for recovery; symptoms include
Occupational therapist A rehabilitation increased resting heart rate, impaired physical
expert specializing in treatments that help performance, reduced enthusiasm and desire
people who suffer from mentally, physically, for training, increased incidence of injuries
developmentally, or emotionally disabling and illness, altered appetite, disturbed sleep
conditions to develop, recover, or maintain patterns, and irritability.
daily living and work skills that include Overuse injury An injury caused by activity
improving basic motor functions and reasoning that places too much stress on one area of the
abilities. body over an extended period.
One-repetition maximum (1 RM) The Overweight A term to describe an excessive
amount of resistance that can be moved amount of weight for a given height, using
through the range of motion one time before height-to-weight ratios.
the muscle is temporarily fatigued. •
Oxygen uptake (VO2) The process by which
Onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) oxygen is used to produce energy for cellular
The point in time during high-intensity work; also called oxygen consumption.
exercise at which the production of lactic acid
exceeds the body’s capacity to eliminate it; after Palpation The use of hands and/or fingers to
this point, oxygen is insufficient at meeting the detect anatomical structures or an arterial pulse
body’s demands for energy. (e.g., carotid pulse).
Operant conditioning A learning approach Palpitation A rapid and irregular heart beat.
that considers the manner in which behaviors Parasthesia An abnormal sensation such as
are influenced by their consequences. numbness, prickling, or tingling.
Orthopnea Form of dyspnea in which the Parasthesis See Paresthesia.
person can breathe comfortably only when Part-to-whole teaching strategy A teaching
standing or sitting erect; associated with strategy involving breaking a skill down into its
asthma, emphysema, and angina. component parts and practicing each skill in its
Orthostatic hypotension A drop in blood simplest form before placing several skills in a
pressure associated with rising to an upright sequence.
position. Partnership A business entity in which two
Osteoarthritis A degenerative disease or more people agree to operate a business and
involving a wearing away of joint cartilage. This share profits and losses.
degenerative joint disease occurs chiefly in older Patellofemoral pain syndrome (PFPS) A
persons. degenerative condition of the posterior surface
Osteopenia Bone density that is below of the patella, which may result from acute
average, classified as 1.5 to 2.5 standard injury to the patella or from chronic friction
deviations below peak bone density. between the patella and the groove in the
Osteoporosis A disorder, primarily affecting femur through which it passes during motion
postmenopausal women, in which bone of the knee.
density decreases and susceptibility to fractures Pathogen Any virus, microorganism or other
increases. substance capable of causing disease.
Overload The principle that a physiological Perfusion The passage of fluid through a
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tissue, such as the transport of blood through screening measure for low-to-moderate (but
vessels from the heart to internal organs and not vigorous) exercise training.
other tissues. Physical therapist A rehabilitation expert
Periodization The systematic application of specializing in treatments that help restore
overload through the pre-planned variation function, improve mobility, relieve pain, and
of program components to optimize gains prevent or limit permanent physical disabilities
in strength (or any specific component of in patients of all ages suffering from medical
fitness), while preventing overuse, staleness, problems, injuries, diseases, disabilities, or other
overtraining, and plateaus. health-related conditions.
Periosteum A double-layered connective Pilates A method of mind-body conditioning
tissue sheath surrounding the outer surface of that combines stretching and strengthening
the diaphysis of a long bone; serves to cover exercises; developed by Joseph Pilates in the
and nourish the bone. 1920s.
Periostitis Inflammation of the membrane of Plantarflexion Distal movement of the
connective tissue that closely surrounds a bone. plantar surface of the foot; opposite of
Peripheral artery occlusive disease (PAOD) dorsiflexion.
Disease caused by the obstruction of large Plasma The liquid portion of the blood.
arteries in the arms and legs.
Plyometrics High-intensity movements, such
Peripheral neuropathy Damage to nerves of as jumping, involving high-force loading of
the peripheral nervous system, which may be body weight during the landing phase of the
caused either by diseases of the nerve or from movement.
the side effects of systemic illness.
Positive reinforcement The presentation of a
Peripheral vascular disease A painful and positive stimulus following a desired behavior.
often debilitating condition, characterized This increases the likelihood that the behavior
by muscular pain caused by ischemia to the will occur again.
working muscles. The ischemic pain is usually
due to atherosclerotic blockages or arterial Posterior Toward the back or dorsal side.
spasms, referred to as claudication. Also called Post-exercise hypotension (PEH) Acute
peripheral vascular occlusive disease (PVOD). post-exercise reduction in both systolic and
Peripheral vascular occlusive disease (PVOD) diastolic blood pressure.
See Peripheral vascular disease. Postictal state The altered state of
Pes cavus High arches of the feet. consciousness that a person enters after
experiencing an epileptic seizure.
Pes planus Flat feet.
Posture The arrangement of the body and its
Phosphagen High-energy phosphate
limbs.
compounds found in muscle tissue, including
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine Precontemplation The stage of the
phosphate (CP), that can be broken down for transtheoretical model of behavioral change
immediate use by the cells. during which the individual is not yet thinking
about changing.
Phosphagen system A system of transfer
of chemical energy from the breakdown of Prehypertension A systolic pressure of 120
creatine phosphate to regenerate adenosine to 139 mmHg and/or a diastolic pressure of
triphosphate (ATP). 80 to 89 mmHg. Having this condition puts
Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire an individual at higher risk for developing
(PAR-Q) A brief, self-administered medical hypertension.
questionnaire recognized as a safe pre-exercise Prehypertensive See Prehypertension.
708 Glossary
Preparation The stage of the transtheoretical to the central patella and from the central
model during which the individual is getting patella to the tibial tubercle; an estimate of the
ready to make a change. effective angle at which the quadriceps group
Prime mover A muscle responsible for a pulls on the patella.
specific movement. Also called an agonist. Qigong A wide variety of traditional
Process goal A goal a person achieves by cultivation practices that involve methods of
doing something, such as completing an accumulating, circulating, and working with qi,
exercise session or attending a talk on stress breathing or energy within the body. Qigong
management. is practiced for health maintenance purposes,
as a therapeutic intervention, as a medical
Product goal A goal that represents change profession, as a spiritual path, and/or as a
in a measurable variable, such as increases in component of Chinese martial arts.
strength scores, reductions in resting heart rate,
or weight loss. Radiculopathy Dysfunction of a nerve root
that can cause numbness or tingling, muscle
Product liability insurance Insurance that weakness, or loss of reflex associated with that
covers damages occurring due to product nerve.
failure.
Range of motion (ROM) The number of
Professional liability insurance Insurance to degrees that an articulation will allow one of its
protect a trainer/instructor against professional segments to move.
negligence or failure to perform as a competent
and prudent professional would under similar Rapport A relationship marked by mutual
circumstances. understanding and trust.
Pronation Internal rotation of the forearm Rate coding The frequency of impulses sent
causing the radius to cross diagonally over the to a muscle. Increased force can be generated
ulna and the palm to face posteriorly. through increase in either the number of
muscle fibers recruited or the rate at which the
Proprioception Sensation and awareness of impulses are sent.
body position and movements.
Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) A
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation scale, originally developed by noted Swedish
(PNF) A method of promoting the response psychologist Gunnar Borg, that provides a
of neuromuscular mechanisms through the standard means for evaluating a participant’s
stimulation of proprioceptors in an attempt to perception of exercise effort. The original scale
gain more stretch in a muscle; often referred to ranged from 6 to 20; a revised category ratio
as a contract/relax method of stretching. scale ranges from 0 to 10.
Protein A compound composed of a Reactive ability The ability of an individual
combination 20 amino acids that is the major to perform reactive movements, such as
structural component of all body tissue. plyometrics and agility drills.
Proximal Nearest to the midline of the body Reactive forces Forces that oppose an initial
or point of origin of a muscle. active force. For example, ground reaction
Puncture A piercing wound from a sharp forces occur at the foot when it comes in
object that makes a small hole in the skin. contact with the ground during running.
Punishment The presentation of aversive Reciprocal inhibition The reflex inhibition
stimuli following an undesired behavior. of the motor neurons of antagonists when the
Decreases the likelihood that the behavior will agonists are contracted.
occur again. Registered dietitian A food and nutrition
Q-angle The angle formed by lines drawn expert that has met the following criteria:
from the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) completed a minimum of a bachelor’s
Glossary 709
ACE Personal Trainer Manual
degree at a U.S. accredited university, or net income (profit minus depreciation) to the
other college coursework approved by the average money spent by the company overall
Commission on Accreditation for Dietetics or on a specific project. Usually expressed as
Education (CADE); completed a CADE- a percentage, a measure of profitability that
accredited supervised practice program; indicates whether or not a company is using its
passed a national examination; and completed resources in an efficient manner.
continuing education requirements to maintain Reversibility The principle of exercise
registration. training that suggests that any improvement
Relapse In behavior change, the return of in physical fitness due to physical activity is
an original problem after many lapses (slips, entirely reversible with the discontinuation of
mistakes) have occurred. the training program.
Relative contraindication A condition that Rheumatoid arthritis An autoimmune
makes a particular treatment or procedure disease that causes inflammation of connective
somewhat inadvisable but does not completely tissues and joints.
rule it out. Rider Specific additions to a standard
Relative strength The ratio of the amount insurance policy.
of weight lifted to the total body weight of the Risk factor A characteristic, inherited
person. It can be used to compare the strength trait, or behavior related to the presence or
of different individuals. development of a condition or disease.
Relaxin A hormone of pregnancy that relaxes Risk management Minimizing the risks of
the pelvic ligaments and other connective tissue potential legal liability.
in the body. Rotation Movement in the transverse plane
Rescue medication Quick-relief or fast- about a longitudinal axis; can be “internal” or
acting inhaled medications taken by individuals “external.”
with asthma to quickly stop symptoms. Royalty A payment made to the owner of a
Residual volume The volume of air copyright, patent, or trademark in exchange
remaining in the lungs following a maximal for use of the protected intellectual property;
expiration. typically a percentage of each sale.
Respiratory exchange ratio (RER) A ratio of Sagittal plane The longitudinal plane that
the amount of carbon dioxide produced relative divides the body into right and left portions.
to the amount of oxygen consumed. Sarcomere The basic functional unit of the
Respondeat superior A legal doctrine myofibril containing the contractile proteins
wherein the actions of an employee can subject that generate skeletal muscle movements.
the employer to liability; Latin for “Let the Sarcopenia Decreased muscle mass; often
master answer.” used to refer specifically to an age-related
Resting heart rate (RHR) The number of decline in muscle mass or lean-body tissue.
heartbeats per minute when the body is at Sarcoplasm A gelatin-like tissue surrounding
complete rest; usually counted first thing in the the sarcomere.
morning before any physical activity.
Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy An increase in
Resting metabolic rate (RMR) The muscle size due to an increase in the volume of
number of calories expended per unit time at sarcoplasmic fluid as a result of high-repetition
rest; measured early in the morning after an weight-lifting sets. Also called transient
overnight fast and at least eight hours of sleep; hypertrophy.
approximated with various formulas. Sciatica Pain radiating down the leg caused
Return on investment (ROI) The ratio of the by compression of the sciatic nerve; frequently
710 Glossary
the result of lumbar disc herniation. fatty acid oxidation, recruited for low-intensity,
Scoliosis Excessive lateral curvature of the longer-duration activities such as walking and
spine. swimming.
Scope of practice The range and limit of SMART goals A properly designed goal;
responsibilities normally associated with a SMART stands for specific, measurable,
specific job or profession. attainable, relevant, and time-bound.
Secondary assessment After immediate SOAP note A communication tool used
life- or limb-threatening injuries/illnesses have among healthcare professionals; SOAP stands
been identified, this more thorough evaluation for subjective, objective, assessment, plan.
is performed to identify more subtle, yet still Social support The perceived comfort, caring,
important, injuries. esteem, or help an individual receives from
Second ventilatory threshold (VT2) A other people.
metabolic marker that represents the point Sodium bicarbonate A salt that neutralizes
above which high-intensity exercise can only acids by increasing the blood’s alkalinity and
be sustained for a brief interval due to an buffering capacity so that more lactic acid can be
accumulation of lactate. neutralized during physical activity.
Sedentary Doing or requiring much sitting; Sole proprietorship A business owned and
minimal activity. operated by one person.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI)
Somatosensory system The physiological
A group of medications used to treat depression
system relating to the perception of sensory
that cause an increase in the amount of the
stimuli from the skin and internal organs.
neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain.
Specific supervision A method of supervision
Self-efficacy One’s perception of his or
where the worker (or trainee) requires direct
her ability to change or to perform specific
involvement of the supervisor (or trainer).
behaviors (e.g., exercise).
Specificity Exercise training principle
Serotonin A neurotransmitter; acts as a
explaining that specific exercise demands made
synaptic messenger in the brain and as an
on the body produce specific responses by the
inhibitor of pain pathways; plays a role in mood
body; also called exercise specificity.
and sleep.
Shaping Designing a new behavior chain, Sphygmomanometer An instrument for
including antecedents and rewards, to measuring blood pressure in the arteries.
encourage a certain behavior, such as regular Spinal stenosis A medical condition in which
physical activity. the spinal canal narrows and compresses the
Shear force Any force that causes slippage spinal cord and nerves.
between a pair of contiguous joints or tissues in Sprain A traumatic joint twist that results
a direction that parallels the plane in which they in stretching or tearing of the stabilizing
contact. connective tissues; mainly involves ligaments
Shin splints A general term for any pain or or joint capsules, and causes discoloration,
discomfort on the front or side of the lower leg swelling, and pain.
in the region of the shin bone (tibia). Stability Characteristic of the body’s joints or
Sinoatrial node (SA node) A group of posture that represents resistance to change of
specialized myocardial cells, located in the wall position.
of the right atrium, that control the heart’s rate Stages-of-change model A lifestyle-
of contraction; the “pacemaker” of the heart. modification model that suggests that people
Slow-twitch muscle fiber A muscle fiber go through distinct, predictable stages when
type designed for use of aerobic glycolysis and making lifestyle changes: precontemplation,
Glossary 711
ACE Personal Trainer Manual
1 pose that together make up a meditative a ringing or beating sound, which has no
form of exercise to which practitioners external source.
attribute physical and spiritual health Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) A
benefits; a specific form of tai chi. protein involved in the breakdown of blood
Talk test A method for measuring exercise clots.
intensity using observation of respiration Tonic clonic seizure The classic type of
effort and the ability to talk while exercising. epileptic seizure consisting of two phases:
Target heart rate (THR) Number the tonic phase, in which the body becomes
of heartbeats per minute that indicate rigid, and the clonic phase, in which there is
appropriate exercise intensity levels for each uncontrolled jerking. Also known as a grand
individual; also called training heart rate. mal seizure.
Target heart-rate range (THRR) Exercise Tonicity The elastic tension of living
intensity that represents the minimum and tissues, such as muscles and arteries.
maximum intensity for safe and effective Torsion The rotation or twisting of a joint
exercise; also referred to as training zone. by the exertion of a lateral force tending to
Telemetry The process by which measured turn it about a longitudinal axis.
quantities from a remote site are transmitted Transient hypertrophy The “pumping”
to a data collection point for recording and up of muscle that happens during a single
processing, such as what occurs during an exercise bout, resulting mainly from
electrocardiogram. fluid accumulation in the interstitial and
Temporomandibular joint syndrome intracellular spaces of the muscle.
(TMJ) A misalignment of the joint Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
connecting the upper and lower jaw, Momentary dizziness, loss of consciousness,
resulting in chronic muscle and joint pain in or forgetfulness caused by a short-lived
the jaw area. lack of oxygen (blood) to the brain; usually
Tendinitis Inflammation of a tendon. due to a partial blockage of an artery, it is a
Tendon A band of fibrous tissue forming warning sign for a stroke.
the termination of a muscle and attaching Transtheoretical model of behavioral
the muscle to a bone. change (TTM) A theory of behavior that
Testosterone In males, the steroid examines one’s readiness to change and
hormone produced in the testes; involved identifies five stages: precontemplation,
in growth and development of reproductive contemplation, preparation, action, and
tissues, sperm, and secondary male sex maintenance. Also called stages-of-change
characteristics. model.
backbone; how fat is stored in the body. Vasodilation Increase in diameter of the
Type 1 diabetes Form of diabetes caused blood vessels, especially dilation of arterioles
by the destruction of the insulin-producing leading to increased blood flow to a part of
beta cells in the pancreas, which leads to the body.
little or no insulin secretion; generally Ventilatory threshold Point of transition
develops in childhood and requires between predominately aerobic energy
regular insulin injections; formerly known production to anaerobic energy production;
as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus involves recruitment of fast-twitch muscle
(IDDM) and childhood-onset diabetes. fibers and identified via gas exchange during
exercise testing.
Type 2 diabetes Most common form of
diabetes; typically develops in adulthood and Ventricular fibrillation (VF) An irregular
is characterized by a reduced sensitivity of heartbeat characterized by uncoordinated
the insulin target cells to available insulin; contractions of the ventricle.
usually associated with obesity; formerly Vestibular system Part of the central
known as non-insulin-dependent diabetes nervous system that coordinates reflexes
mellitus (NIDDM) and adult-onset of the eyes, neck, and body to maintain
diabetes. equilibrium in accordance with posture and
Type I muscle fibers See Slow-twitch movement of the head.
muscle fibers. Vicarious liability States that employers
Type II muscle fibers See Fast-twitch are responsible for the workplace conduct of
muscle fibers. their employees.
Umbrella liability policy Insurance that Viscera The collective internal organs of
provides additional coverage beyond other the abdominal cavity.
insurance such as professional liability, Visceral Pertaining to the internal organs.
home, automobile, etc. Visual system The series of structures by
Undulating periodization A form of which visual sensations are received from the
periodization used in resistance training that environment and conveyed as signals to the
provides different training protocols during central nervous system.
the microcycles in addition to changing the Vital capacity The volume of air that can
training variables after each microcycle. be maximally inhaled and exhaled in one
Valgus Characterized by an abnormal breath.
outward turning of a bone, especially of the Vitamin An organic micronutrient that is
hip, knee, or foot. essential for normal physiologic function.
•
Valsalva maneuver A strong exhaling VO2max Considered the best indicator of
effort against a closed glottis, which builds cardiovascular endurance, it is the maximum
pressure in the chest cavity that interferes amount of oxygen (mL) that a person can
with the return of the blood to the heart; use in one minute per kilogram of body
may deprive the brain of blood and cause weight. Also called maximal oxygen uptake
lightheadedness or fainting. and maximal aerobic capacity.
• •
Vascular disease Any disease of the blood VO2reserve (VO2R) The difference between
• •
vessels. VO2max and VO2 at rest; used for program-
Vasoconstriction Narrowing of the ming aerobic exercise intensity.
opening of blood vessels (notably the smaller Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) A useful
arterioles) caused by contraction of the measure for determining health risk due
smooth muscle lining the vessels. to the site of fat storage. Calculated by
714 Glossary
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