Ks 059909

Ⅴ LECTURE NOTES
-113-
1. Keynote Lecture
“Highway Capacity, Operation and
Congestion in Japan“
Dr. Eng. Takashi OGUCHI
-115-
The 18th Conference on Public Works Research and Development in Asia 10 Nov. 2009 T. Oguchi (TMU)
Highway Capacity, Operation

and Congestion in Japan
in The 18th Conference
on Public Works Research and Development in Asia
by OGUCHI, Takashi
Professor at
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Tokyo Metropolitan University
WEB site http://www.comp.tmu.ac.jp/ceeipogc/
Contents
2
I. An overview on capacity and quality of service studies in
Japan
9 country report in ISHC2006 (Yokohama)
II. Effects of auxiliary lanes upstream bottleneck sag

sections on expressways
9 Typical JPN's bottleneck phenomena on Expressways
9 presented in ISFO2009 (Honolulu)
III. Emission model in actual vehicular traffic conditions

9 CO2 estimation method considering traffic condition
9 presented at EPFL (Lausanne, Suisse)
-117-
ETC (Electronic Toll Collection system) History in JPN

3
April 16, 2009 report: http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/yuryo/riyou.pdf
ETC veh. vol. 104 [veh./day] * ratio = (ETC veh. vol. / total veh. vol.) (ratio)
1week average ETC veh. volume

= approx. 5.91 million veh./day
(ratio = 79.5%) April 10-16, 2009
(same 1week)
84.7% for Metro. Expwy.
at the start on the market

(Dec. 2001)
approx. 50 thousand veh./day
(ratio = 0.9%)
Apr. Oct. Apr. Oct. Apr. Oct. Apr. Oct. Apr. Oct. Apr. Oct. Apr. Oct. Apr. Oct. Apr.
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
JH (up to Sep.2005) NEXCO-East NEXCO-Central NEXCO-West
Metro. Expwy. Hanshin Expwy. Honshi Expwy. ratio *
I. An overview on capacity and quality of service

studies in Japan 4
Contents
1. Actual Conditions of “Observed” Capacity
2. Bottleneck Phenomena in Basic Sections of Intercity
Expressways
3. Empirical Studies on Bottleneck Phenomena
4. Mechanisms of the Bottleneck Phenomena and Its
Corresponding Countermeasures
5. Merging Capacity at the Tokyo Metropolitan Expressway
6. Research in the Capacity of Signalized Intersections
7. Research on Unsignalized Intersections
8. Research and Practice on Quality of Service
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1. Actual Conditions of "Observed" Capacity

- Ordinary Highways (JSTE 2006) 5
9 The average of observed maximum hourly traffic volume by

detectors
9 Multilane highways (4- or 6-lane)
9 2,130 pc/h/ln
9 Two-way, two-lane (TWTL) highways
9 Directional: 1,650pc/h
9 Two-way: 2,900pc/h
9 Just the 䇾observed maximum䇿, the actual capacity of these sections

might be higher
9 Observed by individually placed detectors of limited numbers
1. Actual Conditions of "Observed" Capacity

- Intercity Expressways 6
Others, 4% Others, 14%
Traffic Sags or Up-

Accidents, Access Grades, 33%
19% Roads, 11%
Traffic
Concent-
Road ration,
Works, 62%
15%
Merging or
Diverging
Sections, Tunnels,
18% 10%
Toll Barriers,
14%
ÒRatio of number of traffic congestion
occurrences on intercity expressways
Ò Ratio of number of bottleneck points on
by cause in 2003 (JH 2004) expressways by factor in 2003 (JSTE 2006)
9 Remarkable features of congestion on Japanese intercity expressways

9 Due to “traffic concentration”: congestion caused by the convergence of
traffic demand to a bottleneck section
9 Frequent congestion occurrences at sag and up-grade bottlenecks of basic
segments
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2. Bottleneck Phenomena in Basic Sections of Intercity

Expressways 7
9 Traffic flow characteristics in basic segments with sags

(KOSHI 1985; 1986, KOSHI et al. 1992)
9 Bottleneck flow rate before congestion occurs
9 Median lane flow rate 䍜 1,800 to 2,000 veh/h/lane
9 While the maximum flow rate 䍜 3,000 to 3,500 veh/h/2-lane
Æ median lane flow > shoulder lane flow
9 After breakdown
9 The flow rates for both lanes become almost equal
9 The capacity flow rate is reduced to 2,200 to 2,700 veh/h/2-lane

8
9 Breakdown probability at bottlenecks of intercity

expressway basic sections (OGUCHI 2004)
Breakdown flow
rates widely range 161 171 163 107
100 0.6
from 210 to 300
Breakdown Probability
veh/5-min/2-lane 80
0.5
Breakdown Probability
Breakdown did
0.4
not occur
Frequency
60
The breakdown 0.3
probability of 300 40
0.2
veh/5-min/2-lane
(the highest attained 20
0.1
traffic flow rate) is Breakdown occured
0 0
only 50% 200- 210- 220- 230- 240- 250- 260- 270- 280- 290- 300- 310-
Flow rate intervals (veh/5-min/2-lane)
Ò Frequency distribution and breakdown probability
-120-

9
9 Analysis on the general characteristics of breakdown

probability (OKAMURA H. et al. 2001)
9 A stochastic procedure for estimating capacity by a cumulative

percentile value of the probability, approximated by a quadric curve
9 The more number of lanes a basic expressway section has, the

higher its lane capacity becomes
9 Lane capacity ratios
1-lane : 2-lane : 3-lane sections 䍜 0.4 : 1.0 : 1.7
9 Shoulder lane widths ranging from 0.3 to 2.5m do not affect the
bottleneck capacity

10
9 Bottlenecks in “divided TWTL ÔTWTL Expressway Sections

expressway” basic sections
9 Sections with low forecasted traffic
demands are provisionally operated
as TWTL facilities on single
carriageways
9 Capacity analysis of TWTL
expressway sections (YOSHIKAWA et
al. 2004)
9 Flow rates before a breakdown:
1,100 to 1,180 vphpl
9 Discharge flow rates from front end of
queues: 950 to 1,050 vphpl
Ælower than those of multilane sections
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11
9 Variable message signs
9 Likely to pay extra attention to these signs
than usual
9 Driver behavior could result in speed
reductions and increases in vehicle spacings
(NAKASHIBA et al. 1997, WATANABE and
NAKAMURA, 2004)
Ò Variable graphic signboard

9 Capacity of toll plaza
9 Most expressways in Japan are toll roads
9 ETC (Electronic Toll Collection)
9 The ETC usage rate is over 60% in April 2006, although
only 6% in April 2003
9 Queues due to toll booths have been drastically
decreasing
9 3 booth types: ETC only, non-ETC only and a mixture
of both
9 A study on the optimum combination of the toll booth
types (HORIGUCHI and KUWAHARA, 2000)
Ò Toll booths at an exit
4. Mechanisms of the Bottleneck Phenomena and ITS

Corresponding Countermeasures 12
9 Mechanisms of bottleneck phenomena in basic sections

9 KOSHI(1985; 1986), KOSHI et al.(1992)
9 Mechanisms of bottleneck
100
phenomena in basic sections
9 KOSHI(1985; 1986), KOSHI et al.(1992) Median Lane
Lane usage rate [% ]
80
9 Car-following behavior analysis
9 KOSHI et al.(1986), OZAKI(1993; 60
1995), XING and KOSHI(1995),
OGUCHI(1995), KOTANI et al. (1999; 40
2003)
9 Auxiliary lane controlling 20
Shoulder Lane
platoon formation 0
9 OGUCHI(1995), KURIHARA et al. 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
(1995; 1999), WATANABE et al.
(2001), OGUCHI et al.(2001) 5-min flow rate [veh/h/2-lane]
9 Improvement of tunnels ÒExample of lane usage rate of an

expressway with two lane for one
9 KURIHARA et al.(1997) direction (OGUCHI et al., 2001)
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5. Merging Capacity at the Tokyo Metropolitan

Expressway ("SHUTOKO”) 13
9 The majority of bottlenecks on urban expressways

9 Various empirical studies related to capacities or lane
operations on the SHUTOKO
9 HARA et al.(2004), WARITA et al.(2005), YOSHIKAWA et al.(2005),
YAMADA et al.(2005), TANAKA et al.(2005), JSTE(2006)
9 Merging capacity on the SHUTOKO
䍜 Capacity of the basic segments downstream of the merging sections
Î Reduction in the total number of lanes after merging is a substantial
reason for the capacity shortage
9 Breakdown probability analysis (SHAWKY and NAKAMURA 2006)
6. Research in the Capacity of Signalized Intersections

14
9 Recent advancements for the enhancement of traffic signal
controls
9 Fixed-time Æ traffic adaptive control
9 Area expansions of a central traffic adaptive control
9 Program selection by a central control Æ program formation control
9 Few researches on the capacity increase effects as a result
of these measures
9 Impact studies of signal change (intergreen) intervals
9 Few studies on capacities
9 On lost time (SHIKATA et al. 2003) and driver behavior (SUZUKI et al. 2004)
9 Saturation flow rate studies have been actively pursued, but
are mostly case studies
9 SHIKATA et al.(1997, 2000, 2001), KATAOKA et al.(2004), AKIYAMA et
al.(1998), YAMADA et al.(2001), NODA et al.(2002), KAWAI et al.(2000;
2002; 2005)
-123-
7. Research on Unsignalized Intersections

9 Unsignalized intersection capacity < Signalized intersection 15
capacity
9 Intersections where traffic demand is relatively high and capacity is likely to
be critical, have generally been signalized
9 A predominant way of thinking of putting higher preference on signalization,
primarily due to safety considerations
Î No studies on unsignalized intersection capacity
9 Roundabouts Kyoto
Kyoto
9 Only a limited number of similar type intersections
exist mainly in rural areas
9 Rarely been considered as an option during
intersection planning
9 Some researches investigating the
performance of roundabouts have been
recently initiated Toyota
9 Aiming to reduce the number of traffic signals and

relieve traffic accidents at intersections
9 MANAGE et al.(2003), MABUCHI and NAKAMURA (2005; 2006)
9 A research group on roundabout design in the JSTE (2006-2008)
is now finalizing Japanese manual of roundabout design.

16
9 QOS Consideration in Highway Planning and Design Practice
9 䇾Traffic Capacity of Roads䇿(Japan Road Association 1984): a manual
on highway capacity in Japan
9 Basic sections
9 Design capacity = Potential capacity*(v/c)
9 v/c = a preset value for the 䇾planning level䇿 of the concerned section
9 Compared with the 30th highest hourly volume (as a DHV)
9 Unclear relationship between the designed configuration and the projected
operational condition
9 Signalized intersections
9 Cycle length is suggested as a service measure (JSTE 1988; 2004)
9 However, not used in practice at all
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9 Evaluation of Traffic Flow and Information Provision to Road17
Users
9 Suffering shortages in capacity and experiencing severe traffic
congestions
9 Information regarding queue lengths and travel times are being
provided on:
9 Intercity expressways, urban expressways and ordinary highways/arterial
streets
9 The identification of traffic congestion is generally based on a
combination of:
9 Estimated queue lengths, speeds and status durations, by using detector
data
9 Researches regarding users’ perception on congestions
9 MATSUI et al.(1994), MIZOKAMI and KAKIMOTO(1996)
Expressways
Expressways
Arterial
Arterial streets
streets

18
ÔSpeed thresholds of congestion levels used in the VICS
Ordinary
Congestion level Urban Intercity
Highways
(displayed color) Expressways Expressways
and Streets
Jam (red) <10km/h <20km/h <40km/h

Congested
<20km/h <40km/h <60km/h
(orange)
Fine (green) 䍹20km/h 䍹40km/h 䍹60km/h
Source: http://www.vics.or.jp/english/
9 VICS (Vehicle Information and Ò An example of the car navigation display

Communication System) with the VICS
9 Real-time traffic conditions indicated
on a digital road map of car
navigation systems
9 Three speed levels by color
9 Updated every five minutes
9 Travel time measurements by using

probe vehicles to monitor traffic
conditions
9 Used for such policy evaluations as
bottleneck identification and lost Ò Annual losses due to traffic congestion in the Tokyo
time due to congestions (MLIT) road network, Source: MLIT, http://www.mlit.go.jp/
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19
9 Quality of Service research
9 Scarce compared to capacity studies and the insufficient knowledge
9 OKAMURA (2002): classifying operating speeds into five levels in
intercity expressway basic sections
9 FUJITA (2004): practical issues to be considered when the LOS
concepts being applied to expressway planning and design
9 Recent QOS research activities

9 Necessary for a “performance-oriented” road planning/design and
traffic operation to attain a specified operational condition
9 NAKAMURA (2003), OGUCHI (2003)
9 Impacts of road geometry and other factors on operating conditions
9 HONG and OGUCHI(2006), INANO et al.(2006)
9 Measure of Effectiveness (MOE)
9 TWTL Expressways (CATBAGAN and NAKAMURA 2006)
9 Platoon parameters in six-lane expressway sections (SURAZAK et al.
2004)
9 Relationship between traffic flow conditions and traffic accident rates
(HIKOSAKA and NAKAMURA 2001)

20
9 User Perception Studies
9 Subjective evaluation studies in intercity expressway sections
9 NAKAMURA et al.(2000), ISHIBASHI et al.(2006)
9 Measurement of instantaneous driver perception through values of
a utility function of a driver behavior model
9 KITA(2000), KITA and MAEDA(2004), NAKAMURA et al.(2001)
9 All of these QOS studies are limited to expressways mainly

because of data availability
9 Needs of investigation on the impacts of road geometry,

roadside friction and signal control conditions on QOS in
ordinary TWTL highways and arterial streets
9 with many flow interruptions due to traffic signals and roadside
access
-126-
II. Effects of auxiliary lanes upstream bottleneck sag

sections on expressways 21
Contents
• Bottleneck Phenomena on Expressway in Japan
• Mechanism of bottleneck activation at sag
• Major countermeasures for the bottlenecks
• Auxiliary lane effects
• Empirical Study
• Conclusions
1. Bottleneck phenomena on Expressway in Japan

22
9 Traffic Congestions on Exprwy. Network in JPN
(ex.) Jun. 7th Sun. 5:55p.m.
Copyright (C) Japan Road Traffic Information Center

-127-

23
9 Traffic Congestions (Exprwy. Net) around Tokyo
(ex.) Jun. 7th Sun. 5:55p.m.
Many bottlenecks at sag sections!

Copyright (C) Japan Road Traffic Information Center

24
9 example bottlenecks at sag sections!
Chuo-expwy.
Head of queues are

located on ordinary sections
Tomei-expwy.
-128-

25
9 Many bottlenecks at sag sections!
Parking Area Interchange
on-ramp position off-ramp position
(aprox. 27 km) (aprox. 19 km)
Altitude (m)
90
traffic direction
80
70
60
Confirmed position of head of queue
by floating survey, video survey, etc.
50
24.0 23.0 22.0 21.0 20.0
Position (km)
2. Mechanism of bottleneck activation at sag

26
4,000
much DEMAND
Lane use concentration on Median-lane (Inner lane) 3,000
Dense platoon with many cars
traffic direction
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27
4,000
much DEMAND

Spacing [m/veh]
Reduction
of flow rate
Deceleration &
maintenance of Spacing
Deceleration SHOCK- WAVE
Rate of flow
Speed Spacing [veh/s]
[m/s] [m/veh] Speed
(inside platoon) [m/s]

28
4,000
much DEMAND
Deceleration & Mechanism of

maintenance of spacing bottleneck activation
at sag section
Deceleration SHOCK- WAVE
Slow Speed at the end of platoon
Queuing (congestion)
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29
4,000
- Drivers in the queue are tired.
- The point of bottleneck is not clear.
3,000
- Large spacing makes Spacing
drivers accelerate. [m/veh]
- Weak acceleration from 2,200㹼2,600
the head of queue cel.
a c
k
ea
- Capacity is reduced to W
Lower Level.
Mechanism of ex.) It takes 2km that speed

comes up to 80 km/h.
more capacity reduction
Speed
after congestion occurred
Slow speed in Queue [m/s]
kilometers
running 30
direction
low speed
(traffic congestion)
sag vertical curve shock wave
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
elapsed time (time in day)
-131-
3. Major countermeasures for the bottlenecks

31
9 DEMAND & CAPACITY
9 TDM, traffic prediction & information
9 Capacity Increase (increase of number of lanes, etc.)
9 Lane use concentration

9 Control the traffic lane distribution
Auxiliary lane installation upstream of the bottleneck

9 Car-following behavior
(deceleration, maintenance of spacing,
large spacing, weak acceleration)
9 ITS (AHS-i, AHS-c; intelligent cruise control)

32
9 Lane use concentration : typical example in JPN
median lane (inner)

shoulder lane (outer)
100
2-lane exprwy. 100
3-lane exprwy.
lane use ratio [%]
80 80
60 60% 60
40 40% 40
20 20
middle lane
0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
total flow rate in 5-min. total flow rate in 5-min.
[vph/2lane] [vph/3lane]
-132-

33
9 Auxiliary lane installation upstream of the bottleneck
a sag
without
40%
60%

34
a sag
Installation
-133-

35
a sag
Installation

36
a sag
Installation
50%
50%
-134-
4. Auxiliary lane effects

37
9 Types of auxiliary lane installation
Median
Median
a) additional outer-lane b) additional inner-lane
[typical in JPN] "crawling lane" "passing lane"
Median
Median
c) outside addition at the beginning, d) inside addition at the beginning,
inside closure at the end outside closure at the end
Ad. : advantages
4. Auxiliary lane effects: comparisons Sc. : shortcomings

38
Ad. only crawlers need lane change Ad. passing-veh. need lane change;
Sc. indirect control of lane use which has higher mobility
Sc. safety at the end in heavy traffic
Median
Median
a) additional outer-lane b) additional inner-lane
[typical in JPN] "crawling lane" "passing lane"
Sc. indirect control of lane use Ad. passing-veh. need lane change;
safety at the end in heavy traffic which has higher mobility
direct lane use control
Median
Median
c) outside addition at the beginning, d) inside addition at the beginning,
inside closure at the end outside closure at the end
-135-
4. Auxiliary lane effects: practical installation

39
Median
Ad. passing-veh. need lane change;

which has higher mobility
direct lane use control
Median
d) inside addition at the beginning,
outside closure at the end
5. Empirical Study
40
9 observations: road works with lane closure
49.2 48.8 47.8 40.2 38.8 37.9 37.4
49.9 48.0 47.4 46.5 40.6 40.1 37.8 37.3

49.50 46.94 45.95 43.95 42.08 41.08 38.75
median lane (inner) lane closure

middle lane
lane closure shoulder lane (outer)
50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 [km]
detector video camera
Median
d) inside addition at the beginning,
outside closure at the end
-136-
5. Empirical Study - total volume (approx.) 2,200 [vph]

- 7a.m.-8a.m.
41
49.2 48.8 47.8 40.2 38.8 37.9 37.4
49.9 48.0 47.4 46.5 40.6 40.1 37.8 37.3

49.50 46.94 45.95 43.95 42.08 41.08 38.75
median lane (inner) lane closure

middle lane
lane closure shoulder lane (outer)
50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 [km]
lane closure lane closure

(outer-lane) (inner-lane)
lane use ratio [%]
70
60
50
middle-lane use ratio
40
30
20
10 inner-lane use ratio
0
50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 [km]
5. Empirical Study - total volume (approx.) 2,200 [vph]

- 7a.m.-8a.m.
42
reduction of inner-lane ratio (RIR) = - 25%
43% inner 41% 26% median lane (inner) 24%

57% outer 59% 51% middle lane 50% 66% inner
23% shoulder lane (outer) 26% 34% outer
1,700 m 8,000 m
lane closure lane closure
(outer-lane) (inner-lane)
lane use ratio [%]
70
outer-lane use ratio
60
50
middle-lane use ratio
40
30
20
10 inner-lane use ratio
0
50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 [km]
-137-
Chuo-expwy.
6. Conclusion
43
9 Comparative study (at a famous bottleneck)
a) crawling lane type
bottleneck
45m 420m 60m 1700m
v.s. 40% 42% down to 40%

60% 58% more than 60%
d) inner-add/outer-close type
bottleneck
170m 295m
(140m) (325m) 60m 1700m
22%
40% 43% 43 - 50%
60% 35% 57 - 50%
with traffic demand condition of 3,000[vph/2lane]
6. Conclusion
44
9 Bottleneck activations at sag sections are more focused these days in
Japan
9 because of high ETC penetration rate
9 well-known in Japan, caused by drivers' bahavior (car-following
behavior, lane use ratio) and grade change
9 Major countermeasures in Japanese practices
9 capacity increase at sag bottlenecks
9 deconcentration of lane use on median lane (inner lane)
9 traffic demand management
9 Auxiliary Lane installation is one of the effective measures
9 change of lane use ratio
9 auxiliary lane, adding inside at beginning and closing outside at
end, is the most effective measure to control the lane use ratio
-138-
III. Emission model in actual vehicular traffic conditions

45
Contents
1. Concept of the study
2. Empirical study
3. Theoretical consideration
4. Discussion of the model
5. Example applications
1. Concept of the study

46
Vehicle factors
Power loss for maintaining
combustion idling a 'heat engine'(HE )
fuel
H
H
efficient output from HE K net power
fuel efficiency
Transport factors
Consumption of
-Load # of people moving-time
freight amount
Signal
-Trip length Cntr.
-Route choice Hwy. Traff.
- etc. Geometry Management
achievement
Hwy. traffic factors
of movement
-139-
2. Empirical study
47
¾ test runs
59 journeys on three kinds of facilities
( each journey distance : 5 - 10 km )
on normal daytime weekdays, inside Tokyo
test vehicle
2.0 liter gasoline engine
[measurement items] Urban Expressway (MEX)
speed, acceleration, ( congested )
fuel consumption,...
with 0.1 [sec] basis records
six-lane surface streets two-way two-lane

surface streets
2. Empirical study
48
¾ test runs
ex.) result of a test run (on a surf. street)
acceleration[m/s^2]
㏿ᗘ
ຍ㏿ᗘ>PV
speed
>NPK@
[km/h]

fuel ⇞ᩱᾘ㈝>JV@
consumption [g/s]

᫬㛫>V@
time [sec]
-140-
2. Empirical study
49
¾ concept of 'short-trip'(ST)
v [m/s]
t [s]
0
ft
[cc/s]
A 'short-trip'(ST)
A 'short-trip'(ST)
A 'short-trip'(ST)
2. Empirical study
50
¾ concept of 'short-trip'(ST)
running time T(run) stop time T(idle)

speed
[km/h]
50 travel time T
40 D
running speed S(run) = T(run)
30
travel speed D
20 S =
T
10 travel distance D
0
0 30 60 90 120 time[sec]
A 'short-trip'(ST) total of 1100 STs

in 59 journeys
-141-
2. Empirical study
51
¾ additivity of variables
fuel consumption rather than the rate of consm.
[ml/m]=[l/km] [m/ml]=[km/l]
time rate rather than speed
[sec/m] [m/sec]=1/3.6[km/h]
F F Fr
[ml/m] [ml/m] [km/l]
[m/ml]
W [sec/m] V [m/sec] V [m/sec]
2. Empirical study AEE T(idle)

52
¾ fuel consm. in running cond. S(run)
result of regression analysis S
D
F(run) = 0.028 + 0.31 W(run) + 0.056 A

(t =160.1) (t =16.3)
n=1100, R=0.981, RMSE=0.032 [ml/m]
where
F(run) [ml/m]
W(run) [sec/m]
F(run) = a + bW(run) +cA A [m/sec2]
-142-

53
¾ fuel consumption in STs S(run)
= (running) + (idling) S
D
F(run) = 0.028 + 0.31 W(run) + 0.056 A
F = F(run) + F(idle) F(idle) = ft(idle) W(idle)

F = 0.3 W(idle) + 0.028 + 0.31 W(run) + 0.056 A
0.3(W(idle)+W(run)) + 0.028 + 0.056 A
F = 0.3 W + 0.028 + 0.056 A where

[ml/m] [sec/m] [m/sec2]
W = W(idle)+W(run)=1/S
[sec/m]
convert into Q [ml] for a ST

54
¾ fuel consumption in STs S(run)
total amount of consumption S
D
Q = F D = 0.3 T + 0.028 D + 0.056 AAE

Q = ft(idle) T + C1 D+ C2 AAE
empirical model
F = 0.3 W + 0.028 + 0.056 A

[ml/m] [sec/m] [m/sec2]
convert into Q [ml] for a ST

-143-
55
¾ From 'thermal engine model' and 'kinetics',
instantaneous fuel consumption rate: ft [ml/sec]
Vehicle factors
Power loss for maintaining
idling a 'heat engine'(HE)
fuel combustion
H (net thermal Efficiency)
H
(Heat equivalence) efficient output from HE net power
K
EOHE (transmitting NP
efficiency)
'driving force'
= total resistance
56
¾ From 'thermal engine model' and 'kinetics',
instantaneous fuel consumption rate: ft [ml/sec]
( P + sin T ) M g N 3
M M'
ft = f(idle) + HK H v + HK H v + HK H D v
speed term cubic speed term product of

(rolling resistance (aero-resistance) acc. & speed term
+ grade resistance) (acc. resistance)
only when with acc.( 0)
> 0 (positive NP, even in decelerating condition)
then the HE produces mechanical work
EOHE (efficient output from the HE) >0
ft = f(idle) =< 0 then EOHE = 0
-144-
57
¾ amount of fuel consm. in a trip: Q [ml]
v1e t1e T t4e

v
[m/s]
D [m] = ґ
0
v dt
t3e
t2e T [s]
t2s t3s
v1s t4s t [s]
0t1s j =1 j =2 j =3 j =4
ft T ft(idle)
[cc/s]
Q =ґft dt
0
t je
Q = ft(idle) T + C3 6j ³ t js
v dt '[m]
t je
+ C4 6j ³ v 3 dt + C5 6j ^(vje)2 - (vjs)2`
t js

58
¾ numerical check
Q = ft(idle) T + C1 D+ C2 AAE
empirical
t 1 1
= 0.3 T + 0.0245 ' + 0.000166 ³t js v dt + 0.18 6( 2 vjs2 - 2 vje2 )
3
Q j
je
j
M : vehicle gross weight=1,500[kg] N : aero-resistance coef.=0.5[kg/m]
M' : weight equiv. of moment inertia=0.1M H : net thermal efficiency=0.3
2
g : gravity acceleration=10[m/sec ] P : rolling resistance coef.=0.015
H : heat equivalence=3.4 104[J/cc] K : transmitting efficiency coef.=0.9
theoretical assumptions = 0.3 ft(idle)
Q = ft(idle) T + C3 '
t
+ C4 6 ³t v 3 dt + C5 6^(vje)2 - (vjs)2`
js
je
-145-

59
¾ numerical check
Q = 0.3 T + 0.028 D + 0.0566^(vie)2 - (vis)2`

empirical
t 1 1
= 0.3 T + 0.0245 ' + 0.000166 ³t js v dt + 0.18 6( 2 vjs2 - 2 vje2 )
3
Q j
je
trial calc. w/ const. speed;

= 0.0014 D (if v = 18 [km/h] )
say,
= 0.0054 D (if v = 36 [km/h] )
' = 0.9 D
= 0.049 D (if v = 108 [km/h] )
this term can be negligible
when the speed is low enough
Q = 0.3 T + 0.022 D + 0.09 6

j
( v2 v2 )
js je

60
¾ validated model
Q = 0.3 T + 0.028 D + 0.0566^(vie)2 - (vis)2`

empirical well-known relationship between CO2 emission E [gram-Carbon]
and fuel consumption Q [cc] E=kQ
emission E = factor T (travel time) [s]

[g-c] + factor D (travel distance) [m]
+ factor AEE (speed fluctuation indices) [m2/s2]
theoretical difficulty of defining the duration of NP>0
Q = 0.3 T + 0.022 D + 0.09 6

j
( v2 v2 )
js je
-146-

61
¾ structure of the estimated emission estimation
emission E = factor T (travel time) [s]

[g-c] + factor D (travel distance) [m]
+ factor AEE (speed fluctuation indices) [m2/s2]
to compare with unit emission factor Edist [g-c/m]
E = Edist D
[g-c] [g-c/m] [m]
' T, D, AEE}
func.{
Edist = E [g-c] =
[g-c/m] D [m] D [m]
= func.{T/D, A}
Edist = func.{ V }
then Edist = func.{1/V, A} [g-c/m]

62
¾ variation of A (AEE )
running fuel consm. rate F(run) [ml/m] 2 lane hwy. 6 lane hwy. MEX
running speed of running speed of running speed of
A [m/sec2] A [m/sec2] A [m/sec2]
Variation of 0.2 < A < 1.5 can be observed in any of speed ranks.
individuality
Edist = func.{ V }
Edist = func.{1/V, A} [g-c/m]
-147-

63
¾ contribution of each factor
Q = factor T (travel time) [s]

fuel consm.
S = D/ T
[ml] + factor D (travel distance) [m] A = AEE/D
F = Q/ D + factor AEE (speed fluctuation indices) [m2/s2]
F 0.4 [3.0 km/l]
[ml/m] spd. fluct.
0.328
or [l/km] [3.9 km/l] distance
0.3 (26) 0.255 time
(4)
(8) (11)
0.2 [7.2 km/l]
0.139
(66) (85) [15.2 km/l]
0.1 (61) 0.066 (17)
(20) (42)
0.0 (19) (41)
S= 5 5 40 40 [km/h]
A = 1.5 0.2 1.5 0.2 [m/s2]
[2] "Transport + City + Environment" integrated model 64
(Kuwahara, 2004[JP])
NOx, CO2
concentration Road Traffic Noise
㐨㊰㦁㡢
⃰ᗘ
of NO x, PM,...
䠏ḟඖ㒔ᕷ
3D city model
䝰䝕䝹
㸩
Traffic simulator
᤼ฟ䜺䝇䝰䝕䝹
with function of
஺㏻䝅䝭䝳䝺䞊䝅䝵䞁
environmental effect
estimation
Policy
ᨻ⟇
-148-
Target Area: R=500 [m] around a intersection (Ikegami-Shinmachi)
located in Kawasaki city of
to TOKYO
Kanagawa prefecture
[ SW part of Metropolitan Area]
famous point for bad air quality
intersection
Traffic Survey
on a weekday (Sep., 2003)
morning/evening peak periods
to YOKOHAMA
(three hrs. for each period)
1 km at 14 intersections
Network traffic simulator: SOUND4U (developed in IIS, U-Tokyo, JP)
-149-
67
distance using the output of PLT

time
piece-wise-linearized trajectory
acceleration
constant Model to Calculate Indicators
deceleration MCIE for estimation of Emissions
stopping ᐃ ῶ ೵ຍ ᐃ
ᖖ㻌㏿㻌 Ṇ㻌㏿㻌 ᖖ㻌 apply the given SD (spatial distribution)
Zv,Zv3 ZDv,ZD Tr+,Tr- Ti for each AGI (aggregate indicators)
to fit the amount of emission
AGI model SD of emission

NOx/CO (aggregate indicators)
(spatial distribution)
emission c1 Z v c2 Z v 3 c3a ZDv c3b ZD

c4 r Tr c4 r Tr c4iTi
-150-
emission of NOx emission of CO
0.0 - 2.0 [g/m/hr] 0.0 - 0.5 [g/m/hr]

2.0 - 4.0 [g/m/hr] 0.5 - 1.0 [g/m/hr]
4.0 - 6.0 [g/m/hr] 1.0 - 1.5 [g/m/hr]
6.0 - [g/m/hr] 1.5 - [g/m/hr]
New regulation (2005) personal car (petrol) =0.05[g/km], diesel car = 2.0[g/kWh]䠙0.1[g/km/ton]
0.05[g/km]*3000[veh/hr]/1000[m]=0.15[g/m/hr] if all personal-cars
0.15*50%+0.15*10*20%+0.15*40*30%= 2.2[g/m/hr] if mixed
results for emission of NOx
ppm
0.00
0.04
survey 0.13
station 0.21
0.42
NOx emission estimation NOx emission estimation

with Gaussian diffusion with CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics)
(height=1.8m, wind: SE) (height=1.8m, wind: SE)
area-wide concentration estimated with an pilot study for validating CFD
approximation model created by Gaussian Results are consistent with Gaussian diffusion
diffusion applied to model output in the area with certain distance from source.
-151-
Visualization demo of air pollution
(Bhaskar, 2004)
contour-map of road traffic noise

Residential area
Study area with ASJ-model (Acoustical Society of Japan)
Ikegami-shinmachi
intersection
1 km
Industrial Area
Due to light vehicles only Due to heavy vehicles only
Buildings
1 km
Without considering With considering

building attenuation building attenuation
-152-
2. Lecture
“Efficient development and operation of
road net works”
Mr. Katsumi UESAKA
-153-
Drivability Map
as one Means to Use
Existing Road Networks
Effectively
Katsumi UESAKA
Traffic Engineering Division, NILIM, MLIT
November 12, 2009
Background
• In Japan, it is more and more important to

use existingg roads effectively.
y
• Therefore, it is indispensable to give
drivers some useful information on road
traffic.
• A roadmap is one of the most basic means
for providing the information. However, it
has some problems.
-155-
Roadmaps of Our Friendly Countries
What is the Problem with Japanese

Roadmaps?
Usual roadmap
Motorways
National highways
Principal local roads
Prefectural roads
-156-
国道（kokudo) ａｓ酷道(kokudo)
国道 National Highway 酷道 Severe Highway
Proposal of Drivability Map
• “Drivability”
Drivability means
the ease with which a car can be
driven along a particular road.
-157-
Example of Drivability Map
A drivability map gives three pieces of information to drivers, especially
tourists.
・ Road Structure Ranking: M, S, A, B, C, D
・ Congested Points
・ Hazardous Spots with high accident rates
Usual map Motorways
National highways
Principal Local roads
Prefectural roads
Drivability
vab ty map
ap
Road Structure Ranking (M and S)

• Trunk roads are divided into sections about 500 m in length.
• Each section is categorized by road structure: number of
lanes; curve radius; shoulders; and sidewalk conditions
conditions.
M: Motorway
S:
1) R
Roads
d with
ith ttwo or more llanes with
ith
gentle curves or inclinations over more
than 5 km.
2) Wide shoulders with few pedestrians or
sidewalks and roadways divided by fences.
3) One or fewer intersections per kilometer. 7
-158-
Road Structure Ranking (Suburban
(Suburban
and Mountain Areas)
Areas)
1) Two or more lanes, gentle curves or slopes.
A: 2) Sidewalks or wide shoulders.
1) Two or more lanes, some not gentle curves

or slopes.
B: 2) Some parts with narrow shoulders.
1) One lane with sharp curves. Two or more
C: lanes, with sharp curves and steep slopes.
2) Some parts with narrow shoulders.
D: 2)1) Narrow
One lane with continuous sharp curves.
shoulders.
8
Road Structure Ranking (Urban Areas)
A: 1)2) Road with two or more lanes and gentle curves.

Sidewalks usable by cyclists on both sides, and wide
shoulders.
B: 1)2) Road with two or more lanes.

Sidewalks on both sides.
C: 1)2) Road with two or more lanes.

Sidewalk on one side or no sidewalk.
1) Road with one lane.

D: 2) No sidewalk.
9
-159-
Acquisition of Basic Data for Road Structure Ranking
When there was no sufficient data existing for the ranking, a

field survey was conducted using a car equipped with a
video camera and probe system.
Sample video image
Calculating the radius of curvature from horizontal G

① Tr avel speed
② Gr avi t y act i ng i n hor i zontV2 al Hor i zont al G Cur ve
Plane curve
di r ect i on(radius (m)
hor i zont al =G) gG
10
For whom is a drivability map

the most useful?
Tourism is one of
the most
important tasks
of our ministry.
THE MINISTER OF LAND, INFRASTRUCTURE,

TRANSPORT AND TOURISM
11
-160-
Evaluation of a Paper Drivability Map
• Nearly 90% of respondents felt that the Drivability map was
a good idea.
• Over 70% respondents were keen to use the map in the
future.
Do you think it’s a good idea? Would you like to use it?
Other
No Don’t know
6%
5%
15%
No
11%
Yes 89% Yes 73%

12
Consistency with Actual Feelings
How consistent were the indicated classification

with
ith actual
t l feelings
f li ?
Don’t know Highly

8%
19% consistent
Very inconsistent
1%
Fairly inconsistent
7%
Generally consistent
65%
13
-161-
Need for Drivability Maps for
Car Navigation Systems
Would you buy a drivability Should drivability maps be

map, if it were sold? incorporated into car
navigation systems?
Other Yes, even by Other

13% itself Don’t know 2%
14%
18%
No
12%
No, I
wouldn
pay for it
’t
35% Yes, together with Yes
an ordinary map 72%
35%
14
Development of Drivability Map

for Practical Use
Step 1 Paper map (2004)
Step
p 2 Digital
g map
p on website ((2007))
Step 3 Integration into car navigation system (2010?)
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
15
-162-
Route Search Service on Internet
Using Digital Drivability Maps
http://map.qsr.mlit.go.jp/
16
Integration of Drivability Maps into Car

Navigation Systems
NILIM is executing a joint study with six industry groups on the
feasibility of integrating drivability maps into car navigation
systems.
Period
December 2006 - February 2009
Participating companies
• Aisin AW, Denso, Toyota Mapmaster • Alpine • Increment P Corp, Pasco
• Kenwood, Zenrin • Sumitomo Electric System Solutions • Panasonic
Drivability map superimposed on car navigation readout
Low Narrow road with
経路選択
Route selector
manyy curves for
Drivability
Alert next 3 km.
Best drivability Caution required.
走りやすさ優先
Fastest
時間優先 time
Shortest distance
最短距離
No toll roads
有料道路除く
17
-163-
Problems Clarified by the Joint
Research
• Usefulness of data for car navigation

p
companies
• Check system for accuracy of data
• Reduction in update cost of data
18
Summary in Japan
Step 1 (paper map) and Step 2 (digital map on
website) seems to be successful.
Step 3 (integration into car navigation system) has a lot

of problems to be solved.
The success depends on cooperation between

governments and private car navigation
companies.
19
-164-
I hope that you will have your own
drivability map.
20
A Kind of Drivability Map !?
-165-
Thank you very much for listening.
22
-166-
3. Lecture
“Measures to secure road traffic safety”
Mr. Masahiro KANEKO
-167-
Road Safety
Measures in Japan
November 12, 2009
The 18th Conference
on Public Works Research and Development
in Asia
Advanced Road Design and Safety Division

National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
Road Safety Measures in Japan
• Current situation of traffic accidents

• Efforts to prevent traffic accidents
Preventive measures for arterial roads
Preventive measures for residential roads
-169- 䋱
Current situation of traffic accidents: Number of traffic accident fatalities and casualties
Population in Japan (2008): About 127 million people)
16,765 people 1,190,478 people 1,500
Number of casualties (thousand people)

19,000 (1970) (2004)
Highest to date Highest to date
Number of fatalities (people)
1,000
14,000
950,659 people
(2008)
9,000 500
5,155 people
(2008)
Number of fatalities Lowest in recent
Number of casualties
years
4,000 2008
0
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 (Year )
2
Current situation of traffic accidents:

Comparison of ratios of traffic accident casualties by type of road (2007)
ᵑᵏᵌᵔᵆᵐᵗᵃᵇ
Pedestrians and
μᢊែ
All roads ᵕᵕᵌᵓᵆᵕᵏᵃᵇ ᵏᵎᵗ ഩᘍᎍὉᐯ᠃៻
bicycles
Ẹỉ˂
Other
ᵎᵌᵏᵆᵏᵃᵇ
ᐯѣ៻
Expressways ᵏᵐ
‫ݦ‬ဇᢊែ
ᵏᵏᵌᵓᵆᵗᵗᵃᵇ
࠴ዴᢊែ
Arterial roads ᵕᵐᵌᵓᵆᵖᵎᵃᵇ ᵗᵏ
ᵏᵖᵌᵏᵆᵐᵎᵃᵇ About four times
Residential
ဃ෇ᢊែ roads ᵖᵎᵌᵕᵆᵑᵗᵃᵇ ᵏᵐᵔᵌᵗᵆᵔᵏᵃᵇ ᵐᵎᵖ
ᵎ ᵓᵎ ᵏᵎᵎ ᵏᵓᵎ ᵐᵎᵎ ᵐᵓᵎ

രͻʙ૏ྙᵆˑᵍΕӨỿἿὸ
Ratio of traffic accident casualties
-170- vehicle kilometers)
(case/100 million 3
Number of fatalities by age and situation (2006)
Age 6 or younger 59% 9% 32%
Age 7 - 12 41% 48% 11%
Age 13 - 19 5% 15% 36%
Age 20 - 64 20% 8% 51%
Age 65 or older 48% 17% 24%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
While walking While riding a bicycle
While riding a motorcycle While riding a vehicle
Other/unidentified
Source: Annual Report on

Traffic Accident Statistics
Current situation of traffic accidents: Changes in traffic accident casualties
Country Japan Germany U.K. U.S.

Ratio of traffic 109 47.6 37 38.6
accident
casualty (2007) (2006) (2006) (2005)
(Number of cases per 100 million vehicle kilometers)

350
Japan
Ratio of traffic accident casualty
Germany
300
U.K.
U.S.
250 Reduced to
about 1/3
200
150
100
50 Still 2-3 times higher
0 2007
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
(Year)
-171- 5
International comparison of the number of fatalities by situation (2006)
ᣣᧄ
Japan 32% 14% 24% 18% 12%
2%
䉝䊜䊥䉦
U.S. 11% 42% 11% 34%
4% 6%
䊐䊤䊮䉴 11%
France 56% About 2-3 23%
times higher
4% 4%
䉟䉩䊥䉴
U.K. 21% 52% 19%
䋨UK䋩
䊄䉟䉿
Germany 14% 10% 52% 18% 6%
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

ᱠⴕਛ
While Walking ⥄ォゞਸ਼ゞਛ
While riding a bicycle ਸ਼↪ゞਸ਼ゞਛ
While riding a vehicle
Source: Data by IRTAD/OECD
ੑベゞਸ਼ゞਛ
While riding a motorcycle 䈠䈱ઁਇ᣿
Other / unidentified

Ratios of traffic accident fatalities by age group
International comparison of traffic fatality ratios by

age group and population structure
㪉㪅㪉㪇㪅㪊㪊㪅㪈
㪉㪊㪅㪊㪈㪏㪅㪏
㪈㪐㪅㪌㪈㪋㪅㪇㪉㪊㪅㪉㪈㪍㪅㪇㪈㪎㪅㪍
㪉㪎㪅㪉
㪈㪈㪅㪎
Germany U.K. 㪈㪊㪅㪋
䊄䉟䉿䋰䌾䋱䋴䉟䉩䊥䉴䋰䌾䋱䋴
㪈㪌䌾㪉㪋㪈㪌䌾㪉㪋
㪉㪌䌾㪍㪋㪉㪌䌾㪍㪋
㪌㪊㪅㪇
㪌㪋㪅㪎㪍㪌䌾㪍㪌䌾
ਇ᣿ 㪌㪇㪅㪍 ਇ᣿
Unidentified
㪌㪈㪅㪉 Unidentified
Population ratio
㪇㪅㪍㪋㪅㪌
㪉㪅㪈
㪈㪌㪅㪇㪈㪈㪅㪏
㪈㪉㪅㪋 About 2-3 㪈㪊㪅㪌
㪉㪇㪅㪌
㪉㪋㪅㪎 times higher 㪉㪈㪅㪌
㪈㪇㪅㪍
䉝䊜䊥䉦
U.S. 䋰䌾䋱䋴㪋㪏㪅㪋 Japan
ᣣᧄ 䋰䌾䋱䋴
㪈㪋㪅㪉
㪈㪌䌾㪉㪋㪈㪌䌾㪉㪋
㪉㪌䌾㪍㪋 Distribution ratio of 㪊㪎㪅㪍㪉㪌䌾㪍㪋
㪌㪉㪅㪐
traffic accident fatalities 㪌㪋㪅㪋
㪍㪌䌾㪍㪌䌾
㪌㪌㪅㪊 ਇ᣿
Unidentified ਇ᣿
Unidentified
Note 1: IRTAD data 2: Values indicate distribution ratios (%) 3: The inner circle indicates population, and the outer circle the
-172-
number of traffic accident fatalities 4: Data is based on 2007 (2005 for the U.S. only) 7

Current situation of traffic accidents on arterial roads and residential roads
Road length 183,640km 1,005,975km

(km) (15.4%) (84.6%)
Number of accidents 409,562 cases 409,718 cases

(cases) (50.0%) (50.0%)
Number of casualties 531,388 people 486,812 people

(people) (52.2%) (47.8%)
Number of fatalities 3,632 people 1,854 people

(people) (66.2%) (33.8%)
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Arterial roads (national routes, major regional roads, and prefectural roads
other than expressways and highways)
Residential roads
* Road length is based on the Annual Report on Road Statistics (2006)

* Number of accident is based on the Annual Report on Traffic Accident
Statistics (2007) -173- 9
Occurrence of Traffic Accidents
Arterial Roads: Accidents are concentrated at specific locations.

o Implementation of focused road traffic environment
countermeasures for hazardous spots
Hazardous spot
Legend
Less than 100 (cases/100 million vehicle-km)
Less then 200 (cases/100 million vehicle-km)
Less than 300 (cases/100 million vehicle-km)
300 or more (cases/100 million vehicle-km)
10
Traffic accidents on arterial roads: Selected and focused measures
(cases/100 million vehicle-

䋨ઙ㪆ంบ㫂㫄㪀km) ో࿖䋨ᐙ✢㆏〝䋩䇭ᱫ்੐᡿₸
Nationwide (arterial road) rate of accidents involving casualties
㪉㪃㪇㪇㪇
Accident rate of
Rate of accidents involving casualties
䇭䇭੐᡿₸㪈㪇㪇એ਄
100 or higher
Accident rate of less
䇭䇭੐᡿₸㪈㪇㪇ᧂḩ
than 100
㪈㪃㪌㪇㪇
ᱫ
் 71% of allఝవኻ╷඙㑆䋺⚂㪈㪌ਁ඙㑆
accidents involving casualties
䋨ో૕䈱䋲䋲䋦䈱඙㑆䈮ᱫ்੐᡿䈱䋷䋱䋦䈏㓸ਛ䋩
੐ 㪈㪃㪇㪇㪇 are concentrated on 22% of all links.
᡿
₸
㪌㪇㪇
Links with traffic accidents :
੐᡿⊒↢඙㑆䋺䋵䋰䋦 50% Links without traffic accidents: 50%
੐᡿䈱⊒↢䈚䈩䈇䈭䈇඙㑆䋺䋵䋰䋦
㪈㪇㪇
㪇
㪇㪉㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇㪋㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 ⚂㪎㪈ਁ඙㑆
㪍㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 Among about
* The graph is created based on the average accident data over four years (2003 to 2006) on 710,000 links
㶎ో࿖䈱࿖㆏䊶ㇺ㆏ᐭ⋵㆏⚂㪈㪏ਁ㫂㫄䈮䈍䈔䉎䋴ᐕ㑆䋨㪟㪈㪌䌾㪈㪏䋩䈱ᐔဋ੐᡿䊂䊷䉺䈎䉌૞ᚑ
approximately 180,000 km of national routes and prefectural roads in Japan.
-174- 11
Urgent Measures for Hazardous Accident Spots
zOverview
National Institute for Traffic

The Hazardous Accident Spot
Research Accident Research
Countermeasures Council NILIM Institute of and Data
consists of Police Science Analysis (ITARDA)
• Road Administrators
• Public Safety Commissions
Study and analysis Support
Improvement of intersections Widening roads

4,000
Laying electric cables hazardous Improvement of sight distance
in underground trenches spots
Construction of sidewalks Installation of safety facilities
Reducing road
accidents
12
Example of preventive measures against traffic accidents on an arterial roads

(Intersection of National Route No. 3)
Number of traffic accidents and growth

(Growth
䋨િ䈶₸䋩 rate ) rate (in comparison to 1996) (case/year)
䋨ઙ㪆ᐕ䋩
㪉㪅㪌㪌㪇㪌㪇
㪈㪅㪐㪈㪉㪅㪇㪇
Before 㪈㪅㪏㪉㪋㪇
Doubled
㪉㪅㪇㪋㪇
㪈㪅㪊㪍
㪈㪅㪌㪈㪅㪈㪏㪊㪇㪈㪅㪉㪈㪊㪇
㪈㪅㪇㪇
㪈㪅㪇㪉㪇㪉㪇
㪈㪅㪈㪎㪈㪅㪉㪇㪈㪅㪉㪊㪈㪅㪈㪎
㪈㪅㪇㪇㪈㪅㪇㪏
㪇㪅㪐㪈㪈㪇
㪇㪅㪌㪈㪇
㪈㪈㪈㪊㪉㪈㪉㪇㪈㪌㪉㪉㪈㪇
㪇㪅㪇㪇㪇
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2004
㪟㪈㪍
Traffic flow Traffic flow Fukuoka pref.
–ᵹ㪄੐᡿ઙᢙ
number of accident –ᵹ㪄િ䈶₸
growth rate ⑔ጟ⋵㪄િ䈶₸
– growth rate
The number of
accidents is
reduced to half
Intersection of
National Route No. 3
(Fukuoka)
After
-175- 13
Effect of reducing accidents through measures
implemented at hazardous accident spots
Arterial roads in Japan Hazardous accident spots
If the accident increased at the
same speed as nationwide
8.0% increase, arterial roads: 11,880
407,318 439,756 cases 11,004 cases cases
Reduced by
cases 25% through
measures
8,957 cases
1996-1999
1996-1999 2006 Average Average
Average after
measures
Pre-measures Post-measures Pre-measures Post-measures

* This data covers 2,261 locations where measures administered by road administrators and public safety commissions were completed
or partially completed by 2005.
* Pre-measure data is the four-year average from 1996 to 1999.
* Post-measure data is the three-year average from 2004 to 2006 for locations where measures were completed or partially completed
in 2003, the two-year average from 2005 to 2006 for locations where measures were completed or partially completed in 2004, and
the 2006 data for locations where measures were completed or partially completed in 2005. 14

-176- 15
Promotion of measures on residential roads under pedestrian-
friendly area projects
Measures targeting routes

Image of Safe Improve safety of routes
Pedestrian Area including school roads
through improvement of
development sidewalks and traffic lights.
Measures targeting zones

Measures targeting arterial roads Implement two-dimensional
Secure pedestrian spaces to measures including speed limits
ensure the safety of pedestrians inside residential areas and
and bicycle riders along arterial adoption of road structures to
roads where many types of road reduce vehicle speed to develop
users gather. zones that prioritize pedestrians
and bicycle riders.
16
Promotion of measures on residential roads under pedestrian

-friendly area projects
Examples of measures implemented in Safe Pedestrian Areas
Measures targeting Measures targeting Measures targeting
arterial roads routes zones
Construction of intersection Development of sidewalks Installation of speed bumps
overpasses
Separate traffic lights for Push-button traffic lights Regulation of maximum speed
pedestrians and vehicles
-177- 17
Example of two-dimensional development in a Safe Pedestrian Area
(Kamagaya, Chiba)
Legend
Speed bumps at intersections
Road surface signs (to call attention)
Colored pavement at intersections
Development of road fences and sidewalks
Main route of passing traffic
Sidewalk development
Road fences
Colored pavement at
intersections
Areas where measures Road surface signs

Speed bumps at were implemented (to call attention)
intersections
18
Example of two-dimensional development in a Safe Pedestrian Area

(Kamagaya, Chiba)
Effectiveness of the measures

Workshop (case)
35 A decrease
of about
30 62%
25
20
31.8
15 cases
10
12
5 cases
0
Pre-measures Post-measures
(average between (2006)
1995 and 1999)
*Circumferential arterial roads are not
included.
-178- 19
-180-
4. Lecture
“Environmental Issues of Roads in
Japan”
Mr. Sinri SONE
-181-
Environmental Issues
of Roads in Japan
Shinrii SONE、
Shi SONE
Head of Road Environment Division
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
1
Outline
1.Grobal Warming
2 Environmental Impact
2.Environmental
Assessment
3.Air pollution
4.Traffic Noise
5.Eco-system
6.History of Engineering
2
-183-
1.1.Target of Greenhouse gas emissions
・ In FY 2006, Japan's greenhouse gas emissions were 6.4% higher than their
baseline 1990 levels.
・ To achieve Japan's commitment to a 6% reduction under the Kyoto Protocol on
climate change, emissions must be reduced by 7.0%.
1,359 million tons
(million tons (+7.7%) 1,341 million tons
of CO2) (+6.4%)
2.3% A 7.0% reduction
Temporary effect
3.1% in emissions is
1,300 from lower
utilization rate of
1,261 million tons (+5.4%） nuclear power

generation
needed.
(+3.3%）
▲
(2.1% change from －0.6%
previous year)
Carbon sink measures:
3.8% reduction
1,200
Mechanisms under the
Kyoto Protocol: 1.6%
－6%
reduction
1,100
1,000
Baseline year FY 2005 FY 2006 Reduction commitment under

emissions emissions emissions the Kyoto Protocol (2008-2012) 3
(generally 1990)
1.2. CO2 Emissions from Transport Sector in Japan

• CO2 emissions from transport have been decreasing after peaking in FY2001.
• Freight vehicles: Decreasing from FY1996; Private automobiles: Decreasing from FY2001.
FY2007
CO2 Emissions from Transport (QE)
(Mt of CO2) FY2010 Target
300 +14.6
％
265 268
249 240
250
217
200
Private Automobiles
150
Other Modes
100
50 Freight Vehicles
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
4
* “Other Modes” includes emissions from buses, taxies, railways, ships and aircraft.
-184-
1.3.Evaluation and Monitoring Framework
for Addressing Transport CO2 Emissions
Demand Supply
People’s lives Vehicle
Improvement of Welfare
Fuel, Energy
Mode share
Economic Activities
Economic Growth
Infrastructure
Freight transport
Traffic
Passenger transport (Market)
CO2 Emissions
CO2 Emissions = Activity x Mode Share x Efficiency x Fuel carbon content

passenger tank to wheel well/field to tank
freight traffic efficiency
Joint OECD/ITF Transport

Research Committee 5
1.4.Evaluation Model
of Transport CO2 Emissions
Traffic Vehicle
Efficiency Efficiency
Joint OECD/ITF Transport

Research Committee 6
-185-
1.5.Fuel Efficiency (catalog) in the world
（ℓ/100km）
Bad Fuel Efficiencyy
Good
（ 15.2km/ ℓ）
1.5.Fuel Efficiency net) in the world
（ℓ/100km）
Bad
Net（ 9.3km/ ℓ）
Good
Catalog(15.2km/ ℓ）
-186-
1.6.CO2 and Traffic condition
CO2 Emissions per travel distance
(g-CO2/km)
500
400
300
200
100
0
20km 40km 60km 80km
Travel Speed (km/h)
1.7.Development of Bypass Roads and Ring Roads
CO2 Trip Traffic Wheel Engine Tank Well CO2

= • • • • • •
Economy Economy Trip Traffic Wheel Engine Tank Well
Traffic Condition
Tokyo Paris London Berlin
Figure-10 Comparison of Ring Road Networks in Metropolitan Areas in some Countries
Figure-11 Image of Metropolitan Ring Road Networks in Japan
10
-187-
1.8.CO2 and VKT Impacts
of Selected Road Infrastructure Modifications in
Japan
CO2 emissions
Traffic volume ((vkm))
Metropolitan Area
Rural Area
1.10
erage level prior to modification
1.05
1.00
Indexed to ave
0.95
0.90
Intersection
New bypass Lane increase
treatment
0.85
11 March 2009 Joint OECD/ITF Transport 11

Research Committee
1.9.Promotion of Intelligent
Transport Systems (VICS)
VICS: Provides road traffic information in real time,
realizing smooth traffic & higher travel speed,
speed resulting in
the improvement of actual fuel efficiency:
→ Reduce CO2 emissions by 2.4 Mt in 2010.

VICS
（Vehicle Information and Communication System）
CO2 Emissions per travel distance
(g-CO2/km) I 2010
In
500
400
300 Reduction of
200
2.4Mt-CO2
100
0
20km 40km 60km 80km
Travel Speed (km/h)
12
-188-
1.10.Promotion of Intelligent
Transport Systems (ETC)
ETC: Enables non-stop, cashless toll collection at
expressway tollbooths,
t llb th whose h capacity
it shortage
h t causes
about a third of traffic jams on expressways:
→ Reduce CO2 emissions by 0.2 Mt in 2010.

ETC ETC Decreases Volume of Congestion:
((18 Tollbooths of the Metropolitan
p Expressways)
p y )
（
（Electronic Toll Collection
C System））
S Volume of Congestion
(Blue bar; km・h/day)
Ratio of ETC Users
(Red line; %)
In 2010
100 100%
渋滞量
80 ETC利用率 80%
75
80
60%
Reduction of
60 67
40 35 44
40%
0.2Mt-CO2
27 21
20 12
13 20%
7 3 1 1
0 2 0%
02.4 03.4 04.4 05.4 06.4 07.4 08.4 13
2. Outline of Environmental Impact

Assessment System
Environmental Impact Assessment Law
Article 1:
T ki into
Taking i t accountt that
th t it is
i extremely
t l important
i t t for
f entrepreneurs
t who
h
conduct projects, such as alterations to the configurations of land and the new
construction of structures, to assess the environmental impacts in advance of
the implementation of the projects in order to conserve the environment, this
law ensures that proper consideration will be given to the conservation of the
environment related to the projects, and contributes to the maintenance of
people's healthy and cultural lives now and in the future by clarifying the
national government's and others' responsibilities for environmental impact
assessments by deciding on procedures for proper
assessments, proper, efficient environmental
impact assessment, and other required matters for large-scale projects that are
likely to have a significant environmental impact, and by taking measures for
the conservation of the environment related to the projects so the results of
environmental impact assessments that are made under the above procedures
can be reflected in decisions concerning the details of the projects.
14
-189-
2.1. Projects applicable for the Environmental
Impact Assessment Law
Class 1 Project Class 2 Project Class 1 Project Class 2 Project
1. Roads (* Large scale forest roads were newly added.) 5. Power plants (* newly added)
National Expressway All Output power of 30,000 kW or Output power of 22,500 kW or

Hydroelectric power plant
more more, less than 30,000 kW
Metropolitan Expressway, etc. Four lanes or more
Thermoelectric power plant (except Output power of 150,000 kW or Output power of 112,500 kW or
Four lanes or more, 10 km or Four lanes or more, 7.5 km or more for geothermal power) more more, less than 150,000 kW
National Highway
more Less than 10 km
Thermoelectric power plant Output power of 10,000 kW or Output power of 7,500 kW or
Two lanes or more, 20 km or Two lanes or more, 15 km or more (geothermal power) more more, less than 10,000 kW
Large scale forest road
more Less than 20 km
Nuclear power plant All
2. Rivers (* Dams related to second class rivers, and weirs (weirs for water supply, weirs for industrial use,
and weirs for irrigation) outside the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Construction were newly added. A 6. Final waste-disposal sites 30 ha or more 25 ha or more, less than 30 ha
requirement for the size of dams was reduced from 200 ha, which was decided upon by the Cabinet, to 100
ha.) 7. Filling-up and reclamation of state-
More than 50 ha 40 ha or more, less than 50 ha
owned water resources
Water surface area of 100 ha Water surface area of 75 ha or more,
Dam
or more less than 100 ha 8. Land readjustment projects 100 ha or more 75 ha or more, less than 100 ha
Water surface area of 100 ha Water surface area of 75 ha or more, 9. New residential city area
Weir 100 ha or more 75 ha or more, less than 100 ha
or more less than 100 ha development projects
10. Industrial park development

Lake water level adjusting Altered area of 75 ha or more, less 100 ha or more 75 ha or more, less than 100 ha
Altered area of 100 ha or more projects
facilities than 100 ha
11. New urban development projects 100 ha or more 75 ha or more, less than 100 ha
Altered area of 75 ha or more,, less
Fl d
Flood-way Alt d area off 100 hha or more
Altered
than 100 ha 12. Distribution estate development
100 ha or more 75 ha or more, less than 100 ha
projects
3. Railroads (* Ordinary railroads and tracks (for ordinary railroads, or equivalent) were newly added.)
13. Building land development projects (Building land includes residential and industrial land.)
Shinkansen railroad (including
new railroads constructed in Japan Environment Corporation 100 ha or more 75 ha or more, less than 100 ha
All
compliance with standards for
Shinkansen railroads) Housing and Urban Development
100 ha or more 75 ha or more, less than 100 ha
Corporation
Ordinary railroad 10 km or more 7.5 km or more, less than 10 km
Japan Regional Development
Tracks (for ordinary railroads, 100 ha or more 75 ha or more, less than 100 ha
10 km or more 7.5 km or more, less than 10 km Corporation
or equivalent)
Runway of 1,875 m or more, less

4. Airports Runway of 2,500 m or more
than 2,500 m 15
{ Port and harbor plan Reclaimed land area and excavated area of 300 ha or more
(* Major changes from matters decided upon by the Cabinet)
2.2. Applicable items (road

work)
I Maintenance of natural II Ensured diversity of living things,
components of the environment in and systematic conservation of the
aggood condition natural environment
7 Atmospheric environment 7 Plants
{ Air quality 7 Animals
{ Noise 7 Ecosystems
{ Vibration
{ Offensive odor III Affluent exchanges with people
{ Other and nature
7 Water environment 7 Landscape
{ Water quality 7 Place for exchanging activities
{ Deposits
D it
{ Groundwater IV Environmental burdens
{ Other 7 Waste, etc.
7 Soil and other environments 7 Greenhouse effect gas, etc.
{ Topography and geology
{ Ground
{ Soil 16
{ Other
-190-
2.3. Flow of environmental impact assessment
Outline and scale of a Preparation of an
project assessment report
Governors' opinions
Decision – National Government Screening Revision of the assessment

(competent ministers) report
Inapplicable projects
Preparation of
methodological
Publicity for and public
documents
inspection
Opinions (from opinion holders) of the assessment report
(Publicity and
public inspection)
Opinions (from governors, etc.)
Scoping
Technical opinions if necessary
(from competent ministers)
Licenses etc.
Licenses, etc
Making investigations, Examination

predictions and assessments (competent ministers)
Implementation
of the project
Preparation of preparatory
documents Ex post facto report
(during construction work
Opinions (from opinion holders)
and after the opening)17
(Publicity and public inspection)
(Holding briefings)
Opinions (from governors, etc.)
3.Air Pollution (Ground Policy)
EST
Pb,S NOｘ,PM,CO
CO2 18
-191-
Amount
PM NOx
Burning Efficiency
Catalyst
Electronic Control
Air/Fuel Ratio
Imperfect combustion PM
High temperature NOx
19
3．１． Air Pollutant Emissions (SO2)

Other Sectors
Commercial/ 4.6%
Residential
6.7%
Energy Industries
20.7%
Other Transports FY1998

26.0%
SO2 Emissions
995kt
Manufacturing
Road Transport
Industries/
2.0%
Construction
39.8%
SO2 emission shares by sources 20

(FY1998,in Japan）
-192-
3.1.1 Fuel Quality Regulation（Ｓ）
(％)
1.2
Upper Limit of sulfur content rat io in
0.8
diesel fuel
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
(Year)
'70 '80 '90 '00 '10
21
3.1.2 State of Air Pollution (SO2)
ppm Annual average SO2 concentration

0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
General Monitoring Station Roadside Monitoring Station
22
-193-
3.2. Air Pollutant Emissions (NOx)
Other Sectors
Commercial/ 2.8% Energy Industries
Residential 11.1%
4.1%
Other Transports
27.6%
Manufacturing
FY1998 Industries/
NOx Emissions Construction
2,213kt 24.0%
Road Transport
30.2%
NOx emission shares by sources 23

(FY1998,in Japan）
3.2.1.Relationship between average speed and environmental load
PM NO2 CO2
24
-194-
3．３．１ Regulation on individual Vehicle（ＮＯｘ）
① Gasoline passenger cars
R eg ul a tory Sta nda rds
(％) i n F Y1973
100
Reduction Rate of Regulatory Standards
80
i n F Y1975
60

40 i n F Y1976
N ew Long -term
R eg ul a tory Sta nda rds Ta rg et V a l ues
i n F Y1978
20 i n F Y2000
0
(Year)
'70 '80 '90 '00 '10 25
3．３．２．Diesel-powered heavy trucks（ＮＯｘ）

(％) i n F Y1974
100
i n F Y1977
Reduction Raate of Regulatory Standardds
80 i n F Y1979
i n F Y1983
i n F Y1988
60
i n F Y1994
40 i n F Y1997
i n F Y2003
20 N ew Long -term
Ta rg et V a l ues
0
(Year)
'70 '80 '90 '00 '10
26
-195-
3．３．３．State of Air Pollution (NO2)
ppm Annual average NO2 concentration
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0 01
0.01
0.00
・
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
GMS RMS
GMS:1460Pts. RMS:413Pts. 27
3．４．Air Pollutant Emissions (PM)

Other Sectors
6.6%
Commercial/
Residential
5.1%
Other Transports Energy Industries
5.0% 12.8%
FY1998 Manufacturing
PM Emissions Industries /
183kt Construction
28.4%
Road Transport
42.2%
PM emission shares by sources 28

(FY1998,in Japan）
-196-
3．４．１．Regulation on individual Vehicle（ＰＭ）
① Diesel-powered heavy trucks
(％) i n F Y1994
100
e of Regulatory Standardss
80
i n F Y1997
60
i n F Y2003
40
Reduction Rate
20 N ew Long -term
Ta rg et V a l ues
0
(Year)
'70 '80 '90 '00 '10
29
3．４．２．State of Air Pollution(ＰＭ)

mg/m3 Annual average SPM concentration
0.18
0 16
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0 02
0.02
0.00
・ 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
GMS RMS
GMS:731Pts. RMS:359Pts. 30
-197-
4.Traffic Noise
①Vehicle Engine
Intake/exhaust system etc.

Road traffic noise
②Vehicle and road Tire vibration etc.

Wind
③Vehicle and atmosphere Wind roar etc.
Engine Sound Tire and Surface 31
4.1. Noise Level

140
・Siren ・Riveting
130
120 ・Near byy engine
g of p
plane
・Disco
110
・Near by horn of car
100
・Underpass
90 ・Subway
・In noisy factory
80 ・Ring of phone
・In a train
70 ・Loud office
・In a department store
60
・Usual conversation
・In a silent car
50
・Usual conversation
40 ・Silent Office
(db)
・Midnight in the city ・Library
32
-198-
4.2. Environmental Quality Standards
(1) General Zone
Zone Types Time Division
Daytime(6:00~22:00) Nighttime(22:00~6:00)
AA 50dB or under 40dB or under
A or B 55dB or under 45dB or under
C 60dB or under 50dB or under
AA: The zone where needs silence in particular

A: The zone where is used mostly for residence
B: The zone where is used mainly for residence
C: The zone where is used for residence, business and industry
33
4.3. Zone fronting on the road
Division of Zone Time Division
Daytime Nighttime
(6:00~22:00) (22:00~6:00)
The zone fronting on the road with lane 60dB or under 55dB or under
2 and over of the zone A
The zone fronting on the road with 2 65dB or under 60dB or under
and over of the zone B
and the zone fronting on the road with
lane of the zone C
A: The zone where is used mostly for residence

B: The zone where is used mainly for residence
C: The zone where is used for substantial residence and business, industry,
and so on
34
-199-
4.3. State of Accomplishment of
Environmental Quality Standards(1)
（1999,2000）
The ratio of achievement and accomplished
length of environmental quality standards
(The whole country)
Daytime ※１
1999
Ni htti
Nighttime ※１ 2000
Achievement of
allowable noise level
limitation in nighttime
※１ Daytime: 6am～10pm Nighttime: 10pm～6am 35
4.4. State of Accomplishment of

Environmental Quality Standards(2)
（Road environmental census on 1998）
The rate of achievement of the environmental quality standard of
nighttime in National Highway is 30%.
5000 Standards: 65dB

Length of road
4000
3000
2000
d (km)
1000
0
41～45
46～50
51～55
56～60
61～65
66～70
71～75
76～80
81～85
Noise level (dB) 36
-200-
4.5. Measures for Road Traffic Noise
(1) Organized Cooperation

・ Road traffic noise arrives at the ear with the
three phase
:Generation
：Propagation
：Reception
・ To reduce the traffic noise
①Measure at source
②Measure during propagation
③Measure at receiver 37
(2) Measures for Road Traffic Noise
Measure at receiver Measure during

g propagation
p p g Measure at source
Soundproofing Noise barrier,Absorption panel Low noise pavements

of buildings at backside of bridge
Adoption of underground road Regulation on speed
structure (case beyond 60km/h)
Buffer zone,Buffer buildings

38
-201-
①in Roadside(Noise barrier etc.)
Noise-exposed
population
Parallel movement
(over-standard area
only)
Environmental Noise level

standard
③Road Network
②Regulation on Vehicle Noise-exposed
Noise-exposed
population Form changes
population
Parallel movement
Population in over-
standard area
Environmental Noise level 39

Environmental Noise level standard
standard
(3) Regulation on Vehicle Noise Emission

Large truck
(dB)
110
Neighboring Exhaust Noise
105 Acceleration Running Noise
Steady Running Noise
100
95
Limit Value
90
85
80
75
70
（year）
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
40
-202-
(4) Past Construction Record
(1997)
Low noise
pavement 302
Noise barrier 165
Buffer zone 117
Absorption panel 22
Noise barrier 3
（with modified top
edge）
0 100 200 300 400

Length of Road (km) 41
10-7 Noise-Reducing Mechanism by

Noise Barrier
(1) Reflection
Noise-
receiving
point
Noise source
Noise barrier
Note） The sound by the side of opposite may become large. 42
-203-
Reflection Noise Barrier
（Concrete type）
43
Meishin Expressway 1963
(2) Absorption
Noise-
receiving
i i
point
Noise source
Noise Barrier
Note） The sound which is not able to be absorbed is penetrated. 44
-204-
Absorption Noise Barrier
45
Installed from 1976
(3) Measures for Improving

Noise-Reducing Effect
①Heightening the wall
Ｂ Noise in receiving point in

the case of B is smaller
than the case of A.
Ａ
Noise source Noise-receiving

point
Noise
Barrier 46
-205-
Tall Noise Barrier
Higashikanto Expressway
Between Wanganchiba IC and MIyanoki JCT 47

②Reshaping the top edge
By reshaping the top edge,
noise in receiving point
becomes small.
Noise source
Noise-receiving Noise source Noise-receiving

Noise barrier point point
Noise barrier
Normal top edge Reshaped top edge 48
-206-
Reindeer-type Noise Barrier
２ｍ
49

③ Absorption／Friction
N i b
Noise becomes smallll b
by Ab
Absorption/Friction
ti /F i ti
Noise：
Noise： Small
Large
50
-207-
Noise Barrier with Absorption Cylinder
Absorption
cylinder
51
National Highway 2 Hamanote Bypass
9-8 Low Noise Pavement

(1) Noise-Reducing Mechanism by
Low Noise Pavement
Dense-graded pavement Single-layer・Double-layer Poroelastic Road Surface

Drainage pavement （Rubber pavement）52
-208-
Drainage Pavement (single-layer)
Dense-graded Drainage pavement

pavement (single-layer) 53
Double-layer Drainage Pavement
upper
pp
layer
lower
layer
Drainage Double-layer
54
pavement drainage pavement
-209-
Poroelastic Road Surface
Dense-graded pavement
55
Drainage pavement Poroelastic road surface
(2) Noise-Reducing Effect by

Drainage Pavement
＜Passenger Car＞
15
Noise-reducing effect
【Passenger Car】 60km/h

100km/h
Noise Reduction Effect [dB]
y = -0.036 x + 2.70
10 y = -0.05７x + 4.59 ｒ=-0.262 ｓ= 1.84
ｒ=-0.414 ｓ=2.08
（dB）
（）
0
-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Lapse of Time[month]
56
-210-
Road-Cleaning by Sweeper
57
(3) Noise-Reducing Mechanism of

Low Noise Pavement
1) the same as the single-layer

single layer
2) and、
① Reduced air-pumping noise by the frequency of pores
increased from 20% to 23%
② Smoothened surface and reduced wheel vibration

noise by upper layer containing finger-grained aggregate
③ Improved stability by lower layer containing coarse-

grained aggregate 58
-211-
② Smoothening surface
③ Improving stability
② Smoothened surface
and reduced wheel
About ５ｃｍ vibration noise by upper
layer containing finger-
grained aggregate
二層式排水性舗装の断面図
③ Improved stability by
lower layer containing
coarse-grained aggregate
59
Pavement by MAP
① Finer-grained aggregate 2.5-5mm

①
②
②Coarse-grained aggregate 5-13mm
① 60
-212-
5. Roads and Ecosystem
Conservation
How can we coexist

H i t with
ith
ecosystems?
61
5.1. Old highways

• Old highways were built through villages.
62
-213-
5.2. Present bypass roads
• Present bypass roads are constructed outside
cities.
cities
63
5.3. From the viewpoint of animals

…
• From the viewpoint of people, bypass roads are located in the
suburbs.
• From the viewpoint of animals, bypass roads are located between
their habitats and feeding places.
64
-214-
5.4. For ecosystems, it would be
best to …
• For ecosystems, it would be best to not build anything.
• However,
However roads are necessary.
necessary
65
5.5. Bypass
• Roads should be planned to be built away from
ecological habitats.
66
-215-
5.6. Minimization
• Plans should be made to bypass the important areas of
habitats such as nesting places and spawning grounds,
and the movements of animals should not be cut off
off.
67
5.7. Replacement
Replacement:
• When a habitat needs to be altered out of

sheer necessity
necessity, a similar one should be
provided in another place.
68
-216-
5.8. Restoration and
regeneration
• Like the conservation of surface soil, efforts
should be made to restore the environment as
close to its pre-alteration state as possible.
69
5.9. Creation
• New environments such as water
environments should be created
created.
70
-217-
5.10. Same for both people and
raccoon dogs
• The concept is the same for both people and raccoon
dogs.
Houses, workplaces, schools, stores, sidewalk, etc.

Habitats, feeding places, animal runways, etc.
71
5.11. Traffic safety facilities for

raccoon dogs
• The concept is the same for both people and raccoon dogs.
Fences for the prevention of disorderly crossing,
crossing pedestrian bridges
bridges,
underpasses, etc.
Fences for the prevention of intrusion, crossing facilities for animals, etc.
72
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6. Engineering
73
History of Training of engineers

(1) Period of Foreign engineers
: the late in 19th Century
・ There were few Japanese engineers. Therefore the
government hired foreign engineers at high salaries as
technical project managers and professors.
・ The government established organizations to train
engineers, and hired many foreign engineers as
professors
f and
d instructors.
i t t
・ Japanese pre-engineers eagerly studied under foreign
engineers in training organizations. They also learnt
technologies through on-the-job training.
74
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(2) Period of 1st generation engineers
: the Early in 20th Century
・ To acquire modern engineering, the government sent

talented persons abroad to study.
・ The government employed engineers, having studied
abroad, as in-house engineers at high salaries and
responsible posts and assigned these people as site
managers.
g
・ The government also employed engineers having
studied in Japan as in-house engineers.
75
(3) Period of force account method

: the Mid-20th Century
・Government owned modern technology
gy in-house.
・ Public works used plentiful local resources and
contributed to economic progress via the force account
method.
・ Many engineers were produced and were assigned to
sites of public works. Engineers gradually became
experts and specialists.
76
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(4) Period of contracting out method
: the late in 20th Century
・ Semi-public
Semi public sectors published detailed engineering
standards that were widely used.
・ To maintain engineering and technical levels, the
licensing of engineering and techniques is initiated
mainly by the government.
・ Competition within the private sectors has become
severe, therefore the private sector struggled to
develop engineering and technologies.
・ Engineers have become more experts and specialized.
77
(5) Contemporary Period

In-house engineer:
→From policy making to social science
→Arrangement of engineering
→From hardware technology to communication with people
Use of Various types of engineers

→outsourcing
→from design standard to service quality control
World wide activities

→international engineers
78
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5. Lecture
“Toward realization of smartway in
Japan”
Mr. Hideto HATAKENAKA
-223-
Toward Realization of
Smartway in Japan
November 11,, 2009
Hideto Hatakenaka
Head,
Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) Division,
Research Center for Advanced Information Technology,
National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management (NILIM)
1. Background (Penetration of ITS Technology for Car Users in Japan)

- Electronic Toll Collection System (ETC)
• Approx. 80% of vehicles travelling expressways use ETC

(As of August 2009)
• Approx. 26million ETC on-board units are penetrated (As of
June 2009)
ETC-OBU
4000
3500
3000 2624
2428
2500
1909
2000
1477
Source: Mitsubishi Electric 1500
1028
Roadside
Anetnna
On-Board Unit 1000
576
IC Card 500 252
4 22 74
0
01.3 02.3 03.3 04.3 05.3 06.3 07.3 08.3 09.3 09.6
Two-way
Communication
-225-
1. Background (Penetration of ITS Technology for Car Users in Japan)
- Vehicle Information Communication System (VICS)
• Provide real-time road traffic congestion information on car
navigation system which started in 1996
• Over 24 million VICS-OBUs have been shipped (as of June
2009))
Trend in the cumulative
ＶＩＣＳ
Example of Display
totals of VICS-OBUs shipped
4000
3500
3000
2381 2447
2500 2119
2000 1817
1502
1500 1189
912
1000 658
449
500 280
0 Level 2 : Simple diagrams
01.3 02.3 03.3 04.3 05.3 06.3 07.3 08.3 09.3 09.6
Level 3 : Map Display 2
2. Feature of Smartway
- Purpose
Definition of Smartway
Smartway: a road system which can exchange various types of information
among cars, drivers, pedestrians, and other roadway users.
Foundation for the deployment Foundation for affluence and

of various ITS services comfort in life and society
•Realize efficient mobility for people,
•Realize integrated ITS to provide goods, and information
safe, smooth road transportation •Realize comfortable living spaces
and positive environment. •Build infrastructure that provides
safety and security
Roads Communication Vehicle

“Smartway” 3
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- Road
Road--Vehicle Cooperation System
• Develop new “Road-Vehicle Cooperation Systems” using 5.8
GHz DSRC and ITS On-board Units (OBUs) for Smartway
<Road-Vehicle Cooperation Systems> DSRC Antenna
ITS OBU
Stand-
Stand-
alone Type 5.8GHz DSRC
(Dedicated Short Range
Communication)
Car navigation
linked type
Establishing a Open Platform of OBU
• Open platform of OBU was developed by Public-Private Joint
Research
Car Car
navigation Application Application navigation Application Application
ETC ETC
system system
VICS VICS
Dedicated Dedicated Dedicated Dedicated Common software

software software software software
Dedicated Dedicated Dedicated Dedicated

on-board on-board on-board on-board Integrated ITS on-board units
unit unit
unit unit effects
Common hardware
Dedicated Dedicated Dedicated Dedicated
・ More advanced digital maps
hardware hardware hardware hardware
・ Building a data infrastructure
Company A Company B ・・・・・・ Open platform
5
-227-
Realizing Various Services with a Open Platform
＜Various Applications ＞
1995 2001 2009 and beyond
◆ Providing wide area traffic
• Audio and visual Diverse information for route choice
• Telematics
(Services by media ◆ Providing traffic information in
manufacturers) easily understandable audio
form
Car Car ◆ Providing information on
navigation navigation
VICS assisting safe driving
35 million Single ◆ Providing information at
units ITS on- highway rest areas
board
24 million
units
+
units ETC Electronic Toll Collection (ETC)
5.8GHz
5.8GHz
5 8GHz
DSRC
DSRC
+
Providing 26 million Private sector services
Information units
Utilization Providing ◆ Providing information
rate: 80% Various based on user’s requests
: Services
services ◆ Cashless payments
: Onboard Fee
units
collection
6
Realizing Various Services by Road-
Road-Vehicle Cooperative Systems
Information supply Progressive deployment of
services 情報接続サービス
Information access services
services for safety, peace of
Providing traffic Information access at
安全運転支援情報提供
安全運転支援情報提供 mind, comfort, and 道の駅における情報接続
道の駅における情報接続
rest areas
information
Providing driving safety support
convenience in a variety of Information access at service
道路交通情報提供
道路交通情報提供
information situations where vehicles SA
SA ・・PA
PAにおける情報接続
areas における情報接続
and parking areas
Management of special vehicles and are usedd Information downloads
特車・危険物車両管理
特車・危険物車両管理
vehicles carrying hazardous substances 情報ダウンロード
情報ダウンロード
Bus location systems

バスロケシステム
バスロケシステム Ad distribution
広告配信
広告配信
Spot communications
services (DSRC services)
ＥＴＣ
Fee collection services Applied
その他サービスservices
ETC ETC services In-car online shopping
Parking fee payments Facility entrance/exit

施設入出門管理
施設入出門管理
management
Gas station payments Monthly lease parking facility
月極駐車場出入庫管理
月極駐車場出入庫管理
entrance/exit management
Drive-through payments
Various types of customer
Car ferry payments 各種顧客管理
各種顧客管理management
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3. Smartway 2007 – Field Operational Tests on the MEX
ITS On-
On-Board Units (OBUs) and Roadside Equipment (RSE)
Car navigation linked

type ITS-OBU Stand-alone type ITS-OBU
Providing Information by image and Providing Information by

audio linked with car navigation audio only
DSRC Antenna
Camera (sensor)
8

Lineup of Services (1/2)
Providing Information Providing Information Merging Assistance
on Obstacles Ahead on Conditions Ahead
Audio＋Visual Audio＋Visual Audio＋Visual
1 km ahead. Gaien Vehicles merging from the left.
Congestion ahead. Drive carefully!
Drive carefully!
Providing information on stopped

見通しの悪いカーブの先の停止車両や Providing information on road
道路状況を画像と音声で伝達し、注意喚起合流してくる車両の存在を、合流部の手前で
Providing information on existence
vehicles or congestion tail beyond
渋滞を、カーブへの進入前に画像やまた、音声のみで走行地点や
condition ahead by visual and audio 画像や音声で情報提供
of merging vehicles by visual and
音声で情報提供し、注意喚起進行方向に応じて道路交通情報を提供
a curve with poor visibility by audio just before the merging section
visual and audio
9
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Lineup of Services (2/2)
Map--linked Services to
Map
call attention or provide Smart Parking Internet Connection
information
Audio＋Visual 45min. 300yen.
Thank you What’s
new!
Sharp Curve ahead. Drive carefully!
Traffic Public
Information Transport
Weather Announcem
ent
Parking fee payment services using ETC .

本線外の公共駐車場の出入りをETCで Internet connection for parked
PA等に駐車中、インターネットに接続
Warning based on digital map data
カーナビ内蔵のデジタル地図の情報を料金決済
もとに、走行速度に応じて画像や音声で ITSITS車載器ではクレジットカードで決済も
OBU allows to use credit card vehicles at Parking Area
stored
注意喚起in car navigation units
according to vehicle speed
10

Providing Information on Obstacles Ahead
System Details
・When roadside sensor detects stopped vehicles or congestion tail on curves with
poor visibility, this information is provided to the following vehicle by visual and audio
・For detecting stopped vehicles or congestion tail, image sensor or ETC-ID are used
Image sensor Sound: “Beep! Beep! Beep! ETC--ID method

ETC Sound: “Beep! Beep! Beep!
Congestion ahead. Drive carefully” Congestion ahead. Drive carefully”
method Low-cost +
この先渋滞、追突注意 Information この先渋滞、追突注意
!
collection function
!
首都高速情報首都高速情報
Sensor Information Informatio

provision DSRC DSRC provision
(for LID collection) DSRC
Information LID LID

detection Information
Detecting unexpected event on on
DSRC
unexpected (for LID collection) unexpected
(Stopped vehicles,
event event
Congestion tail) LID detection
Roadside processing Roadside processing
equipment equipment
•Information is not provided when unexpected events are

not detected.
•Information is not provided when the vehicle itself is
driving at low speed. 11
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Merging Assistance
System Details Sound: “Beep! Beep! Beep! Caution!
Vehicle merging from the left”
When roadside sensor detects the merging 左から合流車、注意
vehicles, this information is provided to the !
main line’s vehicle by visual and audio just
b f
before the
th merging i section
ti 首都高速情報
ＤＳＲＣ
路側機
Roadside antenna
Information is not provided in case of : Merging 合流車検出

vehicle detection
・congestion Merging
合流車情報 vehicle information
・high traffic volume Roadside

路側処理装置 equipments
(lane changing behavior in this condition may - ・Merging
トラカン vehicle
による合流 detection
cause congestion) 車検出
-Information provision
・合流車両情報提供
12

Location of Field Operational Tests
- Field operational tests (FOTs) are conducted on the Inner
Circular Route, Route 4, and Route 5 of the Tokyo
Metropolitan Expressway (MEX)
It b hih h
Itabashihoncho
Providing IInformation
nformation
on Obstacles Ahead
Itabashi JCT
Providing IInformation
nformation
on Conditions Ahead
Kita-Ikebukuro
Merging Assistance Higashi-Ikebukuro
Map--linked Service
Map
Higashi-Ikebukuro Route 5 Misakimachi
Iidabashi Nishi-Kanda
Nishi Kanda
Central Circular Shinjuku Route Sanbancho Takebashi JCT
Benkeibori Takebashi Kandabashi
Sangubashi Akasaka JCT Kandabashi
JCT
Eifuku Shinjuku Kitanomaru TN
Miyakezaka Hakozaki
Gaien JCT JCT
Route 4 Kasumigaseki
Akasaka TN Tanimachi
JCT
Tanimachi JCT
Route 3 Inner Circular Line
13
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Scale of Field Operational Tests (FOTs)
(1) Advance proving tests
•Number of experimental vehicles: 14
•Test period: from January to May and September, 2007
•Test subjects:
j 219 p
people
p
•Total trips: 1,167
(2) On-road trials (3) Trial runs of “Smartway

•Participating companies:
Demo 2007”
11 automakers
18 OBU and electronic manufacturers •Trial run participants: 666
6 academic experts people
•Number of experimental vehicles: 40 (including 54 from
•Test period: from May 14, 2007 overseas)
•Total trips: 2,522 (as of December 10, •Questionnaire responses: 511
2007)
14
14
4. Results of Smartway 2007

Results of Questionnaire Survey of FOT Demonstration on MEX
- 89 % of participants answered positively.

- “Merging Assistance”, “Providing Information on Obstacles
Ahead” and “Parking Lot Payment” got high evaluations.
Overall Evaluation Evaluation 体験したサービスの個別評価

of each Service
of Test Ride
今回体験されたサービス全体の評価
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
（n=444） Merging Assistance 合流支援 38.1% 44.1% 11.1% 5.4% 1.2%
Not 役立たない（魅 Still前方状況情報提供（音声＋画像）

Image / Voice 32.0% 39.8% 17.3% 8.4% 2.4%
Not very
あまり役立たな
い（あまり魅力 useful力がない）, Obstacles Ahead
前方障害物情報提供 50.6% 39.8% 8.1%1.2%0.2%
useful
がない）, 2.3% 0.9%
Map-linked Services
地図連携走行支援 31.2% 46.9% 15.7% 5.8% 0.4%
Not Sure
どちらともいえ
ない, 7.4%
Electric Message Sign電子標識 19.4% 45.5% 26.3% 7.3% 1.4%
Voice (Highway Radio)

前方状況情報提供（長文音声） 27 3%
27.3% 42 1%
42.1% 25 3%
25.3% 4 0% 1.3%
4.0%
どちらかといえ
Useful
役立つ（魅力 Stored Type Information
蓄積型情報サービス 26.2% 52.2% 17.2% 3.5% 0.9%
Somewhat
ば役立つ（どち
らかといえば魅
がある）, 41.2%
Internet Connection
インターネット接続 27.8% 37.4% 25.8% 7.1% 2.0% n
Useful力がある）,
Parking Lot Payment
駐車場料金決済 52.4% 37.3% 8.2% 1.5% 0.5% n
48.2%
Providing Information by
発話型車載器による情報提供 42.9% 57.1% 0.0%0%
0.0%
audio only役立つ（魅力がある）どちらかといえば役立つ（魅力がある）

無回答=67
Useful, Somewhat Useful,
どちらともいえない Not Sure,
あまり役立たない（魅力がない）
Not Very Useful, Not Useful

役立たない（魅力がない）
15
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5. Regional FOT of Smartway in 2008
• Field operational tests (FOTs) will be conducted at three (3)

major metropolitan areas and other areas in FY 2008
• Based on the results of FOTs in FY 2008, nationwide
deployment of Smartway services will start in FY 2009
[Osaka/Kyoto] [Niigata]
•Traffic information ahead (by audio) • Collecting information on
driving behavior on snow-
[Osaka] covered road surfaces
•Warning for speeding vehicles at curve Niigata
section [Tokyo]
•Providing information on obstacles ahead •Providing information
•Merging assistance on obstacles ahead
N
Nagoya •Traffic information
[Hiroshima] Tokyo (for route choice)
•Warning of over •Traffic information
speed on the Osaka/Kyoto ahead (by still images)
decline section Hiroshima
[Nagoya]
•Providing information on obstacles ahead/
conditions ahead
•Warning for speeding vehicles at curve section 16
6. ITS-
ITS-Safety 2010 Large
Large--Scale FOT
Summary of Open Demonstration
1. Period: Feb. 25-28, 2009
2. Place: Kagaku-Miraikan, Odaiba, Tokyo
3. Relevant parties
Organizer: ITS promotion counsel (Cabinet Secretariat, NPA, MIC, METI, MLIT, Japan Business Federation, ITS Japan)
Co-organizer: Tokyo Metropolitan Government
Co-sponsor: JAMA, JAPIA, JAF, VICS Center, JAIA, JEITA, JTMTA, JTSA, JSDC
Cooperative association: ITS Info-communications Forum, AHSRA, Metropolitan Expressway, UTMS Japan, Smartway
Project Advisory Committee, Smartway liaison meeting, ASV promotion committee, ARIB, HIDO, JARI, Hanshin
Expressway
Cooperative companies: IHI, Alpine Electronics, Isuzu Motors, Oki Electric Industry, OMRON, Calsonic Kansei Corporation,
Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Kyosan Electric Mfg., Clarion, Koito Industries, Xanavi Informatics, JVC KENWOOD
Holdings, Suzuki Motor Corporation, Sumitomo Electric Industries, Daihatsu Motor, DENSO, Toshiba, Toyota
I f T h l
InfoTechnology C t Toyota
Center, T t Motor,
M t Toyota
T t Central
C t l R&D Labs.,
L b Nissan
Ni M t Nissan
Motor, Ni Di l Motor,
Diesel M t THE NIPPON
SIGNAL, NEC, Japan Radio, PIONEER, Panasonic, BMW Japan, Hitachi Kokusai Electric Inc., Hitachi, Hino Motors, Fuji
Heavy Industries, Fujitsu, FUJITSU TEN, Volkswagen Group Japan, Honda Motor Company, MAZDA Motor Corporation,
MITSUBISHI MOTORS, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Mitsubishi Electric, Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Corporation,
Mitsubishi Precision, Mercedes Benz Japan, YAZAKI CORPORATION, Yamaha Motor
4. Main activities: trial ride for the public on ITS (safety support systems etc.), Symposium, Indoor and outdoor exhibition
5. Number of participants: approx. 5,000
17
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6. ITS-
ITS-Safety 2010 Large-
Large-Scale FOT
Test Ride on the Fields
Test ride
Test ride for the public was conducted.

Participants experienced safety support
systems by Smartway, DSSS and ASV.
Ms. Noda, Minister of State for Science
and Technology Policy, also tried and
commented: “Even beginner drivers can
feel safe to drive with this system.”
18
6. ITS-
Large-Scale FOT
Systems in the Test Ride
Road Bureau, MLIT: Smartway National Police Agency (NPA): DSSS
左から合流車、注意 Infrared
! beacon
首都高速情報
Caution! Merging Traffic signal

vehicle from the ahead!
left. V2I communication in
expressway by radio wave V2I communication in ordinary
(DSRC) road by radio communication
media, such as infrared beacons
Through vehicle
Road Transport Bureau,
Priority road V2V
MLIT: ASV communication
V2V communication by Stop sign Driver stops

radio wave (5.8GHz, proceeding
700MHz) Subject vehicle

Provide information on
existence of approaching
Non-Priority road vehicles
19
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6. ITS-
Large-Scale FOT
Course Map of Test Ride
140min course 50min course
Start
Rear‐end collision prevention system
19 1 Signal recognition enhancement system
15 Providing information on conditions
14 16 17 18 2 ahead system
（Providing information from DSSS’s sensor）
13 3 Providing information on obstacles
Map data: ©2008 ZENRIN ahead system
12
第号
Z08LC第036号 Stop sign recognition enhancement
4 system
Crossing Collision Prevention System
11
5 Emergency Vehicles Information System
DSSS Start
1 6 Crossing collision prevention system
3Smart Way 1 3 4
ASV
7 Right Turn Collision Prevention System
5 6 7
DSSS、Smart Wayの連携
8 9 10 8 Crossing Collision Prevention System
DSSS、ASVの連携 2 9 Left Turn Collision Prevention System
10 Right‐turn Collision Prevention System Fin

Start
11 Rear‐end Crash Prevention System
9 8
12 Merging assistance system
Providing information on conditions

13 ahead system
5 7 14 Electronic indicator system

DSSS
Providing information on obstacles
Smartway
15 ahead system
6 10 16
Providing information on obstacles
ASV 4 ahead system
DSSS‐Smartway cooperation Providing information on conditions
17 ahead system
DSSS‐ASV cooperation Providing information on obstacles
18 ahead system
Map data ©2008 ZENRIN Providing information on conditions
Z08LC第036号 19 ahead system
Fin
20
7. FOT in Tokyo Metropolitan Expressway 2009

(Providing Information on Obstacles Ahead)
(1) Overview
¾ Test Period: Feb. 18 – 21, 2009 (w/o service), Mar. 1 – 11, 2009 (w/ service)
¾ Number of experimental vehicles: 3
¾ Number of subjects: 60
¾ Location: Rinkai Fukutoshin Exit (Exit to Tokyo Waterfront City)
Stopping Vehicle
Ahead,
Drive Carefully
Sensor
21
-235-
¾As the shape of the Rinkai Fukutoshin off-ramp is crest of a hill, it is difficult
for driver to see the intersection beyond it.
¾This system is to prevent rear-end collisions with vehicles waiting for the
traffic signal.
Display of Car navigation System
Beep! Stopped vehicles Beep!
ahead. Drive carefully Intersection ahead. Image detection
sensor
If vehicles are stopped

If no vehicles are stopped
Local Street Intersection

DSRC antenna Vehicles waiting for
for providing the traffic signal
information
22
Tokyo Metropolitan Expressway

(2) Category of Subjects
• Sex: Male: 53, Female: 7

• Age: 30% of Subjects are 20s,
20s 30s and 40s each
each, and
10% of subjects are 50s, and 60s each
• Frequency of driving: Once a week
■ Sex ■ Age ■ Frequency of driving

その他
60s
60代 0%
50s
50代 7%
Female 1ヶ月に1回
Once a month
女性 7% 10%
12% 20s
20代
27% 1週間に1回ほぼ毎日
Everyday
Once a week 39%
40s 23%
40代
28% Once per two
男性
Male
88%
30s
30代 or2～3日に1回
three days
31% 28% N =60
N =60
N =60
23
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(3) Results of FOT (Behavior survey; effect of speed reduction)
• Number of subjects entering the evaluation point (near the end of
upward slope) at low speed increase by providing information
Camera (sensor)
Detected area by
y camera
Intersection
DSRC antenna
85m
地点Ａ
173m
1 0 0.0%
Providing information 100% 9 8 .0%
8 9 .0% 9 2 .5% 1 0 0.0%
through ITS OBU
80% 7 4 .0% 7 7 .5%
Cumulative distribution of
ナビ連携
w/ serviceN=100
N=100
w/o
サービスservice N=80
無しN=80
Evaluation point 60%
4 9 .0% 5 3 .8%
relative frequency
of vehicle speed 40%

Average Vehicle
3 3 .8% Speed (km/h)
Near the end of upward 2 1 .0% • w/o service: 63.4
slope and driver come with 20% • w/ service: 60.5
7 .0% 1 2 .5%
sight the stopping vehicles
3 . 8%
waiting at stoplight 0%
95～100
0～50
50～55
55～60
60～65
65～70
70～75
75～80
80～85
85～90
90～95
Vehicle speed at evaluation point (km/h) 24

(3) Results of FOT (Questionnaire survey)

• Many subjects answered positively, “It made me pay attention” or ”It made me
want to slow down”.
Q. How did you feel when you received the information?

(Multiple responses possible)
It注意しようとする気持ちになった
made me pay attention 67%
It made減速しようとする気持ちになった
me want to slow down 58%
情報が煩わしいと思った
I thought the information was annoying 6%
I thought that continuing to drive at the speed I was

そまま運転速度問題なと考えた
そのままの運転速度で問題ないと考えた 17%
driving at would not be a problem
少しびっくりしたが注意しようとする気持ち
I was surprised by the information but it made me pay attention … 9%
I was surprised by the information provision and felt flustered

情報提供にびっくりしあわてた 1%
その他
Other 1%
I did not understand the information

理解できなかった 12%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

25
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(Providing Information on Condition Ahead; Still Image)
(1) Overview
¾ Test period: Feb.– March 2009
¾ Number of Subjects: 32 Goal
¾ Number of experimental
p vehicles: 3
¾ Location: Oi Camera
1st Contents Location of the

service, “Oi”
約1km先東京港トンネル内 (Audio)
1km ahead,
current status
in the Tokyo
Port Tunnel.
Tokyo Bay Route
2nd Contents
Start
1km
26

(Providing Information on Condition Ahead; Still Image)
(2) Results of FOT (Questionnaire survey)

• 70% of subjects answered positively, “Useful” of “Somewhat useful”
Evaluation of this service

Q. What is the reason of answer “useful”, or
Not very “somewhat useful”? (Multiple responses possible)
useful Not useful
It is ease to grasp the
traffic conditions ahead
Useful This information
Not sure enables me to think
select the route
This information might

Somewhat be useful during driving
useful or under congestion
27
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9. Evaluation of Smartway Services
by General Drivers
- To evaluate and improve Smartway

services, questionnaire survey by
general drivers have been conducted.
- In this survey,
survey approx.
approx 500 general
drivers (frequent users of Tokyo
Metropolitan Expressway) have
participated.
- ITS OBUs (Stand-alone type) are lent
to the drivers.
- This survey have started since
February 2009
Poster for Notification

28
10. Future Plans

- Deployment Plan of RSE and ITS OBU for Smartway Services
• Operation of Smartway services will begin from FY 2009 on

Tokyo Metropolitan Expressway and Hanshin Expressway
FY 2006 FY 2007 FY 2008 FY 2009 FY 2010 and on
Demo 2006 Smartway 2007 ITS-Safety 2010
Tokyo Metropolitan
Deployment of RSE for Sm
Expressway (MEX) FOTs on Trial

MEX operation Operation
on MEX
Three major (MEX, Hanshin Nationwide
metropolitan areas Exprssway) deployment
services
FOTs on
(Mainly three major
Expressways) metropolitan
areas
Otther Areas
Expressways
martway
National
Highways
ITS OBU for Public-Private Available to the market

Smartway services Joint Research
29
-239-
6. Lecture
“Earthquake Disaster management for
Roads”
Mr. Susumu TAKAMIYA
-241-
-242-
The 18th Conference on Public Works Research and Development in Asia
Earthquake Disaster Management

for Roads
November 12th, 2009
Susumu TAKAMIYA
Head, Earthquake Disaster Prevention Division
Contents
Overview
Earthquake Disaster in Japan
Risk Management
Crisis Management
g
-243-
Earthquake Disaster Management
Damage Estimation
9 Damage Estimation of Road Facilities such as Bridges and Embankments
Risk Management Crisis Management

9 Disaster Mitigation Project 9 Urgent Response
- Prioritization of Alternative - Post-Earthquake Inspection
Plans - Gathering and Sharing of
9 Seismic Design Damage Information
9 Seismic Retrofitting - Emergency Operation
- Temporary Restoration of Road
Facilities
9 Complete Restoration
9 Training for Post-Earthquake

Urgent Response
3
Major Earthquake Disaster in Japan

M death toll damaged features
houses
1891 8.0 7,273 220,000 Largest inland
Nobi earthquake in Japan
1923 7.9 105,000 373,000 60% of houses were
Kanto lost by fire
1964 7.5 26 8,600 Liquefaction
Niigata
1993 7.8 230 3,600 Tsunami
H kk id
Hokkaido
1995 7.3 6,435 513,000 Viaducts collapsed
Kobe Struck mega-city
2004 6.8 39 1,422 Landslide (natural dam)
Niigata Isolated villages
4
-244-
Long-term Prediction for Earthquakes around Japan
The Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion
Major Subduction Zone Earthquakes Major Active Faults
Probability of Earthquake Occurrence during 30 years from 2009

5
Major Loss in the 1995 Kobe Earthquake

Date and Time AM5:46, January 17th, 1995
Magnitude 7.3
Damaged Buildings About 513,000 houses
Fire Outbreak 285 locations
Casualties About 50,200 (Fatalities 6,435)
Damage to Road 9,900 locations
Facilities (including 30 fallen girders of expressway viaducts)
Damage to River 2,600 locations
Embankment
Damage to Sewage Pipe 1,000 locations
Disrupted Water Supply About 1.3 million houses
Electric Power Outage About 2.6 million houses
Total Amount of Loss About 10 trillion yen (100 billion US dollar)
(After Fire Defense Agency)
-245-
Collapsed Viaduct, Kobe Line of Hanshin Expressway
Damage to the Reinforced Concrete Piers Designed

in Accordance with the 1980 Specifications
Seismic performance of the RC pier was verified in terms of ductility.

The RC pier did not suffer complete collapse, though cracks penetrated
entirely through the cross section
section.
-246-
Lessons Learned from the Kobe Earthquake
Seismic Performance of Road Facilities

¾ N
Necessity
it tto consider
id extremely
t l strong
t ground
d
motions
=> Revising seismic design specifications for newly
constructed facilities
=> Seismic retrofitting of existing facilities
¾ Securing seismic performance based on
structural importance
Crisis Management
9
The Mid Niigata Prefecture Earthquake

- Damage to Expressways
Complete closure of Hokuriku- and Kanetsu
p y
Expressways
Kanetsu expressway immediately after the event

(Photos from former Japan Highway Public Corporation）
10
-247-
The Mid Niigata Prefecture Earthquake
- Damage to Nationally Administrated Roads
17 closed sections on routes 8, 17 and 116
８
116
Occurrence of gap
Road Collapse (Route 17) (Route 8)
８
17
Slope Failure (Route 17)

Falling of Concrete Debris
(Wanazu Tunnel on Route17)
11
Lessons Learned from the Mid Niigata

Prefecture Earthquake
Seismic Performance of Road Facilities

¾ Necessity to investigation on the cause of
damage
¾ Necessity to implement seismic retrofitting of
highway bridges
¾ Necessity to intensify safety of tunnels
Crisis Management
12
-248-
Proposals on Earthquake Resistance for Civil
Engineering Structures
- initially proposed in 1995 and updated in 1996 and 2000 -
(Japan Society of Civil Engineering)
Two levels of design ground motions for seismic designs
¾ Level 1 earthquake ground motion: highly probable to strike a facility
during the service period
=> No damage should be caused to the facility.
¾ Level 2 earthquake ground motion: unlikely to strike a facility during
the service period but extremely strong enough to cause critical
damage
=> Facility damage should be limited within allowable range.
Seismic performance for a civil engineering structure should be
determined
d t i db based d on the
th structural
t t l importance,
i t which
hi h is
i
comprehensively evaluated from various perspectives such as how much
impact would be placed on human lives and socio-economic activities by
the structural failure.
Seismic safety inspection should be implemented for existing facilities.
Seismic retrofitting needs to be promoted by prioritizing the existing
facilities based on the seismic hazard at the sites.
13
Seismic Design Specifications for Highway Bridges
Design Ground Motions and Seismic Performance of Bridges
Seismic Performance of Bridges
Earthquake Ground Motions Bridges other than Bridges of High

Class B bridges Importance
（Class A Bridges）（Class B Bridges）
Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion: Highly

Keeping sound functions of bridges
probable to occur during the bridge service life
Level 2 Type I Earthquake Ground

Earthquake Motion ( an plate boundary
G
Groundd Motions:
M ti type earthquake with a Limited seismic
Earthquake large magnitude) damages and possible
ground motion
No critical damages to recover bridge
with Low
Type II Earthquake Ground functions within a short
probability of
Motion (an Inland direct period
occurrence during
the bridge service strike type earthquake like
life the Kobe Earthquake)
14
-249-
Earthquake Disaster Prevention Strategy for Roads
3 Year Seismic Retrofitting Program for Bridges on Emergency Transportation
Roads (2005-2007)
The 3 Year Program(2005-2007)

g ( ) was planned
p under the collaboration of national
government and regional authorities.
- Based on the lessons learned from the Kobe Earthquake, seismic retrofitting was
implemented for the bridges that should be given priority among those designed
in accordance with the specifications earlier than 1980 Road Bridge Guidelines.
- Seismic retrofitting for expressways and nationally administrated roads was
mostly completed.
- Regarding the roads administrated by prefectures, the targets were exclusively
limited to the bridges on the Priority Routes*1. Seismic retrofitting for the targets
was mostly completed.
- Regarding long span bridges, technical analyses were implemented considering
their structural characteristics and the ground conditions. Based on the analyses,
the targets were retrofitted, if necessary.
*1 Priority Routes:
- access roads to especially critical facilities such as ports, harbors and airports
- routes in high seismicity areas such as the designated areas for the Tokai-, Tonankai- and Nankai- Earthquakes
15
Conceptual Diagram for Disaster Prevention Program
Vulnerability
Prioritization of road Structural importance (Impact of road dysfunction)

facilities for seismic
retrofitting
Seismic hazard
Major Assessment Factors in Prioritization 16
-250-
Disaster Prevention Planning : Damage Estimation
Practical Earthquake Damage Estimation Procedure for Highway Bridges (PWRI)
Check sheet for simple-span bridge
Comprehensive 1.Bearing support at the edge of Damage assessment for
Assessment girder, unseating prevention system bearing support
2 Abutments foundations
2.Abutments,
Check sheet for multi-span bridge
1.RC piers
2.Steel piers Damage assessment for
3.Bearing support, unseating -RC pier (table1-4)
prevention systems -Steel pier (table1-3)
4.Abutments, foundations -Bearing support
5.Pile foundation under lateral flow
caused by liquefaction
Check sheet for rigid frame bridge
1 RC piers
1.RC Damage assessment for
2.Steel piers -RC pier (table1-2)
3.Bearing support, unseating -Steel pier (table1-3)
prevention systems -Bearing support
4.Abutments, foundations
Availability Assessment
Check sheet for embankment behind abutment
for Automobile Traffics
Check sheet for impacts of bearing support damage on automobile traffics

17
Disaster Prevention
Planning : Mapping
18
-251-
Disaster Prevention Planning : Prioritization of Road
Facilities for Seismic Retrofitting
Collaboration of Road administrators

Choice of the routes to be secured
Prioritizing road facilities for seismic retrofitting

based on estimated damage, likelihood of
secondary disaster and so forth
19
Flow of Crisis Management

Earthquake
Occurrence
Earthquake and tsunami information collection
Command to initiate post-earthquake inspection

based on observed seismic intensity Issues :
- Difficulties in Specifying Damaged

Damaged Case Facilities
- Congested
g Telephone
p Circuits
Initiating emergency
eme genc operation
ope ation
- Delayed Information Transmission
Emergency investigation to Higher Organization
Temporary restoration - Untreatable Amount of Information
Investigation for restoration

Execution of restoration
20
-252-
Location of Seismograph
21
Flow of Seismograph Data
Earthquake Seismographs
……
Telemeter Microwave
Transmit Data N
Network
k
-Seismic Intensity
-Peak Acceleration
-Spectrum Intensity
Construction
Offices
Microwave
Obtain Data Network
Estimate
-Liquefaction Risk Level
of National Highway
-Bridge Damage
-etc.
Judge Regional MLIT Headquarter

for Urgent Inspection Development & NILIM
Bureaus
22
-253-
Traditional Post-earthquake Visual Inspection
Seismographs
Visually Inspected section Bridge
Strong ground motion
In the case ground motion observed by the seismographs in

the neighborhood of a road section exceeds predetermined
intensity, damage state of bridges on the road section must be
assessed by visual inspection tour.
23
“SATURN” helps instant use of data
A computer system “SATURN” (Seismic Assessment

Tool for Urgent
g Response
p and Notification)) has been
developed.
1.Displays ground motion intensity map obtained

by the seismograph network immediately after
an earthquake.
earthquake
2.Displays damage estimation for various
facilities (bridge, embankments).
24
-254-
Estimation Steps of Ground Motion
Characteristics
Ground Surface
Observation of
an earthquake motion
Highway
g y
Step1 Ground Response

Estimation of the
foundation response Amplification Ratio
characteristic
Step3
× × ×
× × ×
Engineering Step2
Bedrock Interpolation Observation Site
Facility Site
× Lattice Point 25
SATURN displays seismic intensity
The green line shows

the national highway.
Seismic Intensity
26
-255-
SATURN displays damage estimation
serious
Structual Damage :
slight
moderate
Rough Estimation of
Structure Damage
A click of a structure point

acquires detailed information.
Furthermore, the inspection
result in a spot can be inputted.
27
Remote Patrol System for Highways

¾Road damage states can be visually assessed remotely with
Closed Circuit Televisions (CCTV)
¾Shaking map gives priority to road sections to be checked
with CCTV.
Clicking a camera icon gives

real-time photo
Ground motion intensity
Priority list
28
-256-
Road Patrol System for Post-earthquake Damage
Inspection Patrol
9 Road damage states and inspection progress are shared.

9 Inspection
p patrollers
p transmit damage
g information with
mobile phones.
Visual inspection progress
29
Disaster Information Sharing System
30
-257-
7. Lecture
“Strategy for maintenance of Road
structures”
Mr. Takashi TAMAKOSHI
-259-
ＳｔｒａｔｅｇｙｆｏｒＭａｉｎｔｅｎａｎｃｅ
of Road Structures
i JJapan
in
２００９．１１．１２
Toshiaki Mabuchi
Bridge and Structures Division,

National Institute for Land and Infrastructure
Management
■ Current situation of bridge stock in Japan
■ Policies and activities for better bridge

management
■ Summary
-261-
■ Current situation of bridge stock in Japan
Severe environmental condition (Nature, Terrain)

There are little plains in Japan and the road network has been developed under severe
terrain, therefore ratio of structures such as bridges and tunnels along the road network
is relatively high. Coastal areas, where population and infrastructure are dense, are
affected by severe salt environment.
Expressway network and topography Severe salt environment
700m gap
Trade wind in winter
長岡
Nagaoka
東京
Tokyo
標高500m以上の地域
Over 500m height
Typhoon
高速道路
Expressways
Damage of concrete by salt attack
-262-
Severe environmental condition (Earthquake)
Japan is famous for frequency of earthquakes in the world, and many bridges have
been damaged by earthquakes.
Frequency of earthquakes over M6 Earthquakes caused fatalities

(yr1999-2008) in recent years
Mo/Yr Name M
Japan 212
(20.8%) Sept 2003 2003 Tokachi-Oki M8.0
Oct 2004 2004 Niigataken-Chuetsu M6.8
Mar 2005 Hukuokaken-Seihouoki M7.0
Mar 2007 2007 Notohanto M6.9

Other areas 806
Oth
(79.2%)
July 2007 2007 Niigataken-Chuetsuoki M6.8
Reference;
White Paper on Disaster Management
June 2008 2008 Iwate-Miyagi Nairiku M7.2
Source;
Japan Meteorological Agency www.jma.go.jp/
Severe environmental condition (Earthquake)

Japan is famous for frequency of earthquakes in the world, and many bridges have
been damaged by earthquakes.
Collapse of bridge by earthquake Collapse of bridge by earthquake

(Hyogoken-Nanbu, Jan 1995) (Iwate-Miyagi Nairiku, Jun 2008)
-263-
Severe environmental condition (Typhoon)
There are many typhoons which causes damage of bridges such as scouring.
Number of Approach Landing Passes of typhoons in 2004

Typhoons 10 typhoons landed
(yr2003-2008) 2003 12 2
2004 19 10
2005 12 3
2006 10 2
2007 12 3
2008 9 0
Damage of bridge by scouring

(Typhoon No9, Sept 2007)
Source;
http://www.nikkei.co.jp/news/main/im20070907SSXKF007807092007.html
Severe environmental condition (Traffic)

In some urban roads where heavy vehicles passing, fatigue cracks of steel members
become obvious.
Roads in the urban area covered by heavy traffic

Penetrating crack through steel deck slab
Crack occurred at the girder end Crack occurred at the steel box girder
-264-
Road classification and Administrators
In Japan, road is classified into 4 kinds based on law.
National expressways which were privatized few years ago are controlled access from
local road with toll system.
■Classification ■Road Administrator
Minister of
Land,, Infrastructure,,
National Expressways Transport and Tourism
*Expressway authorities
manage representatively
Designated Minister of
sections Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism
National Highways
Non-designated Prefectural governor
sections (Or mayor of designated city)
Prefecture
Prefectural roads (Or designated city)
*Expressway authorities
manage urban expressways
Municipal roads Municipalities
Road length & Bridges by classification

The main arteries, that are the backbone of the national infrastructure, are managed by
the national government or the expressway authorities, but the majority of roads and
bridges are managed by local governments.
Length (km) Bridges (over 15m)

National Expressways 7,431 (0.6%) 6,614 (4.4%)
National Highways
22,592 (1.9%) 11,368 (7.5%)
Designated sections
National Highways
31,939 (2.7%) 12,899 (8.5%)
Non-Designated sections
Prefectural roads 129 329 (10
129,329 (10.8%)
8%) 32 981 (21
32,981 (21.7%)
7%)
Municipal roads 1,009,599 (84.1%) 88,098 (58.0%)
total 1,200,890 (100%) 151,960 (100%)
Source: 2008 Annual Report of Road Statistics

9
-265-
Number of Bridges by Age
At present, Japan has a stock of nearly 150 thousand road bridges. Approximately
40% were built during the high economic growth period (1955-1973). This large
number of road bridges will age in the near future.
National highway bridges and prefectural road bridges, over 15m 【Source: Technical note of NILIM】 10
Degradation and Damage (Steel Structures)

Recently, most of deteriorations and damages has already confirmed by inspection.
Corrosion Fatigue
Crack
Local corrosion on girder edge Crack by fatigue extending from lower flange to the web
Crack
Broken girder edge caused by corrosion Crack by fatigue occurring in sway brace
11
-266-
Degradation and Damage (Concrete Structures)
Recently, most of deteriorations and damages has already confirmed by inspection.
Salt Damage Crack
Corrosion and breaking of Fatigue

prestressing steel
12
Recent examples of damages

Recently, there have been incidents where the damage was so severe that
the bridge had to be closed to traffic.
Fatigue crack
Web
Fatigue crack of steel main girder Fracture of diagonal truss member
13
-267-
Soundness of bridges as to age
The results of national bridge inspections show that soundness of bridges tends
to deteriorate as bridges get older.
Rate of number of bridges in classification of countermeasure

判定区分別橋梁数比率（経過年別）
100%
of bridges
80% Need to be repaired E1

E2
橋梁数比率
60% C
S
Rate off number
40% M
Not need to be repaired B
A
20%
0%
７１～
０～１０
１１～２０
２１～３０
３１～４０
４１～５０
５１～６０
６１～７０
出典：国総研資料第４８８号
Source: Technical note of NILIM No.488 架設後の経過年
Age(years) 14
■ Policies and activities

for better bridge management
15
-268-
Conversion to preventive maintenance
By applying preventive maintenance rather than ex post maintenance after damaged,
secure soundness and aim for extending lifetime and reducing life-cycle cost.
oration
Step I [ Ex post maintenance ]

- Early replacement
- Large long-term
long term cost
Deterio
Cost
Step II
Replacement
Replacement
Minor repair
Minor repair
Step III Replacement

Year
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 経過年数
[ Preventive maintenance ]
+ lifetime extendingg
Step IV + LCC minimization
Cost Minor repair
Replacement
Minor repair
Minor repair
Step V
Fitting CF Sheet
0 20 40 60 80 100 Year
120 経過年数
16
Planned Management
Planned management cycle is in dispensable to realization of preventive maintenance
that proper repair is done at proper time.
Data
collecting
1. collecting
g essential data
Renewal of
data
Ｃountermeasure Prediction
2. evaluating the present
state and predicting the
Management
future condition
Object,
Budget Evaluation
Restriction
3. Deciding the concrete contents of the maintenance

work for each structures
17
-269-
Collecting essential data
Enhancement of Inspection System for Introduction of LCC and Substantiation of AMS
Inspection Data Collection System in Japan
Regular
Bridge inspection Role of inspection
Regular inspection Daily check

Routine major
To have a regular grasp
Routine major inspection
of the damage
To have a grasp of
Detailed survey what caused the damage
Follow-up To check progress of Specific

surveyy damage
To supplement the
Middle inspection periodic inspection
(mid-year)
Specific inspection For specific incidents Disaster
such as salt damage Inspection
Disaster For disasters such as
inspection earthquakes and typhoons
18

Contents and Character of Routine Major Inspection
1988 Version 2004 Revision
remarks about progress of damage
damage & bridge ･Continuous and objective damage data
･Evaluation level per damage type
Evaluation General situation
division Evaluation
評価区分
level
ａｂｃｄｅ
Ⅰ Damage is remarkable. Traffic
safety may be compromised. Extent of
損傷の程度
damage 小－－－－－－－－－－ large
Small 大
Ⅱ Damage is big. Execute detailed
investigation and provide repairs.
Ⅲ
Ⅳ
Damage is confirmed. Follow-up recommendation of
countermeasure
investigation is necessary.
Damage is confirmed and the
Ⅴ
extent is recorded. Evaluation Content of evaluation
O.K Free from damage. division
A There is negligible or no damage. Repairs are not needed.
B Repairs are necessary according to the situation.
C Immediate repairs are necessary.
E1 Structural safety and emergency response are necessary.
Data Quality was improved E2 Other emergency response is necessary.
M Response through maintenance construction work is necessary.
S Detailed investigation is necessary.
19
-270-
In a complex structure like bridge, the relation between damage degree and structural
safety is various and complicated.
The crack progresses from sole plate of Fracture of cross frame

main girder to web
the crack is so severe damage from the the influence is much smaller than left
viewpoint of structural safety from the viewpoint of structural safety.
20

＜Judgment of countermeasure classification＞
Judgment of countermeasure ≠ Degree of damage
Based on a performance required to each individual bridge
e g Crack
e.g. コンクリ at Concrete
コンクリート主桁、ひびわれ
ト主桁ひびわれmain girder Crack at Concrete main
コンクリート主桁
コンクリート主桁、ひびわれひびわれgirder
Ｅ２
Ｅ１
ｂ
Ｍｃ
Ｓｄ
4,000 Ｃ
ｅ
Ｂ
3,000
Ａ
2,000 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
1,000
,
ｅ Crackコンクリート主桁、ひびわれ
at
ンクリConcrete
ト主桁main girder
ひびわれ
ｄ 0
Max最大の損傷程度
degree ｃ
Ｍ
Ｅ１
Ｅ２
ｅＡ
Ｂ
of damage ｂＣ
Ｓ
Ｃ
Ｂｄ
Ａ
Countermeasure
対策区分 classification Ｓ
Ｍ
ｃＥ１
Ｅ２
ｂ
0% 50% 100%
21
-271-
Collected Data Level
Classification of damage types for data collection

Damage to steel members Other damage
1 Corrosion 13 Problems
2 Cracking 14 Unevenness of road surface
3 Looseness/falling 15 Paving problems
4 Rupture 16 Deteriorated bearing function
5 Deterioration of corrosion-proofing 17 Others
function Common damage
Damage to concrete parts 18 Anchor problem
6 Cracking 19 Discoloration/deterioration
7 Peeling and exposure of reinforcing 20 Leaking or collecting water
bars
21 Abnormal noise/vibration
8 Leakage and free lime
22 Abnormal deflection
9 Falling out of place
23 Deformation/missing material
10 Damaged concrete reinforcement
24 Sediment blockage
11 Deck slab cracking
25 Settlement, displacement, inclination
12 Lifting
26 Scouring
22

Collected Data Level
Classification of member types for data collection
Superstructure Shoe，bearing On-street
main girder Bearing Railing
Cross beam Anchor bolt Guard fence
Stringer Mortar Felloe guard
Deck slab Concrete Median
Cross frame Structure for prevention of Expansion joint
bridge collapse Sound insulation
Lateral
Drain Curb
Substructure
Drainage inlet Pavement
Pier Wall
Drainpipe
pp
Beam Span
Abutment Parapet wall Unit
Body wall Plate girder steel bridge

Unit Span：30 m
Wing wall
Main Girder
Footing Number of inspection data :

Over 1000
Unit 23
-272-
Degree of damage…Use for consideration to rationalize inspection in the future.
By unit of element ramified according to bridge part or member.
＜Application example of Degree of damage＞

e.g. 1 ： Corrosion of Steel Bridges e.g. 2 ： Crack of deck slab
1,000 450
900 400
800 350
700
300
600
250
500
200
400
300 150
200 100
張出
100 50 外桁
外桁
0 0 中桁
中桁外桁
点外桁点
支間央支間央張出
端支中間端支中間
1/4 間支点 1/4 間支点出
支 3/4 支支 3/4 支張
端端
24

Local government and other authorities which manage 90% of all roads on their
responsibility. In fact, however, it becomes clear that most of them cannot conduct
bridge inspection properly.
[ Survey on bridge management by local governments ]
●Prefectures ●Municipalities
(total 47) (total 1,768 including designated cities )
*Not conduct inspection *Conduct inspection

about 10% about 10%
Rusting by Salt Damage
*Conduct inspection *Not conduct inspection

about 90% about 90%
Weight Limitation by Aging

* Excluding daily patrols.
[Survey by MLIT]
25
-273-
Routine major inspection depends on close visual method to grasp damage, but the
method has limitation. The first reason is that it is not possible to grasp the condition of
re-bar inside of concrete.
Alkali silica reaction at concrete member
T-shaped reinforced
concrete pier
R t
Rupture off stirrup
ti
Main rebar
Stirrup
Ruptured at the bend
Stirrup
26
26

Fatigue crack which progresses from the inside of U-rib to the surface of steel deck
plate cannot be confirmed even if the pavement is torn off until it reaches to the surface.
Crack’s development trough steel deck
27
27
-274-
Bridge parts in ground or water cannot be confirmed by visual inspection.
The section loss at underwater part of steel pile bents pier was discovered by accident
when worker dived for repair.
Section loss 28
28

Effective method to solve the limitation of close visual inspection is development and
introduction of Non Destructive Inspection (NDT).
・Necessary technical development：To watch inside of steel and concrete members
Ultrasonic Testing Electro-Magnetic Induction Testing
Image of flux
Scanning
Stirrup
Senser Senser Ruptured at the
bend
Crack
Main bar Judge by change of flux at
Ｕ-shaped rib the point of fracture of bar
Bent bar Developed by entrusted research
PWRI developed the method to apply to steel deck （Fractured） to Kyoto Univ. 29
-275-
・Necessary technical development：To watch stress condition at structural member
Propagation characteristics at surface
Receiver
Hit by a
steel ball
Propagation characteristics of transmission

2.43
4100 -4150 4150 -4200 4200 -4250 4250 -4300
4300 -4350 4350 -4400 4400 -4450 4450 -4500
Propegation speed (m/sec)
らの高さ(mm)
1700
1400 Receive
かbottom
Input
1100
800
Stress
けた下 the
500 PC bar
Height from
L1050
L900
L750
L600
L450
L300
L150
R150
R300
R450
R600
R750
R900
R1050
R1200
30 12.3
Distance from the center of the span
支間センター(CL)からの距離（mm）
(N/mm2)
30

Necessary technical development（Improvement of work
environment , increase efficiency, and upgrade）：
Watch widely from distance
【NDT for crack at steel deck】
・Detecting technology from distance
・Quantitative evaluation with machine
The technology to inspect

many welded joints in
dimension from distance
Developing by entrusted research to an University Edge of crack 31
31
-276-
Prediction
At present, NILIM tries to sophisticate the formula for deterioration prediction with
inspection result of existing bridges.
However, there are dispersion between prediction and actual progress according to bridge
types or parts of a bridge. Progress from “b” (Corrosion at steel main girder)
同一要素二時点の変化（鋼橋/腐食/主桁）b→b,c,d,e
5,958
of damage
e
【Progress of
健全度（=損傷程度）
b
corrosion】 c
251 305 587 309 771 79 514 27 13 8
8 76 126 126 102 324 319 31

1,166
Degree
d
21 42 72 25 314 65 73 10 20
e
15 144
Degree of damage：ｂ
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Years経過年
after inspection
32
Degree of damage：ｃ Degree of damage：ｄ Degree of damage：ｅ 32
Prediction
There are dispersion between prediction and actual progress.
It is difficult to control the condition of each individual bridge and external force, so there is
limitation to predict the deterioration of bridge at present.
【Chloride damage at concrete】 Progress from “c” (Crack at PC main girder)

同一要素二時点の変化（PC橋/ひびわれ/主桁）c→c,d,e
Acceleration, Deterioration
Soundness
loss of steel
健全度
of damage
0.30 lank
ランク
健全度（=損傷程度）
0.25 284
Ⅴ
加速期,劣化期
鋼材体積減少率
Rate of
0.20
c
0.15 3
17 7 49 6
Ⅳ-2 62
volume
Degree
0.10 d
1 18 4 2
0.05
e 107
Ⅳ-1
0.00 3 1 2 1 1
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1.20
経過年
e ion
塩化物イオン量（kg/m3)
1.00 Years after inspection

on
Ⅲ
Incubatio
0 80
0.80
Chloride
潜伏期
0.60
0.40
Ⅰ,Ⅱ
0.20
0.00
0 ｔ1 ｔ2 ｔ3 ｔ4
(=ｔ2 -10)
Age
経過年
33
33
-277-
Evaluating the present state and predicting the future
to be able to correctly prioritize them
Relation of BMS and other maintenance management works
・To support experts who exam and decide the countermeasure
・To pick out bridges which have deteriorated or will soon become serious condition
Basic data Clarification of Evaluation of Prediction/trial

present situation present situation calculation
BMS
Structure ① Prediction of
based mainly on data

objective evaluation
specification deterio-ration of each
Quantitative and
data member
② Evaluation of future
soundness of bridge
Repair etc. and calculation of the
ment plan
history data most appropriate
method
Clarification of
Managem
degree of
Countermeasure
the views of experts etc.

damage
evaluations based on
classification
judgment data
comprehensive
Qualitative and
Detailed survey of the state of specific
damage such as salt damage, ASR, fatigue
etc.
Other
inspections
34
Obtaining engineers able to operate, diagnose and treat them appropriately
Preparation of Manual and Sample collection
Continuation the Training Courses
Preparation of “damage sample photo collection”

to complement the experience of engineers
A DVD intended for awareness
raising of engineers 35
-278-
Obtaining engineers able to operate, diagnose and treat them appropriately
In order for local governments to apply preventive maintenance rather than ex post
maintenance smoothly, support them financially and technically, and facilitate asset
management as unified network among road authorities related.
Technical Support Mutual Cooperation Financial Support

- Organizing training - Organizing committee; - Introducing subsidies for
courses for local staff studying road management planning maintenance
- Providing a manual standards in view of road program
to grasp condition of management & disaster - Subsidies for repair &
bridges roughly prevention replacement works
[ Organizing seminars for local staff ] [ Guideline to grasp condition of bridges roughly ]
36
Summary
・In Japan, it is necessary to gain 2 different types of data;
1) data of objective damage degree
2) data of judgment of countermeasure by professional engineer
・Inspection data is gained at every element of bridge member which

is subdivided for evaluation of deterioration tendency and soundness
of bridges according to structural characteristic and environmental
condition based on data analysis
BMS is used
・BMS sed effecti
effectively
el within
ithin limited range ssuch
ch as deterioration
prediction and future evaluation of bridges.
・Development and introduction of Non Destructive Inspection (NDT)

are needed to solve the limitation of close visual inspection.
37
-279-
Challenge
・Inspection has place of improvement and sophistication is necessary
・Bridge maintenance system has limit, and it needs consideration how

to use.
・Engineers are indispensable, and improvement of technology is

important.
Convert to preventive maintenance from ex post maintenance

Achieve continuous management of safe highway bridge reducing
life cycle cost
38
Thanks for your attention.
39
-280-
Appendix
40
Budget constraints
Budget for construction is decreasing by severe national financial condition.
Budget for maintenance is also decreasing slightly in spite of stock increase and aging.
History of construction expenditure and maintenance expenditure
14
Exxpenditure (mil. Yen)
12
10
8 Construction
建設的経費
6 Maintenance
維持的経費
4
2
0
89
91
93
95
97
99
01
03
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Year
Source: 2006 Annual Report of Road Statistics
41
-281-
Technology required in inspection and management
Diagnosing what should be Diagnosing without effort

essentially diagnosed
Item
Advancement of conventional
Detection of lack of
points where Purpose Labor saving in inspection
management
discovery is difficult preparation

such as inside the (1) Diagnosis on (2) Saving
structure points where labor Labor saving in inspection
discovery is difficult
Detection of lack of
structure in water or Risk Efficiency Labor saving in inspection
soil management increase tabulation
Asset
management
technique Quick response
(chan
Adva
Grasping
p g of
ancement of control system
nging the mechanism)
construction
(3) Order-made Automatic transmission at
environment (cause (4) Prompt detection of abnormality
of damage) (data utilization) notification at (alarm)
management appropriate timing
Quantification of Asset
inspection data management Automation Monitoring on change
42
The regulation by the Road Law

The proper management of roads is regulated by the Road Law. But there is a lack of
governmental order and standards for management based on that law. At present, the
fact that the budgets and organization of administering bodies are different makes it is
difficult to establish standardized regulations.
Article 42 of the Road Law

1 The Road Administrator shall endeavor to maintain and repair
the roads in good condition so that the traffic on them is not
obstructed.
2 Technical standards and other necessary matters for the
maintenance and/or repair of roads shall be provided in a
national government ordinance.
Problem:
Each body administering roads is so different in their
budget and organization that it is difficult to establish
regulations in regard to technical standards.
43
-282-
Examples of bridge inspections in Japan
The national government, each expressway company and some local governments
conduct routine inspections based on their regulations. But, many local
governments have no such regulations and can’t conduct routine inspections.
Governing Frequency Remarks

Authority of Inspection
National once ・Inspections are conducted based on “the Regulations for
Gov’t in 5 yrs Periodic inspections (tentative)”.
・Inspections are basically close observations.
・The first inspection should be conducted within two years after
opening the road.
Expressway once ・Inspections are conducted based on their own regulations.
Company a year ・Inspections are conducted as frequently as budgetary concerns
allow.
・Actual situation: once every 5 - 8 years
Problem:
Many local governments do not have regulations and they can’t conduct routine
inspections.
44
Evaluation and Measurement of Effect

<Development of Performance Indicators>
It is needed for the people to understand the necessity and effect of
maintenance and management activities such as reinforcement and
repair works
g to g
It is needed for the manager grasp
p the condition of road network all
the time
Performance indicators
(1)Reliability to maintain the performance to traffic load
(2)Reliability to keep the performance at earthquake
(3)Level to guarantee the driving safety
100
Integrated evaluation index
総合評価指標
Load耐resistance
荷性
S 全d
Sound
健 100
80
Index value
指標値
60 60 55
40
Repairs
要補修
20
30 necessary ← Threshold 82
0 28
Urgent value of bridges Safety

走行安全性 Resistance
災害抵抗性
countermeasures
緊急対策 that require when to
0 necessary caution driving disasters
Image of Indicators
45
-283-
Performance required for Indicators
・Each indicator does not explain more than one function
(By composing the performances ,indicator will be ambiguous)
・Tendencies of damage
g pprogress
g which founded by
y analyzing
y g inspection
p data
are considered
→ Indicator can be calculated with small number of data.
Damage
Scor es
Damage
Scor es
Utilization of Tendency
1, 000
900 450 Analysis
800 400
700 350
600 300
500 250
200
400
150
300
100
200 Cant
50 i
100 Out si l ever
0
0 I ns ed de gi r de
Out si r
de gi Out si e gi r der
t
in
an
I ns ed r der de gi
t
po
er
in
e gi Cant r der
sp
an
an
r der i l ev
nt
po
Out si
t
er
er
in
sp
sp
4
t
ce
or
er
de gi
an
1/
po
nt
pp
ev
4
t
r der
an
4
ce
sp
t
or
in
3/
Su
1/
Sp
il
t
pp
or
po
nt
an
pp
Su
En
Ca
3/
Sp
Su
t
d
or
En
d
pp
En
Su
Damage score by crack of RC slab

d
Damage score by corrosion

En
Distribution of Damages Frequency

46
Calculation Flow of Condition evaluation indicator
Inspection results Judgment of each unit Judgment by member Judgment of the structure unit
Corrosion e Unit 0101

Represented
Cracking a by worst value Damage
of the target grade
Rupture a items
items.
II
…
Main girder
Worst value Overall span
Weighting
Corrosion d Unit 0102 Degree of coefficient 1.0 Degree of
Represented damage damage
Cracking e by worst value
Damage ○ points □ points
of the target grade
Rupture a items. II
…
a, b, c, d, and e represent
damage range based on
inspections. Unit 0101
Damage grade Cross beam
I
Degree of Weighting
Average value coefficient 0.2
damage
Unit0102 △ points
Total evaluation
Damage grade index
II
…
☆ points
Inspection data are combined with weighting factor

47
-284-
Images of evaluation result of road network conditions
Critical Point
for the
F
Function
i off
Road
Network
Legend
load
resistance
Legend
reliability
loadtraffic load capacity
resistance
48
Components and relations of maintenance management
For：
Each component -Making investment plan for
needs various and Macro Management the future
enormous data
-Forecastinggpperformance of
the future road network
Data
Evaluation , Micro Management
Measurement of effect
For：
For： -Deciding
Deciding the concrete contents
-Explanation necessity and effect of of the maintenance work for each
maintenance management act structures.
for the public (=tax payer)
-order of priority of repair,
-executing time,
-Knowing the condition of the network for -method of repair,
the manager (=decision maker) -etc.
49
-285-
Summary
- Macro Management by BMS
is using only for picking out of the bridges which are already deteriorated or
have high possibility of serious condition in near future.
- Micro Management
must be improved by developing inspection technology and management
system (ex. non-destructive inspection, Application the experts and their
knowledge, optimizing of each bridge maintenance using the GIS)
- For Evaluation and Measurement of effect

performance indicators are developed which can explain the necessity and
g
effect of maintenance and management activities,, and the network
performance in same time.
Management System is inadequate at all points.

Harmony and a balance of component is important and to be improved.
50
-286-
-287-
Maintenance of Bridges
Taku Hanai, Naoki Yanadori

CAESAR: Center for Advanced
Engineering Structural Assessment and
Research
Maintenance of Concrete Bridges
Taku Hanai
-289-
Outline
• Deterioration Mechanism of Concrete
St t
Structures
• Repair Methods for Concrete Bridges
• Strengthening Methods for Concrete Bridges
Deterioration Mechanism of Concrete

Structures
• Corrosion of Steel Bars in Concrete
– Chloride Induced Corrosion
– Carbonation
Deterioration of
• Deterioration of Concrete Concrete can
facilitate Corrosion
– Alkali‐Aggregate Reaction in Concrete.
– Freezing and Thawing

– Chemical Attack
-290-
Defect of Concrete Structures
• Poor Construction Work
– Cracking (Thermal stress, Drying shrinkage)
– Cold joint
– Honeycomb
– Shortage of cover concrete A defect of concrete
structures can be
affected by more
than one mechanism.
Chloride Induced Corrosion

• Mechanism
– Chloride ions facilitate the
corrosion of re‐bar in
concrete
– Chloride ions can be
brought by sea wind
– Chloride ions can be
brought as deicing salt
• Countermeasures in
Latest Construction
– Thick cover concrete
– Epoxy coated Re‐bar
– Surface coating (epoxy)
-291-
Carbonation
• Mechanism
– Carbonation of concrete
facilitate the corrosion of
re‐bar in concrete
– Often shortage of cover
concrete cause corrosion
by carbonation
Latest Construction
– Minimum cover thickness
– Maximum W/C of concrete
Alkali‐Aggregate Reaction
• Mechanism
– Chemical reaction between
some types of aggregate
and alkali compounds in
concrete cause the
swelling of concrete
Latest Construction
– Maximum alkali
compounds in concrete
– Use of blast furnace slag
and fly‐ash
– Use on non‐reactive
aggregate
-292-
Freezing and Thawing
• Mechanism
– FFreezing
i off water
t ini
concrete cause the
cracking and scaling of
concrete
Latest Construction
– Use of chemical
admixture (AE water
reducing agent)
Poor Construction
-293-
Nationwide Survey on Soundness of
Concrete Structures in Japan
• The Survey was carried out in 1999 by
Ministry of Construction
• Visual Inspection was carried out in 2099
Structures.
– Bridge Superstructures: 371
– Bridge Pier and Abutment: 390
– Other
h Structures: 1338
• Deterioration Mechanism was estimated from
the Record of Visual Inspection
Nationwide Survey on Soundness of

Concrete Structures in Japan
• Deterioration of Investigated Concrete
St t
Structures were Classified
Cl ifi d iinto
t Five
Fi Categories
C t i
– I: No Deterioration
– II: May be Deteriorated, but low possibility (There
are some defects)
– III: Deteriorated a little
– IV: Deteriorated remarkably
– V: Deteriorated fatally (Need some action)
-294-
Bridge Superstructures Bridge Pier and Abutment
•Most concrete structures were in sound condition

•Deterioration was observed more frequently in older
concrete structures
Deterioration Mechanism in Actual

Concrete Structures
The effect of deterioration is considerable
-295-
Chloride induced corrosion
Chloride induced corrosion (PC girder)

PC tendon was broken
Alkali‐Aggregate Reaction
Alkali‐Aggregate Reaction Broken Re‐bar

(Abutment)
-296-
Deterioration Mechanism in Actual
Concrete Structures
Poor Construction Work
Shortage of cover concrete (bridge girder)
-297-
Honeycomb (bridge pier)
Repair Methods for Concrete Bridges

• Crack Repair
• Sectional Repair
• Impregnation Method
• Surface Coating
• Falling‐off Prevention
• Electric Protection
• Electrochemical Repair
-298-
Crack Repair
• Crack Covering (width of 0.2mm or less)
• Injection Method
• Infilling Method (crack width of 0.5mm or
more)
Crack Covering
• Crack width of 0.2mm or less
• Materials that resist crack width variation is
used
• Materials are the same as Surface Coating
Coating material
Coating material
Separator
Crack Crack
-299-
Injection Method
• Resin‐based or Cement‐based materials are
i j t d iinto
injected t crackk
• Injected materials are organic materials, such
as epoxy or acrylic, or inorganic materials,
such as cement or polymer cement
Injection
Sealing Pipe Sealing
material material
Crack Crack
φ5‐10mm
Infilling Method
• Crack width of 0.5mm or more
• Repair material is infilled in U‐ or V‐shaped
cutting along crack with 10mm width
• Material: Urethane, Silicon, or flexible epoxy
Polymer
l cement mortar
Sealing material
Primer Sealing
material
-300-
Sectional Repair(1)
• Repair method for sectional loss
• Repair method when cover concrete which
suffered carbonation or chloride penetration
is removed
• It consists of (1)Primer coating of re‐bars,
(2)infilling to sectional loss
Sectional Repair(2)
Re‐bar
Removal of rust, Removal of Cut surface

application of anti‐ delaminated concrete
corrosion material
Polymer cement
Application of cont. mortar
fiber sheets to
prevent falling‐off
-301-
Impregnation Method
• Impregnation material applied on concrete
surface
f prevents
t intrusion
i t i off deterioration
d t i ti
factor or diminish corrosion induction
• Function of each material Concrete surface (base treatment)
Protective layer
– Increase of alkalinity (silicon polymer)
– Corrosion prevention
– Water impermeability
– Solidification
Surface Coating
• Coating applied on concrete surface with
resin‐based
i b d or polymer‐cement
l t materials
t i l
prevent intrusion of water, carbon dioxide,
oxygen, and chloride ion
Concrete body
Filling material
Primer
Putty
Middle coat
Top coat
-302-
Falling‐off Prevention
• Strengthening surface layer by sheets or nets
t preventt falling‐off
to f lli ff off concrete
t
Applying adhesive on the sheets

Attachment of Sheets
Electric Protection(1)
• Mechanism of Corrosion Corrosion
current
– At steel member, with Concrete
which passive film is Steel member

Potential
before
destroyed, potential Potential Cathode Anode Cathode protection
+
difference on steel surface Potential
difference
‐
causes corrosion current
and facilitate corrosion
• Mechanism of Electric Anode system
Anti‐
Current
Protection Concrete corrosion

current
Power
– Application of electric Steel member

Potential Cathode Cathode Potential before
Anode
current from anode reduce + protection
potential difference and ‐
Potential under
protection
thus suppress corrosion
-303-
Electric Protection(2)
Anode (Ex: Titanium)
• Categorization by
Anode System Anti‐corrosion
DC current
– External Power Method
• By external power source,
electric current is applied
Re‐bar
– Galvanic Anode System External Power Method
• By connecting Metal Anode (Ex: Zinc)
material such as Zinc to

steel members,
Anti‐corrosion
protection current is current
induced
Re‐bar
Galvanic Anode System
Electric Protection (Example of

Galvanic Anode System)
Electric Protection
(Ti mesh + mortar
overlay)
Sheet anode Injection material
(Non‐shrink
Electric Protection mortar)
Titanium anode is set to re-bars
Anodes for steel pipe piles（Gray members）

-304-
Electrochemical Repair
• Desalination Method
– To extract chloride contents inside concrete
• Re‐Alkalization Method
– Re‐alkalization of carbonized concrete
Desalination Method
• Applying direct current between external
electrode
l t d and d steel
t l members
b iin concrete
t (8
weeks), extract chloride contents
Electrolyte solution
External anode
Internal cathode
Panel
Concrete
o cee
Electrolyte solution is filled

Power Chloride ion moves between panel and concrete.
toward anode
Direct current is being applied.
-305-
Re‐Alkalization Method
• Applying direct current between external
electrode
l t d and d steel
t l members
b iin concrete
t (1
week), impregnate alkaline solution
External anode
Internal cathode
Panel
Concrete
Alkaline solution
Power Solution moves
toward re‐bar
Strengthening Methods
for Concrete Bridges
• Steel Plate Bonding Method
• Continuous Fiber Sheet Bonding Method
• Outer Cable
-306-
Steel Plate Bonding Method
• Steel plate is set along tension side of
concrete
t member.b Adhesion
Adh i iis secured db
by
injecting adhesive between plate and concrete
• Strengthening for bending and shear
Steel plate Steel plate
Main girder Stringer Main girder
Application Application
range range
Continuous Fiber Sheet

Bonding Method
• Attaching continuous fiber sheets on the
surface
f where
h tension
t i or diagonal
di l tension
t i
stress is working
• Light weight, and anti‐corrosive
• Increase of stiffness cannot be expected
-307-
Outer Cable
• By installing tension members outside of
concrete
t and d introducing
i t d i pre‐stress,
t bending
b di
and shear capacities are improved
Anchorage
Deviator
Outer cable
Maintenance of Steel Bridges
Naoki Yanadori
-308-
Contents of presentation
■ Current status of steel bridge stock

■Major damage of steel bridges and
countermeasures
‐ Corrosion of Steel member
‐ Fatigue of RC deck
‐ Fatigue crack of steel member
Bridge type
Others Recent trend of steel bridges
4% (5,461)
Others
13% (47)
Steel Bridge I‐girder

Prestressed Steel
39% (56,136) 51% (1,242)
Concrete Bridge Bridge
39% (55,222) Box‐girder
36% (131)
Reinforced
Concrete Bridge
18% (25,702) Fewer plate girder
9% (223)
Total number 147,982
（Length >30m as in 2000 ～ 2003）
Bridge number by bridge type
（Length >15m as of 2002.4） http://www.jasbc.or.jp/kyoryodb/index.cgi
-309-
Number of bridge by year of construction
30,000
The others
25,000
PC bridges
Number of bridges
20,000
RC bridges
15,000 Steel bridges
10,000
5,000
1991～95
1971～75
1976～80
1981～85
1986～90
1966～70
1926～30
1946～50
1941～45
1951～55
1956～60
1961～65
1931～35
1936～40
1996～2000
Length >15m as of 2002.4
Major causes of replacement of

steel bridges (1986‐1995)
・Most are functional problem so far.
・About 12% is Deterioration of superstructure.
⇒ Deterioration of concrete deck, Corrosion of steel members
(Importance of preventive maintenance)
Damage of
Others Others
EQ resistance superstructure
（2.8%）（6.8%）
（1.7%）（12.1%）
Damage
of substructure Corrosion
（1.5%）（26.0%）
Load capacity
Improving Road （67.2%）
Alignment（45.9%）
Fatigue of Concrete Decks
Improving Road Width
（67.2%）
（31.5%）
603 bridges 73 bridges

-310-
Severe geographical feature
Splashed in Winter
・Long & slender country, Airborne salts
coastal area, mountainous area
・Much rain, Seasonal wind in winter,
Typhoon
・About 60% area is snowy and cold
etc.
De‐icing salts use
Heavy traffic in urban area
Heavy truck
-311-
Corrosion prevention method
Measures Mechanism In case of deterioration
Painting Protection by paint Repainting
Weathering Protective rust layer Repair with painting

steel
Hot dip Protective layers by Repair with painting
galvanizing zinc and alloys, and
Sacrificial protection
Metal spray Spray deposit and Repair with painting
Sacrificial protection by
zinc-aluminum pseudo-
alloys
Prevention of corrosion
Manual for painting and corrosion protections
for steel highway bridges
・Revised in 2005
to reduce LCC for prevention of corrosion
・Contents of the revised manual

Part 1: General
G l
Part 2: Painting
Part 3: Weathering steels
Part 4: Hot dip galvanizing
Part 5: Metal spray
-312-
Corrosion of girder end
Corroded area was cut and

replaced with new steel
members.
Corrosion of inside of box girder
Accumulation of
dropping of birds
Corrosion by stagnant water
-313-
Current research theme
■Repair method for prevention system of corrosion (New

material Team)
・Repair methods for
‐corroded weathering steel bridges,
‐hot dip galvanized bridges,
‐metal sprayed bridges
■Retrofit method of severe corrosion at girder ends of

steel bridge (Bridge Team)
・Selection of repair methods
・Effectiveness of repair method by bolted connection plate for corrosion
members
Damage of reinforced concrete deck
Transverse direction crack Cracks in a grid pattern
Falling of concrete
portions Maintenance of Steel Bridges
-314-
Damage of road surface
Fatigue of concrete deck

Concrete deck is subjected to traffic load
⇒Cracks Dropping of concrete portion
⇒Cracks,
・Improvement of durability
(Revision of design code several times)
・Increase of thickness
・Increase of design moment
・Increase of amount of rebars
・Waterproofing of deck surface, etc.
・Fatigue Evaluation by wheel running test
-315-
Wheel Running Machine
Load
Deck
Deformation
Cracking on
the bottom
Deck
床版
主桁
Girider
Major Research Issues:

‐ To establish evaluation method for durability of concrete decks
‐ To evaluate effectiveness of repair methods for concrete decks
‐ To evaluate durability of newly developed bridge decks
S‐N curve by wheel running test

Loading / Static punching shearr resistance
Dry
1973 Spec
1964 Spec Wet
103 104 105 106 107

Cycles to failure
Provided by Prof S. Matsui et al., Osaka
Maintenance Univ.Bridges
of Steel
-316-
Deterioration process of RC deck
①Initial cracks ②Formation of grid

due to shrinkage cracks due to truck
causes tranvese wheel loading
cracks
⇒Improvement of flexure
CFRP Sheet bonding,
③Increase of grid ⑤Punching shear Steel plate bonding, etc.
crack density. failure (concrete
Occurrence of dropping)
penetrating cracks
(Water leak and
free lime)
④Decrease of
punching shear ⇒Improvement of shear resistance
strength ⇒Reconstruction
Increase of thickness of deck from
upper and/or lower side, etc. Maintenance of Steel Bridges
Bridge deck strengthened by CF sheets
-317-
Bridge deck strengthened
by increasing deck thickness with SFRC
Bridge deck strengthened

by increasing deck thickness with SFRC SFRC
Before repair After repair

Deck was overlaid
by SFRC.
Asphalt and upper

SFRC
concrete cover
was removed. Existing
concrete
-318-
Replacing concrete deck
by using steel forms
Fatigue of steel bridge
Major factors of fatigue damage

・Heavy truck traffic
・Design
‐Improper structural detail
(Low fatigue resistance)
‐Secondary stress
(Analytical model vs. Actual bridge)
・Fabrication
‐Welding quality, welding defects
-319-
Fatigue crack at hinges of
cantilever through truss
Strengthened by bolted
stiffened steel member Maintenance of Steel Bridges
Fatigue crack at
weld of sole plate
-320-
Fatigue crack at weld
of sole plate
・Replace bearing
・Replace with extended sole plate
・Strengthened by bolted stiffened
steel member
Fatigue cracks of orthotropic steel deck

cross girder
trough rib
transverse rib
Welded thin(12mm) deck plate

Direct wheel load
Complicated plate bending

Stress concentration
Fatigue damage
-321-
Current Research Theme
Retrofit method for fatigue damage of
existing orthotropic steel deck
Replacement of asphalt pavement with SFRC

SFRC 75mm
スタッド
接着剤
（幅員端部のみ）
Reinforcement byy bolted splice

p p
plate
当て板
支圧接合用高力ボルト
-322-
9. Lecture
“Efficient maintenance of pavements
and tunnels”
Mr. Kazuyuki KUBO

Mr. Katsunori KADOYU
-323-
Efficient maintenance of
pavements and tunnels
Kazuyuki Kubo
Senior Researcher, Pavement Research Team, PWRI
Nobuharu Isago
Senior Researcher, Tunnel Research Team, PWRI
PART I :Pavement Maintenance

and Management in Japan
Kazuyuki Kubo
-325-
Topics
1. Present Status of Roads in Japan
2. Pavement Management
g Practices in Japan
p
1) Outline of Pavement Management
2) Pavement Monitoring
3) P
Pavementt M
Managementt S
System
t (MLIT)
4) Guideline for Pavement Repair (MLIT)
November 12, 2009
Road Networks ①
Motorway ① (②)
22,100km 32,000km
7,300km
National Roads ② ②
129,000km (Managed by MLIT) ③
④
total (⑤)
1,187,700km
National Roads ③
(Managed by Pref. etc)
②
997,300km ③
④
(2004 4 1)
(2004.4.1) P f t
Prefectural
l Roads
R d ④ ⑤
1500
1350 Road Length
1200
Length(1000km)
1050
900
Municipal Roads ⑤
750
600 (③)
450 ④
300 ⑤
150
0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2004
November 12, 2009
-326-
Paved Rate
Not Paved Rate
Paved Rate Paved Rate
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
Not Paved Rate
30
20
10
0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2004
November 12, 2009
Road Networks and Paved Roads

(2004.4.1)
Asphalt 6,800km
Motorway 7,300km Cement 500km
National Roads 22,100km
22 100km Asphalt
sp a t 21,000km
,000
(Managed by MLIT) (for Light Traffic 400km)
Cement 1,100km
National Roads 32,000km Asphalt 30,600km

(for Light Traffic 4,700km)
（Managed by Prefecture and Cement 1,000km
Metropolitan Cities） Not-paved 400km
Prefectural Roads Asphalt 122,200km
129,000km Asphalt Cement 1,700km
Not-paved 5,100km
Municipal Roads Asphalt 698,000km
997,300km Asphalt for Not- Cement 50,800km
Light Traffic paved Not-paved 248,500km
Total Asphalt 878,600km

Cement (for Light Traffic 626,200km)
1,187,700km Cement 55,100km
Not-paved 254,000km
November 12, 2009
-327-
Road and Pavement Budget

16 1.6
Road Budget(trillion Yen) 14 Road Budget
g 1.4
Pavement New Construction
New Construction and

12 1.2
Repair(trillion Yen)
Pavement Repair
10 1.0
8 0.8
6 0.6
4 0.4
R
2 0.2
0 0.0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2004
Fiscal Year
November 12, 2009
2. 1) Outline of Pavement Management
Pavement Management for expected

Pavement Performance (1)
Viewpoint
p Function
(Performance)
Pavement
User service
management
Road User Safety
Smoothness
Comfortableness
Inhabitant Environment
Asset Preservation Durability
Other Viewpoint
November 12, 2009
-328-
Pavement Management for expected
Pavement Performance(2)
Performance(2)
Function Index ①
②
Safety Skid Resistance ① ③
Pothole ②
Smoothness Rutting ③
④
Faulting ④ ⑤
Comfortableness Permeability ⑤
Roughness
g ⑥ ⑥
Local Environmental indexes

Environment
(Noise, vibration, etc.)
Durability Cracking ⑦ ⑦
Regional Environment
(Air Temperature, etc.)
November 12, 2009

Actual Procedure Flow
Site
INSPECTION
CALCULATION
PMS
DATABASE
PREDICTION of future performance

Minimizing of LCC
MLIT
(now under consideration) Criteria

Guideline of M
OUTPUT
Restriction of Budget
WORK
DECISION MAKING
REPAIR WORK and DATA COLLECTION

November 12, 2009
-329-
2. 2) Pavement Monitoring
Patrol
Daily (generally using patrol
car)
Measuring of Road
Annual Surface Condition
(by road surface
measuring vehicle)
Detailed measuring of
Detail road surface condition,
Core test etc
November 12, 2009
Implementation for monitoring
Skid Pothole
INDEX Rutting Cracking Roughness Faulting
Resistance Diameter
Annual Measurement
Dailyy Patrol
In case of
National
Highways
(MILT)
November 12, 2009
-330-
Patrol Work Flow

Office Field
Patrol planning Preparations
・ Registration of personnel names ・ Confirmation of patrol plan,

・ Registration of patrol routes etc.
・ Confirmation of unresolved
Patrol
items
Entry of departure & patrol

route inspections
A ti on accident
Action id t or
extraordinary incident
Confirmation of Discovery of an
patrol results Accident or Other
Extraordinary Incident
• Addition/revision of patrol
record ・Entry of details & photos
• Generation of patrol log ・Transmission of emergency data
• Instructions to maintenance
service
November 12, 2009
Road Patrol Assistance System (MLIT)

Field devices Office devices
Portable terminal, mobile Server/PC
telephone
GPS & digital camera Portable terminal & printer
Server
Digital camera
Mobile telephone
communication
network
Record Modem
photo of site
GPS Receiver
Printer
Wireless
LAN
Mobile Phone
Print Patrol
Log
Portable terminal
Portable terminal
Return to office
November 12, 2009
-331-
< Annual Measurement >

・ Total length (managed by MLIT)
about 22,000km
・ Monitoring length (Annually Implemented)

about 7,300km/ a year
→ whole network is measured every 3
year
g Devices
・ Road Surface Measuring
Items Measured
*Cracking Ratio
*Rutting Depth
*Roughness
November 12, 2009
Road Surface Measuring Device (1)
Rutting Roughness Cracking

Laser Displacement
Pulse Camera Illumination Slit Camera
Sensor Meter
Hairline Projector
November 12, 2009
-332-
Measured Data
Rutting ⇒ Rutting Depth (D)
D1
OWP
D2
D=max(D1 , D2)
IWP
Cracking ⇒ Cracking Ratio (C)

Cracking area (m2)
C= Section area (m2) ×100
Calculation method of cracking area is
defined by Manual for Pavement Testing
Method ((Japan
p Road Association))
Roughness ⇒ σ
n = number of data
November 12, 2009
Pavement Condition in National Roads

1. Cracking Ratio
14000 0
14000.0
12000.0
10000.0
Cracking Ratio
Length(km
15% 25% 35%

8000.0
6000.0
4000 0
4000.0
2000.0
0.0
0.0- 5.1- 10.1- 15.1- 20.1- 25.1- 30.1- 35.1- 40.1- 45.1-
1
5.0 2
10.0 3
15.0 4
20.0 5
25.0 6
30.0 7
35.0 8
40.0 9
45.0 10
Cracking Ratio(%) (2006.3)

November 12, 2009
-333-

2. Rutting Depth
9000 0
9000.0
8000.0
Rutting Depth
20mm 30mm 40mm
7000.0
6000.0
Length(km )
5000.0
4000.0
L
3000.0
2000.0
1000.0
0.0
1
0-5 2
6-10 3
11- 4
16- 5
21- 6
26- 7
31- 8
36- 9
41- 10
46-
Rutting De pth(mm) (2006.3)
November 12, 2009

3. Roughness
4500.0
Ave .σ =2.5mm
4000.0
IRI=3.2mm/m
3500.0
3000.0
Length(km )
2500.0
2000.0
1500.0
1000.0
500.0
0.0
σ (mm) -0.5
1 0.6-
2 1.1-
3 1.6-
4 2.1-
5 2.6-
6 3.1-
7 3.6-
8 4.1-
9 4.6-
10
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
IRI(mm/m) -0.7 0.8- 1.4- 2.0- 2.6- 3.2- 3.8- 4.4- 5.0- 5.6-
1.3 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.7 4.3 4.9 5.5
IRI=1.2054σ +0.123(R 2 =0.92) by PIARC EVEN Proje ct in 1998
(2006.3)
November 12, 2009
-334-
2. 3) Pavement Management System (PMS)
Brief History of Development

I. INTRODUCTION(1979-83)
• Started feasibility study on implementing the PMS
• Established and Operated Pavement Database System
II. DEVELOPMENT(1985-87)
• Established PMS
• Development monitoring devices
III. ENHANCEMENT(1995-)
Main SSystem(1995)
stem(1995)
- operated by host-computer at each regional bureau
PC System(1998)
- to operate easily at national highway offices
WEB System(2002)
- to unify with other road management system
November 12, 2009
Flow of MLIT
MLIT--PMS
Monitored data Road Inventory
(by road
o d su
surface
ce Construction History
Measuring Device) D t B
Data Base etc.
Surface Condition
Short-Term Strategic Long-Term Strategic

Planning System Planning System
Prioritization Prediction for long-term performance
Project Selection Effect of investigation
Construction Method Selection
November 12, 2009
-335-
Input Data(1)
1. Road Management
Local Office, Branch Office, Kilo post,
etc.
t
2. Road Structure
Traffic Lane, Width, Cross Point,
Median, Sidewalk, etc.
3. Roadside Condition
Climate (freeze/non-freeze), District
Classification (DID, city, flat land,
mountain)
4. Traffic Condition
November 12, 2009

Input Data(2)
5. Pavement Condition
Surface conditions (C, D, s), Shape of
Rutting
(Skid Resistance, Permeability, Road
Noise, Deflection)
6. Pavement Design
Load classification by heavy traffic
volume, Design CBR
7. Pavement Construction
Year and month conducted in,
Type of pavement, Material, Thickness,
etc. November 12, 2009
-336-
Map Display data unit : ～100m
Click
Here
Map is
Displayed
November 12, 2009
Service Level
Criteria Alert
Display MCI(=distress level of each pavement),

Cracking Ratio, Rutting Depth, and Roughness
November 12, 2009
-337-
Map Display
Click
Here
Position is
Displayed
November 12, 2009
Detailed data for repair work

-Present Pavement Structure-
Structure-
Materials, Thickness,
(at construction/repair work)
November 12, 2009
-338-
Estimation of quantity of repair
required area & length
Criteria
Nam
me of Office
Quantity of repair
required
November 12, 2009
2. 4) Guideline for Pavement Repair
Site
INSPECTION
CALCULATION
PMS
DATABASE
PREDICTION of future performance

Minimizing of LCC
Guideline of MLIT
(now under constructing) Criteria

OUTPUT
Restriction of Budget
WORK
DECISION MAKING
IMPLEMENTATION
November 12, 2009
-339-
Guideline for Asphalt Pavement Repair
in National Roads managed by MLIT
■ MLIT notified the guideline about Asphalt pavement
repair in 2006
■ The guideline shows about a policy of pavement repair
including rough targets for selection of repair methods
■ MLIT practice pavement repair according to the

guideline as a trial
because
Not Clearly
Effect of preventative methods for pavement in Japan
November 12, 2009

Points of Guideline
■ Main Indices of Pavement Repair
⇒Cracking Ratio , Rutting Depth
((note : MLIT had used MCI as a index until 2005))
■ Implement Preventative Methods more than before

Preventative Methods : ex. Crack Sealing , Cutting
■ Show Rough Target Value for Selecting Repair Methods
November 12, 2009
-340-
< Reference >
Concept is very close to PSI in USA
MCI ((M
Maintenance Control Index)
MCI 10 - 1.48C
MCI=10 0 47σ00.22
0 29D00.77 －0.47
1 48C00.33 - 0.29D 0.47σ
C: Cracking Ratio (%)

D: Rutting Depth (mm)
σ: Roughness (mm)
• Fullmark=10points
p
• MCI had been used by MLIT as a Index of the
pavement management until 2005.
• At present , MLIT uses Cracking Ratio and Rutting
Depth as the important Indices for judgment of repair
pavement.
November 12, 2009

Basic Flow of Pavement Repair
Methods Selection in Guideline
Results of Inspection
(Output of PMS (from annual inspection data), patrol etc.)
C: Cracking ratio
D: Rutting Depth
C>○○% or D>○○mm No
or
(Required repair by other factors)
Yes RECORD
Selection of Sections Required Repair
Detailed Inspection of the Selected Section
Implementation
Preventative Methods Yes
Applicable to the Damage?
of Preventative
Methods
No
Implementation of Repair Methods
November 12, 2009
-341-
Preventative methods
(ex. Crack Sealing)
Repair methods
(ex. Cut and Overlay)
November 12, 2009

Rough Target (Selection of Method)
Rutting Depth
0mm- 10mm- 20mm- 30mm- 35mm-
40mm-
Craking Ratio 10mm 20mm 30mm 40mm 40mm
0%-
cutting
10%
10%-
20%
20%-
30%
30%-
35% Crack sealing Crack sealing + cutting
35%-
40%
40%- repair method(cut and overlay,etc)
Preventative methods
Notice : The guideline shows these rough targets
but the guideline also says “technical judgment of engineer is
important for selecting repair method properly”.
November 12, 2009
-342-
Example picture of Rutting

Repair Method
Applicable section
Preventative Method
Applicable section
November 12, 2009
Example picture of Cracking

Repair Method
Applicable section
Preventative Method
Applicable section
(after implementation)
November 12, 2009
-343-
Review of Guideline
○ MLIT and PWRI will analysis trial results
according to the guideline
pavem ent performance
preventative method
duration of material performance?
effect?
ex. year
○ In future , MLIT will review the guideline if necessary

November 12, 2009
Thank you for your attention !
November 12, 2009
-344-
PART II :Efficient maintenance
for tunnel in Japan
Nobuharu Isago
Today’s Agenda
z Tunnel in Japan
z Defect of tunnel
z Inspection and survey
z Countermeasure for tunnel
defects
z Future prospects
November 12, 2009
-345-
1. Tunnel in Japan
November 12, 2009
1.1 Number and length of road tunnel in Japan
z Road tunnels in Japan have increased every year

z Some of them were completed more than 50 years ago
4000 10000
Total number
3000 Total length 7500
Leength [km]
Numb er
2000 5000
Length 3400km,
1000 Number 9500 2500
as of 2007.4
0 0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
November 12, 2009
-346-
1.2 Aged tunnel will increase
z Tunnels with defects 2000
due to material
Length over 50 years [kkm]

1600
d t i ti etc.
deterioration t hhave
increased 1200
800
400
Efficient maintenance 0
is required 2010 2020 2030 2040
Year
Prediction of tunnel length over 50 years
November 12, 2009
2. Defect of tunnel
November 12, 2009
-347-
2.1 Example of tunnel defects
Crack on lining Crack on portal Heaving of road surface
Deformed ditch in roadside Bump on sidewall Leakage
November 12, 2009
2.2 Cause of tunnel defects

z By external load z By material,
– Loosened earth pressure construction condition
– Swelling and squeezing – Aged deterioration
– Partial earth pressure – Shrinkage by
– Landslide temperature or moisture
– Shortage of bearing – Cold joint
capacity – Honeycomb
– Water pressure – Poor workmanship with
– Frost heaving bad formwork, shortage
of concrete curing
– Earthquake
– Rebar corrosion
Overall collapse of structure may be induced by the
deformation through external load
November 12, 2009
-348-
2.3 Tunnel defects by external load
Earth pressure by swelling rock Partial earth pressure
Landslide Earthquake
November 12, 2009
2.4 Tunnel defects by material and

construction condition
Shrinkage by Cold joint Honeycomb

temperature or moisture
Crack by poor workmanship Shortage of concrete Alkali-aggregate reaction

in setting form casting
November 12, 2009
-349-
3. Inspection and survey
November 12, 2009
3.1 Execution of inspection and survey

Item Method Problems
checked
Cracks Visual check by A lane to be closed
walking or using Time-consumingg
a boom lift Difficulty to easily detect cracks high
up such as on arches
Suffering from subjectivity in recording
the crack
Spalling of Hammer strike (Same as above)
concrete lining by workmen on
boom lift
Voids behind Vehicles Requiring sophisticated and specialized

the lining and equipped with knowledge to interpret the results
the thickness of electromagnetic- Not applicable when there are rebars
the concrete wave probes and sections of high water content in
the lining
November 12, 2009
-350-
3.2 Useful information to judge defects
z Cracks
– Characteristics from such as compressive, shear or tensile
– Location
– Direction such as transverse
transverse, longitudinal
longitudinal, horizontal,
horizontal
vertical, diagonal
– Development speed and degree of penetration
z Condition of tunnel
– Construction method (eg. NATM or other method)
– Geological and geographical condition
– Shape, dimension and structure (eg. with/without invert)
– Behavior during construction (eg. large deformation)
– With/without structure near tunnel
– Underground water
November 12, 2009
3.3 Flow of inspection and survey

for road tunnels
Periodical inspection
(every 2 or 5 years)
pection
Judgment rating A Judgment rating S

Insp
Urgent Need
N d urgent countermeasure No countermeasure
countermeasure Judgment
Judgment rating B
Need survey
Normal survey
nd judgment
No need Need
nitoring
countermeasure countermeasure
Judgment
Mon
Survey an
Need detailed survey

s r e
Countermeasuree
Detailed survey Need

No need investigation
countermeasure
Judgment
Need countermeasure
Countermeasure
November 12, 2009
-351-
3.4 Condition codes for soundness
Rating of tunnel soundness for inspection
Rating Description
A Seriously deformed. Urgent countermeasures are needed since users are at risk.
Deformed. Further inspection
p or survey
y is needed to examine the need of
B
repair and rehabilitation.
S Not deformed or slightly deformed.
Rating of tunnel soundness for normal/ detailed survey

Rating Description
3A Seriously deformed. Urgent countermeasures are needed since users are at risk.
Deformed Urgent countermeasures are needed since the defects may progress
Deformed.
2A
and endanger users.
Deformed. Close monitoring and systematic countermeasures are needed since
A
the defects may endanger users in future.
Not deformed or slightly deformed. The deformation has no effect on users, but
B
the tunnel needs to be monitored.
November 12, 2009
3.5 Problem for proper inspection

and survey
z At the stage of inspection execution,

– To collect the data of tunnel defects,, rapidly
p y and
quantitatively
z At the stage of results evaluation from inspection,
– To predict the cause of defects, whether by external
load or by material.
– To judge the current state and need of countermeasure
z At the stage of countermeasure decision,
– To select proper countermeasure method in accordance
with the cause
– To ensure the safety of construction under traffic
November 12, 2009
-352-
4. Countermeasure ~
repair/rehabilitation ~ for tunnel defects
November 12, 2009
4.1 Example of countermeasure

–minor degree-
degree-
Chipping Section repair
Crack/joint injection November 12, 2009
-353-
–moderate degree-
degree-
Wired mesh Net
Fiber sheet panel

Steel panel
November 12, 2009

–severe degree-
degree-
Internal reinforcement Internal reinforcement

(Precast lining) (Steel arch support)
9 Effect, characteristics and adoption of

each countermeasure method needs to be
clarified.
November 12, 2009
-354-
5. Future prospects
November 12, 2009
5. Future prospects
z Tunnels should be designed so as to reduce the life cycle
cost.
z Tunnels should be constructed by strictly controlling the
quality in order to prevent defects in future
future.
z Tunnels should be inspected, surveyed and evaluated,
taking objective records of quantitative data and using
consistent evaluation criteria.
In advance, attention should be paid that…..

– Technologies need to be developed
– Experts should be trained
– Various maintenance is needed not only for
structure but also for facilities in tunnel
November 12, 2009
-355-
10. Lecture
“Risk Management Strategy in
Privatization of Expressway Public
Corporations in Japan”
Mr. Tsutomu MORIMOTO
-357-
RISK MANAGEMENT STRATEGY
in PRIVATIZATION of EXPRESSWAY
PUBLIC CORPORATIONS in JAPAN
November 12, 2009
MORIMOTO, Tsutomu
Japan Expressway Holding and
Debt Repayment Agency
OVERVIEW
1. Privatization of Four Expressway Public

C
Corporations
ti
2. Risk Management Strategy
3. Recent Toll Discount Schemes
2
Japan Expressway Holding and Debt Repayment Agency
-359-
1. Privatization of Expressway
Public Corporations
1-1 Background of Privatization

The debts piled up to over ¥40 trillion
The Repayment date had become later and

later, finally drifted beyond 2050
Strong concern for the burden on the

future generations
Demand to utilize wisdom and financial funds

of private sector
Privatization of 4 Expwy Corporations in October 2005

Japan Expressway Holding and Debt Repayment Agency 1. Privatization
-360-
1-2. Overview
１－２民営化の概要of the Privatization
3 Purposes
○ To ensure repaying the interest-bearing debts of ¥40trillion
○ To expedite construction of necessary roads with minimum
cost while respecting companies’ own decisions
○ To provide various and flexible toll rates and services utilizing
know-how of private companies
[Outline of Privatization]
Metropolitan Hanshin Honshu-Shikoku
Japan Highway Public Corporation Expressway Public Expressway Public Bridge Authority
Corporation Corporation
To merge with West

Nippon Expressway Co.,Ltd
Companies: Construction and management of expressways and collection of tolls when business stabilizes
East Nippon Central Nippon West Nippon Metropolitan Hanshin Honshu-Shikoku

Expressway Expressway Expressway Expressway Expressway Bridge Expressway
Co., Ltd. Co., Ltd Co., Ltd Co., Ltd Co., Ltd Co., Ltd
The Agency: Holding of expressways, repayment of debts

Japan Expressway Holding and Debt Repayment Agency (JEHDRA)
5
1-3 ExpresswayExpressway
Network and 6 New Companies
Network
Expressways (tolled)
9,241km in service
As of Apr. 1, 2009
-361-
1-4. Framework of Privatization
Agency
(Secure repayment of debts within 45 years)
6 Companies
(Efficient implementation of business activities)
Transfer of Expwy assets
and acceptance of debts
Expwy construction Funds
Holding of expwys
Leasing of Expwy raised
assets Expwy management

Repayment of debts
（inherited debts and acquired
debts） Toll collection
Payment of lease fees
Agreements
g
Approval by the Minister of Approval by the Minister of

Land, Infrastructure, and Transport Land, Infrastructure, and Transport
7
1-5. All Incomes and Expenditures

All Incomes and Expenditures
During the Agreement Term (2005 – 2050, 45yrs)
Incomes Expenditures
Total Revenue: Construction and
128 Renovation : 13
Repair Investment ： 8
Maintenance ： 28
Repayment
p y of Debt ： 38
Interest Payment ： 36
Consumption Tax ： 4
Total : 128
Unit: ¥ trillion 8
-362-
1-6. Trend of Debts, Plan & Performance
Trillion yen
38 37.2 37.1 Plan
37 Perform.
36 2
36.2
35.9
36 35.3 35.0
35
Includes transfer of
34
debts to the government
33 (3 trillion yen)
31.8
32 31.3
Economic Stimulus
31 Package for
f
30 discounting tolls
2005 2006 2007 2008
End of FY
Privatization
Note: exclude capital (4.7trillion yen in 2008)
9
1-7. Repayment of Debts in FY 2008

Amount (tr. yen)
Debts, beginning of FY2008 35.0
Lease fee received -1.9
Interest paid +0.5

New debts received +0.5
Subtotal 34 3
34.3
Transfer of Debts to the Gov’t -3.0
(Economic Stimulus Package)
Debts, end of FY 2008 31.3

10
-363-
2. Risk Management Strategy
11
2-1 Existing Risks

OUR TASK
• The debt of 31 trillion yen (Beg. of FY2009) needs to be repaid
by 2050
• The repayment plan is formulated in the agreements
between JEHDRA & Expwy Companies, regarding toll rate,
revenue, traffic, management cost, maintenance cost,
construction cost, and interest
RISKS
Risks Major Factors
Traffic Risk Economic Situations
Interest Rate Risk Economic Situations
Force Majeure Risks Natural Disasters ---Earthquake 12
Japan Expressway Holding and Debt Repayment Agency 2. Risk management
-364-
2-2 Against Traffic Risk
・Both the traffic volume (E) and the interest rates (D) are correlated
with the economy, so the relations work like a risk mitigation function.
・When the agreements are revised because of the smaller volume of
actual traffic ((E’),
) the operation
p cost ((C)) and the construction cost ((B))
may have to be reviewed, if necessary.
Plan Performance
⊿D ⊿E
D: Interest D’
⊿C
E: Toll Revenue
C: Operetion
p Cost ((Toll ×Traffic)) C’
⊿B
B: Construction Cost B’ E’
A: Debt (FY05)
A
Total Cost Total Income Total Cost Total Income

2-3 Against Interest Risk

To reduce the interest risk,
・JEHDRA issued 40-year 40yrs
110
fi d interest
fixed i t t bonds
b d ini 10yrs
19%
190
2005, first in Japan. 32%
Total 30yrs
・JEHDRA has been 590bn 100
yen 17%
issuing long-term fixed
interest bonds. (20-40 20yrs
190
years) 32%
In FY 2008, around 70% of

all bonds are long-term
bonds. Total amount of bonds of no less
than 20 years is 400 billion yen, or
about 70% of FLIP Agency bonds.
14
-365-
2-4 Against Force Majeure Risk
○Japan has many unexpected disasters such as earthquake.
⇒The Government supplies the funds to repair the damage.
(Ex.)) The Chuetsu Offshore Earthquake in July

・(Ex July, 2007
Hokuriku Expressway was damaged in 330 locations along
95 km of the expressway
⇒JEHDRA and the East Nippon Expwy Co. received ¥8.5
billion to repair the damage.
15
3. Recent Toll Discounts Schemes
16
-366-
3-1 Background
• A criticism is increasing that higher toll rates compared with
those in other countries causes higher freight costs.
• While some sections of toll-free highways
g y are congested,
g
parallel sections of tolled expressways provide free traffic flow,
even during the same peak hours.
⇒ In May 2008, The government enacted a bill to use the
national budget for discounting tolls.
⇒ In October 2008, after the increase in oil prices and the
world economic crisis, the government decided to
introduce, as a part of the economic stimulus package,
large-scale toll discount
17
Japan Expressway Holding and Debt Repayment Agency 3. Toll Discount Scheme
3-2 Recent Toll Discount Scheme

①The Government accepts the JEHDRA’s debts. (3 trillion yen)
②JEHDRA discounts the lease fees of the expwy companies.
③The expressway
③ p y companies
p discount equivalent
q tolls.
Transfer of Debts
Government Government
JEHDRA Government
(Agency)
Discount of Lease Fees
Discount of Toll
Government
Expressway Expressway
Companies Users
Construction of Smart ICs
18
-367-
3-3 Major Toll Discount Rates
zFor Passenger Cars (weekends):
Toll
Normal Toll
¾Rural Area: (yen)
50% off, w/ cap 1,000 yen (all day)

2,000 50% discount
Cap of Yen 1,000
1,000
Discount Toll
0 about 70 100 200 Distance

(km)
¾Urban Area: 50% off (10pm - 6am), 30% off (6am – 10pm)
zF Trucks
zFor T k (weekdays)
( kd )
¾Rural Area: 50% off (0 -4am, 6 -9am, 5 -8pm),
30% off (4 -6am, 9am -5pm, 8 -10pm)
¾Urban Area: 50% off (10pm -6am)
30% off (8pm -10pm) 19
3-4 Toll Discount Area Category
Urban Areas
Kyoto-Osaka-Kobe Area Tokyo Metropolitan Area Sapporo
Kyoto
Saitama
Kobe
Metropolitan
Hanshin Exp. Co.
Exp. Co.
Chiba
Yokohama
Sendai
Rural Areas (Non-urban Areas)
Tokyo
Fukuoka Metropolitan
Kyoto Nagoya
Hiroshima
Osaka
Kobe
20
-368-
3-5 Example of Discounted Tolls
Oita – Kobe (711km)
Psgr. cars 14,450 → 1,000 yen (weekends)
Trucks 23,750 →11,900 yen (everyday 0-4am) Sapporo
Tokyo – Yamagata
Metropolitan (382km)
Exp. Co.
Psgr. cars 8,350 →2,250 yen (weekends)
Trucks 13,850 →7,370 yen (everyday 0-4am)
Yamagata
Sendai
Fukuoka
Kobe Tokyo
Hiroshima Osaka Nagoya Metropolitan
Kyoto
Oita Kobe
21
3-6 Some Results of Discounts

Average Daily Traffic Volume during Summer “Bon”
Season (6-16, August)
At major 23 sections across Japan
2009 2008 Change

54,500 47,800 +14%
Congestions Occurred during Summer “Bon” Season

Unit: times
2009 2008 Change

Congestions MT 10km 498 303 +64%
Congestions MT 30km 54 23 +135%
22
-369-
CONCLUSIONS
23
CONCLUSIONS
• In 2005, former expressway public corporations were privatized
to ensure repaying the total debts of ¥40trillion in 45 years.
• The main factors associated with the toll road business are
i k and
t ffi risk
traffic d interest
i t t rate
t risk.
i k
- The traffic risk can be mitigated by rebalancing the repayment
plan by reducing construction and operation costs, etc.
- The interest risk are hedged by liability management where
long-term fixed interest bonds are issued.
• Recently
Recently, toll discounts schemes have been introduced for the
efficient use of expressways as economic stimulus measures.
#Toll-free system will be proceeded considering various aspects through
the implementation of pilot programs.
24
Japan Expressway Holding and Debt Repayment Agency
-370-

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Ⅴ LECTURE NOTES

Highway Capacity, Operation

II. Effects of auxiliary lanes upstream bottleneck sag

III. Emission model in actual vehicular traffic conditions

ETC (Electronic Toll Collection system) History in JPN

1week average ETC veh. volume

at the start on the market

I. An overview on capacity and quality of service

1. Actual Conditions of "Observed" Capacity

9 The average of observed maximum hourly traffic volume by

9 Just the 䇾observed maximum䇿, the actual capacity of these sections

1. Actual Conditions of "Observed" Capacity

Others, 4% Others, 14%

Traffic Sags or Up-

9 Remarkable features of congestion on Japanese intercity expressways

2. Bottleneck Phenomena in Basic Sections of Intercity

9 Traffic flow characteristics in basic segments with sags

3. Empirical Studies on Bottleneck Phenomena

9 Breakdown probability at bottlenecks of intercity

3. Empirical Studies on Bottleneck Phenomena

9 Analysis on the general characteristics of breakdown

9 A stochastic procedure for estimating capacity by a cumulative

9 The more number of lanes a basic expressway section has, the

3. Empirical Studies on Bottleneck Phenomena

9 Bottlenecks in “divided TWTL ÔTWTL Expressway Sections

Ælower than those of multilane sections

3. Empirical Studies on Bottleneck Phenomena

Ò Variable graphic signboard

Ò Toll booths at an exit

4. Mechanisms of the Bottleneck Phenomena and ITS

9 Mechanisms of bottleneck phenomena in basic sections

9 Improvement of tunnels ÒExample of lane usage rate of an

5. Merging Capacity at the Tokyo Metropolitan

9 The majority of bottlenecks on urban expressways

6. Research in the Capacity of Signalized Intersections

7. Research on Unsignalized Intersections

9 Aiming to reduce the number of traffic signals and

8. Research and Practice on Quality of Service

8. Research and Practice on Quality of Service

8. Research and Practice on Quality of Service

Jam (red) <10km/h <20km/h <40km/h

9 VICS (Vehicle Information and Ò An example of the car navigation display

9 Travel time measurements by using

8. Research and Practice on Quality of Service

9 Recent QOS research activities

8. Research and Practice on Quality of Service

9 All of these QOS studies are limited to expressways mainly

9 Needs of investigation on the impacts of road geometry,

II. Effects of auxiliary lanes upstream bottleneck sag

1. Bottleneck phenomena on Expressway in Japan

Copyright (C) Japan Road Traffic Information Center

1. Bottleneck phenomena on Expressway in Japan

Many bottlenecks at sag sections!

1. Bottleneck phenomena on Expressway in Japan

Head of queues are

1. Bottleneck phenomena on Expressway in Japan

2. Mechanism of bottleneck activation at sag

Lane use concentration on Median-lane (Inner lane) 3,000

Dense platoon with many cars

2. Mechanism of bottleneck activation at sag

Lane use concentration on Median-lane (Inner lane) 3,000

Deceleration SHOCK- WAVE

2. Mechanism of bottleneck activation at sag

Lane use concentration on Median-lane (Inner lane) 3,000

emission c1 Z v c2 Z v 3 c3a ZDv c3b ZD