i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 5 6 5 e1 7 5 7 6

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Combined composites layup architecture and

mechanical evaluation of type IV pressure vessels:
A novel analytical approach

Weili Jiang a,*,1, Fengmin Du b,1, Klaus Drechsler a, Jinyang Zheng c,**
a
Chair of Carbon Composites, Technical University of Munich, 85748 Garching bei München, Germany
b
Laboratory for Physical Chemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
c
Institute of Chemical Machinery and Process Equipment, Zhejiang University, 310027 Hangzhou, China

highlights graphical abstract

Analytical model combining com-

posite layup generation and me-
chanical evaluation.

Model accuracy is verified vs. a 3D
Finite Element simulation of pres-
sure vessel.

Flexibility and speed of the model
enables evaluation of specific tank
design.

Focus on the dome whose evalua-
tion has hardly been inspected
analytically before.

article info abstract

Article history: Strict requirements for cost and reliability of compressed gaseous pressure vessels as on-
Received 24 October 2022 board hydrogen storage necessitates in-depth understanding on the mechanical responses
Received in revised form of the composite structure. General numerical methodology to assess this involves a two-
17 January 2023 step setup: composite layup generation and mechanical property calculation, which be-
Accepted 19 January 2023 comes highly time and resource-consuming, particularly if multiple designs are scanned
Available online 8 February 2023 for optimization. This study presents a multi-functional analytical tool, combining both
aforementioned steps in a single modeling framework. The model enables quick prediction
Keywords: of the strain/stress distribution in correlation with uncomplicated inputs describing the
High pressure gaseous hydrogen layup design, i.e. stacking sequence with desired winding angles. Additionally, the me-
storage chanical evaluation specially focuses on the dome region whose calculation has hardly
Type IV hydrogen tank been inspected analytically in the literature. The results are validated against a three-
Carbon composites dimensional finite element calculation implemented in ANSYS Workbench, showing quali-
Layup design tative and quantitative agreement. Overall, the study paves the way for composite tank
Analytical methodology

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: weili.jiang@tum.de (W. Jiang), jyzh@zju.edu.cn (J. Zheng).
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.01.223
0360-3199/© 2023 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
17566 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 5 6 5 e1 7 5 7 6
design using analytical approaches, with easy implementation, minimum computational
cost and great transparency.
© 2023 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Hydrogen energy has become a promising candidate as the
next generation emission-free replacement of conventional
fossil fuels. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) are referred to as one of
the most competitive solutions for the transportation sector
[1e3]. Implementation of a compact, safe, reliable, cost- and
energy efficient on board hydrogen storage method is heavily
required and has been the focus of present research [4e7].
With the purpose of increasing volumetric density and driving
range, high pressure gaseous hydrogen (HPGH2) storage tank
is widely accepted as the most mature storage technology for
automotive applications [8e10]. Among various HPGH2 tanks,
the type IV pressure vessel, consisting of a polymer liner and a
composite overwrapping, is designed for the lightweight
target due to the high strength-to-weight ratio of composite
[11]. The nominal working pressure of type IV tank is 70 MPa,
while a safety factor of 2.25 has to be accounted for [12,13].
This stringent safety requirement of 157.5 MPa leads to
extensive carbon fiber usage, which acts as the primary cost
driver of the total tank system and impedes the commercial-
ization of type IV pressure tanks [14]. Hence, the reduction of
carbon fiber usage must be taken into account already in the
early tank design phase. Having a deep understanding of the
mechanical property thus becomes critical for the tank
design.
Due to the anisotropic property of carbon fiber, a number of
design variables including liner geometry, ply orientation,
amount of the layers and laminate stacking sequence, are
well-known to exhibit significant impacts on tank mechanical
performance [15,16]. The experimental verification of indi-
vidual tank design with parametric variation of design vari-
ables is extremely time consuming and cost intensive,
particularly due to the high requirement on testing environ-
ment, equipment and limited technical constraints. These
difficulties necessitate the performing of numerical analysis.
Typical objectives of numerical investigations on H2 pressure
vessels include the evaluation of mechanical property and
prediction of failure modes [17,18]. For these purposes, a
precise modeling of the composite overwrapping is prerequi-
site for accurate mechanical predictions. The overwrapping
structure is determined by the continuous filament winding
process, a necessary procedure for the manufacturing of type
IV pressure vessels. Here, composite rovings are laid over the
plastic liner along the designed winding path with desired
winding angle. For each winding cycle, the rovings must cut
tangentially to the polar opening, which leads to an inevitable
thickness accumulation near the polar openings [19]. Overall,
it is known that a single layer of filament-wound composite
always reveals a variation of thickness on the dome [20]. For
the purpose of smoothing the thickness profile on the dome,
helical layers with a variation of winding angles were mostly
used [21]. This results in highly complicated filament-wound
structure on the dome, which has to be accurately predicted
for a precise analysis of the mechanical properties. In the
literature, composite profile and roving winding path are
mostly generated and calculated by commercial software
such as ComposicaD™, CADWIND and Cadfil [22e25].
With the thickness profile estimated, the numerical anal-
ysis is subsequently performed with the applied internal
pressure and boundary conditions. After obtaining the stress
and strain states, appropriate failure criteria may be applied to
predict material damage and yield overall load-bearing ability
of the given composite structure [26,27]. A crucial direction is
utilizing the information to estimate the burst pressure of
composite pressure vessel [28e30]. Among multiple failure
criteria, maximum stress and maximum strain in fiber and
transverse directions are the simplest way to predict the load
state, which contains single polynomial stress-based equa-
tions without stress interaction [31,32], which is incorporated
in this model.
It becomes evident that the two necessary “steps” of solv-
ing the problem, i.e., modeling the layup/geometry as well as
conducting the mechanical evaluation and failure analysis,
are typically performed in different modeling and simulation
tools. Clearly, the compatibility between two or more software
environment has to be ensured with the establishment of
appropriate coupling steps. These may become highly
cumbersome in the case when a parametric variation of
certain design variable is desired, such as winding angle and
sequence. This task gets more arduous for optimization
problems where an automatic algorithm needs to predict next
feasible design. To solve these issues as well as gain a quick
design and failure analysis of pressure vessels, a model which
combines the two aforementioned functions is highly desired.
For this purpose, one may think of an analytical model
which incorporates both parts. In the literature, a number of
analytical tools/algorithm have been developed and applied
for composite-related topics. For instance, Hajmohammad
et al. [33] presented a practical analytical approach for the
investigation on optimal fiber orientation of the composites
pressure vessel. In the research by Kalali et al. [34], a semi-
analytical method is introduced to predict the elastic-plastic
stress distribution in a particle-reinforced composites pres-
sure vessel. The governing differential equations were ob-
tained by assuming small strains for the plastic regions. A
numerical method was implemented to solve the differential
equations. Akhtar et al. [35] provided an analytical model for
the optimum design of composites pressure vessels, incor-
porating triangular mosaic patterns on dome. However, the
structural analysis is performed using a commercial finite
element analysis tool. Specially for the mechanical
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 5 6 5 e1 7 5 7 6 17567

performance of the cylindrical body, analytical solutions are

available in the literature [36e38]. For instance, Camilleri et al.
[38] developed an analytical model based on the classical
laminate theory to establish the first fly failure load. Ramos
et al. [36] performed failure investigation on their thick
multilayered cylindrical structure, where the results had been
shown to align well with finite element solutions. However,
they did not account for the stress distribution on dome and
transition between the dome and cylinder which represent
the most complicated and critical part. Generally, analytical
investigations in the literature focus exclusively on the cy-
lindrical body as presented in the research of Nebe et al. [39],
while a detailed analytical description of composite pressure
vessels particularly in the dome region, is still missing.
The present study aims to develop a complete model with
analytical nature, combining the two steps of layup genera-
tion and mechanical property analysis. Starting from a given
layup design, we evaluate the profile of thicknesses and
winding angles, taking into consideration the variation of
both profiles on the dome. This is followed by the mechanical
calculations, where we combine a differential force equilib-
rium on the meridional direction with classical laminate
theory in the thickness direction. We focus explicitly on the
dome region as well as the transition between dome and
cylindrical body, an aspect that is rarely studied in the liter-
ature. The model verification is carried out against a 3D finite
element tool, yielding great agreements of the stress profiles.
Overall, by prediction of stress/strain state in correlation Fig. 1 e Thicknesses and winding angles of individual
with individual layer thickness, winding angle and stacking composite layers along the tank geometry. Different color
sequence, the presented model enables a quick and flexible codes represent different winding angles. The dashed
tank design with minimum computational cost and great black line (axial coordinate 0) shows the junction between
transparency. the dome and the cylindrical region. (For interpretation of
the references to color/colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
Theory
Besides the thickness profiles, the winding angle a and its
Modeling of composite layup variation are another crucial feature of filament wound pres-
sure vessels.
The first step of the model includes the generation of the In the present study, we only focus on geodesic winding
composite layup as well as the calculation of thicknesses and paths with the famous Clairaut equation [43e45]. Winding
winding angles. It is known that the continuous filament angles of successive wound layers are presented in Fig. 1b as a
winding process leads to thickness variations on the dome function of the axial coordinate. As the cylinder radius does
and fiber accumulations near polar opening [40,41]. Gramoll not vary on the cylindrical body, the winding angle a remains
and Namiki [42] reported their predictions of composite constant in this region. Nonetheless, a rapid winding angle
thickness on the dome using analytical equations, while variation is evident in the dome region due to the reduction in
Wang et al. [20,21] modified the formulae to improve the radius. All curves in Fig. 1b start at 90 where the roving is
prediction accuracy. A short explanation of this calculation wound tangential to the polar opening.
process is given in the Supplementary Material. The stacking sequence of composite layers utilized in this
Fig. 1a demonstrates the thickness variation on dome study is demonstrated in Fig. 2. Hoop layers are wound in the
region. The layer design, i.e. winding angle and sequence, circumferential directions on the cylindrical body, with the
can be taken from Fig. 2. Due to the property of continuous aim to withstand stresses in the circumferential direction. On
filament winding process, fiber accumulation occurs on the the other hand, helical layers must be applied to ensure
roving turning point near polar opening. This phenomenon is coverage and mechanical performance of the dome. Layers
represented by the peaks of the thickness profile for all the having a winding angle of 15 on the cylindrical body are
winding angles but 15 ones. As shown by Fig. 1a, the fiber required for the full coverage of the tank according to the tank
accumulation reduces with increasing winding angles. geometry. Moreover, to avoid the thickness discontinuity on
Additionally, it shall be noted that a smoothing algorithm dome and strengthen the dome at the same time, layers with
was applied for all layers beyond their starting points in different winding angles are necessary for the layup design,
Fig. 1a. which is accounted for in this design.
17568 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 5 6 5 e1 7 5 7 6
Fig. 2 e Visualized composite profile on dome and cylinder
part. The layup design utilizes 4 £ inner hoop, 8 £ 15 -
helical, 4 £ 30 -helical, 4 £ 40 -helical, 4 £ 48 -helical,
4 £ 54 -helical and 8 £ outer hoop layers. Composite
layers were arranged from low to high winding angle,
inner layers are the smallest geodesic winding angle,
which contributes to a full coverage of the tank. Hoop
layers are distributed inner sides and outer sides.
Geometrical calculations of the dome region
In the present study, we develop a methodology with analyt-
ical nature to quantitatively evaluate mechanical perfor-
mance of hydrogen pressure vessel. A detailed calculation is
performed not only on the cylindrical body, but also on the
more complicated dome region. For this purpose, the evalua-
tion of certain geometrical variables on the dome is
prerequisite.
Being rotational symmetrical, the dome can well be
regarded as a shell of revolution, a term meaning that the
shape is yielded by rotating a curve around the main axis. This
curve is then referred to as the meridian and defines the
meridional direction. Whereas a cylinder possesses a straight
meridian and has only one curvature, the curved nature of the
meridian for the dome introduces a second curvature of the
shell. In the present study, we adopt the definition of the
principal radii and the radii of curvature r1 and r2 from Call-
adine [46] (chapter 6). The geometric relationships are illus-
trated in Fig. 3, where s-coordinate follows the meridional
profile. The first radius r1 represents the curvature of the
meridian. As shown by Fig. 3 on the left, value of r1 on a certain
point is obtained by moving the point for an infinitesimal
distance ds and observing the radius of rotation. On the other
hand, r2 is acquired by extending the local normal of the
meridian towards the main axis. Fig. 3 also illustrates a third
radius r3 which is an auxiliary variable for the mechanical
calculations (see Force equilibrium on dome).
Fig. 3 e Geometry and principal radii of the dome region as
a shell of revolution. y and r denote the coordinate in axial
and radial direction, respectively. z represents the
thickness direction of the composite layer. The meridional
direction is represented by coordinate s, while y also
represents the main axis. The two curvatures of the dome
are described by radii r1 and r2, where r1 is the curvature of
the meridian and r2 is the curvature in the circumferential
direction. r3 is an auxiliary variable for the mechanical
calculation in Force equilibrium on dome. The convention
of r1-3 follows the convention by Calladine [46].
Analytical model on the mechanical performance of
composite pressure vessel
In the following, we elaborate the analytical methodology
developed in the present study. Overall, the model can be
regarded as a 1D (z) þ 1D (s) simplification of the problem. z refers
to the thickness direction, the investigation of which follows the
classical laminate theory. On the other hand, s describes the
meridional direction, subject to differential equation systems
derived from general force equilibrium in its differential form
(Force equilibrium on domeeForce equilibrium on cylindrical
body). The coordinates z and s can also be found in Fig. 3.
Overview of classical laminate theory
The classical laminate theory (CLT) is a useful tool to evaluate
strains/stresses throughout the composite layer thickness,
described by:
    
N A B ε
¼ (1)
M B D k
According to equation (1), the CLT relates the stress/
moment resultants N ¼ ½Ns ; Nq ; Nsq u and M ¼ ½Ms ; Mq ; Msq u
with strains (ε) and curvatures (k) in the respective directions.
A, B and D are hereby 3  3 stiffness matrices of the composite
laminate and can be obtained from transformed stiffness
matrix Q of single composite layers. It shall be emphasized
that Q (and thus ABD) is strongly dependent on the local
winding angle a. For the compactness of the article, we refer to
e.g. the textbook of Jones [47] for an elaborated description of
CLT and related formulae.
For the case of uniform internal pressure and no external
forces, the loading to the pressure vessel is rotational sym-
metrical and thus the shearing/twisting stress resultants (Nsq,
Msq) are not present [46] (chapter 11). Thus, the ABD formu-
lation in equation (1) can be reduced to the following:
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 5 6 5 e1 7 5 7 6 17569

The two curvatures (meridional and circumferential di-

Ns ¼ A11 εs þ A12 εq þ B11 ks þ B12 kq (2)
rection) are related to the variable c which describes the
rotation from initial meridional profile at each position [46]:
Nq ¼ A21 εs þ A22 εq þ B21 ks þ B22 kq (3)
vc c
ks ¼ ; kq ¼ (12)
Ms ¼ B11 εs þ B12 εq þ D11 ks þ D12 kq (4) vs r3
From equation (10), substituting N's via equations (2) and
Mq ¼ B21 εs þ B22 εq þ D21 ks þ D22 kq (5)
(3) and converting the curvatures by the use of (12) gives:

Membrane theory on the dome vc c vr3 vðNs  N*s Þ

The membrane theory gives a rough first estimation of stress A21 εs þ A22 εq þ B21 þ B22  N*q ¼ ðNs  N*s Þ þ r3
vs r3 vs vs
resultants in meridional (s) and circumferential direction (q). (13)
Major assumption of this theory lies in the neglect of bending
effects. The so obtained N*s and N*q (index * denotes the “ideal”  
vr3 vc c
¼ A11 εs þ A12 εq þ B11 þ B12  N*s
nature of the membrane theory) are utilized in the calcula- vs vs r3
tions in later sections, applying the methodology by Calladine
[46].    
vðA11 εs Þ vðA12 εq Þ vðB11$vc=vsÞ v c vN*
For a general shell of revolution, the membrane theory þr3 þ þ þ B12  s (14)
vs vs vs vs r3 vs
predicts the stress resultants (N*s , N*q ) as follows [46]
It shall be emphasized at this point that A11, A12, B11 and B12
(chapter 4):
are non-constant over s (as the thickness and winding angles
  change over different positions on the dome), thus the dif-
1 r2
N*s ¼ pr2 ; N*q ¼ p r2  2 (6)
2 2r1 ferentiation in equation (14) has to be evaluated via the
 
r1 and r2 hereby denote the two principal radii of the shell product rule. An example is shown for the term vsv B12 rc3 :
as evaluated in Fig. 3. On the cylindrical body, r1 / ∞ and    
v c vB12 c v c
r2 ¼ R, recovering the well-known Barlow's formulae. B12 ¼ $ þ B12 $
vs r3 vs r3 vs r3
 
vB12 c B12 vc vr3
Force equilibrium on dome ¼ $ þ 2 r3  c (15)
vs r3 r3 vs vs
In this section, we aim to describe the mechanical relation-
ships within the dome region in the form of analytical dif- By arranging equation (14) according to the derivatives, we
ferential equations. For this purpose, we start from the obtain the following relationship:
differential form of the general force equilibrium and elabo-  
v2 c vr3 vB11 vc vεs vεq
rate the derivation. It shall be emphasized that starting from r3 B11 þ B 11 þ r3 þ r3 A11 þ r3 A12 (16)
vs2 vs vs vs vs vs
this section, potential effects of bending moments and
transverse forces are taken into account.    
B22 vB12 vr3 vA11
The force equilibrium on a general shell of revolution can ¼  c þ A12  A11  r3 εs (17)
r3 vs vs vs
be taken from the book of Calladine [46] (chapter 11):
   
Ns  N*s ¼
U vr3 vA12 vr3 * vN*
r3
(7) þ A22  A12  r3 εq þ Ns þ r3 s  N*q
vs vs vs vs

Equation (17) describes a second-order ordinary differ-

vU
Nq  N*q ¼ (8) ential equation (ODE) system with respect to the variables c,
vs
εs and εq. At this point, it shall be emphasized that the
vMs Ms  Mq U equation was derived from a differential force equilibrium on
þ ¼ (9)
vs r3 r2 the dome, and thus is able to predict the mechanical re-
lationships on the entire dome if subjected to appropriate
It shall be noted that the results from the membrane theory
boundary conditions.
(N*s , N*q ) are utilized in the formulae as inputs. U denotes total
We now switch back to equation (11). Substituting the
shear variable which indicates the deviation of the “real sit-
moments (Ms, Mq) using equations (4) and (5) gives equation
uation” to the membrane theory due to bending effects [46].
(18):
The radius r3 can be taken from Fig. 3.
Eliminating the variable U from the equations above yields v
ðD11 ks þ D12 kq þ B11 εs þ B12 εq Þ
the following relationship: vs
1
þ ððD11  D12 Þks þ ðD12  D22 Þkq þ ðB11  B12 Þεs þ ðB12  B22 Þεq Þ
v
r3
Nq  N*q ¼ r3 ðNs  N*s Þ (10) r3

vs ¼ A11 εs þ A12 εq þ B11 ks þ B12 kq  N*s
r2
Ms  Mq r3 (18)
Qþ ¼ ðNs  N*s Þ (11)
r3 r2
By converting the curvatures into c-expressions and rear-
where Q is the transverse force and it links with the moment ranging derivative terms, we obtain the second equation for
according to Q ¼ vM
vs
s
. the ODE system:
17570 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 5 6 5 e1 7 5 7 6

 
v2 c D11 vD11 r3 vc vεs vεq A11 D11  B211
D11 þ þ  B11 þ B11 þ B12 G2 ¼ (27)
vs2 r3 vs r2 vs vs vs A11
 
B12  vD12 =vs D12 vr3 =vs þ D12  D22 Following the evaluation of Ms, the transverse force Q can
¼  c
r3 r23 be expressed as:
 
r3 B11  B21 vB11  
þ A11   εs v v2 εq B11 pR
r2 r3 vs Q¼ G1 $εq  R$G2 2 þ (28)
  vs vs A11 2
r3 B12  B22 vB12 r3
þ A12   εq  N*s (19)
r2 r3 vs r2 Analogously, Nq can be expressed by:
The last equation of the ODE system can be taken from the
v2 εq A12 pR
geometrical constraint [46]: Nq ¼ D1 εq  R$D2 þ (29)
vs2 A11 2
vεq εq  εs c Again, the auxiliary variables D1 and D2 as follows:
þ ¼ (20)
vs r3 r2
A11 ðA22  B22 =RÞ  A12 ðA12  B12 =RÞ
Subject to appropriate boundary conditions, the three D1 ¼ (30)
A11
variables c, εs and εq can be calculated based on equations (17),
(19) and (20). Note that the so obtained ODE system represents
A11 B12  A12 B11
a complete analytical description of the mechanical proper- D2 ¼ (31)
A11
ties on the dome for a composite pressure vessel, which, to
our best knowledge, has never been addressed in the litera- Inputting the expressions of Nq and Q into equation (23), we
ture before. The solving procedure is further elaborated in finally obtain the following fourth-order ODE with respect to
Implementation. The solution of the ODE system can further εq:
be applied for evaluating the profiles of e.g. Ms, Q, Nq, etc.     2
v2 G1 D1 vG1 vεq v2 G2 v εq
 εq þ 2 þ G1  R 2 þ D2
vs 2
R vs vs vs vs2
Force equilibrium on cylindrical body  2  
vG2 v εq
3
v εq
4
A12 R v B11
In contrast to the dome region, on the cylindrical body, the 2R  RG2 4 þ p 1  þ $ 2 ¼0 (32)
vs vs 3
vs 2A11 2 vs A11
curvatures can be expressed by equation (21):
Equation (32) therefore represents the mechanical re-
v2 εq εq sponses on the cylindrical body. Analogous to the ODE system
ks ¼ R$ ; kq ¼  (21)
vs2 R
in the previous section, by applying appropriate boundary
At the same time, the force balance is according to equa- conditions, εq can be obtained from the above ODE (equation
tion 22 and 23: (32)), which also allows the evaluation of other variables, such
as εs and Q. The coupling procedure of the ODEs on the cy-
R
Ns ¼ N*s ¼ p$ (22) lindrical body and on the dome is presented in
2
Implementation.
vQ Nq
 þp¼0 (23)
vs R Methodology
Applying the ABD relationship in equation (2) to equation
(22) yields the following relationship: Implementation
 
1 pR v2 εq εq The differential equations were numerically solved within
εs ¼  A12 εq þ B11 R 2 þ B12 (24)
A11 2 vs R MATLAB® 2018b, applying built-in solvers for ODE systems
(bvp4c). All derivatives of variables (e.g., ABD, r3, G, D, refer to
Equation (21) describe the curvatures and εs as function of
the Theory section) were evaluated by numerical differentia-
εq. With these relationships, it is convenient to express
tion. Overall computational time of the model is around 10 s
equation (23) only with εq. In order to evaluate the transverse
without parallel computing.
force resultant Q, we first calculate the moment Ms:
In the following, we present the boundary and coupling
 
B11 pR v2 εq εq v2 εq D12 conditions of the model. It shall be emphasized at this point
Ms ¼  A12 εq þ B11 R 2 þ B12 þ B12 εq  RD11 2  εq
A11 2 vs R vs R that the coupling of the two ODE (systems) which were pre-
v εq B11 pR
2
sented in the Theory section is of great significance, as the
¼ G1 $εq  R$G2 2 þ
vs A11 2 junction part is well-known to induce “discontinuity stresses”
(25) [46], primarily due to the sudden change in curvature.
Where for better readability, we define two auxiliary vari- At the dome polar opening (s boundary), we consider that
ables G1 and G2 as: the displacement in the radial direction (w) and the rotation
(c) are zero due to the connection to the boss part, which was
A11 ðB12  D12 =RÞ  B11 ðA12  B12 =RÞ assumed to be perfectly rigid. This gives the following
G1 ¼ (26)
A11 boundary conditions:
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 5 6 5 e1 7 5 7 6 17571

Ms; ¼ Ms;þ (39)

w ¼ 0; c ¼ 0 ðPolar openingÞ (33)

To implement the condition w ¼ 0 into the ODE system Parameter settings

(Force equilibrium on dome), it has to be converted to a strain
expression. For this purpose, we apply the following re- In this study, the tank is composed of a cylindrical body
lationships [46]: (757 mm length, 132 mm in diameter) and two domes of
ellipsoid shape (height around 102 mm). The polar opening has
vu w w¼0 vu a diameter of 60 mm. Fig. 4 illustrates this geometry.The liner
εs ¼ þ 0 εs ¼ (34)
vs r1 vs material is PA6 for gas tightness. The high performance carbon
fiber TORAYCA® T700 is mostly applied for the high pressure
w u w¼0 u
εq ¼ þ 0 εq ¼ (35) tank due to its excellent mechanical property. The boss con-
r2 r3 r3
sists of 6061 aluminum, while its mechanical property is
Eliminating u (displacement in the meridional direction) assumed to be perfectly rigid (see equation (33)). Additionally,
from the equations yields the following boundary condition the carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composite is assumed to be
with regard to strain variables: linear elastic. The mechanical properties are listed in Table 1.

vðr3 εq Þ
 εs ¼ 0 ðPolar openingÞ
vs
It shall be noted that the mechanical stresses at the polar
opening are not explicitly defined, but rather become the
calculation results, and are therefore dependent on the rest of
the model.
At the middle of the cylindrical body (þs boundary), the
symmetry condition indicates zero-gradient for the strains:
vεs vεq
¼ 0; ¼ 0 ðCylinder middleÞ
vs vs
With the boundary conditions obtained, the next step is to
find the coupling conditions of both ODE (systems) at the
junction. We note that the displacements (u, w) must be
continuous at the junction. Therefore, following equation (35),
εq is continuous yet no direction relationship can be found for
its meridional counterpart εs (du/ds is not necessarily contin-
uous in equation (34)). Instead, we consider the continuity of
transverse force (Q) and moment (Ms). For the solver, the
following conditions were directly applied:
Q ¼ Qþ ; εq; ¼ εq;þ ðCoupling at JunctionÞ
here, the index  represents the dome region immediately
adjacent to the junction, while index þ the cylindrical body.
To meet this requirement of Ms-continuity, the value of εq
at the junction was iterated until the condition as described by
equation (39) is met.
(36)
Results and discussion
Stress resultant
The CLT requires inputs of the stress resultant (N), the values
of which in axial and circumferential direction are depicted in
Fig. 5 (solid lines). It shall be additionally noted that N is equal
to the integral of the stress in the corresponding direction (s or
(37) q) with respect to the thickness direction.
To understand the profiles shown in Fig. 5, the predictions
of the idealised membrane theory (N*s , N*q ) from equation (6)
are also illustrated in Fig. 5 as dotted lines. Evidently, the
membrane theory recovers the well-known Barlow's formulae
on the cylindrical body, where N*q has a doubled value
compared to its axial counterpart, N*s .
At the junction, the membrane theory predicts a smooth
transition of N*s (note that r2 / R at the junction), yet a
considerable jump of N*q depending on the value r1. Even
negative values of Nq may occur locally if the dome is of rather
(38)
flat nature (r2/r1 > 2) [50], which is exactly the case as shown in
Fig. 5. Overall, the sudden change of N*q from cylinder to dome
region induces the well-known effects of “discontinuity
stresses”, which leads to significant deviations of the mem-
brane theory from the reality due to the neglecting of realistic
shear/bending effects.

Fig. 4 e Liner geometry and dimension applied in the present study. Winding angle a is defined as the angle between roving
and meridional direction.
17572 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 5 6 5 e1 7 5 7 6

Fig. 6 demonstrates the stress distribution of layers within

Table 1 e Material property of T700/Epoxy composites
different groups (i.e. with different winding angles) along the
[48,49].
tank. Taking advantages of symmetry, only stresses on the left
Parameter Symbol Value
half are shown. Evidently, the fiber stress caused by internal
Young's modulus in fiber direction E1 139 260 MPa pressure can be withstood by the composite strength
Young's modulus in transverse direction E2 5 989 MPa (2125 MPa) at all positions. On the cylinder, both inside and
Shear modulus G12 2 612 MPa
outside hoop layers are subjected to more circumferential
Poisson ratio n 0.26
Strength in fiber direction S1 2 125 MPa
stress than helical layers on cylinder, while the inside hoop
layers take around 20% more stress than the outside ones.
Although the helical layers with lower winding angle take
These additional shear/bending effects, particularly on the less stress on cylinder, they contribute as the main stress
dome or near to dome/cylinder transition, are reflected in carrier on the dome region, especially near the junction.
Fig. 5 by the difference between solid (Ns, Nq) and dotted lines Therefore, for the further optimization of the tank design
(N*s , N*q ). Evidently, by moving away from the junction on the using local reinforcement, it could be beneficial to apply the
cylinder, the shear/bending effects are dampened rapidly low angle tapes on the dome near the junction. On the other
within 100e150 mm distance. This also implies that the hand, the helical layers with higher winding angle strengthen
membrane theory is of sufficient accuracy in the bulk region the cylinder body more than the dome section, especially near
of the cylindrical body. the junction on the cylindrical part. Overall, this model pro-
On the other hand, the “realistic” bending/shear effects play vides the loading state of different layers with a quick calcu-
a significant role on all of the dome region, which necessitates lation process for a better understanding of the further the
its consideration for an accurate evaluation of tank mechanical tank design optimization.
performance, as it is the case in equations (7) and (8).
Comparison with 3D finite element results
Distribution of stresses
As verification of our developed model, finite element (FE)
It shall be emphasized that the ultimate tensile strength of the analysis was performed under the same layup. The three-
resin is far lower than the one of the fiber, the fiber shares dimensional FE model was implemented using the ANSYS
most of the radial and axial forces under the internal pressure, 2020 implicit integration tool. Modeling a solid geometry al-
and the shell can be regarded as a grid structure completely lows the thick wall effect to be reproduced in the gradient of
composed of fibers. Thus, the maximum stress in the fiber in-plane stresses (y, q) in the thickness direction (z). Herein,
direction is crucial and determines the pressure bearing ca- the internal pressure was set to 157.5 MPa analogous to the
pacity and safety of the pressure vessel or a certain design of analytical model. The tank burst pressure was estimated by
it. Therefore, in the present study, we particularly focus on the the max stress criteria without consideration of damage. In
stresses in the fiber direction. ANSYS ACP module, the layers were generated by the imported
lookup table which contains the information of each element
regarding its orientation and thickness profile along the tank
geometry. The roving orientation and thickness variation,
especially on the dome, were calculated via equations (S1) and

Fig. 5 e Calculated stress resultants in axial and

circumferential direction along the tank geometry (solid
lines). The dotted lines represent the predictions of the
“idealised” membrane theory omitting bending effects.
Dashed line at coordinate zero represents the junction Fig. 6 e Stress distribution along the tank geometry,
between the cylindrical body and the dome. calculated by analytical method in this study.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 5 6 5 e1 7 5 7 6
(S3)(Supplementary Material) before being implemented in
the look-up-table.
Meshing of the model was performed with higher order 3D
SOLID187 elements, which is well suited for modeling of
irregular meshes, especially in the case of helical layers with
varying thickness on the dome [51]. Overall, the model con-
sists of 584 944 elements, with a element size of 3 mm. The
model was constrained by fixation on only one side, whereas
the other side was set as free. The simulation time was
approximately 8 h with six-core parallel computing. Fig. 7
compares the stress distribution of various layers from the
developed analytical methodology with that from the FE
simulations. For a better visualization, the stress profiles were
averaged within each layer group with the same winding
angle.
Overall, the calculated stresses using the presented model
shows excellent qualitative and good quantitative alignment
with the 3D FEM results. The occurrence of maximum stress
within all layers was accurately predicted (inner hoop layers,
blue curves in Fig. 7), which gives indication on the maximum
pressure-bearing capacity of the current design. Within the
dome region, the findings that the helical layers are respon-
sible for less stresses with increasing winding angle, are
confirmed by the FE results.
Nonetheless, some quantitative discrepancies between the
FE and our analytical model can still be observed, for instance
regarding the peak positions of stresses in individual layers on
the dome. The discrepancies could be explained by the dif-
ference in smoothing algorithm of our layup generation tool
compared to the commercial pre-treatment module in ANSYS®
ACP, which further leads to small discrepancies of individual
layer thicknesses. At the same time, it shall be noted that this
region involves a rapid change of layer structure (with respect
to the axial coordinate), which results in strongly varying ABD
properties of the composite laminate. As it was demonstrated
in the governing ODE system for the dome mechanics, the first
Fig. 7 e Comparison of stress distributions (averaged
within each layer group) along the tank geometry. Solid
lines show the results from the present model, while
dashed-dotted lines illustrate the results from 3D finite
element simulation.
17573
derivative of ABD-entries plays a significant role on the me-
chanical response. The strongly varying ABD values could
have induced numerical inaccuracies and explain the differ-
ences observed in Fig. 7.
Application to a different layup design
For a further confirmation of the model accuracy, we inves-
tigate a significantly different composite layup with both
analytical and FE simulation approaches. The layer stacking
sequence and estimated stress are demonstrated in Fig. 8.
Analogous to Fig. 7, the stress profiles were averaged within
each layer group with the same winding angle for visualiza-
tion purposes.
This scenario was selected to emphasize the mechanical
response near the transition from dome to cylinder. In the
layup design, the composite layers over the junction was
intentionally designed to be relatively weak, applying only
four layers of 54 helical layers. Thus, it is not surprising that
the overall stresses become the most critical near the junction
part, particularly in the case of “responsible” layers, i.e. the
inner/outer hoop and 54 helical layers. The peak for the he-
lical layers as well as the local maximum for the hoop layers
are very well captured by both modeling approaches, which
also show excellent quantitative agreement here. Analogously
to the previous design, this high “discontinuity stresses”
observed near the junction is dampened on the cylindrical
body, reaching a stable and uniform distribution within a
distance of around 100 mm. Here, the predicted trend of the
analytical model agrees reasonably well with the FE results.
On the dome, both modeling approaches yielded nearly
identical qualitative trend of stress profile on all helical layers.
For instance, at the axial coordinate of around 30 mm
(30 mm from the junction on the dome), a peak may be
observed for 15 -helical layer, as well as two troughs for 30
and 54 layers.
Nonetheless, some quantitative discrepancy up to around
20% may still be observed in Fig. 8 within both dome and
cylinder regions. the stress distributions manifest a quanti-
tative discrepancy. As noted in the previous section, differ-
ences in the layup generation algorithm could be one
explanation for this discrepancy. Since FE simulations are
typically also subject to certain error rate, we consider the
observed quantitative differences between the two modeling
approaches acceptable. It shall be emphasized that this ac-
curacy of the presented methodology was achieved while
reducing the computational cost by a factor of > 10 000 times
compared to 3D FE simulation (~10 s serial vs. ~8 h parallel on
six cores).
Discussion on the developed methodology
By comparing the results of the presented analytical method
against the ones obtained by FE analysis (Comparison with 3D
finite element results), we demonstrated good qualitative and
quantitative agreement between these two methods, thus
verifying the accuracy of presented analytical methodology.
This is also the case within the dome region as the most
critical and complex section of the whole tank. It shall be
noted that the stress state on the dome is very sensible to
17574 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 5 6 5 e1 7 5 7 6
Fig. 8 e Resulted stress distributions of the second layup
design, utilizing 6 £ inner hoop, 10 £ 15 -helical, 6 £ 30 -
helical, 4 £ 54 -helical and 14 £ outer hoop layers. The
stress distributions are compared with finite element
simulation results.
small changes on liner geometrical shape and composite layer
stacking sequence [46,52]. An accurate mechanical analysis
on the dome as well as within the boundary region (close to
junction) is indispensable for an in-depth theoretical under-
standing of the pressure vessel, which is essential for a
advanced tank design.
The greatest advantage of this analytical approach is rep-
resented by its transparent procedure as a “white box”. Every
calculation step can be retraced, which simplifies the analysis
in case of abnormal results due to inappropriate parameter
setting. In contrast, retracing errors from an FE study (“black
box”) can be particularly burdensome: it becomes sometimes
hard to tell whether simulation issues (a common one being
the convergence issue) stem from poor individual tank de-
signs or a numerical problem such as insufficient mesh
quality and unreasonable boundary settings.
Besides, the presented analytical approach is capable of
providing intermediate results such as stress resultants and
stress/strain within the global coordinate (axial and circum-
ferential direction). This information provides additional in-
sights of the tank design and is particularly useful for a quick
plausibility check of the model outcomes, e.g. through a rough
calculation by the use of simplified shell theory.
Another essential part of the pressure vessel design is tank
optimization. The first composite structure presented in this
study is able to withstand the required pressure very well
based on the maximum stress criterion, as the stress of indi-
vidual layer is lower than the material strength. At the same
time, a total of 40 layers were applied. Since carbon fiber is the
main cost driver of the pressure vessel, the major purpose of
the design optimization lies on the minimization of carbon
fiber usage while fulfilling the mechanical requirement. This
necessitates parametric variations on aspects such as winding
sequence and individual winding angles. Applying the FE
analysis for this purpose induces extremely high computa-
tional costs and requires a highly robust combined model. On
the other hand, the model we have presented in this study
allows a quick evaluation of tank mechanical property with
orders of magnitudes savings in computational effort. With a
fast calculation process and a robust solver, the model is
capable of verifying various designs (including stacking
sequence and liner geometries) to optimize the mechanical
property of the tank within a short time frame.
Conclusion
In the present study, we performed an analytical investigation
on the mechanical response of type IV composite pressure
vessels under an internal pressure of 157.5 MPa. The govern-
ing equations of the mechanical performance were derived
from classical laminate theory and force equilibrium along the
tank geometry, with special focus on the highly complex
dome region. The analytical results agree nearly perfectly
with FE outcomes, with very slight deviation near the polar
opening. Particularly, the complicated stress state in the dome
region and adjacent to the junction was well represented by
the analytical model. With the accuracy of the model
confirmed, the advantages of the analytical approach lie on its
flexibility and transparency, allowing the retracing of every
single processing step. This supports a better understanding
of computed results and enables relatively straightforward
manual “plausibility checks”. Additionally, a rapid computa-
tional process with a robust solver make the modeling more
cost and time effective compared to other methods.
Considering further research, the presented model is
capable of performing failure analysis such as Hashin's
criteria, which is able to identify various failure modes and
provides more insights on the composite behaviour with
allowable material properties [53,54]. Another viable direction
for the extension of the model would be combined thermal
and mechanical loadings, for instance during fast refilling
processes [55], where it is known that temperature may raise
by several tens of degrees. In addition, the material property
degradation method (MPDM) and cohesive element (CE)
method may be implemented in this model as well, which
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 5 6 5 e1 7 5 7 6
serves the purpose to investigate intra-laminar failure of
composite laminates as well as the initiation and evolution of
delamination phenomenon between the layers [32].
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.01.223.
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