Chapter 2

Categories can be divided into two main classes: lexical and functional.
The lexical categories include noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and preposition and are called
lexical because they carry lexical meaning.
There are also functional or grammatical categories which include determiner, auxiliary,
coordinator and complementizer; they do not contribute much to the meaning of a sentence but
determine the syntax of it.
The difference between lexical and grammatical is often put in terms of open as opposed to closed
categories, the lexical categories being opened, and the grammatical ones being closed.
1. Lexical categories
The five lexical categories are noun, verb, adjective, adverb and preposition: they carry
meaning and often words with a similar or opposite meaning can be found.
Semantic definitions are not completely adequate and we need to define categories syntactically.
Syntactically chair is unknown because it combines with the article and morphologically is unknown
because it takes a plural ending as in chairs.
1.1. Nouns (N) and Verbs (V)
A noun generally indicates a person place or thing (like chair, table, and book).
Certain nouns such as action and destruction would be verbs since they imply action: they are
preceded by the article the, actions can be made singular by taking the plural -s off, and
destruction can be pluralised with an -s:
1) The actions by the government came too late
2) The hurricane caused the destruction of the villages
Possessive ‘s appears only on nouns or noun phrases:
3) Jenny's neighbour always knows the answer
4) That writer has modernised postmodernism
Syntactic reasons for calling nouns nouns are that nouns are often preceded by the.
Nouns can also be preceded by that and if they are followed by another noun there has to be a
preposition such as by and of.
Nouns cannot always be defined as people or things; verbs are not always acts.
The verb be represented in (5) by the 3rd person present form is does not express an action:
5) The book is red and blue
Verbs can express tense: the verb ends in -s when it has a 3rd person singular subject; it may
have an affix (-ize).
They can be followed by a noun as well as by a preposition and they can be preceded by an
auxiliary.
In English nouns can easily be used as verbs and verbs as nouns.
Morphological differences involve the shape of an element while syntactic ones involve how the
element fits in a sentence; the semantic differences involve meaning.
 1.2 Adjectives (Adj) and Adverbs (Adv)
Adverbs and adjectives are semantically very similar in that both modify another element: an
adjective modifies a noun and an adverb modifies a verb, an adjective or adverb.
Since an adjective modifies a noun the quality it describes will be one appropriate to a noun
(nationality, colour, age…).
Adverbs often modify actions and will then provide information typical of those: manner, duration,
place and time.
When adverbs modify adjectives or other adverbs they are called degree adverbs (very, so, too)
Often an adverb is formed from an adjective by adding -ly.
In (6) fast is an adjective because it modifies the noun car, but in (7) it is an adverb since it
modifies the verb drove:
6) That fast car must be a police car
7) That car drove faster until it saw the photo radar
Words such as hard and fast can be adjectives or adverbs, depending on the interpretation.
A last point to make about adjectives and adverbs is that most can be used to compare or contrast
two or more things: we call such forms the comparative or superlative.
One way to make these forms is to add -er/-est as in nicer/nicest but not all adjectives or adverbs
allow this ending, some need to be preceded by more/most.
There are also irregular comparative and super lative forms such as good, better, best, bad,
worse and worst.
1.3 Prepositions (P)
Prepositions typically express place or time, direction, causation or relation; they are invariable
informal and have to occur before a noun.
On occasion prepositions are used on their own:
8) He went in, date run out, and he jumped down
These words are considered adverbs not prepositions: the difference between prepositions and
adverbs is that prepositions come before the nouns they relate to an that adverbs are on their own.
Instead of, outside of, away from and as for are also considered to be prepositions even though
they consist of more than one word.
Prepositions are transformed into verbs:
9) They upped the price

2. Grammatical categories
The main grammatical categories are determiner, auxiliary, coordinator and complementizer
and their function is to make the lexical categories fit together.
2.1. Determiner
The determiner category includes the articles a(n) and the, as well as demonstratives,
possessive, pronouns, possessive nouns, some quantifiers, some interrogatives and some
numerals.
They can be divided into predeterminers (PreD), central determiners (CentrD) and
postdeterminers (PostD).
Determiners occur with a noun to specify which noun is meant or whose it is.
There are four demonstratives in English: this, that, these and those.
Possessive pronouns include my, your, his, her, its, our and their.
When both determiner and an adjective precede a noun the determiner always precedes the
adjective as in (10) and not the other way round, as in (11)
10) Their irritating dog ate my delicious food
11) *Irritating their dog ate delicious my food
Interrogatives such as whose in whose books, what in what problems and which in which
computer are determiners.
Quantifiers such as any, many, much and all are usually considered determiners: some are used
before other determiners, namely, all both and half as in (12) and these quantifiers are called pre-
determiners:
12) All the books; half that man’s money; both those problems
Numerals are sometimes determiners.
2.2. Auxiliary (AUX)
The auxiliary verb functions to help another verb but does not itself contribute to the meaning of
the sentence.
Verbs such as have, be and do can be lexical verbs or auxiliaries.
Because auxiliaries help other verbs they cannot occur on their own.
2.3. Coordinator ( C ) and Complementizer ( C )
Coordinators are relatively simple and join similar categories or phrases while complementizers
introduce subordinate clauses and look remarkably similar to prepositions and adverbs.
Coordinators such as and and or join two elements of the same kind and they are also sometimes
called coordinating conjunctions.
Complementizers such as that, because, whether if, and since join two clauses where one close
is subordinate to the other and they are also called subordinating conjunctions or
subordinators.
Coordinators and complementizers are invariable in English but complementizers introduce a new
clause whereas prepositions are connected to a noun.
There is a group of words yet however nevertheless therefore and so as in (13) that connects one
sentence to another:
13) You are anxious for a compliment so I will tell you that you have improved her

3. Pronouns
Pronouns are a hybrid category since they do not carry much lexical meaning but they can
function on their own this makes them hard to classify as lexical or grammatical categories.
Personal pronouns such as I, me, she, he, and it and reflexive pronounce such as myself,
yourself and herself are seen as grammatical categories.
Personal pronouns can be divided according to number into singular and plural and according to
person into first second and third person.
For example I and me are first person singular and we and as our first personal plural, the second
person pronoun you is used both as singular and as plural, third person singular pronouns he/him,
she/her and eat are divided according to gender and the third person plural pronouns are they and
them.
Almost all determiners except the articles can stand on their own.
There are some possessive pronouns that occur on their own such as mine, yours, his, hers,
ours and theirs.
Indefinite pronouns such as anyone, anybody, everyone, someone, something and nothing
occur frequently and are in many ways similar to personal pronouns and there are many other
indefinites that are similar to adverbs such as anywhere nowhere sometime and somewhere.

Chapter 3
Sentences can be divided into groups of words that belong together.
1. The noun phrase (NP)
An NP is built around a noun (N -> unicorn is the head of the NP).
NPs can contain determiners and adjectives as well as other elements.
The lines, called “branches” indicate how the phrase is divided up, and branches come together in
“nodes”

Nice in (4) is itself the head of an Adjective Phrase and we could indicate that as in (5)
One way to go about this tree is to find the head unicorn, to label the entire phrase as NP, and to
draw branches from the NP down to D on the left and if there is more than one word left, to N’ on
the right.
The N’ functions as placeholder until you can put the N down.
An important function of the head is to determine the agreement with the verb.
Since the head is an N, you have to put down the NP and then go to the D on the left and the N’ on
the right.
You need an N’ because you have more than just the head wocket.
Then, if you put pleasant on the left, you need another N’ on the right and you get (10a).
If you first want to put the PP on the right, you need an N’ on the left to be a placeholder for the
adjective and the noun and the result is (10b).

In (10) I am representing my pocket as an NP because it has a D and an N head, if the NP had

been a pronoun or a name, the structure would have been as in (11).
NP – she
NP – Edward
Frequently, a relative clause, is part of an NP, as shown by brackets modifying the head person:
14) [The person [who wore that ugly hat]] is the queen
Structures such ad (10) are called trees, the lines connecting parts of the trees are called
branches, and the points where the branches come together are called nodes.
2. The adjective phrase, adverb phrase, verb phrase and prepositional phrase
2.1 The adjective phrase (AdjP) and adverb phrase (AdvP)
AdjPs are built around adjectives, which indicate properties of nouns; AdvPs are built around
adverbs which indicate qualities of verbs, adverbs and adjectives.
Very, too, extremely, really are adverbs of a special kind: they always modify another adverb or
adjective and never modify a verb.
In (13a) the head of the AdjP is the adjective nice, and this head is modified by a degree adverb
so; in (13b) the adverb quickly expands into a phrase and is modified by the degree adverb very.
2.2 The verb phrase (VP)
A VP is built around a verb and the latter can be in the present or past tense.
Some VPs include other obligatory material and they’re called complements.

The VP can also include optional material that explains when, where, why and how the action or
state that the verb describes took place.
A VP can be pronominalized (these are pro-VPs).
2.3 The prepositional phrase (PP)
A PP is built around a preposition.

PP can be replaced by the adverbs then, when, how, there…

It is not always easy to determine what role they play and their function in a sentence.
15) She saw the man with glasses
The PP with glasses modifies the man and functions inside the NP the man with glasses; in the
other case, the PP is independent of the NP since it modifies the VP and specifies how the seeing
was done.
 4. Coordination of phrases and apposition
Phrases and categories can be coordinated and coordination can be used to recognize phrases
and categories.
16) Books and magazines sell easily

5. Finding phrases and building trees

A phrase is a group of words forming a unit and united around a head.
We can build trees from top to bottom or from bottom to top:
17) The boy with the read hat using
 Chapter 4
Phrases have functions in the sentence, certain functions such as subject and direct object
occupy specific positions in the tree.
The four basic functions are subject, predicate, complement and adverbial.
1. Subject and predicate
Every complete sentence has a subject and a predicate: the subject is usually realized by an NP
and the predicate is always realized by a VP.
In (18) the moon is the subject and has risen in the sky is the predicate.
18) [The moon] [has risen in the sky]
Typically subjects start off a sentence but there are a number of constructions where they don’t (in
case of an adverb or an auxiliary); since the subject is not always the initial word or phrase of the
sentence, we need other ways to determine the subject.
The moon is the subject since it can change place with has, as in the question (19):
19) Has [the moon] just risen in the sky?
The NP that determines agreement on the verb is the subject.
The subject the moon is singular and if we pluralize it to the moons, the verb becomes plural as
well:
20) The moons have just risen in the sky.
The third test for determining the subject involves adding a tag question and seeing what the
pronoun in the tag replaces:
21) The moon has just risen in the sky, hasn’t it?

2. Complements
A complement is what has to follow the verb and come in different flavours, as direct and indirect
objects and as subject and object predicates.
2.1 Direct and indirect object
A common function in the sentence is the direct object:
22) Harry Potter played [a game]
Objects occur as sisters to the verb and can be turned into subjects in a passive construction.
 23) [The letter from Hogwarts] was read by him
The letter from Hogwarts functions as the subject because in a question it would switch with the
auxiliary verb was.
Passive sentences are variants of non-passive or active ones and come about by switching the
subject and the object and by adding a form of to be as in (24):
24) I saw him -> He was seen (by me)
Passive are useful when we don’t know who the agent of the action is and they often occur when
the object is more definite than the subject.
The indirect object expresses the goal or the beneficiary of the action and it also can be passivized
as well, and in a sentence with both a direct and indirect object, it is the indirect object that
becomes the subject.
Indirect objects can be preceded by the prepositions to, in the case of the goal, and for, in the
case of a beneficiary but they cannot become the subject of a passive sentence:
25) *Santa was given a letter to

2.2 Subject and object predicate

The subject predicate is usually realized as an AdjP, it makes a claim about the subject and can
also be an NP or a PP:
26) He is [pleasant]
27) He is [a nice person]
28) He is [in the garden]
The verb used in sentences with a subject predicate is usually either be or become or can be
replaced by it.
In these sentences, the adjective functioning as a subject predicate says something about the
subject, but an adjective can also say something about a direct object.
3. Verbs and functions
Verbs that select objects are called transitive verbs and those that don’t are called intransitive.
If the verb selects one object, it is (mono) transitive; if the verb selects two objects, it is
ditransitive.
Verbs that select a subject predicate, are called copula verbs or linking verbs and those that
have both an object and an object predicate are called complex transitive.
Examples of intransitives are swim, walk, arrive, cough, sleep and sneeze and they do not need a
complement.
Examples of (mono-)transitives are eat, read, see, hear, plant, write, compose, paint, love, hate,
drink, hit and hug and they have a direct object complement.
Examples of ditransitives are give, tell, bake, cook and play.
Examples of copula verbs are be, become, go, feel, look, grow, seem and smell.
Examples of complex transitives are consider, know, elect, keep, prove, judge, make and regard.
They have direct objects and object predicates as their complements.
Verb types:
intransitive ->no direct/indirect object, only one argument or complement functioning as subject
Sally was sleeping
(mono)transitive -> one direct object, two arguments or complements: subject + direct object
Sally hates spiders
ditransitive -> three arguments or complements: subjects + indirect object/to-prepositional object
+ direct object
Sally handed Tom the document / Sally handed the document to Tom
copular/linking verbs -> two arguments or complements: subject + subject complement
(intransitive but complex)
Sally grew tired
complex transitive -> three arguments or complements: subject + direct object + object
complement (transitive and complex)
She named the baby Tracy
4. Trees for all verb types
Intransitive may occupy the entire VP:

A structure for the (mono)transitive verb and for the copula verb:

In complex transitive verb the object and predicate in some way form a unit:
 Chapter 5
Adverbials are not always realized as Adverb Phrases but can also be realized as PPs or NPs.
1. Adverbials
When adverbials modify verbs, they express when, where, how and why the action takes place, so
they give background information on time, place, manner and cause of the event.
They can be divided into:
adjuncts -> they provide information on when, where, how, why…
conjuncts -> they are used to conjoin clauses
disjuncts -> used to comment on what is being said

The NP the story is sister to the V wrote and is therefore the object; the AdvP quickly is sister to
the intermediate V’ wrote the story, and therefore modifies that.
Quickly tells you how the story was written and is therefore an adverbial.
You start with S, whose daughters are always NP and VP, as shown in (2a); the NP happens to be
a pronoun, so nothing else needs to be done to the NP in terms of branches.
The VP consists of a V wrote, an object the story and an adverbial quickly.
Now add the words to V and branches and words to the NP and AdvP and you have the finished
tree of (1).

Sentence adverbials do not modify the action of the VP but express the views and the mood of the
speaker

A sentence can have many adverbials like in sentence (29):

29) [Unfortunately] he drove the car [to work] [that morning] [without his glasses]
[because the bus had broken down]
Adverbials are not realized as AdvPs such as quickly, but also as NPs (that morning), PPs (to work
and without his glasses) and clauses (because the bus had broken down).
This means NPs function also as adverbials while AdvPs only function as adverbials.
PPs function mainly as adverbials and subject predicates but they also function as objects to
certain verbs.
2. Prepositional verbs
Prepositional verbs are verbs such as abide by, refer to, glance at, lean against, add to, allow for,
approve of, care for, insist on, resort to, apply for, account for, reply to, absolve from, long for,
yearn for, result in, argue about and defer to.
These verbs require a PP and that’s why the PP is considered an object rather than an adverbial.
DON’T CONFUSE: prepositional object (on that remark) with object of the preposition (that remark)
3. Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs must be distinguished from prepositional verbs and from verbs with an adverbial.
Examples of phrasal verbs are call up, bring up, cover up, look over, take away, turn in, put down,
take off, put on, switch on/off, hand in, make out.
The prepositions up, in, down and on accompanying these verbs have become particles rather
than prepositions or adverbs since they no longer always express place or direction.
The verb and particle are placed in V together, whereas the object is a separate NP.

One of the easy criteria for determining if a verb is phrasal is whether the (pronominalized) object
can be put between the verb and the particle:
30) They called him up
31) They covered it up
This is not possible with prepositional verbs:
32) *They abided it by
The V and particle form a unit and the object is an NP, not a PP and this is why a pause can occur
between the verb particle complex and the NP object (33) but not between the V and the unit which
is not a phrase (34):
33) She put down – the customers
34) *She put – down the customers

The NP objects of a phrasal verb can be coordinated but the particle and NP cannot be
coordinated with another particle:
35) She put down the customers and the owner
36) *She put down the customers and down the owner
Moving the NP object to the left by itself is ok but moving the particle and the NP together is not ok:
37) It was the customers she put down
38) *It was down the customers she put

4. Phrasal prepositional verbs

Constructions with phrasal prepositional verbs combine a verb, a particle, a preposition and an
NP.
Other examples are cut down on, catch up on, get away with, stand up for, face up to and check up
on.
5. Objects and adverbials
Adverbials are optional but that objects and predicates are not; and adverbial PP can be left out:
39) He slept [during the meeting]
40) He slept
A second criterion for distinguishing the different functions is passivization because direct and
indirect objects and the NP in the prepositional object can be passivized and after they function as
subjects.
Objects of phrasal verbs can also be passivized but subject and object predicates cannot be
passivized.

Chapter 6
A VP can have four auxiliary and one lexical verb; this will be called Verb Group and
abbreviated as VGP in the trees.
1. Auxiliary verbs
Verbs can be divided into lexical and auxiliary verbs; a VP contains one lexical verb and
(optionally) up to four auxiliaries.
Lexical verbs can be further divided into intransitive arrive, walk, copula be, transitive see, eat…
These verbs carry a real meaning and are not dependent on another verb, the VP may contain
auxiliaries which are then grouped together with the lexical verb in a Verb Group and they depend
on another verb and add grammatical information (they are also called helping verbs since they
help out other verbs).
Auxiliaries invert in questions, can precede the negative n’t, can be used in tag questions and
can be used to emphasize that the action did indeed take place:
41) Has she gone yet?
42) She hasn’t done that yet.
43) She hasn’t done that yet, has she?
44) She has actually said that!
The Verb Group will be represented as a flat tree structure:
 2. The five types of auxiliaries in English
2.1 Modals
Modals do not have agreement or tense endings; they are the first to occur in a sequence of
auxiliaries and do not require an ending; the modals might and could are first and the verb
following it does not have an affix:
45) It might rain
46) Rigobertha could be going tomorrow
There are modals in English: can, could, shall, should, may, might, will, would and must; modal
auxiliaries express uncertainty, necessity, ability or permission.
Modals are also used where some languages would use the subjunctive mood:
47) They insisted that he should go
Modals are often used when we ask a favour of someone, or when we want to be polite; the past
form in (46) is seen as more polite than the “present form” because could is more polite since it
expresses a more remote possibility; can is more direct and hence seen as less polite:
48) Could I borrow some money?
The modal will is used to express future:
49) He will go to Mars next year
There are special modals, called semi-modals: dare to, need to, have to and ought to: they are
seen as modals since they express obligation, ability, and necessity; used to is sometimes added
to this group, but it is much more regular auxiliary expressing habituality.
2.2 Perfect have
Have follows the modal if there is one: it is called the perfect auxiliary and abbreviated as “pf”
and it is used to indicate that a past action still has relevance and that mixture of tense and aspect
is called the “present perfect”.
When have is used, the verbal following it is marked with an -ed ending.
The form of the verbal that is the result of “affix-hop” is called the past participle, or -ed participle.
Affix-hop is so called because the affix appears on the verb to the immediate right of the auxiliary it
goes with.
The present tense a is used when the time of the event and the utterance are the same; the past
is used when the event is at an earlier time and the future is used when the event is at a later time.
The present perfect is used when the event started earlier but includes the time of speech and the
past perfect is used when there is a reference time in the past and the event occurred before that
time; the future perfect as a time reference in the future by which time the event will have occurred.

Examples:
I know the answer / I knew the answer yesterday / He’ll do it
I have lived here for ages / He had done it by 5 a.m. / He’ll have done it by 5 a.m.
2.3 Progressive be
The progressive, abbreviated as “progr” indicates that the action is or was in progress.
In (50) to (54) the aspect is progressive, but the tense is present, past and future; since the
progressive indicates that an action is or was in progress, it is incompatible with verbs that express
a state.
50) Zoya is walking
51) Zoltan was playing the piano when a noise disturbed him
52) He will be walking the dog
53) *He is knowing the answer
54) *The book is being blue
To form the progressive, a form of to be is used: the verb that follows this auxiliary has an -ing
ending and it is called a present participle, or -ing participle.
The present progressive expresses that the event is taking place for some time at the time of the
utterance; the pass progressive that is it was taking place for some. In the past; and the future
progress if that an event will be taking place in the future.

Examples:
I am working / I was working / I will be working
Some people argue that certain forms of be are not auxiliary verbs but lexical ones, and that the -
ing forms are adjectives:
55) My nice walking shoes are very light
Walking in (50) where it refers to an action, is very different from walking in (55) where it describes
the qualities of a noun.
2.4 Passive be
Passive constructions are made from active ones by switching the subject and the object around
and by adding a form of to be.
This passive auxiliary is abbreviated as “pass” in the tree and the verb following this be has a past
participle ending:
56) I see him -> He is seen by me
In the active (56a), the Verb Group consists of a modal, a perfect and a lexical verb.
Because of the perfect have, the form of the verb see is a participle: in (56b) the passive be is
added and now its form is that of past participle because it follows have; seen appears as past
participle as well because it follows the passive be:
57) Zoya may have seen Zoltan -> Zoltan may have been seen by Zoya
Passive participles can often be analysed as adjectives and are then not part of the Verb Group:
the form of be is not an auxiliary but a copula:
58) She was delighted to get chocolate
The regular passive is constructed with the auxiliary be; if there are two be auxiliaries, the first is
the progressive and the second one is the passive auxiliary:
59) Treatable chronic liver disease may be being missed in primary care
3. Auxiliaries, “affix-hop” and the verbgroup (VGP)
The verb that immediately follows a particular auxiliary bears the ending, also called affix, of that
auxiliary.
Since the affix associated with a particular auxiliary does not appear on the auxiliary but on the
next verb, this process is called affix-hop and the auxiliaries and lexical verb go together in a
verbgroup or VGP.

60) He hasn't been doing his homework

 Chapter 7
There are also coordinated clauses: they involve at least two clauses that are joined by and, and
both coordinated clauses are of equal importance.
Both embedded and coordinated constructions enable us to make very long sentences and once
we had never heard before.
1. Sentences and clauses
A simple clause contains one lexical verb: if there are two lexical verbs, there are two clauses.
In (59) the lexical verbs are noticed and like and there are two clauses: the main clause (I should
have noticed that Zelda doesn't like Zoltan) and the embedded one (Zelda doesn't like Zoltan):
61) [I should have noticed [that Zelda doesn't like Zoltan]]
The embedded clause in (59) is part of the main clause and we could split it up into two clauses:
62) I should have noticed it. Zelda doesn't like Zoltan.
Auxiliaries, such as should and does are not relevant for determining the number of clauses or
sentences; only lexical verbs are.
In a coordinated sentence, there are also two lexical verbs but they are joined by a coordinator; in
(63) we have the main verbs arrived and ate and the coordinator and:
63) [The food arrived] and [they ate]
The complementizer that in (61) functions to link the embedded sentence to the main clause, but
can often be left out in English; both clauses have a VP containing a finite verb but embedded
sentences can be non-finite as well.
2. The functions of clauses
Embedded clauses function inside another clause as subject, direct or phrasal object, subject
predicate or adverbial.
64) [That she left] was nice -> subject
65) The problem is [that she reads junk] -> subject predicate
66) I figured out [that it didn’t work] -> phrasal object
67) He read books [because it was required] -> adverbial
Inside an NP or AdjP, clauses function as modifiers or complements.
3. The structure of the embedded clause: The Complementizer Phrase (CP)
Embedded sentences have complementizers that connect the embedded clause to another clause;
these complementizers are sisters to S and a sentence with a complementizer is a
Complementizer Phrase, abbreviated as CP.

Using a CP makes it possible to include the complementizer in the sentence and link the
embedded S to the main S.
In (11) the embedded CP is the sister to noticed, which means that it functions as the direct object
to noticed.
There are also embedded clauses that express questions: in these, the C position can be
occupied by if or by whether as in (12) where the CP functions as a direct object
Trees for a CP as subject and a subject predicate clause are given in (13) and (14):

Other examples of complementizers are because, before, after, unless and since; these particular
complementizers are often used to introduce adverbial clauses.
In a sentence such as (15) the because-clause can also precede he read books, as in:
Because it was required, he read books

4. Coordinate sentences: The Coordinator Phrase (CP)?

68) [She arrived] and [he left]
69) [Phoenix is a city in Arizona] and [the moon is made of cheese]
Sentences that are more closely connected have a coordinator and; then the secondo clause is
subordinated to the first.
In (69) neither clause is subordinate to the other:

Coordinated structures, especially the ones with a closer connection between the clauses, often
leave out the second subject if it is identical to the first, as in (70), this is analysed as ellipsis
(deletion of the second subject) but it is also possible to repeat the subject as in (71) or use a
pronoun:
70) [Streams of people arrived] and [ate arctic anchovies]
71) [Streams of people arrived] and [streams of people ate arctic anchovies]

Chapter 8
Non-finite sentences contain only non-finite verbs, can only function as parts of another
sentence and are not considered well-formed.
Since they are not complete sentences, they cannot be coordinated unless that coordinated
structure is itself embedded.
1. Non-finite clauses
There are three kinds of non-finite clauses, namely those whose verb groups contain infinitives,
present particles or past particles.
In (72) there are two lexical verbs, expected and go: this means there are two clauses; the non-
finite clause her to go is the object of expected.
 72) [I expected [her to go]]
73) [I e xpected [that she would go]]
The infinitive implies something uncertain or something that will happen in the future.
There are two types of infinitives: one with to and one without to:
74) She made [him leave]
The bare infinitive in (74) occurs only as the object after verbs such as make, see, hear and feel.
The infinitival clause with to frequently has for as complementizer.
To will be put inside this Verb Group since it is similar to a modal (infinitive marker -> “inf”).
There are two other kinds of non-finite Verb Groups, referred to as particles: they involve the
present participle ending in -ing and the past participle ending in -ed or -en:
75) [Walking down Rural Road], he was bothered by the traffic lights
76) [Kidnapped last night], he is in Central Asia right now
The participle clause in (75) can have while as a complementizer.
A third characteristic of non-finites is that the subject is not nominative:
77) I want [him to go]
78) *I want he to go
If the subject of the non-finite clause is not a pronoun, the accusative or objective case on this
subject is of course not visible:
79) She couldn’t bear to see [Edward suffering]
In (79) suffering is a verb but in (80a) it is a noun because it is preceded by a possessive which
can be replaced by an article:
80) She couldn’t bear to see [his/Edward’s suffering]
She couldn’t bear to see [the suffering of him/Edward]
Finite embedded clauses, as in (81a) can become independent from the main clause by leaving
the complementizer that out, as in (81b).
A non-finite clause, as in (82a) can be the object inside another clause but on its own, as in (82b) it
is not a complete sentence:
81) I know [that he left]
He left
82) I want [him to go]
*Him to go

2. The functions of non-finites

They function at sentence level as subject, direct object, adverbial and subject predicate:
83) [Eating pancakes] is a pleasant thing
84) I love [eating pancakes]
85) They went there [to eat fry bread and chocolate]
86) The problem is [to decide on what to eat]
 3. The structure: CP
The non-finite clause is similar in structure to the finite clause but it is a little more reduced:

The C Position can be filled by for in a number of cases.

Non-finite clauses need not include a subject because the subject may be understood.

To hike around Weaver’s Needle is pleasant

4. Coordinating non-finites
Non-finite clauses can be coordinated:
87) The point is [[to watch the whales] and [to participate in fun]]
 Chapter 9
1. The structure of the PP, AdjP and AdvP and the functions inside
The structure of the Prepositional Phrase is straightforward, with a P head and an NP complement:

The preposition is the head of the PP and the NP that follows always functions as complement.
Instances of Adjective Phrases are very fancy, blatantly illegal, perfectly safe…
88) That was [blatantly illegal]
These phrases are called AdjPs because their heads are adjectives.

A structure for an AdjP would be as in (3) where illegal is the head and the adverb blatantly
modifies it:

(3) contains an Adj head and an AdvP modifier; in very rare cases, there can be a complement to
the adjective as well.
In (89) of his catch does not describe the manner or the place of being proud but what someone is
proud of his catch is the complement of proud:
89) He was [blatantly proud of his catch]
Some other examples of adjectives that have complements are able, afraid, aware, conscious,
fond, glad, happy, mad, proud, reasonable and successful.
The AdvPs can be expanded by a modifier that precedes the head:
90) The majority of popular community fish will survive very happily on this diet

The adverbs that modify adverbs are few in number: some examples are very, so, too, extremely,
really and quite and they are all degree adverbs.
2. The structure of the NP and the functions inside

In (11a) the AdjP blue modifies the head in that it describes a quality or characteristic of the
manatee.
From Florida in (11b) modifies the head as well as since it tells you where the manatee is from.
Modifiers can precede or follow the head and they are sometimes called pre-modifiers and post-
modifiers.
An NP in English can also contain what is called a complement to the noun:
91) The teacher [of Martin]
92) Their discussion [about genetics]
 93) The student [of elephants]
94) Your reply [to my letter]
The nouns that can have complements are verb-like.
One way to check if a PP is a complement is to make the noun into a verb, if you change the
nouns into verbs the complements change into direct objects and into prepositional objects:
95) You teach [Martin]
96) They discussed [genetics]
97) She studied [elephants]
98) You replied [to my letter]
Modifiers are quite free and can occur with many nouns while complements are more restricted
and only go with certain nouns.
Complements to the N can be represented in the tree as sisters to the head:

D appears right underneath the NP

The determiner includes articles, quantifiers, demonstratives and possessives.

The pre-determiner may be added as a function inside the NP:
99) All the nice books; half the people; both my pictures
The last element we are adding to the NP is the focuser or emphasizer; some of the ones that
occur in English are just, only, especially and even.
3. Arguments for distinguishing complements from modifiers
Some elements are more closely related to the head N then others.
We can refer to these as complements and modifiers.
They can be compared to the objects and the adverbials in the VP.
3.1 Complement and modifier follow the head N
The NP in (1.) has a modifier from England that tells you where the teacher is from and a
complement of physics that tells you what the teacher teaches:
1. A teacher of physics from England
In (30) of physics is sister to N and is therefore the complement, whereas from England is a sister
to the N’ and is therefore the modifier:

3.2 Complement and modifier precede the head N

Complements and modifiers can also precede the N, as in (2.); the modifier English again says
something about the teacher (where he or she is from) and the complement physics clarifies what
the teacher teaches.
2. That English physics teacher
There can be many modifiers as (3.) shows but there can only be one complement connected to
the noun as (4.):
3. That [nice] [intelligent] teacher [with purple hair]
4. *That [physics] teacher [of chemistry]

This order cannot be reversed and there can only be one complement but many modifiers.
When complements precede the head, it is unclear what the category is, an N or an Adj.
For example English in (37) is a clear adjective when it tells you where someone comes from; it
looks like a noun when the teacher teaches the English language.
 Chapter 10
1. Relative clauses (RC)
PPs can function as adverbials and as modifiers; a PP used as modifier has a function very
similar to that of a relative clause:
5. The student [from Zombie Island] has yellow hair
6. The student [who is from Zombie Island] has yellow hair
A relative clause typically starts with a who, which or that relative pronoun and provides further
information about a noun.
2.1 Relatives
Clauses that modify nouns such as in (7.) are referred to as relative clauses because the noun
they modify plays a role in the RC; the RC is related to the noun by means of which:
7. The stories [which he repeats often] are boring
The element that connects the noun and the clause is called a relative pronoun and it functions
as the direct object of repeat; relative pronoun can also function inside the relative clauses as
subjects.
RCs are usually divided into restrictive (can have a that or a who/which) and non-restrictive (only
a wh-pronoun occurs and that is not possible).
The second difference is that restrictive RCs provide essential information, unlike non-restrictive
ones.
The restrictive RC in (8.) contrast with a non-restrictive in (9.):
8. The hikers who reached the top were very tired (only a small set of climbers)
9. The hikers, who reached the top, were very tired (all the climbers)

2.2 Complement clauses

There is a type of clauses that looks like the RC, namely the complement clauses in (10.) and
(11.):
10. Reports [that he reached Mars] are exaggerated
11. The fact [that he reached Mars] went unnoticed
The finite clause following the noun in (10.) and (11.) is a complement.
The nouns can be deleted because the complement spells out what reports and the fact are.
The second reason this clause is not a relative clause because if we change we would force the
complement to be a relative clause.
The third reason that the clause in (10.) and (11.) is a complement and not a RC is that the
complementizer has to be that and this that is not a relative pronoun.
2.3 Reduced relative clauses
Non-finite closes as in (12) to (14) can be modifiers to N:
12. The stories [to tell him] are the following
13. That story [written by him] is awful
14. The author [writing those marvellous books] lives in Antarctica
These non-finite clauses are called reduced relative clauses:
15. That story [which was written by him] is awful.
In cases where there is a PP present, as in (15) we can often further reduce it.
Non-finite clauses cannot be complements to nouns.
The functions of finite clauses inside the NP are compliment and modifier: modifiers are referred to
as relative clauses and can be restrictive or non-restrictive while non-finite clauses only function as
modifiers and are referred to as reduced relatives.
3. NPs as compared to AdjPs, AdvPs and PPs
Inside an NP, clauses can function as relatives or complements:
16. [The man [who crossed Antarctica]] was happy
Since adjectives can be compared, we also have comparative clauses, as in (17) and (18); these
clauses function as modifiers since they indicate the degree of happiness and niceness:
17. Most people are as [happy [as they want to be]]
18. She was [nicer [than I had thought]]
AdvPs do not have a complement or modifier PPs, they only can have degree modification by
another adverb.
Prepositions have complement clauses such as in (19) but do not generally admit object clauses
with a that complementizer:
19. I relied on [what he wrote about clauses]]
20. *I insisted [on [that he/Stan should pay the bill]]
Some prepositions such as before or after in (21) do introduce a clause but they are done
complementizers rather than prepositions:
21. He left [after she arrived]

Chapter 11
1. Questions/interrogatives: the CP
Questions can be main clauses or embedded clauses.
In yes/no questions, the only appropriate answer is Yes or No.
To make a question, the auxiliary has is fronted:
22. She has gone -> Has she gone?
A structure for yes/no questions is given in (4) where the auxiliary moves to C:
A main clause wh-question starts with a wh-word (who, what, why, when, where and how) or wh-
phrase (which book…) and the auxiliary follows.
The wh-word moves to the position immediately underneath the CP and the auxiliary moves to the
C position.
The original position of the wh-word and the auxiliary is indicated by means of a copy:

2. Exclamations
Sentences such as (23) can be analysed using a CP as well, namely as structures were the phrase
what a nasty person is in the same position as the wh-word in (9):
23. What a nasty person he is!
Modern English exclamatives differ from questions is not fronting the auxiliary but they do involve
movement of a wh-phrase two opposition in the C.
English Inversion
(1) We cannot cash cheques in any circumstances.
In no circumstances can we cash cheques (inversion of auxiliary and subject)
(2) The president was not aware of what was happening at any time.
At no time was the president aware of what was happening.
(3) The bus driver cannot be blamed for the accident in any way.
In no way can the bus driver be blamed for the accident.
(4) As soon as I got into the bath, someone knocked at the door. (use No sooner …)
No sooner did I get into the bath, than someone knocked at the door.
(5) He found out the truth only later.
Only later did I find out the truth.
(6) I had hardly arrived when trouble started.
Hardly had I arrived that trouble started.
(7) A loud bang came from down the corridor.
From down the corridor came a loud bang.
(8) A long procession was coming down the hill.
Down the hill was coming a long procession

Multiple negation
(1) Leave Nell and I to toil and work. (Dickens)
Leave Nell and me to toil and work
(2) How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! (Shakespeare)
How sweetly the moonlight sleeps upon this bank!
(3) He would have spoke. (Milton)
He would have spoken
(4) He parts his hair in the centre.
(5) This is quite different to that.
(6) ‘The boy stood on the deck, Whence all but he had fled.’ (Hemans)
Some prescriptive grammarians may contend that each of the following sentences contains a
“mistake”. Can you spot them?
(1) Joe and her went to the British Museum yesterday.
(2) He failed to completely finish the examination but got good marks in spite of that.
but:
My colleagues try slowly to improve the situation.
My colleagues try to slowly improve the situation.
(3) He’s older than me, but I’m a good three inches taller.
(4) He didn’t turn up on time and I was sat there waiting for half an hour. I felt a right fool.
(5) He omitted to lock his car door and found his radio and briefcase were missing when he got
back.
(6) Can I lend your bike?
(7) You can gan out to play now.
(8) We never had TV them days when I were a lad.
(9) She wanted for to go till the theatre.

Identify the modality type

(1) Kerry must have left the folder in the office. (epistemic)
(2) That should be Tom at the door. (epistemic)
(3) The kids can have some ice cream. (deontic)
(4) Pat can’t roller skate. (dynamic)
(5) You should help your sister. (deontic)
(6) They may enjoy the play. (epistemic)
(7) She won’t help me mow the lawn. (deontic)
Exercise 1
We elderly people are (1) much better at (2) going to school (3) than the young. We pay attention
in class, we (4) never miss lessons, we (5) do (6) our homework and we soak (7) up knowledge (8)
like a parched camel at the water bowl. I know (9) because I (10) did it a couple of years (11) ago,
at Birkbeck, (12) when my mother was very (13) poorly. I could nip to college in the evening, have
a change of scene, save myself from breakdown and wallow in history, (14) which I'd wanted to do
(15) all my life.
(16) But (17) there is bad news. My friend Susan is in a panic. She's (18) worried (19) that the (20)
thrilling course on medieval women that she's just started is (21) about to stop. (22) Here she is,
(23) aged 70, having always worked, and this is the first chance she's had to go to university. Her
whole life's perked up, but for (24) how (25) long? The government is about to pull the plug on
certain part-time, (26) and lower-level courses. (27) Funding for these so-called ELQs is about to
be withdrawn, because (28) what does the modern world need with little old ladies learning
medieval history and GCSE Spanish for fun? Or people retraining, or getting their qualifications up
to date, or anyone who can only study in the evenings or weekends, which is (29) mostly women?
(1) Adverb
(2) Verb
(3) Preposition
(4) Adverb
(5) Verb
(6) Determiner
(7) Particle
(8) Preposition
(9) Complementary conjunction
(10) Verb
(11) Adverb
(12) Adverb
(13) Adjective
(14) Pronoun
(15) Determiner
(16) Coordinating conjunction
(17) Adverb
(18) Adjective
(19) Subordinating conjunction
(20) Adjective
(21) Adjective
(22) Adjective
(23) Adjective
(24) Adverb
(25) Adjective
(26) Noun
(27) Noun
(28) Pronoun
(29) Adverb
Exercise 2
It can be difficult (1) to cut (2) back at Christmas, (3) so we should be thankful for (4) anything (5)
that makes it (6) that (7) little bit easier. (8) As the holiday looms, let's take time to be grateful for
our (9) expanding commitment to health and safety. (10) Though derided in certain sections of the
national press (11) as a scourge that sucks the fun (12) out of the British way of life, health and
safety actually provides a useful framework for killing (13) off traditions (14) that have become
irritating, expensive (15) or (16) too (17) much (18) like hard work. Instead of saying a curt "thanks,
but no thanks" to the Girl Guides who have petitioned to sing carols in the town hall, you can
pretend you really want them to come (19) while claiming that your insurers are very concerned
about access to the (20) emergency exits.
(21) How can you break it to the nerds from the local "militia" that no one wants them to fire their
reproduction muskets in the town square this year? Tell them it breaks noise pollution laws. (22)
Need to cancel that Boxing Day fun run for financial reasons? (23) Let those council risk assessors
do your dirty work. Can't afford decorations for the shopping precinct? Simply (24) ban ladders.
Our extensive health and safety regulations mean (25) more of us (26) than (27) ever will be able
to enjoy a cheap and cheerful, cotton-wool Christmas: (28) no fancy-dress raft races, no
candlelight services, no home-baked cakes, no live music, no swimming, no grotto, no farm
animals. (29) Just a glass of port, a mince pie and a festive episode of Never Mind the Buzzcocks.
Thank you, the nanny state.
1) Particle
2) Particle
3) Adverb
4) Pronoun
5) Pronoun/Complementizer
6) Determiner
7) Adjective
8) Complementizer
9) Adjective
10) Complementizer
11) Preposition
12) Preposition
13) Particle
14) Pronoun/Complementizer
15) Coordinating conjunction
16) Adverb
17) Adverb
18) Preposition
19) Subordinating conjunction
20) Noun
21) Adverb
22) Verb
23) Verb
24) Verb
25) Determiner
26) Preposition
27) Adverb
28) Determiner
29) Adverb
Major functions:
Subject
Predicate
Complement -> direct object, indirect object, subject complement/predicate, object
complement/predicate
Adverbial -> adjunct, conjunct, disjunct

Say whether the following underlined verbs are intransitive, transitive or ditransitive.

(1) Visiting Disneyland has fulfilled a boyhood dream.

(2) An undercover sweep netted 22 suspects in one evening.
(3) Bryce was caught posing as a doctor.
(4) Reluctantly, they put the family home up for sale.
(5) Three tall ships sailed past.
(6) I wish someone had told me the meeting was cancelled.
(7) He jumped over the wall and ran off.
(8) I see the job as a challenge.
(9) Tony asked us to find him office facilities in New York.
(10) We’d better fuel up at the next town.
(11) If we respond with violence, we’ll be playing into their hands, giving them an excuse for a fight
(12) Don’t forget to rinse out your swimsuit.
(13) She lit a cigarette to calm herself down.
Tense is a morphological (formal) notion:
Present: finite verb + Ø/s (live, lives)
Past: finite verb + ed (lived, ate)

Aspect as a grammatical notion:

The progressive construction: BE + -ing (i.e. present participle)
The perfect construction: HAVE + -ed (past participle)

She has eaten it.

Tense: present (has)
Aspect: perfect (HAVE + -ed)
Voice: active

She was eaten by a shark.

Tense: past (was)
Aspect: /
Voice: passive (BE + -ed)

She was being followed.

Tense: past (was)
Aspect: progressive (BE + -ing: was being)
Voice: passive (BE + -ed: being followed)

She could have been being followed.

Tense: past (could)
Aspect: perfect (HAVE + -ed: have been) progressive (BE + -ing: been being)
Voice: passive (BE + -ed: being followed)
She might have mentioned it.
Tense: past
Aspect: perfect
Voice: active
Mood: indicative (or unmarked)
but Modality: epistemic

You must go now.

Tense: past
Aspect: /
Voice: active
Mood: indicative (or unmarked)
but Modality: deontic

Don’t answer the door!

Tense: / (no finite verb is used!)
Aspect: /
Voice: active
Mood: imperative
but Modality: deontic

Billy wishes he were a cowboy.

Tense: past
Aspect: /
Voice: /
Mood: subjunctive
Modality: epistemic volition (→ epistemic + deontic, if we consider ‘volition’ as a subcategory of
‘deontic’)
We insisted that she be kept informed.
Tense: present
Aspect: /
Voice: passive
Mood: subjunctive
Modality: deontic

She suggested that he answer the door.

Tense: present
Aspect: /
Voice: active
Mood: subjunctive
Modality: deontic

She suggested that he answered the door.

Tense: past
Aspect: /
Voice: active
Mood: ?
Modality: ?

She suggested that he answered the door.

There are two readings:
(i) the sentence reports a fact (i.e. suggest ≈ say, cf. I suggest she doesn’t like us very much.)
(ii) the sentence has a mandative (i.e. deontic) reading
(i) Mood: unmarked
Modality: /
(ii) Mood: unmarked/subjunctive
Modality: deontic
Participles (present vs. past):
Having been ignored (she decided to leave.)
Tense: / (no finite verb is used!)
Aspect: perfect
Voice: passive
Mood: /

Infinitives:
(Having been ignored, she decided to) leave.
Tense: / (no finite verb is used!)
Aspect: /
Voice: active
Mood: /

Modals are used to mark modality:

deontic -> degree of obligation
epistemic -> degree of likelihood
dynamic -> ability to do something

Summary of sentences analysed so far:

1. She handed him the sheet.
ditransitive verb
2. She drank herself into a stupor.
SC
3. Luckily, he didn’t find out the truth.
S-adverbial and phrasal verb
4. He had found out the truth by accident yesterday.
VGP and stacking of V'-adverbials
5. He searched for this word on the internet.
prepositional verb
6. She thinks that he is late.
subordinate finite clause
7. She doesn’t want him to be late.
non-finite clause with null complementizer
8. She doesn’t want to take the train.
non-finite clause with null subject and complementizer (as an object)
9. {Waiting/To wait} for him is boring.
non-finite clause with null subject and complementizer (as a subject)
10. She is tired of waiting for him.
S as object (i.e. complement) of preposition
11. He found out the truth by accident while she was away.
S' as a V'-adverbial
12. He found out the truth by accident while being away.
non-finite clause as a V’-adverbial

SEP 1
A1
1 form=adverb phrase - function=adverbial/adjunct/temporal
2 form=complementizer phrase - function=subject complement
3 form=prepositional phrase - function=noun complement
4 form=noun phrase – function=adverbial/adjunct/temporal
5 form=noun phrase – function=indirect object
6 form=prepositional phrase – function= prepositional object
7 form=complementizer phrase – function=verb complement

A2
8 tense: past aspect: perfect voice: passive modality: deontic mood: indicative
9 tense: / aspect: / voice: passive modality: / mood: /
10 tense: present aspect: / voice: passive modality: deontic mood: subjunctive

tense: present (-s) or past (-ed)

aspect: perfect = have + -ed or progressive = be + -ing
voice: active or passive (be + -ed)
modality: deontic or dynamic or epistemic
mood: indicative (or unmarked) or imperative or subjunctive
A3
11 type: cleft (+passive) - unmarked version: the film was made in Bristol/they made the film in B.
12 type: right dislocation – unmarked version: Pete has a laugh.

A4
13 adverb
14 preposition (+np)
15 determiner
16 particle
17 verb

B1
18 them (line 3)
19 them (line 4)
20 Herod…year / 32…desert
21 about…wide*
22 to be transported far and wide
23 widespread

*gave the emperor (NP/i.o) the dates (NP/d.o)

gave the dates (NP/d.o) to the emperor (PP/prepositional object)

B2
Alice (NP) wanted (V) to know (verb group phrase) who (NP) Bob (NP) called (verb)
 SEP 2
A1
1 form=complementizer phrase – function=adverbial/adjunct
2 form=noun phrase – function=subject complement
3 form=noun phrase – function=indirect object
4 form=prepositional phrase – function=prepositional object
5 form=complementizer phrase – function=subject complement
6 form=prepositional phrase – function=adjective complement
7 form=noun phrase – function=direct object

A2
8 tense: present aspect: perfect voice: passive modality: / mood: indicative
9 tense: / aspect: / voice: active modality: deontic mood: imperative
10 tense: past aspect: / voice: passive modality: epistemic mood: indicative

A3
11 type: preposing unmarked version: Ben spent a couple of nights a week uncomplainingly at his
parents house
12 type: right dislocation unmarked version: These biscuits taste great

A4
13 preposition
14 adverb
15 adverb
16 particle
17 subordinating conjunction/complementizer
B1
18 cats
19 this perfect vibration sound
20 that purring…fight
21 with each other // from injury
22 with their current circumstances
23 for purring // to the veterinarian // of contentment

B2
Can you save me a seat for the concert?
 SEP 3
A1
1 form=PP function=noun complement
2 form=AP function=object complement
3 form=CP function=subject
4 form=AdvP function=object complement (or adjunct)
5 form=CP function=modifier
6 form=NP function=direct object
7 form=NP function=indirect object

A2
8 tense: present aspect: perfect voice: passive modality : / mood: indicative
9 tense: / aspect: / voice: passive modality : / mood: /
10 tense: past aspect: perfect voice: active modality: epistemic mood: indicative

A3
11 type: left dislocation unmarked version: Jane cast about frantically for an excuse
12 type: cleft unmarked version: Warwickshire are the current holders of the cricket championship

A4
13 determiner/adjective
14 pronoun
15 particle
16 complementizer
17 adjective
B1
18 the line…Everest
19 the crest of Everest
20 there was…climbers
21 to a crisis
22 to his sponsors and supporters
23 on Instagram

B2
Elsie said something I couldn’t understand and walked off

SEP 4
A1
1 form=NP function=subject complement
2 form=AdvP function=temporal (or adjunct)
3 form=PP function=prepositional object
4 form=NP function=indirect object
5 form=AdvP function=manner (or adjunct)
6 form=CP verb complement
7 form=PP adjective complement

A2
8 tense: past aspect: / voice: passive modality: / mood: indicative
9 tense: present aspect: perfect, progressive voice: active modality: / mood: indicative
10 tense: past aspect: perfect voice: active modality: epistemic mood: indicative

A3
11 type: extraposition unmarked version : A rumour that she had won the lottery was circulating
12 type: right dislocation unmarked version: We want that criminal caught
A4
13 adverb
14 preposition
15 preposition
16 complementizer
17 particle

B1
18 the dead
19 bits of their bodies
20 them
21 on the remains
22 macabre
23 buried

B2
Have you seen the masks I bought in Venice last year?

SEP 5
A1
1 form=PP function=prepositional object
2 form=CP function=direct object
3 form=PP function=prepositional object
4 form=PP function=adjective object
5 form=NP function=direct object
6 form=NP function=direct object
7 form=AP function=object complement

A2
8 tense: / aspect: / voice: active modality : / mood: /
9 tense: / aspect: / voice: active modality : deontic mood: imperative
10 tense: past aspect: perfect voice: active modality : epistemic mood: indicative
A3
11 type: inversion subject unmarked version: I’ve never been more frightened than now
12 type: preposing unmarked version: She’s flying to Paris on Monday

A4
13 particle
14 coordinating conjunction
15 determiner
16 subordinating conjunction
17 verb

B1
18 the world
19 them
20 the finding may have practical implications…liquids
21 to float…liquids
22 with a curious quirk of physics / to the surface
23 on the behaviour of liquids

B2

Why don't you come to our house for coffee?

SEP 6
A1
1 form=PP function=prepositional object
2 form=AP function=object complement
3 form=CP function=subject
4 form=AdvP function=adjunct
5 form=NP function=prepositional object
6 form=PP function=adjective complement
7 form=NP function=adjunct
A2
8 tense: past aspect: / voice: passive modality : deontic mood: indicative
9 tense: / aspect: perfect voice: active modality : / mood: /
10 tense: present aspect: / voice: active modality : deontic mood: subjunctive

A3
11 type: right dislocation unmarked version: Andrew’s excellent exam result was surprising
12 type: postposing unmarked version: He painted all of the … frames red

A4
13 determiner
14 particle
15 complementizer
16 adverb
17 determiner

B1
18 the copious rain all over the UK this writer
19 our most seen and recognisable amphibian
20 a rough couple of years
21 many of its natural breeding sites
22 stranded
23 (the rush) to the breeding ponds

B2
My neighbour, who I lent my car to, said he would be back next week.
 SEP 7
A1
1 form=NP function=direct object
2 form=AdjP function=subject complement
3 form=AdvP function=adjunct
4 form=NP function=indirect object
5 form=CP function=verb complement
6 form=PP function=prepositional object
7 form=PP function=adjective complement

A2
8 tense: past aspect: / voice: active modality : deontic mood: indicative
9 tense: past aspect: perfect voice: active modality : deontic mood: indicative
10 tense: / aspect: perfect voice: passive modality : / mood: /

A3
11 type: preposing unmarked version: We’ll be in Jamaica in a couple of days
12 type: pseudo-cleft unmarked version: They failed to account for his sudden death

A4
13 adjective
14 particle
15 adverb
16 preposition
17 particle
B1
18
19
20
21
22
23

B2
His new book bored her to death because she doesn’t like crime stories.

SEP 8
A1
1 form=PP function=prepositional object
2 form=AP function=subject complement
3 form=NP function=adjunct
4 form=CP function=direct object
5 form=PP function=prepositional object
6 form=CP function=subject
7 form=PP function=noun complement (or adjunct)

A2
8 tense: past aspect: / voice: passive modality : deontic mood: indicative
9 tense: present aspect: perfect voice: active modality : epistemic mood: indicative
10 tense: present aspect: / voice: active modality : deontic mood: subjunctive

A3
11 type: cleft unmarked version: Mel is upsetting our plans
12 type: right dislocation unmarked version: Pete has a laugh
A4
13 particle
14 pronoun
15 noun
16 preposition
17 determiner

B1
18
19
20
21
22
23

B2
Who did she lend her car to?
Examples of marked sentences: