Obstacles to military reforms in the Nasser era

Abstract
The need for reform programs in Iran from the military field and the feeling of weakness in its
required capabilities became apparent, and the elites of the country realized the harms and
challenges caused by Iran's backwardness and the power of foreigners - especially in the military
field. Reform measures in the field of organizing the military forces faced many obstacles, the most
important of which was the lack of capacity of the government to improve and improve the country's
capabilities in different areas, including the acquisition of defense capabilities. Reform decisions
were mainly based on a superficial and superficial understanding of the surrounding
developments. In this article, the author has examined the obstacles to military reforms during the
period of Naseruddin Shah Qajar.

Centuries before the Qajar clan gained the throne under the leadership of Agha Mohammad Khan , it
always had soldiers and warriors who fought and defended under the supervision and command of the
clan leaders.
The presence of the Qajar family in the army of the Safavid era and their participation in internal wars
(against the rebels and claimants of the monarchy) and foreign wars (against the Ottomans and the
Uzbeks) shows their high military power .This military power made the Qajars one of the famous military
groups of that era .Apparently, this tribe did not interfere in the field of internal competition ,but their
potential power, which originated from the two factors of increased numbers and fearlessness and agility,
made Shah Abbas confused ,and for this reason , he scattered them in different places in order to
weaken this tribe .Despite this division , the Qajar clan was still considered a powerful tribe, and some of
its leaders were famous military figures of the Safavid era.[1] Therefore, in order to investigate the origins
of the emergence and formation of military forces in the Qajar period, the Safavid era and the formation
of the Qazlbash Union should be considered .Qazalbashan and other military forces in the Safavid period
and the periods after that haved .According to this, it can be considered that Iran's traditional army
generally originated from the Illyrian forces .The military complex of the traditional army had its own
order, institution, tools, methods and ethics, and in the table of values governing the corps, there are
rivalries, grudges, cowardice and domestic enmity and masculinity on the On the other hand, he found a
limit.
The traditional army of Iran, with these described descriptions , was exposed to changes in the war
with foreign forces and as a result of communication with them, the acceptance of which led to the
transformation of the organization, duties and military techniques .Of course , the personal, social and
military personality of the army leaders and government officials also had an impact on the emergence of
these developments.[2]
The occurrence of some internal and external events in the Qajar period, including the beginning of
constitutionalism and independence movements in different parts of the world and the internal
weaknesses of the Qajar system, especially the successive military defeats of Iran (in the late18 th and
early 19th centuries ,)caused the intellectual and government elites to pay attention to the issue of
reforms and Provide renovation .The pioneers of innovation realized that scientific and technical advances
in war and other aspects of life have caused the superiority of Europeans ,and if Iran wants to continue
its life , basic measures must be taken in modernization, administrative system, army, tax system,
education and other institutions. do it.[3]
The idea of reforms comes to life in Tabriz after the wars between Iran and Russia ;A city that,
according to Qaim-e-Maqam, its poetry and history, is the words of cannon and soldiers, and its verse
and hadith are Jihad, Gaza Gaza, and Saladat .These words are a reference to the issue of Tabriz's
crisis , especially when this city was the front line of the war with the Ottoman and Russian forces.[4]
Undoubtedly, war is an arena for testing capabilities and finding out weak points and harmful factors,
and this is not unprecedented in Iran's military history .For example, during the Safavid era , the
confrontation between the Iranian armies and the Ottomans ,especially in the Chaldaran battle ,showed
the excessive weakness of the Iranians in not having access to firearms , so that the Safavid
rulers tried to modernize the army . With the decline of the Safavid dynasty, Iran's military force began to
decline again, and during the reign of the Qajar dynasty, it completely returned to its traditional form.[5]
During the confrontation between Iran and Russia, the severe weakness of Iran's military forces was
revealed, and pioneer reformers , such as Abbas Mirza, Qaim al-Maqam and Amir Kabir , took important
reform measures in order to eliminate the shortcomings .But the death of Abbas Mirza and then the
killing of Qaim Maqam and Amir Kabir on the order of the Qajar kings made the process of reforms face
serious obstacles.
Before dealing with the effective factors in the failure of the reforms and the chaos of Qashon during
the Qajar era, it is necessary to mention some things about the military structure of Iran during this
period.
The military structure of Iran's army during the Qajar period was based on three parts: 1- Infantry 2-
Illyrian forces which were mainly cavalry 3- Artillery .The infantry was the most According to this system,
each village, section or clan was obliged to provide the soldiers needed for the infantry in accordance
with their income estimates .Infantry uniforms were usually uniform, and if they arrived late , they were
patched and calloused .The military hierarchy in the infantry from the lowest position to the highest
position was as follows: soldier, corporal, lawyer, drummer, muezzin, trumpeter, inspector, vice-bearer,
adjutant, sultan, second aide, first aide (major, major), colonel (colonel). , the third brigade, the second
brigade, the first brigade (Mirpanj).[6]
Among the Iranian military units in the Qajar era, less attention was paid to the navy . At the
beginning of the13 th century A.H , .a few small ships that were responsible
for protecting the shores of the Persian Gulf formed the Iranian Navy .A few ships also perished due to
internal disturbances and foreign political obstacles . To protect the shores of the Caspian Sea , except
for a short time , the Iranian government officially did not have any type of ships. [7]

The situation of various departments of the system was also pitiful, the lack of storage tanks,
barracks, hospital, lack of knowledge of war techniques, lack of outstanding engineers all spoke of the
disarray of the army and the necessity of reforms at that time.
 One of the important aspects of the weakness of the Iranian system was the incompetence of the
officials and military officials . In this context, Colonel Shail writes: "As good as the Iranian soldier is, his
official is nonsense .Except for artillery officers and a limited number of English hard-educated people,
the rest of the officials are not worth a penny, especially bribes and expenses form the basis of military
promotions. Someone who has spent forty or fifty years of his life in civilian affairs suddenly accepts a
change of form. And he reaches the rank of colonel, brigadier, and even major general, and sometimes
he is appointed to the general command of the army".[8]
Majd al-Malek, in his treatise Majdiyah, considers the cause of the disorder in military affairs to be
mismanagement and the unfortunate impositions of government officials , and criticizes the handing over
of military financial affairs to the Ministry of Finance, which is headed by Mustofi al-Malek .He
considers them the most oppressed classes of Iran due to the miserable living conditions of the
military and considers this to be caused by the spread of corruption and corruption in the army and the
incorrect management practices of the military officials .The extent of corruption in the army had reached
such a point that even a reformist person like Majdal Molk had no hope of improving it and considered
spending money on its maintenance as a waste of financial resources .The reasons for this
disappointment can be seen from the expressions he gives in describing the army of the Nasser
period" . In this ministry [referring to the Ministry of War], just like the Ministry of Finance, great thieves
have been trained to steal the wages of servants, and they all have the mission to capture everything
that has been spent on the military expenses of the provinces under any name and custom ... so that
The Ministry of War of Iran is suffering from this eclipse, the king of Iran should not waste his money on
military expenses and military ammunition, because money is better in the treasury of the Sultan than in
the tomb of the official".[9]
With this perspective drawn from Iran's military situation, the reformist concern of the pioneers of
reforms and the evaluation of their actions will be better understood .
The founders of military reforms in Iran were Abbas Mirza and Mirza Bozur .The motivation of these
pioneers of reforms was to increase Iran's defense power against aggressors, especially the
Russians .France and England came to Iran's aid in the issue of military reforms, although their
motivation was political interests .The central core of the Iranian system was created by the French
officials ,but the political developments in Europe removed them from the Iranian scene and replaced
them with the British .British delegations came to Iran, and following that ,major measures were taken to
reform the system .Among these measures, we can mention the arrival of new weapons, the
establishment of a cannon and rifle factory in Azerbaijan, and making changes in military uniforms .
In addition to British officers, French, Polish and even Russian people also served in the Iranian
army .Abbas Mirza's attention to the employment of Polish officials and his trust in them was due to the
enmity of the Poles One of them was General Borowski , who was killed in the First War of Herat,
and after that ,the Iranian government established a pension for his children . Broski's son also served in
Iran and became a teacher at Dar al-Funun .The disruptions and failures of British officers in the Herat
War caused the Iranian government to distrust and be pessimistic towards them . Therefore, Mohammad
Shah became more interested in hiring French officials .Regarding the presence of Russian military
personnel in the Iranian army, it should be added that during the time of Abbas Mirza, nearly 700, 800
Russian deserters sought refuge in Iran, which formed a regular part.[10]

Amir Kabir's military reforms

Amir Kabir did not spare any effort to reform Iran's military situation and even personally assumed the
position of Amir Nizami , which was actually to handle war affairs , to reform Iran's army .The Amir's
benefit from military information ,especially when he was serving the Crown Prince in Azerbaijan ,and his
contact with foreign military advisers , who were in Tabriz since the time of Abbas Mirza and Mohammad
Shah for the education and training of Iranian troops, were valuable experiences (at the beginning
of Khatir's career reforms )provided for him . In the meantime, his trip to Russia and observing the
military formations and ammunition factories of that country were also effective in persuading him to
reform.
The most important reform measures of the Amir in military affairs are -1 :reforming the command
staff and training the officials -2 ;Hiring European military experts .In this context ,the Amir recognized
the expediency of the government to bring military experts from a country who are far from political
thoughts and do not create an incident for the government every day, and thus, to the extent
possible ,prevent the sabotage and political collusion of foreigners .Therefore ,he turned to the
governments of Austria and Prussia, who ,regardless of their political neutrality (from Iran's point of
view) ,had made significant progress in the art of war -3 ;The establishment of the military science
branch of Dar al-Funun under the supervision of the Austrian officer Baron Gomens . Amir paid a lot
of attention to Baron Gomens and entrusted him with the main responsibility of reforming the system .It
is worth mentioning that the military science branch of Dar al-Funun started working almost eight months
before the official opening of that school -4 .Revising the military organization
and establishing permanent military formations -5 ; Establishing permanent regiments for Ilat and
sending officials to teach new teachings to Ilat -6 ; The formation of two separate regiments from the
Christian minority elements of Urmia , Selmas and Jolfa of Isfahan for the first time , while the Amir
appointed their officers from themselves .Although some time later, due to extreme poverty, the
Armenians of Isfahan were exempted from military service -7 ; Removing the formalization of
unemployed positions in the military organization, registering the military organization in a special office
and determining the exact number of military officials .As a result of this action, no position was
vacant , no one studied for a new job or position -8 ; Granting promotions to office holders based on
their merit and deservingness -9 ; The building of weapons factories in Tehran and some states, including
Azerbaijan, Fars, Khorasan, Isfahan .The Amir's opinion was that the military weapons and ammunition
needed by the army of each of the important states should be made in the same place -10 ; Reviving and
setting up the cannon and gunpowder factory in Tabriz, which was a relic of Abbas Mirza's reign -11 ;
Establishing an ammunition factory in Amirabad, Tehran -12 ; Making tar material in Ahmedabad,
Gilan . This substance, which was used in artillery, was imported from Russia until then -13 ; Abolition of
the ancient Siversat custom -14 ; Supervising the provision of rations and uniforms and clothing for
soldiers -15 ;Unifying the uniform of the army by adapting it from Austria . At the same time, sewing the
lion and sun patch became customary for the first time .These pieces were first imported from
England , but later they were made in Iran, and in addition, it became clear that the uniforms of the
Lashkar , be it kilijah or pants , should be sewn from Iranian cloth .Nizam's clothes were made from
Mazandaran Chukha Shawl and Iranian Mahot and other native fabrics .The work of zardoziing the
clothes of officials was entrusted to Khursheed Khanam ,one of the Tehrani ladies , and since she was
able to handle it well, the government decreed that she should have apprentices for herself and that no
one should participate in this work with her for a period of five years . This means that this profession
was monopolized by him -16 ; Construction of military fortresses in border areas and interior areas that
were less safe .A number of soldiers were assigned to protect these forts -17 ;Establishment of Nizam
Fund . The expenses of the army were paid directly from the same fund ,that is, without referring to the
Istifa system -18 ; Establishing a navy in the Persian Gulf.[11]
Through the development and reorganization of the army and reforming aspects of the government's
finances and revenues, Amir Kabir brought about a change that ensured the survival of the Qajar political
system for another half century .After Amir Kabir, the policy of reorganizing the army and reforming
financial affairs continued with adjustments, but the successors of Amir Kabir lacked the order and
discipline that he tried to establish with great enthusiasm.
One of the important issues that should not be neglected in the discussion of the military reforms of
the Qajar era is the issue of the opponents of the reforms, or in other words, the factors preventing the
reformist actions .Ever since the founder of modernism ,Abbas Mirza, started his programs in the field of
modernizing the army, inconsistent reactions were formed against him .In the meantime, influential
statesmen and special circles who saw their profit in the army and the traditional system, stubbornly
opposed the modernization of the army .A clear example of these oppositions is the behavior that was
shown in Isfahan towards Fabvier - one of the artillery specialists of the French army - who came to Iran
with Guardan. He was trying to modernize and strengthen the artillery of Isfahan with the cooperation of
Reboul, but the ruler of Isfahan and his sons prevented their actions with various obstacles. [12] Another
opponent Abbas Mirza's reform measures is his brother Mohammad Ali Mirza .Since Mohammad Ali Mirza
considered himself worthy of crown prince, he had a hard time disagreeing with Abbas Mirza and his
father, who had chosen his younger,to beat Abbas Mirza by exploiting the opposition of the reformists
Mohammad Ali Mirza considered his brother's actions as blasphemy and crime, and by instilling the
thought that Abbas Mirza's relations with Europeans will change people's opinions, clothes and religion he
incited them to oppose Abbas Mirza's actions.[13] Thus, the idea of reforms was faced with the opposition
and problems of the owners of interests and conservative elements of the court,especially some
chancellors.
Despite this , the main obstacle to reformism was the autocratic system and the king
himself .Although Naser al-Din Shah sometimes showed interest in reforms, the implementation of
reforms depended on the existence of a law-abiding government , which also limited the rights of the
monarchy and the power of the Shah.[14] Therefore, Naser al-Din Shah's approach to reforms was
superficial, self-interested and lacked depth and content .The proof of our claim in this context is some of
the Shah's corrective measures in the field of army .For example, we can mention Naser al-Din Shah's
action on dividing government duties among six ministries ,one of which was the Ministry of War .But
after some time, he issued a decree about these ministries, practically removing the decision-making
power from the ministers .In this decree, it was stated: "These ministers will not sign an order without
the blessing of His Majesty the King and the request of the holy royal vote" ".[15]
Another example of Naser al-Din Shah's reform measures was the establishment of the Cossack
Brigade in Iran .In his second European trip, Naser al-Din Shah was impressed by the beautiful and
graceful clothes of the Russian Kazakhs and fell in love with them.[16] and ordered formation of the Iranian
Cossack force .Since Naser al-Din Shah was only fascinated by the appearances of the Farang civilization,
he considered these appearances in his reform measures .In general, it can be said that the reforms in
Naser al-Din Shah's intellectual system were completely different in nature and purpose from what
reformers like Amir Kabir had in mind Therefore, Naser al-Din Shah's approach to reforms was, selfish
and lacked depth and content.