TAWI ENGINEERING COLLEGE SHAHPUR KANDI PATHANKOT ETI INDUSTRIAL TRAINING AT GALAXY MOTORS JAMMU DEPTT. OF MECHANICAL ENGG TAWI ENGINEERING COLLEGE PATHANKOT ECOGNISED BY PUNJAB GOVT AVF 1.ATED TO Ik GU)RAL PUNJAB TECHANICAL UNIVERSETY JALANDHAK KAPURTHALA APPROVED UNDER SECTION 2(F) OF DOCTAWI ENGINEERING COLLEGE SHAHPUR KANDI PATHANKOT KAPURTHA DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CERTIFICATE © ITIS CERTIFIED THAT ANSHU SINGH S/O TALAB SINGH A STUDENT OF B.TECH MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FROM TAWI ENGINEERING COLLAGE SHAPUR KANDI PATHANKOT UNDER ROLL NO :- 2122440 HAS DONE FOUR WEEK INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN GALAXY MOTORS UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF MR. SACHIN SHARMA (SERVICE MANAGER) SUBMITTED TO MR SIMRAN JEET SINGH (HOD) TAWI ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPTT. OF MECHANICAL ENGG TAWI ENGINEERING COLLEGE PATHANKOT RECOGNISED BY PUNJAB GOVT (AFFILATED FO LK GU}RAL PUN JAN TECHANICAL UNIVERSITY JALANDHAR KAPURTHALA) APPROVED UNDER SECTION 2(F) OF UGEACKNOWLEDGEMENT 1 AM HIGHLY GRATEFUL TO MR. SACHIN SHARMA SERVICE MANAGER FOR ALLOWING ME TO DO THIS PROJECT WORK. IT IS TRULY MATTER OF GRATE PLEASURE FOR US TO EXPRESS SINCERE THANKS AND GRATITUDE TO STAFF OF GALAXY MOTORS JAMMU FOR THERE SUPERIVISION AND ENCOURAGEMENT THROUGHOUT THIS INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. I AM IMMENSELY INDEBTED TO THEIR VALUABLE HELP THAT THEY RENDERED AT EVERT STEP OF THIS INDUSTRIAL ‘TRAINING. IT IS WONDERFULL EXPERIENCE TO BE PART OF GALAXY MOTORS JAMMU WHERE I WORK UNDER BRILLANT MINDS, I OWE OUR DEEP REGARDS FOR SUPPORTING FOR THE KIND STAFF AUTHORITIES WHO ARE HELPING US IN LEAN PATCHES DURING FOUR WEEKS TRAINING PERIODIndustrial Teaining eh Le aaamenat ‘Chevrolet also known asChevyis an American brand of vehicle produced by General Motors (GM). Chevrolet was founded by Louis Chevrolet and ousted GM founder William C, Duranton November 3, 1911,!"!and later acquired by General Motors in 1918. Chevrolet was Positioned by Alfred Sloan to sell a lineup of mainstream vehicles to - directly compete against Henry Ford's Model Tin the 1920s, with "Chevrolet" or "Chevy" being at times synonymous with GM. In North America, Chevrolet sells and produces a wide variety of automobiles, from subcompact cars to medium-duty commercial trucks, whereas in Europe, the brand name is used mainly for automobiles produced in Korea by General Motors. HISTORY On November 3, 1911,Swissrace car driver and automotive engineer Louis Chevrolet co-founded the Chevrolet Motor Car Company in Detroit with William C. Durant and investment partners William Little (maker of the Little automobile) and Dr. Edwin R. Campbell (son-in-law of Durant) and in 1912R. S. McLaughlin GEO of General Motors in Canada. Durant was ousted from the management of General Motors in 1910 for five years. He took over the Flint Wagon Works, incorporating the Mason and Little companies. As head of Buick ‘Motor Company prior to founding GM, Durant had hired Louis Chevrolet to drive Buicks in promotional races.""! Durant planned to use Chevrolet's reputation as a racer as the foundation for his new automobile company. Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TAW! Engg. CollegeActual design work for the first Chevy, the costly Series C Classic Six, ‘was drawn up by Etienne Planche, following instructions from Louis. The first C prototype was ready months before Chevrolet was actually incorporated. Chevrolet first used the "bowtie emblem"! logo in 1913. It may have been designed from wallpaper Durant once saw in a French hotel. room."*! More recent research by historian Ken Kaufmann presents a case that the logo is based on a logo of the "Coalettes" coal company.'""'"! Others claim that the design was a stylized Swiss cross, in tribute to the homeland of Chevrolet's parents.!7! CHEVROLET Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Depte., TAWI Engg, CollegeJadsstriat Tuaining ABOUT THE ENGINE OF CHEVROLET Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TAWI Engg. College 3FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM Comparison of the various Fuel Supply Systems: The basic difference between the carburetor fuel system and the single Point injection system is that the carburetor system relies on negative pressure created by the venture to induce the metered fuel to enter the incoming air stream, where as the single point injection which has its injector located at the entrance to the air intake just a head of the throttle butterfly valve, injects fuel into an unrestricted air stream at something like 3 to 4 bar above atmospheric system. Advantages: 1. An electronic fuel injection system gives improved combustion by means of better atomization of mixture. 2. Carburettor system mix air and fuel in the carbuettor, An electronic , fuel injection system introduce fuel at the intake valve, 3. Electronic fuel injection (EFI) provides greater control of the ideal air fuel mixture (14, 7:1) over a wider operating range. This ideal air/fuel mixture is called “stoichiometric”. This results in lower pollution levels by engine/vehicle. 4. EFI produces better fuel atomization during engine warm up to prevent fuel “pudding” on intake manifold and cylinder walls. This improves the vehicle’s cold starting. 8. Engine output is high. 6. Acceleration response is fast. Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt., TAWI Engg. CollegeTndusteia€ Faining SE Multi Point Fuel Injection: This multipoint fuel injection system injects petrol intermittently into each cylinder head inlet port. It is an electronically controlled fuel injection system which relies on monitoring input sensors to keep the electronic control unit continuously updated with changes in the engine’s ‘operating parameters, This result is Processed and predetermined output_ Tesponse in the form of a pulsed signal to be relayed to each solenoid controlled injector. Fuel Delivery System: Main Components: (a) Fuel pump: The fuel pump unit is a roller-cell-type pump driven by a Permanent magnet electric motor. The pump is composed of an armature, magnet and impeller and check valve. This electric fuel pump is located in the fuel tank itself An electronic control module (ECM) supplies ON/OFF ground signal to fuel pump relay. Operation: 1. Power supplied to the pump cause motor and impeller to rotate, 2. This creates a pressure differential on both sides of the impeller which contains many grooves around it. 3. Fuel is drawn through the inlet port and discharged (under high pressure) through the outlet port. 4. Arelief valve prevents excessive fuel pressure. 5. A check valve keeps fuel pressure in the fuel feed line when the pump is stopped (engine is OFF). (b) Fuel pressure regulator ; The injected quantity of fuel entering the air stream is controlled by the injection opening pulse duration with the Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TW Engg. Collegere fuel pressure maintained at a constant valve. The function of pressure regular valve is therefore to hold the fuel Pressure constant (in this case at 3 bar). This is achieved with a diaphragm type pressure regulator valve which returns fuel to the fuel tank when the pump supply Pressure yeaches the opening pressure of the valve and control-spring. However, the pressure at the injector nozzle is subjected to the mixing chamber Pressure difference across the injector unit is held constant by exposing, the pressure regulator control spring chamber to the same mixing chamber pressure by an interconnecting pipe, Fuet shut-off: Fuel to each cylinder is cut off during deceleration or the operation of the ‘engine a excessively high speeds. Engine control system: Engines today must be able to be efficiently operated under all driving, ‘conditions from a cold start to high performance demands, and at the same time the field consumption and the exhaust emissions must be kept to a minimum. If the engine is to operate effectively, various engine Parameters must be monitored by appropriate sensors. These sensors rapidly transmit signals to a central source where they are collected, interpreted, and then computed. Outcome correction factors are then ‘transmitted to both the fuel metering and the ignition timing system. a) Engine Control Module; The function of the ECM is to process and compare the constantly varying input data with the ‘programmed instruction stored in the memory and then to calculate arevised output pulsed signal, Deptt, TAWI Engg. CollegeTadustriat Training An ECM can be considered to be a microcomputer consisting basically of three items: b) c) dy \ The microprocessar; 2. The memory and; 3. The input/output circuit. Fuel Injection Control: The quantity of fuel injected from the injector is controlled by the engine control module (ECM). Incteasing the duration of the pulse prolongs the injector valve opening and so permits more fuel to be discharged. The ECM has a ‘read only memory’ (ROM) with a mapped in program value for the amount of fuel to be injected. Ignition Timing: The ignition advance timing is controlled by the ECM in order to maintain optimum power and to provide the appropriate air/fuel ratio in response to the varying conditions the engine operates under. The ECM has a ‘read only memory’ (ROM) which stores mapped ignition timing data. The injection pulse duration and engine speed signals which are varying every moment are received by the ECM. This information is then assimilated by the computer which in turn transmits a responsive output current pulse to the ignition coil power transistor. Engine Sensors : Engine sensors detects currents engine and driving conditions. The engine sensors are monitored by the ECM to determine optimum air/fuel mixture. Deptt of Mechanical Fags Deptt, THWI Engg College SSSIntroduction In previous chapters, we have studied the working principle of Compression ignition and spark ignition engine for both 4-stroke and 2- ° stroke cycles. Now, let us study the main components and parts which collectively form an engine because most of the basic parts are similar Whether it is single cylinder engine, multi-cylinder engine. This also holds good both for petrol and diesel engines however, for fitel feed system for both diesel and petrol engine separate explanation is given in the respective chapters. Crankease Crankease is usually called cylinder block and is made o cast iron, Containing nickle, chromium and molybdenum to give it wear resistance qualities. It is the heaviest single part of the engine. Cylinder block contains cylinder at upper portion in which pistons move. The cylinder Dept of Mechanical Engg Dept, TH Engg. CollegeTndusteiak Training re mThust be absolutely round and true and its surface is highly polished so that it offers little friction and ensure uniform seal between piston rings and cylinder. The cylinder for water cooled engine have jackets cast in it through which the water circulates, holes are also drilled at top of cylinder block to permit the water to circulate freely around the cylinder head. The casting of cylinder block is very difficult casting since oil passage, water jackets and lot of other holes have to be cast during moulding of block. It is made Very strong as it supports crankshaft, valve mechanism and cylinder head. There are two types of crankcases or blocks: (a) Mono block. (b) Split block. a) Mono block. These blocks are made in a single piece, i.e., in single casting — in other words both crankcase and cylinder blocks are integral units. Most of the engines use mono block. b) Split block. Split blocks crankcase and cylinder blocks are separately cast. After machining, these are bolted together. Such types of blocks are usually used for heavy duty diesel engines. The lower portion, i.e., crank case is either cast iron ot aluminium alloy but cylinder blocks are made of cast iron. To make the blocks lighter for case of machining and fitting specially in big engines, separate blocks for single piston or block having 2 cylinders are separately bolied to crankease for instance in a 8 cylinder engine, there will be one crankcase and 4 block units each having 2 cylinders bolted to crankcase. Dept. of Mechanical Engg Depts, THWT Engg. College 10- | = 2 2 FF fF 2 wn $wWeeegresetetTr In ‘is fadustriat Sraining. Cylinder Head xh & - cs BL te = = Cylinder heads are mostly made out of cast iron but in a very few cases, cylinder head made out of aluminium alloy are also used. The cylinder head is shown which is made of cast iron. During casting of cylinder head, provision for water jacket, oil Passage, water passage, valve openings and combustion chambers are made. Piston Piston is one of the main parts which is subjected to enormous thrust caused by burning of fuel and transmitting this thrust to the rotary motion of crankshaft. These are mostly made of aluminium alloy but sometimes, cast iron pistons are also used. Pistons are made strong enough to withstand thrust caused in power stroke yet made light as far as possible as at the top and bottom of the stroke of the cycle the piston must come to @ complete stop and start again in the opposite direction, Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TAWI Engg, College nuFunctions of pistons = MAawe wD ‘When the piston moves from TDC to BDC in suction stoke, it produces a partial vacuum due to which fresh charge is sucked in i.e., it works as pump for taking air in-the cylinder. ‘Some of the pistons have combustion chamber made in head for proper swirling action of air charges. it transmits the power produced in the power stroke to crankshaft. in exhaust stroke, it pushed out exhaust gases. It works as a guide for the upper part of connecting rod. it carries rings which seal combustion chamber from sump. It withstands high temperature and pressure in power stoke. Taking all this into consideration, pistons are made out of the best material so that they can withstand load and temperature and are machined accurately for getting god sealing in both conditions when engine is cold or running hot. Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt., TAW! Engg, College FrFaust Fai So —_— chromeplating rings, we get smooth finish as such wear is reduced More over with chromeplated rings hard linear are used. - Why two compression rings. In the first paragraph, we had made @ mention that two compression tings are mostly used in one Piston. Question arise why not one ring be used, let us examine this. During the power stroke, the pressure of gases in the combustion chamber reaches to approximately 50 to 70 kg/cm? (1000 Tb/sq”) whereas Pressure from the crankcase is about atmospheric, the pressure from the combustion. chamber being on higher side will try to leak past rings and one piston ring will not be able to hold and pressure two compression rings are used instead of one. = Oil controlling qualities. You will leam further while studying oil rings that it is their primary function to scrape the excessive oil from the cylinder wall but actually speaking some part of scraping action is shard by compression rings also. The oil rings scrape out excessive oil from cylinder liner during power and intake stroke but leave a thin film of oil on the cylinder liner for lubrication and conducting heat to the cylinder wall, the lower compression rings scrap off still further oil from the cylinder wall and while the top ringed scrap off still more oil. 5. Cross-section of rings. Compression rings are available in many cross-sections such as: (a) Rectangular rings (b) Taper faced rings (c) Barrel faced ring (4) Inside bevel rings. (ec) Key stone ring. Deptt. of ‘Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TAWE Engg. College 15a Jndustrial Training _ Specified Oil It should be made sure that the engine oil used comes under the API classification of SF, SF or SH. The appropriate oil viscosity according to the specifications should be selected. Oil Level Check It is important to kept the engine oil at the correct level for proper lubrication of vehicle’s engine. The oil level should be with the vehicle on a level surface. The oil level indication may be inaccurate if the vehicle is on the slope. The oil level should be checked either before Starting the engine or at least five minutes after stopping the engine. The oil dipstick should be pulléd out, oil should be wiped off with a clean cloth the dipstick is inserted all the way into the engine, and then removed again. The oil on the stick should be between the upper and lower limits shown on the stick. If the oil level indication is near the lower limit, enough oil is added to raise the level to the upper limit. Refilling The oil filter cap should be removed slowly and oil is to be poured slowly through the filter hole to bring the oil level to the upper limit on the dipstick. Be careful not to overfill. Too much oil is almost as bad as too little oil After refilling, the engine is started and allowed to idle for about a minute. Stop the engine, wait for two or three minutes and check the oil level again Changing Engine Oil and Filter The engine oil has to be drained while the engine is still warm. Oil filter cap is removed. A drain pan is placed under the drain plug. pa EE re rr rn reer = Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt., TAW! Engg. College 16Inclustriat Training — = — rubber gasket of the new oil filter. Screw on the new filter by hand until the filter gasket contacts the mounting surface. Adding Coolant If the coolant level is below the “LOW” mark, more coolant should be added. The reservoir tank cap is removed and coolant is added until reservoir tank level reaches the “FULL” mark. The reservoir tank is never above the “FULL” mark. Coolant Replacement When the engine is cool, the radiator cap is removed by turning it slowly to the left until a “stop” is felt. One should not press dowa while turning the cap. We should wait until any pressure is released, then press dawn on the cap and continue tirning it anticlockwise. Remove the reservoir tank cap. Remove the reservoir by lifting it up, and drain the reservoir completely by pouring the coolant in to a suitable container. The drain plug attached to the lower part of the radiator is loosened and the coolant is drained into a suitable container. The drain plug on the radiator is tightened, the radiator is filled with coolant and the radiator cap is installed, We should refit the reservoir tank cap, ensuring the arrows are correctly aligned. Air Cleaner If the air cleaner is clogged with duster, there will be great imake resistance resulting in decreased pawer output and increased fuel the oil level comes up to the bottom of the plughole, the oil level is correct. In such a case the plug is reinstalled. If the oil level is low, gear oil is added through the filter plug hole until the oil level reaches the battom of the filter hole, then the plug is reinstalled. Gepit of Merkanlaling, Oe NUT OnTudustriat Training Gear Oil change ‘The used gear oil is drained by opening the drained plug while the new ear oil is filled through filled plug using Maruti specified tool which is a modified large size metal plunger type manual pump (it is like a big syringe), Coolant Level Check ‘The coolant level should be checked at the reservoir tank, not at the radiator. With the engine cool, the coolant level should be between the “FULL” and “LOW” marks. EURO LAND EURO IJ NORMS The exhaust gas sent into the atmosphere by the engine contains hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxide (NO), which are mainly responsible for air pollution. These pollutants are known to cause serious health problems, Therefore there are laws on emission standards, which limit the amount of each pollutant in the exhaust gas emitted by an automobile engine, Emission standards have been followed for some time in the developed countries, These include U.S.A., Europe, and Japan which have their own emission standards. India is in favour of the “Euro-pean Model” developed by the European countries. The European emission norms are called ‘Euro norms’. In India, automobile industries have developed the ‘Euro’ norms. Euro norms. Euro | emission norms were enforced in the New Delhi Capital Region form June 1999 and Euro II norms have taken effect from April 2000 throughout India, Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TWH Engg Collegedr ir ci Sui es SRY eee Table Lao | ana Euro Ul Norms (ta got) fast i Cathon Mood (0) 450 400 Hytrocarbon 1.10 110 Nitrogen Oxide (NO) 8.00 100 Partulae Mane (Py) 036 015Industrial Training A shafis is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one place to another, The power is delivered to the shafts by some tangential force and the resultant torque setup within the shafts permits the power to be transfer to various machines. Linked up to shafts in order to transfer the power from one shafts to another, the various members such as pulleys, gears etc., are mounted on it. These members along with the forces exerted upon them causes the shafts to bending in other words ; We may say that a shaft is used for the transmission of torque and ‘bending moment. The various members are mounted on the shafts by means of keys or splines. Material used for shafts:~ The material used for shafis should have the following properties: 1. It should have high strength, ee er ere Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt., TAW! Engg. College aIndusteiat Training — 2. It should have good machineability, 3, It should have notch sensitivity factor. 4. It should have good heat treatment Properties. S$. Tt should have high wear resistant Properties. The material used for ordinary shafts is carbon steel of grades 40C8, 45C8, 50C4 and 50C12. When a shaft of high strength is required then an alloy steel such as nickel, nickel-chromium, or chrom-vanadium steel is used. Types of shafts:- The following two types of shafts are ‘important from subject point of view:- L Transmission shafts. These shafts transmit power between the. source and machines absorbing power. The counter shafts, line shats, over head shafts and all factory shafts are transmission shafts. Since these shafts carry machines such as pulleys, gears etc., therefore they subjected to bending in addition to twisting. 2 Machine Shafts. These shafts form an integral part of the machine itself. The crank shaft is an example of machine shaft, Stresses in shafts:- The following stresses are induced in shafis:- 1. Shear stresses duc to the transmission of torque, Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TAWI Engg. College3: Bending stresses due to the forces acting upon machine elements like ears, pulleys etc., as well as due to the weight of the shaft itself: Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads. PROPELLERS SHAFT OVERHAUL Various steps involved in the overhaul of propellers shaft are:- 1 =*- » BKB Removal of the shaft from the chassis, Dismantling. Inspection and service, Reassembling. Refitting. These steps will now be discussed in detail: 1. Removal of the shaft from the chassis. Before Temoving the Shaft, mark the end flanges so that they may be refitted in the same Position. Then disconnect the joints at both ends and remove the shaft. Care must be taken that no stage any end of the shaft should be allowed to hang, with other end still in place; the shaft must be Properly supported. Further in case of two-piece propeller shaft, remove the rear one first. Dismantling. Remove the dust cover on the sliding joint and separate the two parts. Before diassembling the universal joint make matchmarks on the yoke and the propeller shaft. To dismantling the universal joint at each end, clamp the universal joint assembly in a bench vice using soft jaws and remove the circlips by pinching together with pliers and prising with a screw Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TW! Engg. CollegeTadustrial Feaining Breaking Requirements 1. The brakes must be strong enough to stop the vehicle within a minimum distance in an emergency. But this should also be consistent with safety. The driver must have proper control over the vehicle during emergency braking and the vehicle must not skid. The brakes must have good antifade characteristic i.e. their effectiveness should not decrease with constant prolonged application e.g. while descending hills. This requirement demands that the cooling of the brakes should be very efficient. Materials for Brake lining The material used for the brake lining should have the following characteristics:~ It should have high coefficient of friction with minimum fading. In other words, the coefficient of friction should remain constant over the entire surface with change in temperature. It should have low wear rate. It should have high heat resistance capacity. It should have high heat dissipation capacity. It should have low coefficient of thermal expansion. It should have adequate mechanical strength. It should not be affected by moisture and oil. Depth. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TW Engg. CollegeTndustiiat Fvaining rr Materials for brake lining: Cast iron on cast iron Bronze on cast iron Steel on cast iron Wood on cast iron Fibre on metal Cork on metal Leather on metal Wire asbestos on metal Asbestos blocks on metal Asbestos on metal (Short action) Metal on cast iron (Short action) Types of Brakes The brakes for automotive use may be classified according the following considerations: 1. Purpose 2. Location 3. Construction 4. Method of actuation 5. Extra braking effort Purpose From this point of view the brakes may be classified as the service or the primary and the parking or the secondary brakes. The service brakes are the main brakes used for stopping the vehicle while in motion, whereas the parking brakes are meant to hold the vehicle on a slope. Location The brakes may be located either at the transmission or at the wheels. The wheel brakes are definitely better from heat dissipation point of view on account of two reasons. Firstly the location of transmission brakes from this view point is very poor and secondly there is only one brake drum; Deptt. of Mechanical'Engg, Deptt, TAWI Engg. College a7Industrial Frecining whereas in case of wheel brakes we may have four brake drums ie one ‘on each wheel which increases the area available for heat dissipation. Further as in case of transmission brakes the whole of the braking torque has to be transmitted through the universal joints, propeller shaft, differential and the rear axle, suitable provision must be made in their design and their size increased proportionally. However, if the brakes are located on the transmission, the braking torque is equally divided automatically by the differential between the two wheels and no special compensation is needed. Further because of the reduction at the differential, the transmission brakes would be stronger than the brakes of similar capacity at the wheels. In case of automobiles, the wheel brakes are used universally ‘Construction From construction point of view, two categories are the drum brakes and the disc brakes. These have been explained in detailed in Art 8 and 9. Method of Actuation ‘This criterions given the following brake types: (a) Mechanical brakes. (b) Hydraulic brakes (c) Electric brakes (d) Vacuum brakes (e) Air brakes ——— Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TAW! Engg. CollegeIndusteial F raining (Construction In this type of brakes, a brake drum is attached concentric to the axle hub whereas on the axle casing is mounted a back plate. In case of front axle, the back plate is bolted to the steering knuckle. The back plate is bolted to the steering knuckle. The back plate is made of pressed steel sheet and is ribbed to increase rigidity and to provide support for the expander, anchor and brake shoes. It also protects the drum and shoe assembly from mud and dust. Moreover, it absorbs the complete torque reaction of the shoes due to which reason it is sometimes also called ‘torque plate’. Two brake shoes are anchored on the back plate as shown in Figure. Friction linings are mounted on the brakes shoes. One or two retractor spring are used which serve to keep the brake shoes away from the drum when brakes are not applied. The brake shoes are anchored at one end, whereas on the Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TAWI Engg. College 39Ww soy Teadustrtal Fraining - other ends Force F is applied by means of some brake actuating mechanism (to be described later), which forces the brake shoe against the revolving frum, thereby applying the brakes. An adjuster is also Provided to compensate for wear of friction lining with use. The relative braking torque obtained at the shoes for the same force applied at the pedal varies depending upon whether the expender (cam or toggle lever) is fixed to the back plate or it is floating; whether the anchor is fixed or floating and whether the shoes are leading or trailing. Materials for Brake Lining The material used for the brake lining should have the following characteristics: It should have high coefficient of friction with minimum fading. In other words, the coefficient of friction should remain constant over the entire surface with change in temperature. 1 2. It should have low wear rate, 3. It should have high heat resistance. 4. It should have heat dissipation capacity, Jt should have low coefficient of thermal expansion. It should have adequate mechanical strength. It should not be affected by moisture and oil. The materials commonly used for facing or lining of brakes and their properties are shown in the following table, OLE Of Decimal ee a aes Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TAWY Engg CollegeFnduotrial Fuatning re SPUR GEARS We have discussed earlier that he slipping of a belt or rope is a common Phenomenon, in the transmission of motion or power between two shafis, He effect of slipping is to reduce the velocity ratio of the system. In precision machines, in which a definite velocity ratio of importance (as in watch mechanism), the only positive drive is by gears or toothed wheels. A gear drive is also provided, when the distance between the driver and the follower is very small. Friction Wheels ‘The motion and power transmitted by gears is kinematically equivalent to that transmitted by frictional wheels or discs. In order to understand how the motion can be transmitted by two toothed wheels, consider two plain circular wheels A and B mounted on shafts. The wheels have sufficient rough surface and press against each other as shown in Fig. Let the wheel A is keyed to the rotating shaft and the wheel B to the shaft vo be rotated. A little consideration will show that when the wheel A is rotated by a rotating shaft, it will rotate the wheel B in the opposite direction. The wheel B will be rotated by the wheel A so long as the tangential force exerted by the wheel A does not exceeds the maximum friction resistance between the two wheels. But the tangential force (P) exceeds the frictional resistance (F), slipping will take place between the two wheels. In order to avoid the slipping, a number of projections are provided on the periphery of the wheel A which will fit into the corresponding recesses on the periphery of the wheel B.A friction wheel with the teeth cut on it is Deptt. of Mechanical Engg Deptt, TAWE Engg. College a2Tadustiat Training I a know as gear or toothed wheel. The usual connection to show the toothed wheel is by their pitch circles. Note: Kinematically, the friction wheel running without slip and toothed gearing are identical, But due to the possibility of slipping of wheel, the friction wheels can only be used for transmission of small powers. Advantages and Disadvantages of Gear Drives The following are the advantages and disadvantages of the gear drive as compared to other drives, i.e. belt, rope, and chain drives: Advantages E.. It transmits exact velocity Tatio. 2. It may be used to transmit large power. 3. It may be used for small distance of shafts. 4. It has high efficiency, 5. {thas compact layout. Disadvantages I. Since the manufacture of gears required special tools and equipment, therefore it is costlier then other drives. ‘We know that frictional resistance, F = sRy Where 1 = Coefficient of friction between the rubbing surface of the two wheels, and Ry = Normal reaction between the two rubbing surface. The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during we operation the proper operation of gear drives. It requires suitable lubricant and reliable method of applying it, for the proper operation of gear drives. Deptt of Mechanical Engg, Deptt., THWT Engg. College we aZadustriat Fvaining A Classification of Gears ‘The gears or toothed wheel may be classified as follow:- Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt,, TAWI Engg. College According to the position of axes of the shafts. The axes of the shafts between which the motion is to be transmitted, may be (a) Parallel (b) intersecting (c) _Non-intersecting and non-parallel. According to the periphery velocity of the gears. The gears, according to the periphery velocity of the gears, may be classified as: (a) Low velocity (b) Medium velocity (c) High velocity. (d) The gears having velocity Jess than 3m/s are termed as low velocity gear and gears having velocity between 3 and 15 m/s are as medium velocity gears. If the velocity of gears having velocity gears is more than 15 m/s, then these are called high speed gears. According to the type of gearing. The gears, according to the type of gearing, may be classified as: (a) External gearing (b) Internal gearing (c) Rack and pinion.Introduction Suspension system plays an important role for a comfortable ride for Passengers besides protecting the chassis and other working parts from getting damaged due to road shocks. Functions of Suspension System (a) It provides comfort. (b) — Itgives cushioning effect. (c) It relieves strain on the frame and other ‘components due to the road shocks. (d) It maintains body level and prevent it from rolling. (e) It provides a good contact for road holding i-e., the system must always keeping the tyres in contact with the road, (£) Suspension system transfers driving torque to the wheels as well as breaking force to the chassis. Types of Suspensions (a) Leaf spring (b) Coil spring (c) Torsion bars (d) Air Bags First three types are commonly used in Indian vehicles, 4th and Sth are: only used in foreign countries. Qualities of Good Spring Spring used for suspension system should absorb road shocks quickly and return to its original position slowly. Now let us examine this, a soft spring will oscillate too much i.e., it will go up and | down many times ‘Deptt of Mechanikal Engg, Depte, TAWI Engg. College 46Ee Orel erwrmUcrmhUL CU Inctuestriaat F rcaining Taking a vehicle move along with it, while a stiff spring will not oscillate too much and will give a rough ride Leaf Spring REBOUND CLIP CENTER BOLT Leaf springs are used in almost all the vehicles Particularly yin truck, leaf Springs are used both in front and rear axles ~ whereas in car leaf springs ae used at rear and in front independent suspension employing coil springs are used Leaf spring assembly in made up of 5 to 12 spring steel leaves, held together with the help of a centre bolt and kept in position by spring clips called Rebound Clips. The first spring leaf is called Main leaf and is rolled at both ends to form an eye for mounting purpose. Mounting of Leaf Spring Leaf springs are mounted in different ways, Such as; (4) Semi-ciliptical spring (b) Quarter-elliptical spring (c) Three-quarter elliptical spring (d) Transverse spring (€) Full-elliptical spring. Deptt of Mechanical Engg Deptt, THWI Engg Colige ~~ a7Industeiat Feaining - a . ic Vertical Slide Method The suspension system as employed in Maruti Car and consists of coil ‘Spring, front suspension strut ‘steering knuckle, stabilizer bar and front ‘Suspension arms. In this system shock applied to wheels is distributed through steering knuckle from front struts, coil springs to front Suspension arms and is absorbed. Torsion Bar It is made out of spring steel, solid bar or tube or leaves formed into Square section. One end of the torsion bar is anchored or secured in the chassis frame whereas the other end is coupled with the help of coupling C to the lower arm spindle, -As and when the wheel is lifted up or down, the torsion rod gets the twisting effect and the elasticity of the rod is utilized to bring back the wheel to its normal Position in the same manner as a spring arrangement. The twisting effect, or in Layman’s language winding and unwinding effect of rod. The torsion bar can be located transversely or parallel to the frame. In most of the cases, it is located parallel to frame as in ambassador car and only one torsion rod is used for one wheel but in certain cases, instead of one, two torsion rods are also used as in German make Volkswagen. Where S and J are upper and lower arms connected to torsion bar B and C with suitable adopters. The loose ends of torsion bars are fixed to the chassis frame at T. Repair and Maintenance of Independent Suspension system In independent suspension the upper and lower arms are fixed with the help of rubber bushes, These bushes gel wom out after some use. These should be replaced on noticing first sign or wear with new bushes of good quality. These are two bronze bushes on swivel pin at upper and lower en, Deptt. of Mechanical Engg Deptt, TAW' Engg, College — 49Industrial Training they also get wom out quickly. In case they are not greased periodically and require changing after dismantling upper and lower arms Hydroelastic Suspension system Hydroelastic Suspension System works on compression of fluid with the help of rubber washers or cups. There are four units fitted at four wheels with independent Suspensions, all the units are hermetically sealed and ‘connected to each other with the help of pipes. Such a system has been Successfully used on BMW 1800 Car wherein if one wheel rides over the Stone, the fluid from this unit goes to the other units and raises the car thus maintains a perfect level at 1 where D is front unit T is rear unit and A is connecting pipe. Working When the front wheel is lifted up stem ‘U’ also gets lifted up, it pushes the diaphragm up, the fluid above the diaphragm gets pressed and opens the valve P which allows certain quantity of fluid to escape to chamber M, at the same time certain quantity of fluid also escape to chamber M through bleed hole L since chamber M of unit D and other of unit T are interconnected. Thus, pushed out quantity of fluid find its way to unit T, opens valve P and presses the diaphragm and stem downward. Air-Spring Suspension Air Spring suspension is becoming more popular now-a-days. In this system, certain quantity of compressed air is filled in a container fitted and operated through hydraulic pressure by a piston. This piston is connected to arm of suspension system thus makes the piston moves up or down when the wheel encounters any irregularity on the road. Now moving of piston up or down, increase or decrease the pressure on the “Deptt of Mechanical Engg, Deptr, THU Engg ColligeTe Need for the System To keep effective control on the moving vehicle throughout its range of speed irrespective of the load and road conditions steering system is employed to steer the vehicle to right or left without exerting much efforts. The driver, while sitting in the driver seat may steer the front wheels of vehicle with little efforts. Qualities of Steering System (1) Itshould be light ie., should not call for excessive effort for taking tum. (2) It should be fool proof. (3) Steering geometry should not get effected by bad road condition or over-loading or braking of vehicle. (4) It should be self-aligning and self-adjusting (5) It should not transmit road shocks to steering wheel, Dept. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TH! Engg. College 33Main parts of the Steering System Main parts of the steering system: (1) Steering wheel (2) Steering column (3) Steering shaft (4) Steering drop arm (Pitman arm) (5) Steering gear box (6) Pull & push rod (Drag link) (7) Knuckle arm (8) Tie rod and Tie road end. hese parts are shown in steering layout: In the previous chapter we have studied that on moving one stub axle, the other stub axle also moves with it as they are tied up with tie rod. On moving the stub axle, wheel also turns as the wheels are mounted on the stub axels, ‘Depts of MeclianiealEngg, Depit, WWI Engg, College —Working of Steering System When we turn the steering wheel. As the steering shaft is fixed to wheel it also rotates with it. With the steering shaft a worm is fixed at its lower end, this also rotates. On the worm is engaged, a sector shaft with its peg, this also moves, As the sector shaft rotates, drag link being fixed on it also moves. The bottom end of drag link is tied up with pull and push rod making it also move to and fro. With moving of both stub axles, vehicles get steered. Brief Description of Steering Parts 1 FM OL On Steering Wheel. The steering wheel is made of steel rod ring welded together on a hub with the help of 2, 3 or 4 spokes. After welding ring with the spokes is ebonite moulded on it. In our country steering wheels have a fixed position, but in foreign countries, in some vehicles these wheels can be titled and locked in any position to suit the driver. To pull out steering wheel usually the mechanic use chisel and hammer. This is not a correct method as it will damage the hub of ~ steering wheel and the splines of steering shaft. Steering outer tube. This is a hollow steel pipe in which the steering shaft is housed. One end of the pipe is fixed on steering box, the other end is usually held with the help of bracket under the instrument panel. Steering shaft. It is made out of good quality steel. One end is fixed in steering wheel with the help of splines or key and kept tight by nut. The other end with worm is secured firmly in theFndlustre Fraining steering box with the help of bearing placed both on top and bottom. Sometime, instead of one shaft, two pieces of shafts are also used You would have seen that when a fat driver drives a car, steering wheel touches his body. to avoid this most of the fat drivers move the seat backward and in case they have short Jegs, they cannot move the seat back, as such driving becomes uncomfortable fn foreign makes of car this shortcoming is overcome by providing telescope shaft i.e., it can be pulled up and pushed back and locked ma position to suit the driver's convenience, but the vehicles Produced in our country have fixed length and cannot be adjusted. 4 Drop arm. This is forged out of good quality steel. One side of it ‘has spline which match the splines of sector shaft and held on sector shaft by a nut. The other end has taper hole in which ball end is held tight with the help of nut. 5. Steering Box. The function of the steering box is to convert rotary motion of wheel into to and fro motion of drop arm so the drag link ted up with drop arm can be pushed or pulled resulting into moving stub axle to right or left as desired by the driver. Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Dept, TAW! Engg, CollegeNecessity All the heat produced by the combustion of fuel in the engine cylinders is not converted into useful power at the crankshaft. A typical distribution for the fuel energy is given below: Useful work at the crank shaft = 25 per cent Loss to the cylinders walls = 30 per cent Loss in exhaust gases = 35 per cent Loss in friction = 10 per cent It is seen that the quantity of heat given to the cylinder walls is considerable and if this heat is not removed from the cylinders it would result in the pre-ignition of the charge. In addition, the lubricant would also bum away, thereby causing the seizing of the piston. Excess heating will also damage the cylinder material. ———Sare - Deptt. of Mechanical Engg, Deptt., TAW! Engg. College avIndia Fning Keeping the above factors in view, it is observed that suitable means must be provided to dissipate the excess heat Jrom the cylinder Walls, so as to maintain the temperature below certain limits. However cooling beyond optimum limits is not desirable, because it decreases the overall efficiency due to the following reasons: > v Depts of Mechanical Engg, Dept, THW Engg College ‘Thermal efficiency is decreased due to more loss of heat to the ‘cylinder walls. ‘The vaporization of the fuel is less; this results in fall of combustion efficiency. Low temperatures increase the viscosity of lubricant and hence more piston friction is encountered, thus decreasing the mechanical efficiency. Though more cooling improves the volumetric efficiency, yet the factors mentioned above result in the decrease of overall efficiency. Thus it may be observed that only sufficient cooling is desirable and any deviation from the optimum limits will result in the deterioration of the engine performance.Jndustriat Fraining 1. radiator 2. radiator top hose 3. radiator bottom hose 4. water pump 5. thermostat 6. thermostat housing 7. electric cooling fan 8. thermo-time switch 2. METHODS OF COOLING ‘Various methods used for cooling of automobile engines are: > — Air Cooling > Water cooling 3. AIR COOLING The basic principle involved in this method is to have current of air flowing continuously over the heated metal surface from where the heat is to be removed. The heat dissipated depends upon following factors: > Surface area of metal into contact with air. > Mass flow rate of air. > Temperature difference between the heated surface and air. > — Conductivity of metal ‘Thus for an effective cooling the surface area of the metal which is in contact with the air should be increased. This is done by using fins over the cylinder barrels. These fins are either cast as an integral part of the cylinder or separate finned barrels are inserted over the cylinder barrel. Sometimes, particularly in the case of aero engines, the fins are machined from the forged cylinder blanks. Fig. 5.1 shows a cylinder with fins cast over the cylinder barrel. To increase the contact area still further, baffles are used sometimes. Deptt of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, THWI Engg. Collegeat Ta eee = Use of copper and steel alloys has also been made to improve heat transfer because of their better thermal conductivity. Advantages > Air cooled engines are lighter because of the absence of the radiator, the cooling jackets and the coolant. > They can be operated in extreme climates, where the water may freeze. In certain areas where there is scarcity of cooling water, the air Vv cooled engine is an advantage. > Maintenance is easier because the problem of leakage is not there. > Air cooled engines get warmed up earlier than the water cooled engines. Disadvantages. > It is not easy to maintain even cooling all around the cylinder, so that the distortion of the cylinders takes place. This defect has been remedied sometimes by using fins parallel to the cylinder axis (Fig. 5.3). This is also helpful where a number of cylinders in a row are to be cooled. However, this increases the overall engine length. > As the coefficient of heat transfer for air is less than that for water, there is less efficient cooling in this case and as a result the highest useful compression ratio is lesser in the case of air cooled engines than in the water cooled ones. r The fan used is very bulky and absorbs a considerable portion of the engine power (about 5%) to rive it, ra Air cooled engines are more noisy, because of the absence of cooling water which acts as sound insulator. r Some engine components may become inaccessible easily due to the guiding baffles and cooling, which makes the ‘maintenance Depte of Mechanical Engg, Dept, DWT Engg College 60Tndustriat Fusining Oo difficult. ‘The cooling fins around the cylinders may vibrate under certain > conditions due to which noise level would be considerably enhanced. WATER COOLING In water cooling system, the cooling medium used is water. In this, the engine cylinders are surrounded by water jackets through which the cooling water flows. Heat flows from the cylinder walls into water which goes to the radiator where it loses its heat to the air. Usually some antifreeze is added to the cooling water, due to which it is often referred to as coolant, Both these terms have been used in this chapter, often meaning same unless the context requires otherwise. Water cooling systems are of two types: > Thermosyphon system > Pump circulation system ‘COMPONENTS OF WATER COOLING SYSTEM The main components that will be dicussed are: Radiator Pressure cap and expansion reservoir. Thermostat Pump Fan fen e Depts of Mechanical Engg, Deptt, TW! Engg. College a‘The function of the radiator is to ensure close contact of the hot coolant ‘coming out of the engine with outside air, so as to ensure high rates of ‘heat transfer from the coolant to air. A radiator consists of an upper (or header) tank, core and the lower (or collector) tank. Besides, an overflow Pipe in the header tank and drain pipe in the lower tank are provided. HO! coolant from the engine enters the radiator at the top and is cooled by the cross-flow of air, while flowing down the radiator. The coolant collects in the collector tank from where it is pumped to the engine for cooling. There are two basic types of radiator cores, viz., tubular type and cellular type, In the former, it is the coolant that flows through tubes and air passes around them, while in the cellular type the air passes through the tubes and coolant flows in the spaces in between them. Out of these, tubular type cores are the most commonly used which are further classified depending upon the shape of the fins around the tubes, which are meant increase the. area for heat transfer from coolant to the cooling air. Both the core tubes as well as the fins are made from thinnest possible material. Tubes are made from 0.1 mm to 0.3 mm sheet, whereas fins are made from about 0.1 mm thick material. The materials used for radiators should be resistant to corrosion, possess higher thermal conductivity and form easily, apart from having adequate strength. Copper and yellow brass are the widely used materials for radiators, Aluminium is also used from weight and cost considerations. Some late model radiators have plastic tanks with aluminium cores. The size of the radiator must be adequate to remove the heat which is approximately equal to the heat energy utilized for producing power in the engine. Altematively, the radiator size is matched to the displacement volume of the engine. The air conditioned vehicle would require a larger = re - Deptt. of Mechanical Engy, Deptt, TRWT Engg. Collegewes smaller radiator can be used. (ii) The preparation of air-fuel mixture is improved at the higher operating temperatures. (iii) With sealed cap loss of coolant due to evaporation or surging is prevented, which makes the system particularly useful in deserts. (iv) At high altitudes the atmospheric pressure is low which causes the coolant to boil at a lower temperature. Thus under severe working conditions at high altitudes. e.g, during steep climb the coolant in the radiator may boil if the system is open to atmosphere. With pressure cap a higher pressure is maintained inside, irrespective of any change in the atmospheric pressure, thus avoiding overheating while driving at higher altitudes and thus maintaining the cooling efficiency of the system. It is already discussed in Article 1 that only optimum cooling of the engine is desirable and overcooling results in deterioration of engine efficiency. To keep a rigid control over the cooling, therefore, a thermostat is used, which automatically keeps the cooling water temperature at a predetermined value. Moreover, it also helps the engine to reach the operating temperature as soon as possible after starting as the engines are designed to operate most efficiently over a small temperature range of 80° to 100°C. Two types of thermostats are used in automobiles: > Bellows or aneroid type. > Wax or hydrostatic type. Depts of MachanicalEngg, Dept, TAWI Engg Collgecompressed air. The main advantage of the air spring is that it provides low natural frequency spring which gives a soft ride, the frequency of such usually remains constant. Working ‘One simple air suspension unit where arm | carries the road wheel and is hinged at B on the chassis. This arm has another lever C connected to it which carries piston Rod A, the piston works in cylinder ¥. the cylinder V forms the lower part of the air suspension unit 2. The hollow circular portion is separated by a diaphragm. The upper part is filled with compressed air and the lower portion under the diaphragm is filled with hydraulic fluid. Now when the arm | gets lifted up or lowered down, the pressure of hydraulic increase or decreases and so as the pressure on diaphragm with the result diaphragm moves up or down compressing or decompressing air. Rubber spring suspension Rubber springs are being successfully used for the past few years, as it can store more energy per unit mass as compared to any other type of spring, provides soft suspension, occupies less space, light n weight and noiseless. The rubber suspension system consists of rubber pads bonded to the steel dise, the upper steel disc is bolted to upper arm and the lower to the lower arm, the movement of the road wheel turn one disc relative to the other twist the rubber, in some of the market air is also filled in the pads, Sprung and Unsprung Weight In Automobile Industry the afore-said two terms are very commonly used. Dept. of Mechanical Engg, Depte., TAWI Engg, College 3