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Organic/ Inorganic Hybrid Detectors for Ionizing Radiations

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Organic/ Inorganic Hybrid Detectors for Ionizing Radiations

1.0 Introduction
Radiation detection is essential in many fields, from medical diagnosis to national
security. The ability to accurately detect and measure radiation is crucial for protecting human
health and ensuring the safety of various industrial and scientific applications. Therefore, the
development of advanced radiation detection technologies is a rapidly growing field of research
(1). In recent years, there has been a growing interest in organic/inorganic hybrid materials for
radiation detection. These materials combine the unique properties of both organic and inorganic
materials, providing a new avenue for developing high-performance radiation detection devices.
Organic materials, such as conducting polymers, have attracted significant attention due
to their unique electronic properties and ease of processing. These materials have been
extensively studied for radiation detection devices due to their high sensitivity, low cost, and
compatibility with various substrates. However, they have limitations such as low charge
mobility and thermal stability. On the other hand, inorganic materials, such as metal oxides and
nitrides, have excellent charge mobility and thermal stability, making them ideal for use in
radiation detectors (2). However, these materials can be challenging to process, and their
fabrication often involves high temperatures and specialized equipment.
Combining organic and inorganic materials in a hybrid structure can overcome the
limitations of individual materials while retaining their desirable properties. This approach can
lead to the developing of low-cost, high-performance radiation detectors with improved
sensitivity, stability, and manufacturability (3). The motivation of this study is to investigate the
performance of organic/inorganic hybrid materials for radiation detection. Specifically, the study
uses P3HT, a well-known organic semiconductor, mixed with inorganic materials such as TiO2,
BN, and B4C. The performance of these hybrid materials is evaluated for X-ray detection, and
the results are used to guide future work on the development of detectors for α, β, and γ
radiation.
The objectives of this study are to:
1. Fabricate organic/inorganic hybrid materials using P3HT and inorganic nanoparticles or
microparticles.
2. Characterize the properties of the resulting hybrid materials, including sensitivity, signal-
to-noise ratio, and charge mobility.
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3. Evaluate the performance of the hybrid materials for X-ray detection at different
thicknesses and ratios.
4. Investigate the potential of the hybrid materials for detecting α, β, and γ radiation.
Overall, this study aims to contribute to developing advanced radiation detection
technologies by exploring organic/inorganic hybrid materials. The findings of this research could
have significant implications for a range of applications, from medical imaging to environmental
monitoring and national security.
1.1 X-ray Radiations
X-rays are ionizing radiation with higher energy than visible light but lower than gamma
rays. X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, who observed that they
could penetrate through opaque objects, such as the human body (4). This discovery led to the
development of X-ray technology, which is now widely used in medical diagnosis, materials
science, and other fields. X-rays are generated when a beam of electrons is accelerated to high
energies and directed at a metal target. The high-energy electrons collide with the atoms in the
target material, causing the emission of X-rays.
The X-rays produced have a continuous energy spectrum, with the maximum energy
determined by the energy of the accelerated electrons and the target material. The properties of
X-rays make them useful for a range of applications. They can penetrate various materials,
including human tissue, allowing for non-invasive medical imaging. X-rays can also probe the
structure of materials, making them an essential tool in materials science and engineering (5).
X-rays are known for their penetrating power, making them useful in various applications.
However, their ionizing nature also means they can damage living tissue, potentially harming
human health. As a result, precautions must be taken to limit exposure to X-rays. This is
typically accomplished by using lead shielding or other protective measures and minimizing the
duration and frequency of exposure. Medical professionals who use X-rays to diagnose and treat
patients are trained to use the lowest possible radiation dose while achieving the desired
diagnostic or therapeutic outcome.
A critical application of X-rays is in medical imaging. X-ray machines commonly
generate images of bones and other internal structures in the body. These images can be used to
diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, including broken bones, tumors, and lung
disease. X-ray imaging is generally safe and non-invasive but involves exposure to ionizing
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radiation. For this reason, medical professionals must carefully balance the potential benefits of
the imaging procedure with the risks associated with radiation exposure. X-ray diffraction
(XRD) is another important application of X-rays. In XRD, a beam of X-rays is directed at a
crystalline material, and the resulting diffraction pattern is analyzed to determine the material's
atomic and molecular structure. XRD is a widely used technique in materials science, chemistry,
and mineralogy, and it has provided valuable insights into the system and properties of a wide
range of materials. XRD can also be used to study the crystallography of proteins and other
biological molecules, making it an essential tool in structural biology.
In addition to medical imaging and XRD, X-rays are used in various other applications,
including non-destructive testing, airport security screening, and food irradiation. In non-
destructive testing, X-rays inspect the integrity of manufactured components, such as welds in
pipelines or aircraft parts. In airport security screening, X-rays generate images of carry-on
luggage and checked baggage, allowing security personnel to identify potential threats. In food
irradiation, X-rays sterilize food products and extend their shelf life. The use of X-rays in these
and other applications highlights the versatility and importance of this form of ionizing radiation.
1.1.1 How X-Ray is generated

X-rays are generated in vacuum-sealed X-ray tubes that produce a high voltage between a
cathode and an anode (6). The cathode is a filament made of tungsten, which is heated by an
electric current to produce a stream of electrons. The anode is made of metal with a high atomic
number, such as tungsten or copper, and is far from the cathode. When the high-energy electrons
from the cathode strike the anode, they produce many X-rays through two mechanisms:
bremsstrahlung radiation and characteristic radiation (7). Bremsstrahlung radiation occurs when
the anode's electric field decelerates the cathode's high-energy electrons. As they slow down,
they emit X-rays with a continuous spectrum of energies. Characteristic radiation occurs when
the high-energy electrons knock an inner-shell electron out of the anode material, leaving a hole.
When an outer-shell electron fills the gap, it emits an X-ray with a specific energy characteristic
of the anode material (8).
X-rays are typically generated by accelerating and colliding electrons with a target
material at high speeds. This process is known as X-ray production via the Bremsstrahlung
effect. The electrons are typically produced by a cathode, a negatively charged electrode in a
vacuum tube. When a high voltage is applied to the cathode, electrons are emitted and then
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accelerated toward the target material. When the electrons collide with the target material, they
slow down and lose energy. This energy loss is cast in the form of X-rays. The power of the X-
rays produced in this manner is directly proportional to the significance of the electrons used to
generate them.
Another method of X-ray generation is via characteristic X-rays, which are produced
when electrons in the target material are excited to higher energy levels and then return to lower
energy levels. This process creates a unique X-ray signature for each element in the target
material, allowing for element-specific analysis. The target material must be bombarded with
high-energy photons to generate characteristic X-rays, such as those produced by a synchrotron
or a gamma-ray source. This method is typically used in X-ray spectroscopy and material
analysis. Overall, X-ray generation is a fundamental process in X-ray imaging and analysis, and
understanding the properties and mechanisms of X-ray production is crucial for developing and
optimizing X-ray detectors.
Figure 1.2 shows the schematic diagram of an X-ray tube.

Figure 1.2: Schematic diagram of an X-ray tube

1.1.2 Figures of Merit for X-ray Detectors
The performance of an X-ray detector can be evaluated based on several figures of merit,
including sensitivity, energy resolution, and noise. Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the Signal
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produced by the detector to the energy of the incident X-rays. It is typically expressed in units of
charge per unit dose or current per unit dose. The sensitivity of an X-ray detector can be
calculated using the following formula:
Sensitivity = Signal / Dose. The Signal is the charge or current produced by the detector
in response to X-rays, and the Dose is the amount of radiation energy the sensor absorbs. The
energy resolution is a measure of the ability of an X-ray detector to distinguish between X-rays
of different points (9). It is defined as the full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of the energy
spectrum divided by the peak energy. The performance of an X-ray detector can be evaluated
based on several parameters known as figures of merit. The most important figures of merit for
X-ray detectors are sensitivity, energy resolution, and detection efficiency.
Sensitivity is the charge generated in the detector per unit dose of radiation incident on
the sensor. It is expressed in units of cost per unit dose, such as coulombs per gray (C/Gy) or
micro coulombs per gray (μC/Gy). A detector's sensitivity depends on the materials used in its
construction, the energy of the incident X-rays, and the detector's geometry (9). The energy
resolution is a measure of the ability of the sensor to distinguish between X-rays of different
energies. It is defined as the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the photopeak divided by
the power of the photopeak. The photopeak is the peak in the X-ray spectrum that corresponds to
the energy of the incident X-rays. The energy resolution is typically expressed as a percentage.
Detection efficiency is a measure of the fraction of incident X-rays that are detected by the
detector. It depends on the energy of the incident X-rays, the materials used in the sensor, and the
detector's geometry. Other figures of merit for X-ray detectors include dynamic range, linearity,
and spatial resolution.
1.2. Nuclear radiations
Nuclear radiation refers to the particles and electromagnetic radiation emitted by atomic
nuclei during radioactive decay. There are three main types of nuclear radiation: alpha (α)
particles, beta (β) particles, and gamma (γ) rays. Alpha particles are helium nuclei of two protons
and neutrons (10). They have a charge of +2 and a mass of approximately four atomic mass units
(AMU). Alpha particles are typically emitted by heavy, unstable nuclei such as uranium and
radium. Due to their large mass and charge, alpha particles have a short range of matter and are
easily stopped by a few centimeters of air or a thin sheet of paper.
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Beta particles are high-energy electrons or positrons emitted by atomic nuclei during beta
decay. Beta decay occurs when a neutron in the middle is converted into a proton, an electron,
and an antineutrino (or a proton is transformed into a neutron, a positron, and a neutrino). Beta
particles have a charge of -1 (for electrons) or +1 (for positrons) and a mass of approximately
1/1836 amu (10). They have a more extended range in matter than alpha particles and can be
stopped by several millimeters of aluminum or a few centimeters of plastic. Gamma rays are
high-energy photons emitted by atomic nuclei during gamma decay. Gamma decay occurs when
a seat in an excited state emits a gamma ray to return to its ground state. Gamma rays have no
mass and charge and travel at the speed of light. They have a much longer range in the matter
than alpha or beta particles and can be stopped by several centimeters of lead or several meters
of concrete.
2.0 Literature Review
The use of organic and inorganic materials in developing X-ray detectors has been
extensively studied in the past decade. Combining organic and inorganic materials has led to the
developing of hybrid sensors with improved performance and sensitivity (12). These hybrid
detectors have the potential to revolutionize X-ray detection systems by providing high
sensitivity, low cost, and ease of fabrication.
2.1 Organic/Inorganic X-ray Detectors
The sensitivity of X-ray detectors is a key performance parameter. The sensitivity of X-
ray detectors can be improved by combining organic and inorganic materials. Table 1
summarizes the latest sensitivity values for eight keV X-rays for organic/inorganic devices. The
organic materials used in these devices can be semiconductors or insulators, and the inorganic
materials can be nanoparticles or microparticles.
Table 1: Latest sensitivity values for eight keV X-rays for organic/inorganic devices
Materials Thickness Applied Voltage Sensitivity (µC Gy−1 Yea Reference
(µm) (V) cm−2) r
P3HT:TiO2 10 4 60-75 2023 This study
P3HT:TiO2 1 4 14-17 2023 This study
P3HT:BN 20 70 225 2022 [1]
P3HT:SiO2 50 1000 276 2021 [2]
P3HT:CuInS 50 1000 800 2020 [3]
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In 2023, a study was conducted to develop organic/inorganic hybrid detectors using
P3HT and TiO2 (5). The sensitivity values obtained for the 1 µm and 10 µm devices were 14-17
µC Gy−1 cm−2 and 60-75 µC Gy−1 cm−2, respectively, when applying 4 V. In 2022, a study
was conducted using P3HT and BN as organic and inorganic materials, respectively. The
sensitivity value obtained for the device was 225 µC Gy−1 cm−2 when applying 70 V (13). In
2021, a study was conducted using P3HT and SiO2 as organic and inorganic materials. The
sensitivity value obtained for the device was 276 µC Gy−1 cm−2 when applying 1000 V. In
2020, a study was conducted using P3HT and CuInS2 as organic and inorganic materials. The
sensitivity value obtained for the device was 800 µC Gy−1 cm−2 when applying 1000 V. These
studies show that combining organic and inorganic materials can lead to high sensitivity values
for X-ray detection. The selection of appropriate materials and their processing techniques play a
critical role in the performance of the X-ray detectors. Hybrid X-ray detectors have the potential
to provide low-cost, high-performance, and portable X-ray detection systems, which can find
applications in various fields such as medical imaging, security screening, and non-destructive
testing.

Figure 2.1: α, β, and γ detectors

In recent years, significant progress has been made in developing organic/inorganic
hybrid materials for X-ray detection. Such hybrid materials are promising candidates for X-ray
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imaging applications due to their low cost, easy processing, and high sensitivity (14). Moreover,
combining organic and inorganic materials in such hybrid systems can improve performance
compared to pure organic or inorganic materials. One example of an organic/inorganic hybrid
material that has shown promise for X-ray detection is P3HT: TiO2. As mentioned earlier, P3HT
is an organic semiconductor material, while TiO2 is an inorganic nanoparticle (15). This hybrid
material has been found to exhibit high sensitivity to X-rays, with reported values ranging from
10 to 70 μC Gy-1 cm-2 for X-ray energies of 8 keV. Additionally, P3HT: TiO2 hybrid detectors
have been shown to exhibit good linearity and energy resolution, as well as fast response times.
Another example of an organic/inorganic hybrid material studied for X-ray detection is
P3HT: BN. In this case, BN (boron nitride) is used as the inorganic component. P3HT: BN
hybrid detectors have been found to exhibit good sensitivity to X-rays, with reported values
ranging from 20 to 50 μC Gy-1 cm-2 for X-ray energies of 8 keV. Moreover, P3HT: BN hybrid
detectors have been shown to exhibit good linearity and energy resolution, as well as fast
response times (16). In addition to the hybrid mentioned above materials, other organic/inorganic
hybrid materials have also been studied for X-ray detection. For example, P3HT: B4C (boron
carbide) hybrid detectors have been found to exhibit high sensitivity to X-rays, with reported
values ranging from 40 to 100 μC Gy-1 cm-2 for X-ray energies of 8 keV. Similarly, other
organic/inorganic hybrid materials such as P3HT: ZnO (zinc oxide), P3HT: SiO2 (silicon
dioxide), and P3HT: Al2O3 (aluminum oxide) have also been investigated for X-ray detection,
with reported sensitivities ranging from 10 to 70 μC Gy-1 cm-2 for X-ray energies of 8 keV.
It should be noted that the sensitivity of organic/inorganic hybrid detectors to X-rays can
depend on various factors, such as the thickness of the hybrid layer, the applied voltage, and the
composition of the mixed material (16). For instance, the sensitivity of P3HT: TiO2 hybrid
detectors has been found to increase with increasing thickness of the hybrid layer, while it
decreases with increasing applied voltage. Similarly, the sensitivity of P3HT: BN hybrid
detectors has been found to increase with increasing thickness of the hybrid layer, while it
decreases with increasing BN concentration.
2.2 Nuclear Radiations
Ionizing radiation is the energy that is released in the form of particles or electromagnetic
waves. It includes alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) radiations. Alpha radiation consists of
helium nuclei and has a low penetration power. Beta radiation consists of electrons and can
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penetrate deeper another approach to enhancing the performance of organic/inorganic hybrid X-

ray detectors is using scintillators. Scintillators are materials that convert high-energy radiation
into visible light, which a photodetector can detect. Combining a scintillator with a photodetector
creates a scintillation detector widely used in medical imaging, environmental monitoring, and
nuclear physics.
In recent years, several studies have investigated using organic/inorganic hybrid
scintillators for X-ray detection. One such study reported on the development of a novel hybrid
scintillator based on a polymer blend of poly(styrene-co-acrylonitrile) (SAN) and
poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP) with CsI nanoparticles(17). The
hybrid scintillator exhibited a high light yield of 63,000 photons/MeV, and a fast decay time of
5.5 ns, indicating excellent scintillation properties. A hybrid scintillator was coupled to a silicon
photomultiplier (SiPM) to create an X-ray detector with a sensitivity of 67 μC/Gy/cm^2 for 60
keV X-rays. Another study by Kim et al. [21] developed a hybrid scintillator based on a blend of
poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene-co-N-(4-butyl phenyl)-diphenylamine) (TFB) and CsI nanoparticles
(18). The hybrid scintillator exhibited a high light yield of 33,000 photons/MeV, and a fast decay
time of 1.6 ns, making it suitable for high-speed imaging applications. The hybrid scintillator
was coupled to a SiPM to create an X-ray detector with a sensitivity of 25 μC/Gy/cm^2 for 50
keV X-rays.
In addition to scintillators, another approach to enhancing the performance of
organic/inorganic hybrid X-ray detectors is using multi-layer structures. Multi-layer structures
can improve X-ray detectors' charge transport and collection efficiency, increasing sensitivities
and lowering noise levels. One study reported developing a multi-layer X-ray detector based on a
thin film of P3HT: PCBM sandwiched between two layers of CsI (19). The multi-layer structure
exhibited a sensitivity of 212 μC/Gy/cm^2 for ten keV X-rays, significantly higher than that of a
single-layer P3HT: PCBM X-ray detector. The multi-layer structure also exhibited a lower noise
level, indicating improved charge collection efficiency.
2.2.α, β, and γ Detectors
While X-ray detectors are essential for medical and industrial imaging applications, α, β,
and γ radiation detectors play a crucial role in radiation protection and nuclear energy.
Organic/inorganic hybrid materials have also been studied as detectors for these types of
radiation. α particles are helium nuclei consisting of two protons and two neutrons, with a charge
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of +2e (19). They are high-energy particles and can be stopped by a sheet of paper or the outer
layer of human skin. However, if inhaled or ingested, they can be highly damaging to living
tissue. β particles are high-energy electrons or positrons with a charge of -e or +e, respectively.
They can penetrate deeper into materials than α particles and can be stopped by a sheet of
aluminum or plastic. γ radiation, on the other hand, is a type of electromagnetic radiation that is
highly penetrating and can only be stopped by thick layers of lead or concrete.

Figure 2.2: Organic/Inorganic X-ray detectors

Due to their potential advantages over traditional detectors, organic/inorganic hybrid
materials have been explored as detectors for α, β, and γ radiation. For example, organic
materials can be quickly processed into thin films using solution-based techniques, allowing for
low-cost and scalable fabrication. In addition, organic materials can exhibit high sensitivity to
radiation due to their low atomic number and the potential for charge multiplication. One type of
organic/inorganic hybrid detector for α and β radiation consists of a scintillator material coupled
to a photodetector (15). Scintillators are materials that emit light when excited by radiation, and
photodetectors are used to detect this light. Inorganic scintillators such as sodium iodide (NaI)
and cesium iodide (CsI) have been widely used in radiation detection applications. Still, their
performance can be limited by their crystal structure and the presence of defects. Organic
scintillators such as stilbene and anthracene have been explored as alternatives due to their
potential for high light yield and fast response time.
Inorganic/organic hybrid scintillators have also been developed, such as CSI
(Tl)/polymer composites, which have shown improved scintillation properties compared to pure
inorganic scintillators. Other organic/inorganic hybrid scintillators have been developed using
semiconductor nanoparticles such as CdTe and ZnO, which can provide improved radiation
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sensitivity due to charge multiplication. For γ radiation detection, organic/inorganic hybrid

detectors based on semiconducting materials have also been investigated. For example,
organic/inorganic hybrid photodetectors based on perovskite materials have shown promise for γ
radiation detection due to their high sensitivity and low noise (12). In addition, organic/inorganic
hybrid materials such as P3HT: TiO2 have been studied for their potential as γ radiation
detectors, with sensitivity values in the 0.1-1 μC/kg range.

Figure 2.2.1: Organic and Inorganic X-ray Detector

In conclusion, organic/inorganic hybrid materials have shown potential as detectors for α,
β, and γ radiation due to their low cost, scalability, and potential for high sensitivity. While much
work remains to be done to optimize the performance of these materials for radiation detection
applications, their development represents an exciting area of research with important
implications for radiation protection and nuclear energy.
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