Indian Adaptation by Dr. Uma Choudhury (T.A.T.)™ g THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST by Henry Murray (M.D. Ph.D) MANUAL Product Code: 16-0275-M Published by :- oe \(PRASAD PSYCHO ORPORATION 10 9001: 2008 CERTIFIED ORGANISATION www.prasadpsycho.com Intellectual Property and Copyright © 2000 of Publisher. All rights reserved. Re Print 2001, 2008 2006, 2008, 2012, 2015. May not be reproduced in whole or part in any form or by any means without permission of Prasad Psycho Corporation,FOREWORD ‘The Thematic Apperception Testis a uniquely sensitive tool for the dynamicinterpretation og the many different facets of personality. Dr. Uma Chowdhury acquired extensive training and a great deal of personal experience with the TATand other instruments in Europe, the United States and her native India. She happen, tocombine, fortuitously, a thorough knowledge of cultural anthropology and clinical psychology with this training and experience and an apparently limitless energy and patience and very great ability. Her Indian adaptation was painstakingly e pictures in clinic, laboratory and in field studies. I was privileged to see some of her material obtained in work for the Indian government in Bengal, many years ago, and later was happy to States, on the TAT as well as the CAT and other matters. arrived at, after thorough testing out of different work with herin the United In the course of my acquaintance with Dr. Chowdhury and her work, I learned a good deal myself: about India, about its people and about the ability of Dr. Chowdhury's pictures to reveal a «great deal of fascinating information on different culture andl ethnic groups of India. Aside from being most interesting, it became obvious that material thus obtained was able to provide practical guidelines for problems such as family planning among the Abor people and problems of acculturation generally, and differences in nuances between the urban and rural populations, to mention but a few. I should like to emphasize two important points in connection with this Indian adaptation: the task Dr. Chowdhury performed was not as easy as it may seem. Test adaptation does not mean merely substitution of ethnic types, dresses and hair style, and other superficial features. It takesa thorough understanding of the culture and adaptation of test material to its specific values. The other point to keep in mind is that test administration and evaluation may seem to easy. Let me stress that it takes thorough training in clinical psychology generally, testing particularly, and experience with this particular test especially in order not jump to undue conclusions and easy over-generalizations. I am confident-that Dr. Chowdhury's work will continue to grow in usefulness for India specifically and the worldwide community of behavioral scientists generally. Leopold BellakA INTRODUCTION Freud to whom we owe the discovery of the "Unconscious" ‘and the free association method, by which later on he attempted to study the inner life of the individual. Freud's discovery of psychoanalysis became the basis of all projective methods, and realization of the importance of studying the relationship between the therapist and the subject ultimately led to the development of the Projective Techniques, which is a device for studying the inner life of an individual through their behavioural manifestation. The way in which Jung in 1904 utilized the free-assocation method, foreshadowed the accomplishment of the Projective Techniques as developed by Rorschach into a scientific method. In 1935, another development was the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) of Murray and Morgan, which was anticipated in the Pictute Reaction cards of Stanly Hall and Britain. Murray's book on personality came out in 1939, in which he developed this form of Projective Technique for the study of personality. The term projection was used by Freud in 1894, who, in his paper on ‘Anxiety Neurosis’, stated that the psyche developed the neurosis of anxiety when it found itself unable to master excitation (sexual) arising endogenously. It had then toact as if it had projected this excitation onto the outer world. The best example is again given by Freud in his paper on Dementia Paranoia. In 1911, while analyzing the mechanism of paranoia, Freud argued that "The mechanism of symptom formation in paranoia requires that internal perceptions or feelings, shall be replaced by external perceptions". ‘Thus, projection was used mainly in the sense of defense mechanism. Besides this concept, in many of his writings, the broader aspect of projection was emphasized. Freud's elaboration of the meaning of the term can be better expressed in his own words, as he said in Totem and Taboo that Projection is not specially created for the purpose of defense, it also comes into being where there are no conflicts. The projection of inner perceptions to the outside isa primitive mechanism which, for instance also influences our sense-perceptions, so that it normally has the greatest share, in shaping our outer world. Under conditions that have not yet been sufficiently determined, even inner perceptions of, ideational and emotional processes are projected outwardly like sense perceptions. Dr. Leopold Bellak has advanced the concept of 'Apperceptive Distortion’. His idea of Apperceptive Distortion is based on the Freudian conception 'that memories of percepts influence perception of contemporary stimuli’. According to Bellak, the interpretation and perception of parental figures in TAT is influenced by the subject's past memories of his own parental figures. He has further stated that, the behaviour of the experimenter can bring out the sentiments which had had an overall influence on the perception of stimuli, Individual differences were maintained according to the genetically determined personality, We are compelled to assume that all present perception is influenced by past perception, and that indeed, the nature of the perceptions and their inter-action with each other constitute the field of psychology. 'Ego psychology’ has not only played a predominant role in psychoanalysis, but also in thefield of projective techniques by helping in generating, imaginative responses. Productions of imaginative responses in Projective Test situations depend solely on the concept of nature and function of the ego, particularly from the standpoint of egostrength. Another important aspect is ‘Autistic Perceptions, which are strongly influenced by the needs of an individual and to be consistent with the needs, the figural aspects of the perceived object are modified. So, Murphy wrote "wherever our needs differ we literary see differently" Ltappears that it will be best to accept the projection both in the sense of defense mechanism as also in the wider connotations, ‘Though the term ‘Projection’ has been in been in use for a along time, the expression ‘Projective Technique’ first made its appearance in a paper by L. K. Frank, It means the inclusion of a series of psychological mechanisnis through which free response to, more or less, unstructured or semi-structured stimuli are noted. ‘The Influence of Cultural Variables and Need for Adaptation TAT is widely used in Europe and America, has been one of the most important devices for studying the structure of personality. It is however not culture-free to some degree as the Rorschach, but is based on the cultural pattern of Europe and America. To use this instrument with people whose social values are oriented from different angle, it would seem necessary to adapt or modify it, to make it applicable to new conditions. ‘TAT was attempted by C. E, Thompson on Negro students in the United States, form clinical experiences he found that they failed to identify fully with 'white' stimulus figures. Korchin, Mitchell and Meltzoff, questioned the validity of Thompson's arguments, based on the results obtained from small sample of Southern Negroes and not corroborated when larger samples of Negro and white populations in Philadelphia were tested. They were of the opinion that the substitution of figures closely resembling their own group was not likely to elicit complete response, which is very important for revealing the basic factors of personality in the TAT. There seems to be some force in the criticism and there can be no doubt that the universal character of the ‘TAT figures should not be lost on any account. On the other hand, it should not be forgotten that if the human figures and situations used, differ from those of daily life, they are not likely to evoke adequate responses as measured by length of stories (the criterion used by Thompson) or by theit contents, This view was also taken by the 'U. S. Office of Indian Affairs and the Committee 0” Human Development’ of the University of Chicago in their joint research on Indian Education, when the TAT wasto be applied to the children of six Indian communities . ‘They found that the TAT represented a different cultural milieu, An easy identification wit! these test materials was impossible, accordingly set of 12 new cards drawn by an Indian artistand representing, the domain of their experience was substituted forthe TAT, It was also been emphasized that modification does not imply the mere substitution of af environmental details or particular human and animal figures, The two basic necessities are th#t* should be closer to the original test, viz, the symbolic values of each situation should be retained, 2otherwise the value of the test will be reduced and the appropriate changes should be considered essential, in order to fulfil the needs of the particular cultural group for which the testis meant. ‘Therefore, in the present adaptation the special features of Indian social situations and the environmental needs which do not have counterparts in the original TAT were required to be supplemented. New cards were introduced to meet the requirements of Indian cultural milieu, keeping the new drawings as close as possible to the original. A parallel situation was noticed that in the case of the Abor tribes of the North Eastern Frontiers of India, among whom the role of authority ina group situation was found to be far more important than a single oedipus situation. Likewise sex aggression, triangular situations and family life were oriented from different angles to which the Indian TAT hardly had any application. Thus an entirely different set of stimulus figures had to be designed for them. Similarly, Tibet deeply penetrated Indian thoughts and religious values, the cards drawn for Tibetan use by Prince Peter of Greece on the exact model of the Indian pictures seem to be of dubious value, with respect to the Tibetan social system, eg polyandry, the divergence from India is very great. It remains to be seen, when his results are analyzed, how far, the Tibetans have responded to stimulus figures according to Indian pattern. In the case of India, while in some respects, such as the joint family and wide field of religious phantasy, there are no real counterparts in modern Euro-American society. there is also a considerable area presenting allied problems and real comparability in the European and Indian systems. Here the subjects identification with western images is possible, given an appropriate Indian setting to the pictures. But it has been observed in my occasions that the figures which are distant from one's own ethnic group, elicits covert and repressed feelings more readily. This hypothesis was used in the two brief research projects undertaken in the U.S. A in 1958. One was among the adolescent girls (patients) of the Hillside Hospital, Long Island, New York and the other was among the Cherokee Indians of North Carolina. Among the Cherokees the test was administered on both the adolescents and the adult age groups. The instruments used in the researches were six cards from Murray's original set and Indian version TAT. After several months of work, it was found that original TAT was inadequate for Indian subjects. Thus, steps were taken to evolve a standard set of pictures for work in India. In devising such cards, the criteria of ambiguity and generalized structure of the pictures have been carefully retained, to reveal the full range of emotions as well as the possible solutions of problems in the subject's minds, In the attempt to adapt the TAT for Indian use, great care was taken to consider these factors, yet every effort was made to keep it closer to the original card as far as possible, and no innovations were introduced unless they were found absolutely essential for effective use of the test under Indian conditions. ‘THE MODIFIED TAT : Keeping these things in mind the difference between the European and the Indian have to be defined first, In certain respects, as has been mentioned before Indian social situations do not have 3reer counterparts in Euro-American society as portrayed in the original Murray Cards, especially for the joint family system and religious phantasy. About the other problems, such as the oedipus situation, aggression, the triangle, sex aggression, depression, ambition, etc. have no basic difference between the situations in the original and the Indian, although they were revealed through different social media. Pictures were reconstructed at first from imagination and then published. The illustrated journals turned out to be lifeless and stereotyped, and could not evoke empathy, or form a proper basis of identification for the respondents feelings and needs. As a consequence, photographs from life models were substituted. These photographs brought out gestures and postures to suit the purpose of the test. However, they were not exactly copied in the drawings, but were modified from projections through the epidiascope in such a manner that the figures, dresses, modes of coiffure, etc. were not too close to the people, but were more of a generalized nature. Seventeen cards were drawn and tested ona small sample. With an experience gained, 15 cards were selected and given to 260 individuals of rural and industrial areas in South Bengal. Out of these 15 cards, 14 were finally chosen. Among these are cards II and VIII to represent the joint family and religious phantasy especially which were not found in the original TAT. The importance of the role of religion in both European and Indian life is undoubted, but in the latter there is a special feature which is not so prevalent elsewhere, namely phantasy. In Murray's cards these aspects of religion have no expression. Various attempts were made to represent the Sivalinga (the Indian phallic symbol) and other characteristic marks of current Hindu religion, but without success. Card VIII was finally drawn to meet this need, and an ambiguous picture of a dilapidated temple with a female devotee was prepared to make applicable to the main sections of the Indian community. In place of Murray's original card showing a boy with a violin, an Indian boy was substituted with a Sitar or Tanpura (popular Indian stringed instruments). The responses evoked from Card are most valuable. As the area being under acute economic stresses since 1941, they are largely pervaded with anxiety and frustration. This overriding influence of economic strain is shown by many stories indicating the Tanpura as the (a) main support of life, chiefly on a phantasy level, a8 () causing frustration of personal ambition and as (c) a means of consolation. The percentage of individuals giving such responses are 33, 22 and 9 respectively. The few of the examples are given below: (@ (Upper Caste Hindu Male, Case No, 27). Musical Instrument as the main support of life. One the boy was well off, due to the reverse of fortune, now h a begging bow! to each and every person is thou, chooses a particular spot where, living. depends on publiccharity. Tohold ight to be damaging to his self respect: So he he can attract people by his music and thus find a means of (6) (Upper Caste Hindu Female, Case No, 9). Musical Instrument causing frustration of person! ambition. A boy was playing a Tanpura (stringed instrument). Suda lenly the string ofthe instrument breaks down, Then he sat sadly, wandering his hand to his cheek. Possibly boy was very poor. He had a great ambition to play the Tanpura, but he was 50 poot Ho 4ee (c) (Upper Caste Hindu Female, Case No. 18). Musical Instrument as means of consolation The boy boughta musical instrument to give him consolation. He had once done something bad at home. For this he was scolded and beaten. Which had hurted him very much. Tanpura was his only companion. After being scolded at home he went to a certain place and sat there sorrowfully with his musical instrument. could he buy anew one?! The story also reveals the tension against parental authority. Other psychological factors, are not entirely absent. Representation of the mother as protective, domineering, or ambivalent is present. Castration fear and blindness suggesting fear of punishment by the Super Ego is also symbolized in the following stories. (d (Upper Caste Hindu Male, Case No. 25) A very young orphan is sitting sorrowfully and wandering when will he grow up. Perhaps the boy has no relatives. Since his childhood he was interested when will grow he up and go out into the world. One day the string of the instrument broke. Then he got worried, as the musical instrument was his only companion So glancing again and again at his instrument, he thinks it is my life long friend, so I shall grow byits help. (e) (Upper Caste Hindu Male, Case No. 6). Insecurity, Loss of Parental Love, Fear of Castration. The boy was very poor but had a great ambition to play the Tanpura. Boy's father bought a Tanpura for him. The boy was beside himself with joy. After returning from school, every afternoon he would sit and play happily. But suddenly one day, his dear instrument breaks down. The grief that overtook himis clear in his eyes. The ideal father has allowed him to have the desired object, but the sense of guilt and fear of punishment and castration seems to be uppermost. () (Upper Caste Hindu Female, Case No. 7). The little boy is very fond of music. He also feels miserable because his mother is dead. Buthe cannot let his beloved possession go. The thing is a Tanpura. He is lamenting the loss of his mother. He could not see his mother when she died. He thought it was of no use brooding over the past. Then with Tanpura near him, he thought, ifIcould see her once. The response indicates ambivalence, love and feeling of hostility towards the mother which gets transferred to the musical instrument. () (Upper Caste Hindu Male, Case No. 24). The boy is very poor. He makes one think that he must be a fine singer. I think the boy is blind. He has no companions so he sits and thinks all sorts of things. Today he cannot sing that is why he is so worried about what will he eat, if he is unable to go out? Murray's Card Il represents the single biological type of the European family, but is inapplicable to the Indian extended family. The original single family situation envisaged by Murray, therefore needed to be replaced by joint family situations. The picture was reconstructed to include the family group consisting of the grand mother, father, mother, son (adult), daughter 5oe (adult), unidentified child, and the reactions of the authority figures to the meeting of young boy and the young girl. The grandmother's role in the Indian joint family, being very important has to be shown, and a child was introduced in the picture with unidentified sex. The idea being to note is sibling jealousy and rivalry. Oedipus situations have been taken into consideration as important factors in the original set. These situations are father and son, mother and daughter, mother and son; father and daughter. Though there is basic similarity with Murray's original situations, the cards were modified and oriented from the standpoint of Indian social patterns. Card III, father and son drawings are based on life models. Murray's Card VII were replaced by two cards with Indian figures of, one as father and son which presented that the father has a superior and authoritarian role but shows mixed feelings; other was mother and daughter. Expressions in both were made ambiguous as far as Possible. Murray's original Card VII was modified in terms of Indian ethnic type and social life. Card IV- Murray's original Card VI was replaced by two Indian figures of mother and son, and changes were made to show ambivalent attitude between mother and son (based on life models). Aggression Card V, the situation represented in the card is very important from the point of view of the study of frustration. This point was tested by many drawing samples nd finally Card V was drawn in place of the original Card XVIII It was constructed in an ambiguous manner to reveal the underlying mental attitude more clearly. This card elicited good response and formed a suitable background for: revealing sadistic or masochistic reaction. Triangular Situations At first it was difficult to represent this situation. Several cards were drawn, but all failed to clict the proper type of reaction. Finally, Cards VII and VII Addl. were drawn. In Indian society, the wife's resentment against the husband's attachment to another woman, though not very outspoken is not absent. At first Card VII Addl. was drawn to test this situation which held more closely to the original idea, but was found inadequate. It was necessary to reconstruct the second card, exchanged somewhat from the original to Portray the special situation of a joint family involving the presence of the sister-in-law (elder brother's wife or husband's sister) and also to reveal the sense of deprivation of love and the jealousy of another woman seen in the usual triangular situation. The cards which were drawn with more latent and ambiguous way failed to ¢licit the proper type of reactions and finally these two pictures with a bit more direct manifestation of situations were drawn. On analysis of the results, it was revealed that the appearance and dress of the male figures in both the pictures failed to evoke the proper type of emotional reactions among different groups of female respondents. In view of this fact, the male figures and their dresses were changed inthe present set. The changed cards were tested among a cross section of Indian population before its publication, Card IX-The original card VIII could not be not bring out proper responses from the Ind Et ee oe retained, as preliminary testing showed thatit did Han subjects. It was then replaced by two cards with 6Indian drawings whose figures and conditions were based on imagination. Finally, one of these ned. On analysis of results, it two cards, Card IX was found more suitable for the purpose and reta was found that the male figure in the picture could not evoke the proper type of emotional reactions among different groups of respondents, Thus, the male figure and the dress were changed in the presentsset. Card X-The original card XIV was redrawn to suit an Indian scene with figures and dresses made in an ambiguous manner. Card XI-The original blank card XIV was retained. APPLICATION OF THE TEST The Projective test have been applied mainly in threeareas: hopathology, the technique was first developed (1) The Psychopathological: In the area of ps; and is most widely used, both for the purpose of psychodiagnosis and therapy. (2). The Genetic: In the genetic developmental area, the technique has been used to study the development of personality structure of the individual. (3) The Cultural: In the cultural area, the technique has been applied in studying the developmentand growth of personality structure of different ethnic groups, TATis proved to be useful in any study of personality, interpretation of behaviour disorders, neuroses, psychoses can be used as a short term therapy method of personality and diagnosis of community problems in varied cultural areas. ‘As defined by Murray, TAT is a method that reveals some of the dominant drives, emotions, sentiments, complexes and conflicts of personality to the trained interpreter. He explains that the object of the test is to make the subject, project through the medium of the cards, his own underlying needs and phantasies. A critical situation is to be portrayed in each picture which must be suchas to bring out the phantasy associated with it. Further, the cards should be comprehensive and each should depicta person with whom the subject can clearly identify himself. This is a very sensitive instrument and can best be applied and interpreted by a trained interpreter who has enough sensitivity and empathy with a thorough knowledge of the cultural background and the clinical techniques. it is specially valued because it can bring out the underlying motives and inhibited tendencies which the respondent do not admit or cannot admit because of the psychological block. THE SAMPLE Fourteen cards were applied to the upper and the lower sections of the Hindu community and to the Muslims. Each group differs in respect of educational background, social background, economic status, religious and ethical ideals so as to provide a cross-section of Indian society in general. The educational backgrounds of the three groups can be briefly summarized as follows: Considering the community as a whole, out of 260 individuals tested, 30.4 percent were illiterate; 81 percent could just read or write, 38.2 percent had primary education and 24.3percent 7s cent were students, 17 percent were variously occupied, n engaged only in household work. When the results were as follows: had secondary education. Of these 43.1 per 12 percent were unemployed and 17.2 percent of wome the figures were analyzed according to economic status, UPPER CASTE HINDU: Out of 95 individuals tested 53 percent could only read and write, 49.5 percent had primary education and 45.2 percent had secondary education. LOWER CASTE HINDU: Out of 57 individuals 40.0 percent were illiterate, 10.5 percent could just read and write, 36.8 percent read up to the primary standard and 11.5 percent read up tohigher secondary. ‘MUSLIMS: Out of 108 Muslims, 51.9 percent were illiterate, 9.3 percent could just read and write, 24.7 percent had received primary education and only 14.8 percent had read up to higher secondary. Results The Indian version of the TAT was applied in the manner described above. Altogether 3,300 stories were collected, which were analyzed separately according to their content. These were formed and grouped under 15 heads. In terms of the stories given, the respondents were divided into six classes: 1. Meredescriptione.g. a tree, amanetc. without any attemptat association oraction. 2. Description in terms of action, but failing to attach any affective element or reference to family relationship, e.g.a manissitting, or a farmeris ploughing etc. Descriptions including elements of kinship, such as "a mother is sitting with the child’ etc. 4. _ Reference toaffective elements but not to kinship. Reference both to kinship and to affective elements, such as "The mother and the son are standing"; "mother is worried about theson's health" etc. 6. _ Reference to kinship, affect and warmth, with complicated types of plots. Taken asa whole, the responses were formed to reveal quite satisfactorily the inner drives and repressed wishes of the individuals as well as fear and anxiety which were moulding their behaviour patterns and press elements. The incidents and the depth of these hidden forces were found to differ in various groups according to their educational and social backgrounds. Stories with affect were given mostly by the upper caste Hindus and Muslims and very little by the lower caste Hindus. Stories with imagination including abstract types of imagination, dramatic situations, humour and problem solving attitudes, were found much more among the upper caste Hindus than among the other two groups. Table 1 shows the contents of the total response of the groups.TABLE-1 Averages of Words, Lines, and Time Taken by 260 Individual Caste Words Lines Minutes Taken All Castes 649.4 60.7 105.1 Upper Caste 1,1109 99.2 189.6 Lower Caste 487.3 474 69.4 Muslims 329.1 33.7 49.6 The average of words, lines and time taken by the group on the total number of cards are 649.4, 60.7 and 105.1 respectively for the three categories. When the groups are compared, it is found that the figures for the Lower Caste Hindus are higher than those for the Muslims, but much lower than those of the Upper Caste Hindus, The scores for the Muslims are not far from those of the Lower Caste Hindus. With regard to lines, the average of the Lower Caste Hindus and the Muslims are similarly compared to the Upper Caste Hindus. However, the differences are extremely marked, Similarly, with regard to line the Upper Caste Hindus tooknearly three timesas long as the rest. Lower Caste Hindus and Muslims used very little thought or judgment. Quick responses were given without much consideration and imagination, revealing very little of thought, the pictures were expected to evoke, while Upper Caste Hindus gave considerable thoughts and judgments to the task. Static or mere descriptive types of responses were given mostly by the Muslims, illiterate males and females. Next to Muslims comes the answers of the Lower Caste Hindus. However, among the Upper Caste Hindus static responses were almost absent; when they resorted to simple descriptions, it was definitely with the idea of starting their actual feelings about love and sex. PROCEDURE In applying the test it would be prudent to profit by the lessons derived from my experience with the Rorschach. The strict adherence to a time limit is likely to defeat the purpose of the test, as Indians of rural areas are not accustomed to work within strictly specified times. Some relaxation onthisaccount was necessary. It was also thought advisable not to begin immediately with the test, as the initial resistance of the subject to such a novel thing, had to be resolved first. Investigation was therefore started with a set of direct questionnaires on social life which was not difficult to understand. When the subjects became somewhat used to testing, the TAT was applied. The first two cards, Card I (Figure 1) and Card Il (Figure 2), were presented in the order given by Murray and the rest were presented in a somewhat changed order, namely Card III (Figure 3); Card III (Figure 4); Card IV (Figure 5); Card IV (Figure 6); Card V (Figure 7); Card VI (Figure 8); Card VII (Figure 9); Card VIII (Figure 10); Card IX (Figure 11); Card X (Figure 12); Blank Card (not illustrated); Car VII Addl. (Figure 14), After the selection of final series of cards, the cards were presented in the above order to the respondents one by one, The respondents were asked to inventstories or the spur of the moment on 9re, each picture. The respondents were asked to give the stories with a beginning, middle and an ¢ nd. As the pictures are presented as a test of imagination, respondents identify with the inventeg characters and forget about the self. Thus, the respondent unawarely give out the inner conflicts and motivations of their mind through the imaginative figures in the pictures which are otherwise reluctant to confess in response to a direct question. The responses amount to X-Ray pictures of their inner selves. After the second world war, much stress has been laid on the use of clinical psychology and projective tests were being applied in many spheres both for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, During this period, it was felt that it was essential to apply the tests of reliability and validity to | them like the Psychometric tests of ability, achievement and intelligence. Since then the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the scores of the projective tests are being analyzed fully | which has made them more usable for the purpose of clinical and cultural studies. MODES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS In dealing with the content of stories the method which we recommend is that of. analyzing each successive event into (a) the force or forces emanating from the hero, and (b) the force or forces emanating from the environment. An environmental force is called the press (plural press). () The hero. Analysis of the content firstly involves, discrimination of the character with which the subject has identified himself. Like (a) the character in whom the story-teller was apparently most interested, whose point of view was adopted, whose feelings and motives have been most intimately portrayed. He (or she) is usually (b) the one who most resembles the subject, an individual of the same sex, of about the same: ‘age, status, or role, who shares some of the ‘subject's sentiments and aims. This character is called as Hero (either male or female) who plays the leading tole in the drama. The interpreter should be prepared to deal with some complication: (1) the identification of subject with character sometimes shifts during the course of the story; there is a sequence of heroes | (first, second, etc). 2) Two forces of the subject's personality may be represented by different characters, for example, an antisocial drive by acriminal and conscience by a law practitioner. Here | we can say an endopsychic thema (internal dramatic situation) with two component heroes. (3) The subject may tell a story that contains a story, such as one in which the hero observes or hears about events in which another character (for whom he feels some sympathy) is leadingly involved. Here we would say of a primary and secondary hero, Then (4), the subject may identify with a character of the opposite sex and express a part of his personality. Finally, there may be no perceptible single hero; either (5) heroship is divided among a number of equally significant, equally differentiated partial heroes (e.g, a group of people); or (6) the chief character (hero) obviously belongs to the object side of the subject-object situation; he is not a component of the Story-teller's personality but an clement of his environment, The subject, in other words, has not identified with the principalinferiority, criminality, mental abnormality, solitariness, belongingness, and leadership. (ii) Motives, trends, and feelings of the heroes. The interpreter's next task is to observe everything in great detail that each of the twenty or more heroes feels, thinks, or does, noting type of personality or of mental illness as well as whatever that is unusual: uncommon or unique; or commonalso. In describing the reactions of the heroes the interpreter is free to use any set of variables. He may analyze the behavior in accordance with a comprehensive conceptual scheme which gives every psychologically significant variable its due place or he may confine himself to the observation of few traits. Basically it all depends on what he wants to know about his subject. He may be interested in evidences of extraversion-introversion, of masculinity-femininity, of ascendance-submission; or he may be looking for signs of anxiety, guilt or inferiority; or he may want to trace certain deep-rooted sentiments. Generally, the practice is to use a comprehensive list of 28 (needs or drives) classified according to the direction or immediate personal goal (motive) of the activity. A need may express itself subjectively as an impulse, a wish or an intention or objectively asa trend of overt behavior. One need may function merely as an instrumental force, subsidiary to the satisfaction of another dominatingneed. The strength of each variety of need and emotion manifested by the hero is rated on a1 to 5 scale. Where 5 being the highest possible mark for any variable on a single story. The criteria of strength are intensity, duration, frequency and importance in the plot. The slightest suggestion of a variable (e.g. a flash of irritability) is given a mark of 1, whereas an intense form (e.g. violent anger) or the continued or repeated occurrence of a milder form (e.g. constant quarreling) is scored 5. Marks2,3, and 4are given for intermediate intensities of expression. After the fourteen stories have been scored in this way, the total for each variable is compared to the standard score (if there is available) for subjects of the given age, sex, and the variables which are either well above or well below the standard are listed and scrutinized in relation to other. There is a short list of some of the variables that can be taken into account. After the name of each variable there is printed (within parentheses) the correct average (Av) total score, and the range (8) of scores, for male college students. The figure in each case is for fourteen stories averaging 300 words in length. It might be said here that a psychologist can use these variables without subscribing toany particular theory of drives. Hemay, if he chooses, call them attitudes or traits. n Abasement (Av.16 R. 6-27), To submit to coercion or control in order to avoid blame, punishment, pain or death, To suffer a disagreeable press (insult, injury, defeat) without opposition. To confess, apologize, promise to do better, atone, reform. To resign himself passively to scarcely bearable conditions, Masochism. n Achievement (Av. 26 R. 11-51), To work at something important with energy and persistence. To strive to accomplish something creditable, To get ahead in business, to persuade or lead a group, to create something. Ambition manifested inaction, 1TE n Aggression (Av.36R.8-52). a.Emotional and Verbal (Av.14 R. 2-29). To hate (whether or not the feeling is expressed in words). To get angry. To engage in a verbal quarrel; to curse, criticize, belittle, reprove, blame, ridicule. To excite aggression against another person by public criticism. b.Physical, Social (Av. 8 R. 0-16). To fight or kill in self defense or in defense of a loved object. To avenge an unprovoked insult. To fight for his country or for a good cause. To punish an offense. To pursue, catch orimprison acriminal or enemy. c.Physical, Asocial (Av.9R.0-17).To hold-up, attack, injure or kill ahuman being unlawfully To initiate a fight without due cause. To avenge an injury with excessive brutality. To fight against legally constituted authorities. To fight against his own country. Sadism d.Destruction (Av. 4R. 0-15). To attack or kill an animal. To break, smash burn or destroy a physical object. n Dominance (Av.17 R. 2-36). To try to influence the behavior, sentiments or ideas of others. To work for an executive position. To lead, manage, govern. To coerce, restrain, imprison. n Intraggression (Av. 10 R. 2-25). To blame, criticize, reprove or belittle himself for wrongdoing, stupidity or failure. To suffer feelings of inferiority, guilt, remorse. To punish himself physically. Tocommitsuicide, nNurturance (Av.14R. 4-34). To express sympathy in action. To be kind and considerate of the feelings of others, to encourage, pity, console. To aid, protect, defend or rescue an object. n Passivity (Av. 18 R. 3-52). To enjoy quietness, relaxation, sleep. To feel tired orlazy after very little effort. To enjoy passive contemplation or the reception of sensuous impressions. To yield to others out of apathy and inertia. 1 Sex (Av. 12 R. 0-24). To seek and enjoy the company of the opposite sex. To have sexual relations. To fall in love, to get married. 1n Succorance (Av. 10 R. -20). To seek aid or consolation. To ask, or depend on someone else for, encouragement, forgiveness, support, protection, care. To enjoy receiving sympathy, nourishment or useful gifts. To feel lonely in solitude, homesick ina strange place, helpless in crisis, Under this heading is included Intranuturance: to comfort himself, self-pity. To get some enjoyment out of his own grief, To seek consolation in liquor or drugs. Other needs are Acquisition, Affiliation, Autonomy, Blamavoidance, Cognizance, Creation, deference, Excitance, Exposition, Harmavoidance and so forth, From the list of inner states some emotions were selected: Conflict (Av, 14 R. 4-29), A state of uncertainty, indecision, or perplexity. A momentary or enduring opposition between impulses, needs, desires, aims. Moral conflict. Paralysing inhibitions, 12_—"_"——s—sW—saXM—é— Emotional Change (Av. 18 R. 0-31). To experience a marked change of felling toward someone istent or unstable in his affections, To exhibit fluctuations of mood or To be fitful, incon: temper the occurrence of exaltation and depression in one story. To be intolerant sameness and constancy. To seek new people, new interests, a new vocation. Dejection (Av. 23 R. 0-31). To experiencing of a feeling of disappointment, disillusionment, depression, sorrow, grief, unhappiness, melancholy, despair. Other inner states are Anxiety, Exaltation, Distrust, and Jealousy. Besides these needs and emotions, the following, very important variable are scored on a -3 (minus three) to +3 (plus three) scale: Superego, Pride, Ego Structuration. Here, in each case, the scoring is done on the basis of several operational criteria. (iii) Forces of the hero's environment. The interpreter should observe the details as well as the general nature of the situations, especially the human situations, which confront the heroes, Again he should be set to underscore uniqueness, intensity, frequency, and to record the significant absence of certain common elements. Special note should be taken of physical objects and human objects (other characters) which are not shown in the pictures but invented by the imagination of the story teller. Mark the traits which recur among the people with whom the hero deals. Are they, for the most part, friendly or unfriendly? Are the women more friendly or less friendly than the men? What are characteristic traits of the older women (mother figure) in the stories? Of the older man (father figures)? Our practice is to use a comprehensive list of press p (kinds of environmental forces or situations) classified according to the effect that they have upon the hero. Here again, the strength ofeach press that occurs in the story is rated ona 11 to 5 scale, 5 being the highest possible mark for his press on a single story. As usual, the criteria of strength are intensity, duration, frequency and general significance in the plot. After rating the fourteen stories, the total score for each press is compared to the standard score for subjects of given age and sex, and the press which are conspicuously high or low are recorded and examined in relation to: each other. ‘Asin the list of needs and emotions, the numbers in parentheses refer to the average (Av) total score and the range (R) of scores (corrected for average length of stories) for male college students. p Affiliation (Av.29 R. 17-35). a, Associate (Av. 14 R. 4-24). The hero has one or more friends or sociable companions. He is a member of congenial group. b, Emotional (Av. 15 R. 9-22). A person (parent, relative, and lover) is affectionately devoted tothe hero, The hero hasa love affair (mutual) or gets married. p Aggression (Av.35R, 6-62). 4, Emotional and Verbal (Av. 10 R, 0-21) sometimes hates the hero or gets angry with him. He is criticized, reprimanded, belittled, ridiculed, cursed, and threatened. A person slanders him behind his back. Verbal quarrel. 13Es b. Physical, Social (Av. 11, R. 0-21). The hero is in the wrong (he is an aggressor or criminal) and someone defends himself, attacks back, pursues, imprisons, or kills the hero. Some legitimate authority (parent, police) punishes the hero. ¢. Physical, Asocial (Av. 12 R, 5-23). A criminal or gang assaults, injuries, or kills the hero, A person starts a fightand the hero defends himself. 4. Destruction of property (Av.2R.0-8) A person damages or destroys the hero's possessions, p Dominance (Av.37R.16-60). 4. Coercion (Av. 10. 0-2). Someone tries to force the hero to do something. He is exposed to commands, orders or forceful arguments. b. Restraint (Av. 18 R. 7-34). A person tries to prevent the hero from doing something. He restrained orimprisoned. 6: Inducement, Seduction (Av.9R, 4-20). A person tries to influence the hero (to do something ornot to do something) by gentle persuasion, encouragement, clever strategy or seduction, P Nurturance (Av. 15 R. 6-23). A person nourishes, protects, aids, encourages, consoles, or forgives the hero. P Rejection (Av. 14 R. 1-28). A person rejects, scorns, repudiates, refuses to help, leaves, or is indifferent to the hero. A loved object is unfaithful. The hero is unpopular or not accepted for position. Heis fired from hisjob. p Lack, Loss (Av. 25 R.9-48). 4. Lack (Av. 11 R. 2-27), The hero lacks what he needs to live, to succe family is destitute; he lacks status, influence, pleasure oradvancement. ed or to be. He is poor, friends. There are no opportunities for b, Lass (Av. 14 R, 424), Same as p Lack except here the hero loses something or someone (death or loved object) in the course of the story. p Physical Danger (Av.16R.4-34), 4, Active (Av. 10 R, 4-20). The hero is ex ‘posed to active physical dangers from non-human forces: savage animal, collision of train, lighting, and stormat sea. In support (Av. 6R, 0-16): The hero is exposed to the danger of falling or drowning, His car overturns; his ship s wrecked; his airplaneis injured; heis on the edge ofa precipice. 6, Physical injury (Av. 5 R, 0-12), The hero is hurt by a Person (p Aggression) or by an animal oraccident (p Physical Danger), His body is mutilated or disfigured, It should be understood that a single environment force often consists of a fusion of two or more different press, Gio) Outcomes. The next important matter to which the interpreter should attend is the comparative strength of the forces emanating from the hero and the forces emanating from the environment. How much force (energy, determination, enduring effort, competence) does the 14EE manifest? What is the strength of the facilitating or beneficial forces of the environment as compared to the opposing or harmful forces? Is the hero's path of achievement difficult or easy? In the face of opposition does he strive with renewed vigor or does he collapse? Does the hero make things happen or do things happen to him? To what extent does he manipulate or overcome by them? Is he coercing or coerced? Mostly active or mostly passive? Under what conditions does he succeed, when others help him or when he strives alone? Under what conditions does he fail? ‘After committing an offense or crime does the hero get properly punished? Does he feel guilty, confess, atone and reform? Or is the misdemeanor treated as a matter of no moral significance and the hero allowed to “get away with it” without punishment or fateful consequence? How much energy does the hero direct against himself? Viewing each event, each interaction of press and need, from the point of view of the hero, the interpreter must estimate the amount of hardship and frustration experienced the relative degree of success and failure. What is the ration of happy and unhappy endings? (2) Themas. The interaction of a hero's need (or fusion of needs) and an environmental press (or fusion of press) together with the outcome (success or failure of the hero) constitutes a simple thema. Combinations of simple thema, interlocked or forming a sequence, are called complex themas. When used precisely the term designates the abstract dynamical structure of an episode, when used loosely it means plot, motif, theme, principal dramatic feature of the story. To take up the hero and the environment separately, as we have just outlined, involves the dislocation of the two fundamental elements of each concrete event. This is useful, since it is ightening to know that a given subject's heroes manifest, let us say, an unusual amount of anxiety, passitivity and abasement, or that environments are peopled with many threatening domineering figures. But now the interpreter has reached the point where it is necessary to put reality together again; and he does this by taking each unusually high need in turn and nothing the press with which it is most commonly combined in the stories; after which he observes with which needs and emotions the unusually high press most often interact. In this way the interpreter will ‘ obtain alist of the most prevalent themas (need press combinations), to which he will add any other themas, which, though not frequent enough to result in a high total score for the need or press involved, seem significant for one reason or another uniqueness, vividness, intensity, explanatory value. Itis also possible to make an overall thematic analysis without scoring the separate variables. Here itis a matter of viewing each story asa whole and picking out the major and minor themas, the plotand sub-plots. The question is; what issues, conflicts or dilemmas are of the greatest concern to the author? There are common themas, for example, centering round problems of achievement, rivalry, love, deprivation, coercion and restraint, offense and punishment, conflict of desires, exploration, war and so forth, (vi) Interests and sentiments. These are treated separately since the author displays his own interests and sentiments not only by attributing them to his heroes but in his choice of topics and in 15his manner of dealing with these. Of particular importance is the positive or negative cathexis (value, appeal) of older women (mother figures), older men (father figures), same-sex women and same-sex men (some of whom may be sibling figures). INTERPRETATION OF SCORES ‘An interpreter of the TAT should have a background of clinical experience, observing, interviewing and testing patients of all sorts; and some practice in translating the dreams and ordinary speech into basic psychological components. TAT stories offer boundless opportunities for the projection of one's own complexes or one's pet theories, and the amateur psychoanalyst who is disrespectful of solid facts is only too apt to make a fool of himself if, in interpreting the TAT, he gives free check to his imagination. Necessary Basic Data. Before interpretation the psychologist should know the following basic facts: the sex and age of the subject, whether his parents are dead or separated, the ages and sexes of his siblings, his vocation and his marital status. Without these easily obtained public facts, the interpreter may have difficulty orienting himas he reads. Asset of stories is analyzed and scored at first regardless of the probable personal significance of their content. The result is a list of unusually high and unusually low variables (needs, emotions and press), and a list of prevalent themas and outcomes, together with a host of observations too specific to be caught in the net of any conveniently brief conceptual scheme. Then two tentative assumptions are made, to be corrected later if ‘necessary. The first is that the attributes of the heroes (needs, emotional states and sentiments) represent tendencies in the subject's personality. These tendencies belong o his past or to his anticipated future, and hence stand presumably for potential forces which are temporarily dormant; or they are active in the present. (Of these past, present or expected tendencies, the subject may be more or less unconscious). They represent (not literally in most cases but symbolically (1) Things the subject has done, or (2) things he has wanted to do or been tempted to do, or (3) elementary forces in his personality of which he has never been entirely conscious although they may have given rise to fantasies and dreams in childhood or later; and/ or ) anticipations of his future behavior, something he would like to do or will perhaps be forced to do, or something he does not want to do but feels he might do because of some half-recognized weakness in himself. The social assumption is that the press variables represent forces in the subject's apperceived environment, past, present or future, They refer, literally or symbolically, to (1) situations he has actually encountered, or (2) situations which in reveries or dreams he has imagined encountering out of hope or fear; or (3) the momentary situation (press of the examiner and the task) as he apperceives it; and/or (4) situations he expects to encounter, would like to encounter, or dreads encountering, Roughly the press may be interpreted as the subject's view of his world, the impressions he is likely to project into his interpretations of an existing situation and into his anticipations of future situations. Some knowledge of the subject's past history and present circumstance plus little intuitions 16 ~~I required to decide whether a given element belongs to the subject's past, present or anticipated future. As it happens the discrimination of the temporal reference is not a matter of critical importance. To guide the intuitions of the interpreter from this point all that can be offered in this short manualarea few guiding principles coming out of several years of practical experience. The testing of these and other suggestions constitutes a program for the future. In any event the conclusion Hat are reached by an analysis of TAT stories must be regarded as good “leads” or working hypotheses to be aerified by other methods, rather than as proved facts. Inarriving at his final conclusions the interpreter should take account of the following points: (i) Ifthe test has been unskillfully administered, if the subject has not been involved in the task, if , the stories are short and sketchy, content may be psychologically irrelevant, composed, for the most part, of Impersonal elements: (1) elements given in the picture, (2) parts of events witnessed parts of event witnessed by the subject, (3) fragments from books he has read or movies he has seen, or (4) inventions of the moment-none of these being representative of a determining tendency in his personality. (i) Under average conditions about 30 per cent of the stories (six out of twenty ) will fall in the impersonal category, although even from these a few items of significance can usually be extracted. (iii) One must not lean too heavily on the subject's judgment in deciding whether a given item is personal or impersonal. According to our findings more than half of the content which subjects trace to newspapers, magazines, books and movies are objective equivalents of unconscious memories or complexes in their own personalities. Some internal selective factor has operated to determine each subject's attention to, registration and eventual recall of just these, rather than countless other, elements of his experience. (iv) The TAT draws forth no more than twenty small samples of the subject's thought, to suppose that these will invariably provide a skeleton of the total personality is unduly optimistic. Just as ina series of interviews or ina psychoanalysis there are some totally unproductive hours, so there are sets of TAT stories composed of impersonal or superficially personal elements from which itis impossible to infer the underlying determinants of character. (¥) It is convenient to distinguish two levels of functioning; first level functioning ~ physical and verbal behavior (actual overt deeds); and second level functioning - ideas, plans, fantasies and dreams about behavior. The conduct of the subject in relation to the examiner and to the task belongs to the first level, but the content of his stories belongs to the second level. Since individuals very greatly in ideo-motor conductance (extent to which ideas and fantasies become objectified in action), the interpreter must be prepared to find subjects with low conductance whose stories are indicative of their mental preoccupations but not of their overt behavior, actual or potential. (vi) Itisalso convenient to distinguish three, if not more, layers in normal socialized personalities: 17the inner layer is composed of repressed unconscious tendencies which in their crude form are never, or very rarely, expressedin thought (secondlevel) and never or very rarely, object, in action (first level) The middle layer is composed of tendencies which appear in though (second level) in undisguised form, and which may perhaps be confessed to one or mon, suitable individuals, and may also perhaps be objectified in action (first level) privately ang secretly. The outer layer is composed of tendencies which are publicly asserted o, acknowledged (second level) and/or openly manifested in behavior (first level). It is forthe interpreter to determine, if he can, to which of these three layers each conspicuous variable (noted in the TAT stories) belongs. (vii) It may be stated, as a rough generalization, that the content of a set of TAT stories represents second level, covert (ie. inner and middle layer) personality, not first level, overt or public (‘e,, outer layer) personality. There are plenty of ways of discovering the most typical overt trends; the TAT is one of the few methods available today for the disclosure of covert tendencies. The best understanding of the total structure of personality is obtained when the psychologist considers the characteristics of manifest behavior in conjunction with the TAT findings. (viii) Half-unmindful of the fact that they are dealing with imaginal productions, rather than records than records of actual behavior, someinterpretersare inclined to assume that variable which are unusually strong and variables which are unusually weak in the TAT stories will be unusually strong and unusually weak respectively in the subject's manifest personality. ‘There is some pragmatic basis, to be sure, for this expectation inasmuch as statistical studies have shown that with most variables there is positive correlation between the strength of their imaginal (TAT) expressions and the strength of their behavioral expressions. We can not lean very heavily on this over all finding, however, since not only do we find numerous individual exceptions, but in the case of certain other important drives and emotions, especially those which are customarily repressed, the exact opposite is generally true, Here one is reminded of the principle that currents of thought are more rigidly influenced by strong needs which have been inhibited or rested for a long time than by needs which have recently been fully satisfied or fatigued by overt action, What is revealed by the TAT is often the very opposite of what the subject consciously and voluntarily does and says in his daily life. Thus the picture that emerges from this test may be unrecognizable by the individual's casual, or even intimate, acquaintances, (ix) Although the TAT was not designed to reveal first level, outer layer personality (public behavior) the interpreter can often guess some of its characteristic features by taking note of the following points; (a) The stories composed in the first session (in response to the first ten pictures) are more closely related to the outer layer of personality, as a rule, than those composed in the second session, many of which express inner layer tendencies and complexes symbolically. 18er (b) Tendencies which are not restricted by cultural sanctions are likely to be as strong, in their overt as in their covert manifestations. In college men, for example, there is a positive correlation (over .40) between the TAT and the behavioral manifestations of the following variables: n abasement, n Creation, n Dominance, n Exposition, n Nurturance, n Passivity, Rejection and Dejection. On the other hand, according to our findings, n Sex in the TAT and n. sex in overt behavior correlates between -.33 and -.74 depending on the type of activity thatis peing considered. Statistically there is no correlation at all between the intensity of covert second level manifestations and overt first level manifestations of n Aggression and “Achievement (due possibly to variations in the fatigue factor). (@) Knowinga few facts about the subject, the interpreter, feeling his way into the atmosphere of the stories and nothing repetitions and elements congruent with these, can usually without much difficulty distinguish the portions (about 15 per cent of the stories) which are almost literally and consciously personal. Our of this nucleus of impressions a portrait of the middle and outer layer personality will usually emerge. Portions requiring depth interpretation are usually derived from the inner layer. () Experiments have shown that the sex of the examiner must be taken into account. This is especially true when analyzing the stories of a subject who entertains an unusual amount of hostility towards members of the sex to which the examiner belongs. The prestige and attitude of the examiner can also affect to some extent the course of some of the stories. One might predict that standard scores will not be exactly the same for all examiners, that some, for example, will in the longrun, instigate more affiliation and less aggression than will others. (xi) Still more important as determinants are the life situation and the momentary emotional state of the subject. The average college man about to enter the armed forces will introduce the theme of war into at least two of his twenty stories. Marital conflicts will be prominent inthe stories of a woman contemplating divorce. A young man who has just been refused by his girl will receive an uncommonly high mark on the variable Dejection, and so forth. Depth Interpretation Being informed that the chief value of the TAT resides in its power to evoke fantasies which are susceptible of translation into unconscious repressed tendencies, one might expect to find this manual largely devoted to the technique of such translations. But the necessary limitation of space forbids so ambitious an endeavor. To summarize in afew paragraphs the theories and practices of psychoanalysis, a knowledge of which is necessary for depth interpretation, would be both presumptuous and misleading, since a little information might influence some amateurs to believe that they were magi of the unconscious. Depth interpretation requires the examiner to orient himself so that he views each story and parts of each story, as if the teller were a child trying with imagery to objectify his own body, or certain functions or organs of his body (of a psychosomatic symptom), or to represent the body of another person, or as if the teller were trying to depict in a disguised from a certain encounter with one of this parents or siblings, or to suggest some traumatic event experienced in childhood. Inferences of this sort can be Validated only by data derived from some kind of psychoanalysis, and it would be better if expert 19re a | workers submitted their depth interpretations only to those analysts and others, who have the ability and the opportunity to verify them. DISCUSSION The lack of richness of production to imagination among the Lower Caste Hindus ang Muslims, do not appear to be due to lack of identification. Even when search for friends ang relations in the cards was mentioned, no highly imaginative theme was given. The situation can be compared with the finding of William Henry in a review of 63 Oraibi records. The records were short and sketchy, and lacking in imaginative details. On the basis of previous research he also thought that there would be little value in studying these records for individual personality, As Murray has remarked, the average story for 10-year old children is of 140 words, and group of stories from non-psychotic adults averaging less than 140 words per story, usually indicates lack of rapport, co-operation and lack of self involvement. As a rule, they are not worth scoring, For the purpose of exploring this hypothesis these materials were subjected to individual analysis which proved to be of value Similarly, when the records from the Lower Caste Hindus and the Muslims were studied, they revealed useful information about the personality which was corroborated by life history materials. The Rorschach responses of these subjects were likewise congruent with the TAT. The modification of the TAT described in this paper may therefore be taken as an adequate and suitable test for Indian subjects and it fulfils the purpose for which ithas been designed, In conclusion, I wish to express my indebtedness to late Dr. B.S. Guha, Director, Department of Anthropology, for the keen interest taken by him in this research., REFERENCES , Leopold (1954). The Thematic Apperception Test and the Children's Apperception Test in Clinical pella use. New York: Grune and Stratton, p.14 Chowdhary, Uma (1960). 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