: | Aro 2g: ? GROWTH AND any living onge anism is controlled by b intr (inna ieee : fed by both intrinsic H) and extrinsic (external) factors. These factors work together ‘O syn i errors. or fici i ie an lly. Errors or deficiencies in these growth regul (PG S) are detrimental to the growth of the plant. The intern: inchide Gene, Enzymes ING PL, The growth of lators : al factors ae : and Hormones ie phytohormones. While the ecemal factors include Light, Carbon dioxide, Oxygen, Wind, Humidity, Soil components, Microbes, Pollutants etc INTERNAL FACTORS ENZYMES Introduction — Enzymes are biological /organic catalysts which increase the rate of biochemical reactions by reducing the activation energy required in the system for its metabolic reaction to occur. All enzymes are proteins except for few like Ribozymes, but all proteins are not enzymes. _Site of synthesis Every cell synthesizes its own enzymes with the help of genes . A single gene helps in the synthesis of a single and specific enzyme ( one gene-one enzyme hypothesis ). me that are produced within a cell for its metabolic : ular enzymes while those EB activities nzy’ are known as endoenzymes/ intercell 1 i i called exoenzymes ich a from the site of synthesis are ; ieee in. the various cell duced ii Jextracellular enzymes Enzymes are procu oe _ organelles like nucleus cytoplasm, mitochondria, chloroplast, lysosome, ete y Class activity: 1, Draw and label fully a plant cell.een fixing | Nitrogenase ‘Oxido a reductase Secondary Cinnamoyl |Oxido _| Monolignols compounds | CoA reductase |reduetae | (coumary! aleohol synthesis - (CR), | Conitery! aleoho! Feniate Sg | and Sinapyl | ‘yaroxylace” ena alco Noe reductase F | (FSH), syringyl lignin | | Cinnamy! Monolignols | | alcohol Oxido (coumaryl alcohol, | | dehydrogenase [reductase | Conifery!_aleoho! | (CAD) and Sinapyl | alcohol EXTERNAL FACTORS LIGHT The life of any plant from. the stage of germination through seedling, development to maturity then senescence and finally death are all affected by light in one form or the other = . This effect can be entrained by three properties of light, the quantity (intensity), quality (wavelength) and duration (photperiod). Species of different groupings use light in different range of these light properties. Light modulation of plants growth and development very crucial to them and since plants are not “mobile” organisms, they must adjust to the ambient lightyt prosthetic group (coenzyme/cofactor) forms the complete enzyme Holoenzyme iv.Reversibility of Action — like lall true catalysts enzymes accelerate the rate of reaction in which ever direction itis taken place, provided suitable sources of energy are available ea lipase is required for synthesis of fats to form glycerol and fatty acids and is again required for the breakdown of fats to fatty acid and glycerol iv.High molecular weight: All nzyme that have been isolated and purified are molecules of very large dimensions and high molecular weight y, Subtrate specificity: Each enzyme acts upon a specific substrate or a particular type of chemical bond in a reversible manner Factors affecting enzyme activity iis Enzyme concentration ells Substrate concentration Temperature iv. pH vy. Inhibitors “1, Enzyme concentration Enzyme molecules are usually larger than substrate molecules. They possess many active sites in which the substrate molecules get attached until all the active site is occupied by substrate molecules. If in the system the substrate molecule are relatively higher in concentration to the specific enzyme, the enzyme catalysed reaction will attain maximum speed. Further addition of substrate will have no effect on the rate of reaction. However if the enzyme concentrationmore active at alkaline prs, Most enzyme, however maximum activity near neutrality in the pH ¢ have | Nitrate reducta Xidase 5. Prothetie groups and plant growth hormone Coenzymes such as NAD+ NADP, FAD, CoA and Cofactors like Mp**, Ca®* , Mn? 7, ; No help en: as catalysts without these Prosthetic groups. the enzyme becomes ‘ymes to carry out their function inactive. Others are activators, 6. Inhibitors Inhibitors (poison) such as cyanide combines with the sa0F the enzymes and thus competes with the substrate, Income . cases the inhibitor competes with the subsirate at the active site only without altering the enzyme structure. When such enzyme inhibitor bond is broken and level of substrate concentration in the medium. is increased the action of the inhibitor is reduced or stopped ( reversible inhibition). “Examples are competitive , non competitive and uncompetitive inhibition On the other hand an inhibitor may bind strongly to the enzyme usually via covalent bonds and do hot dissociate whether substrate enzyme is increased the velocity of reaction is slowed down or stopped i.e overall effect of imeversible inhibitors is to permanently inactivate the enzyme. These are usually poisons that destroy the structure of the enzyme, causing permanent inhibition- Many enzymatic proteins have been shown to have tive catalytic site that bind small metabolic ¢ sites) binding at these sites may truly or kineties of the enzymes catalysed reaction. sites other than the molecules (allo negatively affect the There are some special enzymes in plants and photosynthetic bacteria which helps in the acceleration of some important metabolic processes unique to plants such as photosynthesis, nitrate reduction — nitrogen fixation cell wall formation and biosynthesis of sécondary compounds in plants below shows list of few these plant enzymes of their The table activites [METABOLIC | ENZYME PROCESS CLASS, PRODUCT Photosynthesis- C3 Pathway C4 pathwayIntactive a sy ' he Active Pe ~ For Redlight 9 » (fast) F# Darkness (slow) Depending on the species photoperiodic response flowering may Gecur when the phytochrome (Pr) absorbs red light and itis switched to the far red light form (P;). For long day plant flowerine overs immediately complete cycle of Py state is attained. In short day plants the Py. degradation back to Pr form causes flowering. € 5 - Temperature: temperature affects enzyme activity and growth of plants. Plants are classified according to their temperature tolerance Jevel. Hence there are {he following classes of plants. Psychrophiles — tolerate temperature below 25°¢ . Mesophiles — tolerates temperature about 45°¢ ‘thermophiles — tolerate temperature above 60" .s — tolerate temperature above 0%. In hot spring Hyper thermophile: * cyanobacteria Low temperature treatment promote flowering in many temperate SpP- pit similar to ed vernalization. Vernalization is @ The effect is call izatio photperiodism jn that it also effect flowering of plants. alized, it is exposed to Jow temperature sometimes below orc is vern - The seed of some plants is usually yernalized before 8 d after ‘yernalization (in most cases only the cotyledon) mature the flower better than those that are fol rnal4zed and return © 9 high When a plant nination hey grow Ne ae ced is ‘vernalized: When seed is vel unEtiolation When a plant is grown in darkness, etiolation occurs. Etiolation is marked by the following events. -The whole plant is yellow (achlorophyllous) -Stem is thin and hyper elongated -Root system is poorly developed -Leaves are not fully expanded (tiny). Total length of seedling is usually longer than that grown in light. The yellow colouring of leaves is due to the fact that chlorophyll pigment cannot be formed in darkness. Absence of chlorophyll means that the plant cannot photosynthesize because of this; it will not be able to produce enough food materials (hence a thin stem and tiny leaves are formed) for growth, such a plant is said to be etiolated. “Byen though taller than a plant grown under normal Light conditions its dry matter content is much lower than that grown under normal light condition. ight du ation (Photoperiod) st duration is well expressed on Flowering of Plants, it photoperiodism . The requirement of plants for plant species to another. The variation is so > been broadly divided into three groupseI ay! ~, » one of the organelles pre, ¥ Give'on a table. the function of each one of INE * Pre only in the plat cell Seats : 9 Nomenclature and classification of enzyme- Enzymes are specific fora particular reaction therefore they are named for/according to the substrate on which they act or on nature of the reaction they catalyse . the most common method for naming them is to suffix-ase at the end of the substrate attacked. Thus peptide is atta ked by peptidase, lipid by lipase, urea by urease maltose by maltase. There are six major classes of enzymes based on the type of reaction they catalyse Oxidoreductases . Hydrolases . Transferases . Lyases . Isomerases 6. Ligases Class activity: Arrange the above enzyme classes in the right order Properties of enzymes * Enzymes are colloidal and proteinous in nature, they exhibit the same- -properties as shown by proteins such as i. Thermolability — sensitive to heat ii. Hydrolysis — Enzy on hydrolysis iii. Simple or comy enzymes 1 with thehat thrive well under high lig} Quantity of light; There are plants that thrive W I} wi Be as rate ieht, yet ther some perform optimally under moderate light, yet th intensity those that grow best under low light : F lig! hick Light compensation point which is the intensity of light at which photosynthesis is equal to cellular (ie net carbon dioxide is zero) varies in plant species, Therefore, on the basis of their tolerance limit to the intensity of light plants can be classified as Heliophytes - can tolerate high light intensity or sun loving plants Sciophytes — can tolerate mild light intensity / shade loving plants Light compensation point for heliophytes is about 100-200 foot candle/1075- 2151 lux and for sciophytes it is about 20-100 foot candle /21.51 — 107Slux Physiological differences of sun and shade leaves Fig: 9.9 2 Sun leaf vs. shade leaf Sun leaf has: = Higher max. photo. rate “Airiplex trangudlaris un plant). — ‘ a 2 Higher light sat'n level z Higher light compensation point ~ | Asarurn caudatum. de plant) © Photosynthetic CO» assimilation (amet mst) b 490° -800——«1200~—«1600~—~«2000 : Photosynthetically active radiation Itradtance (uenol m2!) ‘Rane nti Prt nth eeeed to the medium, then, the rate of reaction will is further iner increase 2. Substrate concentration ed and substrate is relatively higher If the enzyme concentration is the velocity of the reaction is increased to its maximum. If the substrate concentration is relatively low at a particular enzyme concentration, the reaction proceeds, but at a slow rate, because the active sites of only few enzymes molecules are occupied, other remaining enzymes mqlecules undergo no reaction due to shortage of substrate molecules. An increase in the substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction. If the substrates increased beyond a limit when all the active sites of the enzymes molecules have become saturated, the reaction will be come constant without accelerating its: velocity 3. Temperature Vant Hoff’s Q10 law states that with an increase in temps r 10% the rate of most reactions double. At 25°C to 35% catalysed reaction show steady increase in velocity below O°C the enzyme become inactivated but | destroyed at 60°C to 70°C and above enzymes aremay become devernalised Vernalization perature the se been attributed to a hormone called vernalin. Other effects temperature on plants include 1. Removal of dormancy — cold (stratification) in temperate plants, and heat treatment in most forest spp eg oil palm to aid germination 2 Hormone activation 3. Transpiration - stomatal opening and closing 4. Photosynthesis due mainly to effect on enzymatic actions MINERAL NUTRIENTS In addition to the major elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, plants contain a great variety of elements in various chemical ce A considerable portion of these minerals, particularly nitrogen, sulfur and calcium are present as part of the organi¢ structure, Some of the metals are present as components of enzymes and catalytic molecules. These minerals are obtained from the soil, which provides physic. support, and nutrients of various sorts for the plant. They are non- selectively absorbed along with soil water and accumulate as _ dissolved or stored ionic substances. The precise mineral composition of plants is of great interest when one considers the plant as a food source, because the absence or superabundance of certain elements may affect the food value of the plant. However with certain specific exceptions, the plant composition to a considerable extent reflects the fertility of the soil on which it is grown. Soils too high in pH (alkaline) or too low (acidic) make minerals unayailable to plants and there cause low performance in their yield. _ Fssential and Beneficial Flements 12<4, Sulfur: This is a structural component of amino acids, prote » vitamins and enzymes for producing chlorophyll. 5. Magnesium: Magnesium is a critical structural components of chlorophyll molecule and is necessary for functioning of plant enzymes. : 6. Calium: This activates enzymes. It is a structural components of cell walls, influences water movement in cells and is necessary F forcell growth and division. DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS Once there is a dearth of an element in a plant tissue, the plants begins to show symptoms of the element's deficiency Most mobile elements such as nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, magnesium, zinc affect the older leaves of the plant first and the immobile/insoluble ones like sullur, calcium, iron, manganese, molybdenum, copper, boron, chlorine affect the younger leaves first, Symptoms like chlorosis. necrosis of the leaves, stunted growth of plant stem and root and abortion of flowers, buds and fruits are all manifested when one or some of the mineral elements are absent in the plant, Prolonged deficiency of this (these) element(s) may lead to total death of the plant especially when the essential ones are deficient. E . Class activity: 1. On a table give the deficiency symptoms of the macro minerals. 2, List out the mobile/ soluble minerals and immobile/ insoluble minerals ‘Transpiration ‘ranspiration is the tiving plants through ral tissu Joss of water vapour from the inte! i the aerial parts such as stomata of lea 4Ways of Chetking Transpitation Transpiration check can be either by natural or natural means include: 1. Closing of stomata 2. Shedding of leaves 3. Possession of thick cuticle 4, Distribution of stomata —upper surface have less stor the lower surface Possession of sunken stomata “Antificial means is by use of anti-transpirant Fianspiration js the loss of water in the plant usually through the leaf surface. Antitranspirants are therefore chemical, which can be used to reduce the rate of transpiration in the plants There are usually two types film type and metabolic type Eeiniamiype is the one that form .a film on Teaf suriec® when sprayed on plants, The metabolic type is The one that affect the tietabolism of the leaf cells especially the guard cells and stomata. ‘When these chemicals are sprayed on plants, they reduce he rate of transpiration which may be advaptagcons to the plant especial during the dry season when there is no enough water available for the plants use, ‘As water is lost throt stomata spraying of leaves with antitranspirant will prevent loss of wate and entry of CO2. This will affect the rate of photosynthesis. {f application is for long fine it will affect the plant adverse ¥ case of film type. the Bln will be et it, In this sway the seomata will be expo ed 10. thal CO2 can ne feat pe p cones! FO", F asad ondlenticels in stem under be stomatal, cuticular or 1 Stomatal; Water vapour esc n the stom: Cuticul : Water vapour escapes through thin cut reduced in xerophytes with thick cut Lenticular: Water vapour escapes through Mechanism of Trans| ions Water evaporates at all temperatures parenchyinatous cells of the leaf are charged with water from which evaporation continues to take place and collect in the intercelluar spaces, so long as they are not saturated with water vapour. From the intercellular spaces water vapour escapes into the atmosphere through the stomata, cuticle or lenticels, Stomata transpiration amounts to about 80-90% of total water loss ‘A typical multiceillular plant has 1. Root System : below the ground and in contact with water 2, Shoot System: above the ground the root Lo 1 absorbed by the root system has to be moved from j conducting system is necessary Aigehoe system, Hest’ * t hairs ate surrounded by soil particles each of which by a film of water. h is membrane therefore process of water (he root hate is similar to that of unicellolar plants. nt of water from root hair to theories as to the moveme! : water moyes along with the minerals from the ive transport. cell is higher than that of root hair therefore Gell by osmosis, There Is endodermis2nd group — Long day plant: -these requires exposure for long period before flowering can occur. 3rd group- neutral day: - usually insensitive to daylight with regards to flowering because of this differential requirement for light, plant have been found to be associated with geographical locations. Neutral day plants are found usually all over the world but are mostly found along the equatorial regions of the world. long and shot day plants are usually found towards the poles. : Flowering in plants is as a result of changes in vegetative growth to reproductive growth. Vegetative growth is the stage when plant is made up of the root, stem and leaves, As soon as flower come in the reproductive growth starts, which is a light sensitive period Light quality isible light is absorbed and used by different group at some particular spectrum for different rphogenetic events in Plants, For instance plants have form- P,, but this form ight absorbing) form-in light, photosynthesis takes place and the stibsture (sugar) produced are osmoticaly active. The guard cells then absorb water ftom the neighbouring cells and become turgid and the stoma opens, then transpiration increases, in darkness, the sugar present in the guard cells become converted into starch, The concentration of the cell sap become lower than hat of the neighbouring cells. The guard cells therefore lose water and shrink and then the stoma clos: Transpiration Pull Condition is created in the leaf for loss of water. Water lost is replaced by those taken form the surrounding cells through the soil particles, Transpiration pull is the exertion of upward pull on water column through cohesion of water molecules in the xylem. Transpiration can be measure a by use of photometer. Importance of Transpiration: Transpiration is important to the plant in the following way . * Cooling of the leaf surface latent heat is lost in converting water + from liquid to gaseous state . * Itaids gaseous exchange in plants « Transpiration aids the uptake of water by plants transpiration pull. The greater the rate of water absorption helps the intake of raw food =- Materials (inorganic salts) from the soil © Transpiration secures concentration of the cell-sap theory i-< aids osmosis © Ithelps the distribution vf water through the plant body and “© Ingetting rid of excess water 18Evidently plants need carbon (¢ which are available ‘ hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (0) ee in the normal media of plant growth- air and ater. Certain other elements are also nee in lary tities and ies and z phosphorous e called major or macronutrients, Th potassium, sulfur, calcium and magnesium hese are nitro Importance of Mineral Elements to Plants Elements can play three distinct roles in plants. Electrochemical, structural and catalytic. Electrochemical Role: This include balancing of ionic concentrations, stabilizing macromolecules and colloids, charge neutralization and so forth. Structural Role: This is basically a role played by elements that are incorporated into the chemical structure of biological molecules or used in forming structural polymers e.g. calcium in pectin cell wail, phosphorous in phospholipids, nitrogen in proteins, magnesium in chlorophyll. Catalytic Role: This role is played by element invol in the a sites of enzymes which triggers or accelerates metabolic ‘jeactions. Role Played by Each of the Macro Nutrients in Plants hlorophyll, 1: Nitrogen: Major component of proteins, hormone: : vitamins and enzymes essential for plant life. Phosphorous: Need for seed germination, photosynthesis formation and almost all aspects of growth and metabolism in plants. Essential for flower and fruit formation. 3; Potassium: Needed for formation of sugars, starches, carbohydrates and protein synthesis and cell division in diffe parts of the plant. Help to adjust water balance and improves ste rigidity. Band evaporation of water ak place normally thre h them. At ation is checked. Stomata remain closed ¢ Asequently transpir During the day, heat-rays of the sun fall directly upon We leaves enhancing the rate of transpiration, Surface are: When a cell's surface area increases, the amount of subs diffusing into the cell increases, As volume and surface area increase, the volume increases faster, so much so that the surface. area available to allow substances in halves each time the cell volume double Stomatal Moyement: Each stoma opening on (epidermal layer is surrounded by two guard cells, which contain chloroplasts. Their inner walls are thicker than their outer walls. These guard cells regulate the opening and closing of the stoma. When the guard. cells become turgid i.e. full of water, the expand and bulge out in the outward direction and the stoma opens. When guard cells become flaccid by loosing water the stoma is closed, and transpiration rate is reduced. Guard cells (swollen) Guard cells (shrunken) ‘Stoma closingbetween the cortex and the xylem which is impermeable to many Substances, anatomical structure has shown however it contains passage cells through which water can move into the xylem. The conduction cells in the xylem are the vessels and the tracheids, These are dead cells therefore movement of water into them cannot be by osmotic methods. The xylem of the root is connected to the xylem of the stem and the xylem of the stem is connected to that of the leaf. When transpiration occurs, some tension is created in the plant known as transpiration pull. The transpiration pull tends to pull water inform ofa single column through the xylem vessel. So, for the xylem of the root to that of the stem, the process is active and required energy, From the xylem of the stem o the leaf the movement is passive. Conditions Affecting Transpiration emperature: The higher the temperature the higher the rate of pesnsoiaton At high temperature the water evaporate more freely ~ is dry, than when it is wet, Relative humidity is vapour present in the air relative to amount of ‘is constantly removed it allowed to become