Report on The Tai Kassay (Meitei) of Manipur

Submitted by email on 15 December 2023

Original Copy to Dr. Sai San Aik

Tai History Researchers Group,
No.43A, Baho Road, Thamine (2),
Mayangone Township, Yangon, Myanmar.
Ph: +95 9899915166

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 The Tai Kassay (Meitei) of Manipur

The country Myanmar (formerly known as Burma) in Southeast Asia borders Manipur in the north
was known as “Ava” to the Manipuri from ancient period. There is no wrong to say that without the
history of Manipur the history of Burma is incomplete, and at the same time the Manipur history is
incomplete without the history of Myanmar (Burma). To unravel the historical account of ancient
Manipur (Kassay/Kathe) and to know the ethnicities living in ancient Manipur the study and analysis
of Burmese history becomes utmost essential.

Manipur was an antique kingdom in the ancient Southeast Asia. It was formed in 33 CE. Before the
formation of the kingdom of ancient Manipur, the Kshatriya Solar Sakya kingdom in the Himalayan
foothills (Kapilavastu) was incorporated by the mighty Mauryans in their Magadha Empire.1

The first king of the Sakya dynasty, Abhi Raja founded Tagaung kingdom in 850 BCE. The second
king, Dhaja Raja arrived at and settled in the realm of ancient Manipur in 550 BCE and later founded
his Maurya kingdom extending through Moirang, Kabaw Valley and Kale region upto the Chindwin
River with Rajagraha or Yazagyo as its capital at Kale Township. The king Dhaja Raja ruled both the
kingdoms of Tagaung and Maurya simultaneously and sixteen of his descendants were said to have
reigned. After the reign of those sixteen kings in the two kingdoms, conflicts in the reigning family
and eventful invasion of the Shans brought about the dissolution of this realm.

R. Bischoff writes, “Some degree of migration from India to the region of Tagaung and Mogok in
Upper Myanmar had taken place through Assam and later through Manipur, but the “hinterland” was
of course much less attractive to traders than the coastal regions with their easy access by sea. A
tradition of Myanmar says that Tagaung was founded by Abhiraja, a prince of the Sakyans (the tribe
of the Buddha), who had migrated to upper Myanmar from Nepal in the ninth century BCE. The city
was subsequently conquered by the Chinese in approximately 600 BCE, and Pagan and Prome were
founded by refugees fleeing southward. In fact, some historians believe that, like the Myanmar, the
Sakyans were a Mongolian rather than an Indo-Aryan race, and that the Buddha’s clansmen were
derived from Mongolian stock.”

According to Burmese Royal Chronicle (“Maharajavamsa”) Dhajaraja, a king of the Sakya race,
settled at Manipura, about 550 B.C., and later on conquered Tagaung (Old or Upper Pagan).2 The
original account was written by Claudius Ptolemy in Greek at Alexandria around AD 150.

Colonel G.E. Gerini wrote Rajagrha, commonly Yazagyo, village exists also in West Burma in the
Kale township and Upper Chindwin district. The “Upper Burma Gazetteer” Part II, vol. III, p. 393,
speaks of it as having been “the ancient capital of almost forgotten kings, as it was in more recent
years of the Sawbwa.” Rajagrha is a name, however, applied to Kassay (Kaseh, i.e. Manipur).3 The
word “Kaseh” is described as a state, a designation of Manipur.4

The word Kathe for Manipur is derived from Pali word Khattiya meaning Kshatriya. The Bamars
pronounced Sanskrit Sa for Ta and called Manipuri people “Kathe”, the Shans “Kassay” and the
Chinese “Kie-sie”. The people of Manipur and the kingdom name were equally called Kassay/Kathe.
The kingdom name “Manipur” was coined only in 1742.

1 Basham, A.L. 1963. The Wonder That Was India. Rupa, London, p. VII., p. 47
2
Gerini, Col. G.E. 1909. Researches on Ptolemy’s Geography of Eastern Asia: Further India and
Indo-Malay Archipelago. London: Royal Asiatic Society, Royal geographical Society, p. 745
3
Ibid., p. 766
4
Ibid., p. 877

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The formation of the kingdom of Manipur was not the result of the struggle of a single group of
people. Different racial stocks came from different directions successively without interruption before
the beginning of Common Era (BCE) to the ancient Manipur. The Tai people, the majority race
among the different races took the leading role in the formation of the Kingdom of ancient Manipur in
33 CE. The kingdom was built up under the aegis of Indo-Aryan Tagaung royal ruling class known as
Ningthouja Dynasty of which Nongda Lairen Pakhangba was the first king. The kingdom became the
social, cultural and political centre in the ancient Southeast Asia. Those racial stocks may be named as
follows; The Sakya/Maurya of the Kshatriya Solar race of Himalayan region, Khampa/Khamba from
Kham region (Kang in Chinese) of Eastern Tibet. There still exists a place in Northern Ladakh called
Kang La (pass) a trekking route patronized by the Khampas. Pyu people or Puru Vanshi of Hindu
origin, also Mon people belonging to Mon-Khmer group of Austroasiatic race and the majority Tai
people of South Western China, Southwestern Tai Group (Northern Branch), Kanyan and Thet, the
ancestors of Sengmai and Andro people.

Nongda Lairen Pakhangba was an extraordinary gifted ruler. Before the prince became the ruler, his
background was comparatively mysterious. The reforms he introduced during his reign laid the
foundation of the social and political structure, cultural and religious pattern of the Meiteis. Perhaps
later historical and literary sources made an exaggerated praise of Pakhangba as every institution, law,
reform and convention had been made to trace its origin to this prince. Had he been really innovative
and reformative as it has been projected, Pakhangba perhaps had a high level of awareness in the
political, social, religious and cultural affairs and his background must have connection with a
superior culture or civilization.

On the other hand, Manipur being a link route of India and Southeast Asia was influenced by her
geographic situation and the ecology in the shaping of her history and cultural development. The
renowned historian Professor Gangmumei Kamei and great Scholar R.K. Jhalajit Singh have alluded
the foundation of the Ningthouja Dynasty of Manipur to the ancient Aryan civilization of Upper
Burma. According to their write up Nongda Lairen Pakhangba were the first ruler and maker of
Manipur in the first century CE. Keeping into accounts several sources, they stated that Pakhangba
was a prince of mysterious origin and gave their opinions regarding his origin and parentage which
had ranged from being an Aryan prince of Upper Burma to an adventurer from Brahmaputra valley to
the Himalayas to divine incarnate to put an end to anarchy in the land. In minute examination of the
origin of the Prince Pakhangba, it is certainly possible that he was the descent of the Indo-Aryan
Royal Race of Tagaung Dynasty of Upper Burma.

Therefore, the connection of Ningthouja dynasty of Manipur to the Tagaung dynasty was important,
because successors of Nongda Lairen Pakhangba claimed lineage to the Ningthouja dynasty which
was undoubtedly the resulted product of the Indo-Aryan ruling race and great origin of Upper Burma

Sir Athelstane Baines recorded on the adoption of Brahmanism by a large portion of the Mongoloid
population of Manipur, the chief and his military retainers passed into the rank of Ksatriya, and to the
number of about 1, 80,000, appear under that title in the last census returns. The monarch thereupon
embraced their creed and was invested with the sacred thread, and with him a large number of his
people. Since, then, not only have most of the Meithei become Ksatriya, but the rank has been
conferred by the Chief upon a plentiful supply of recruits from the surrounding Kuki and Naga tribes.

In Manipur there are seven clans comprising Meitei namely Khaba-Nganba, Sarang Leisangthem,
Angom, Khuman, Luwang, Moirang and Ningthouja also known as Meitei. The homogenized Meitei
became the common nomenclature of all the 7 clans and is recorded in the report of Sir Athelstane
Baines titled, “Ethnography (Castes and Tribes)”, 1912, he writes, “The population of Manipur is
divided into four tribes, the Khumal, the Luyang, the Ningthauja or Meithei, and the Mayarang, of
which the Meithei (69,400) seems to have absorbed the others, and is used as a general title by the
inhabitants. Caste Meithei is defined as the exogamous sub divisions of the tribes, however, are still in
existence, and seem to consist of the descendants of an individual, by whose trade or nickname the

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section is called.5 The Myanmar Government in the census report on 53 Chin sub-tribes list had
written Meitei as Metai (Kathe).

In short, the history of Manipur is the assimilated history of those successive different peoples who
contributed in the formation of the kingdom of Manipur with the exertions of their characters
voluntarily. In the words of Sister Nivedita (Margaret E. Noble), “The character of a people is their
history as written in their own subconscious mind, and to understand that character we have to turn on
it the limelight of their history”. Therefore, the formation of the kingdom of Manipur was the result of
the unification of all those successive groups of people and the sense of such unity was made effective
through internal definition and self organization of the kingdom.

Yazagyo/Rajgriha located at Kabaw Valley (Maurya) in present Chin State of Upper Myanmar was
the ancient capital of Kassay (Manipur) from 550 BCE since the reign of Sakya/Maurya ruler Dhaja
Raja. There were three major waves of Tai/Shan migration in Upper Myanmar, Manipur and Upper
Assam as follows:

Firstly, the Tai migration in the region took place before Common Era (BCE) which is established
from the account of G.E.R. Grant Brown in “Burma Gazetteer Upper Chindwin District Vol. A”,
1913, recorded Yazagyo or Kale chronicle is of unknown origin, embodying this legend, is in the
district office. It contains a list of princes in which Indian names give way to Shan as early as 210 B.C.,
when the kingdom is said to have been united by marriage with that of Mohnyin (Katha district) in the
person of Saw Kan Twe, son of Kumonda Raja by the daughter of the Shan Mohnyin prince. This is the
first instance of assimilation process by marriage of Tai/Shan with the Sakya/Maurya in Upper
Myanmar before Common Era.

Secondly, a research journal authored by Myanmar Historical Commission, Yangon vice-chairman

Sai Aung Tun titled “The Tai Ethnic Migration and Settlements in Myanmar” gave an account of
Tai’s migration to Upper Myanmar, Manipur and Assam in 600 CE at the time of formation of the
Shan States in Upper Myanmar.

Thirdly, the last major wave of Tai migration in Manipur happened during the reign of Sao Hsam
Long Hpa (Samlungpha). The Tai Meitei is referred as Tai Kassay by the Shans and the kingdom of
Manipur was Tainized/Shanized with the other ethnicities living in Manipur and were called Kassay
Shan/Kathe Shan.

As regards the nomenclature of migration in the ancient Southeast Asian region, Prof. Sai Aung Tun,
the renowned author has stated that human migration from one region to another is known to have
taken place since time immemorial. Even after “national” boundaries appeared in history, the
migration process remained an on-going one, and the trends of human migration have continued to the
present time, gathering momentum and involving large numbers of people at certain times more than
others. In some places ethnic crossings over national boundaries become serious problems and disputes
over such issues are common between adjacent and neighbouring countries. Today any ethnic problem
occurring along a border can precipitate an international crisis, which may need either a short or a long
term solution.

During the first millennium A.D., before the emergence of formal states governed by Tai speaking
elites, these people lived in scattered villages drawn together into muang, or principalities. Each muang
was governed by a chao, or lord, who ruled by virtue of personal qualities and a network of patron-
client relationships. Often the constituent villages of a muang would band together to defend their
lands from more powerful neighboring peoples.6

5
Baines, Sir Athelstane. 1912. Ethnography (Castes and Tribes). Strassburg, Karl J. Trubner, p. 133
6Tun, Sai Aung. 2001. ‘The Tai Ethnic Migration and Settlement in Myanmar’, Myanmar Historical
Research Journal No. (7), June, 2001, p. 1

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According to historians, the Tais (Shans) lived as independent people in the south of the Yangtse
River in China, round about 650 BCE. Some descendants of those Tai (Shan) people are said to have
migrated into Burma and the Shan States. Their kins, descended from the same ancestors, now inhabit
in the northeast Assam, Yunnan, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand. The Tai (Shan) people had been
gradually pushed south, at about the start of the Christian era by the advance of Tartars. About 650
CE, the Tai (Shan) people established the famous Kingdom of Nanchao. During the years 754 to 763
CE, the Tais (Shans) of Nanchao extended their rule into the upper basin of the Irawaddy River and
came into contact with the Pyus who were then rulers of the Upper Burma plains. Trade and
commerce, internal and external relations developed through these contacts with Nanchao and with
China. Even in those days, some Shans ventured beyond Upper Burma into Lower Burma to mingle
and live together with the Mons.

Even before the fall of the Nanchao Kingdom, the Shans had crossed Upper Burma to establish the
once powerful Ahom Kingdom. They moved into the area now known as the Shan States and settled
there. They were well established by the time when King Anawrahta ascended the throne. They tried
desperately to defend their kingdom of Nanchao from the Chinese attackers, but finally in 1253 CE,
the Kingdom fell into the hands of the Chinese. The Shans, unwilling to live under foreign domination
moved towards the south to seek freedom. They joined up with Shans already settled in the area, and
in 1262 CE, took over Chiengrai, in 1296 CE, Chiengmai, and in 1351 CE, took Ayuddhya, and
established their own kingdoms. In Upper Burma the Shans established the kingdoms of Mogaung
(Mong Kawng) and Mohnyin (Mong Yang), and in the Shweli basin, the Mao Kingdom.

The Mao Shans had established kingdoms in Mohnyin, Mogaung and the Shweli areas then overran
the kingdom of Pinya and Sagaing in 1364 CE. A Shan Prince from Ava, whose title was
Thadominbya, combined Pinya and Sagaing and established a new kingdom over which he ruled. The
Shans ruled Upper Burma from 1287 to 1531 CE.7

Some scholars including Dr. Cushing believed that the migration of the Shans into Upper Burma took
place two thousand years ago. The reasons for the migration being;

 The restlessness of their character which urged them to move to find new places where they
could settle independently and in isolation.
 Because of this, their migration was, in general, rather slow and peaceful.
 Their peculiar war-like character which occasionally manifested itself.
 Because of this, their migration was at times rather forceful and aggressive, such as the
military expeditions into Upper Burma, once before the Christian era.8

Renowned Professor Sai Aung Tun, in his article, “The Tai Ethnic Settlement and Migration in
Myanmar”, 2001, also recorded that like many other ethnic peoples the Tai once had their homeland
in China. Some historians believe that the Tai people first came to settle north of the Yellow (Huang
Ho) River, occupying the region known as Hebei and Shanxi round about 2515 BC. The Chinese
annals also mention the Tai settlements in the middle basin of the Yellow River in 850 BC. They
made their homeland here for a long time, establishing small feudal kingdoms and spreading their “Na”
(wet rice cultivation) culture to neighbouring regions. But new emigrants coming from Central Asia
later impelled the Tai and other ethnic groups to move southwards to new fertile areas between the
Yellow and Yangtze (Chang Jiang) Rivers covering the present provinces of Hunan and Hubei.

7 Singha, Sao. 1961. The Shan Federal Proposal. Retrieved June 19, 2020, from
https://www.burmalibrary.org/docs23/THE_SHAN_FEDERAL_ PROPOSAL-en-red.pdf
8
Hseng, Kwan, ‘The Shan settlement in Myanmar’, p. 1. Retrieved June 19, 2020, from
http://tigerdai426.blogspot.com/2005/08/shan-settlements-in-myanmar- kwan-hseng.html

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As to when exactly the Shans entered Myanmar, scholars have different views. Some believe that the
migration of the Shans into Myanmar started 2000 years ago citing three reasons: first, their restless
character which prompted them to find new lands to settle; second, their warlike character; and third,
the pressure of new invasions from north, such as those of 78 CE and 1253 CE.

Most Shan chronicles say that a big wave of Shan migration took place in the 6th century CE., and the
Shans moved from southern Yunnan into the Nam Mao Valley and adjacent regions, and established
many Mongs, among them Bhamo, Mong Mit, Hsipaw, and Hsenwi. Making these places their first
homeland in Myanmar, they spread out over the whole of the Shan States, establishing more Mongs
and Kengs (towns) like Mong Naung, Mong Hsu, Mong Kung, Mong Keshi-Mansam, Mong Laihka,
Mong Nai, Mong Pan, Mong Maukmai, Mong Yawnghwe, Mong Sakoi, Mong Sam Kar, Mong
Hsamongkham, Mong Lawk Sawk, Mong Pai Keng Tawng, Keng Hkam and Keng Rom.

From Mogaung (Mong Kawng), Mong Yang, Waing Hso, Kat Hsa, the Shans moved northwards to
the Hkamti Long area where they established the eight Mongs of the Khamti Shans: Lokhun, Mansi,
Lon Kyein, Manse-Hkun, Mannu, Langdao, Mong Yak and Langnu. Moving to the west, they then
occupied and established new Mongs like Hsawng Hsup, Sinkaling Hkamti, Mong Kale, Mong Leng
(Mohline), Maing Kaing or Mong Kang, Hu-Kawng, Maw Leik, Mong Nyaung, Homalin,
Phaungbyin, Hkam-Pat and Ta-Mu, between the Ayeyarwaddy and the Chindwin, along the Uyu river
and even up to Manipur and Assam.9

Shan States map section- Shans at home. (1910)

Map source: Milne, Mrs. Leslie. 1910. Shans at Home. London: John Murray,
Albermarle Street, West
Retrieved 26 May 2020 from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shan_States_map_section-
Shans_at_home. (1910).jpg

9
Tun, Sai Aung. 2001. ‘The Tai Ethnic Migration and Settlement in Myanmar’, Myanmar Historical
Research Journal No. (7), June, 2001, p. 4

6
Mrs. Leslie Milne map of Shan States shows territory of Manipur in Northern States towards the east
upto the bank of the Chindwin River.

The Southwestern Tai peoples of Northern Branch on the side of India are Tai Ahom, Tai Khamti,
Meitei (Tai Moy or Tai Kassay), Tai Phake, Tai Aiton, Tai Khamyang and Tai Turung. Tai peoples in
Southeast Asia on the side of China are (Dai people, Zhuang people, Bouyei people), and the Shan
people in Myanmar, and Tai peoples in Laos, Thailand and Vietnam. The population of Tai peoples in
the world is 93 million. Tai religions are Theravada Buddhism, Ahom religion, Hinduism,
Shamanism, Animism and Tai folk religion.10

The major religions among the Meiteis are the Manipuri Vaishnavites and Meitei/Meetei religion
(Sanamahi & Pakhangba), Meitei Christian and Meitei Buddhist. Tai folk religion (animist traditions),
are practised by the Meitei/Meetei religion and these religions are Paganism/Pagan Zest and
Polytheism and their practice involves classes of shamams and ancestor worship. Mention is made
that Gharib Newaz in 1717 CE, adopted the Vaishanavite tradition of Brahmanic Hinduism. The
revolutionary impact on Manipuri society is probably best summed up in Victor B. Lieberman’s
assessment that the brahmanically sanctioned changes introduced by King Gharib Newaz inspired the
Manipuris with a vast energy and missionary dynamism as recorded in the writings of Michael W.
Charney.

In the Tai Journal ‘Saai Paen’, 2005, 2nd ed. in new Shan script the article titled “Tai in the World”
written by Mahamung (Muse), there is mention of 83 Tai sub-tribes in the world and Meitei/Meetei of
Manipur as one of the Tai sub-tribes called “Tai Moy or Kassay” mentioned in point no. 18.
(Appendix 1)

Meitei (Tai Kassay) are Mao Shan and belongs to Southwestern Tai people’s Northern branch. The
term Pong is used by the Manipuris to denote Mao Shan. The Tai Kassay is influenced by Tai Khamti
and the Tai Khamti/Khamti Shan people refer to the Manipuri Meitei people as “Katai” or “Kathai”.
The meaning behind this word is the race that broke away from wider Tai group. The kingdom of
Manipur was Tainized/Shanized by the dominant Tai ethnic with other ethnicities living in Manipur
from ancient period.

The settlements of Tai/Shan in ancient Manipur had an overwhelming influence and impact on the
various aspects of her culture. The Tai people brought wet rice cultivation technology known as ‘Na’
culture from Yunnan. My communication with renowned Shan scholar Dr. Sai San Aik of Yangon,
yielded valuable information on Manipur and has thrown much light on Tai/Shan Meitei (Tai
Moy/Kassay), in his words Kassay (Manipur) was greatly influenced by Thai Lanna (present
Chiangmai) of Northern Thailand since 6th century CE and Tai Khamti/Khamti Shan (once Tai Mao)
started in 14th century CE also left much influence on Kassay and Tai Phake. (Appendix 2)

The Manipuri martial art “Thang Ta” (meaning sword fighting) has strong similarities with the Tai
Khamti ancient martial art form “Lai Tai”. In Myanmar Lai Tai is learned at a young age and is used
both for dancing and for warfare. Manipuri dance has more similarities with the classical Thai Lanna
dance form in its hand movements and costumes worn by the Thai Lanna ladies.

Renowned Tai scholar Dr. Sai San Aik and author of book “Basic Multiracial Burma 1980:
Indianization and Burmanization” recorded Sao Sam Long Fa took Shan Queens from Mong Kong.
He was supposed to pay tribute to Mong Mao Long, when there was no news, Sao Sam Long Fa with

10
Tai peoples, (2019). Retrieved June 20, 2019, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tai_peoples

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strong army marched (1332) to Mong Duarn Son Kham (Ahom), matters were sorted peacefully, he
came back with all his army, back to Mong-Kong (Nam-Tee) in 1334 and died there, his soldiers
never returned to Mong Mao and started their own kingdoms [Khamti, Putao, Tai Leang, Viangsur
(=woontho)].

The black uniform worn by the Tai Leng army with red bands tied i.e., red head-dress, red waist band,
red band on hand and end of trousers which were also used by the fighters of Manipuri martial art
(Thang Ta). In regard to the form or style of sword fighting there had been no difference between the
Manipuri fighters and the fighters under the command of Mong Mao Chao Sam Long Pha.

Chao Sam Long Pha had conquered 10 Tai Nuea dynasties and 9 Shan States (Koo-Shan Pyi)
including Songsop (Samjok). There were many mini-armies under his command, including small
units of Tai Leng (now mostly those Tais who could not speak Tai language, as they had adopted
themselves as (Tai Leng/Tai Neng/Tai Deng) or Red Shan (Shan Ni). At present, all of them are
known as Tai Nuea.

The History of Thaungdyut also known as Samjok to the Manipuris, shows the merging of Bagan
dynasty (Tai) with the Kathe dynasty. Dr. Sai San Aik further stated on Thai Lanna (present
Chiangmai) of Northern Thailand since the 6th century and Tai Khamti/Khamti Shan (once Tai Mao)
presence in 14th century has much influence on Kassay (Manipur) and Tai Phake. He also mentioned
Nanchao Tai moved to Lanna Southern (Theravada/Ceylon) and Lanna Buddhism moved to Nanchao
(Chianghung in 615 CE). The Brahmanism influence is much felt in Asia since 1st and 2nd century
and with less influence in Yunnan, Southwestern China.

Thai Lanna Dance

Image source: Kusuma Nillakan
Amazing World Cultural Hub Facebook Group

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The Shans have a rich cultural heritage and are a proud and sophisticated race. They are a gentle and
peaceful people. Many of their customs are related to the Chinese, Burmese and Thais. They have their
own centuries old literature, art and history.

The Shans have their own alphabet related to ancient Sanskrit and spoken language strongly
influenced by Pali. Shan, like Thai, is built on 5 different tones. Their religion is Theravada Buddhism
mixed with Animism. Shan culture, language, and heritage are gradually being assimilated into the
Thai, Burmese, and Chinese groups.11

The language of the Munneepooris, or Cathay Shans of the present day, has no affinity with the Shan
language.12 The Tat-Hinoo (commander of stockade) of Mentha village and his followers, who were
Shans, when interviewed by Mr. Phayre, spoke Burmese fluently. He said that the Shans of the Kubbo
valley spoke different language too, and could not understand the western Shans; but Mr. Phayre is of
opinion that they belong to the same race, the difference of language being caused by long separation.

The Burmese language is taught in the, monasteries, the inference being, though the Shans would not
acknowledge it through fear or for some other reason, that the Shan language is prohibited. There are
still Shan manuscripts, however, in the monasteries.13

Tai Martial Art (Lai Tai)

Image Source: TAI History Facebook Page

11 An Introduction to the Shan People. Retrieved December 12, 2023, from

https://www.hart-uk.org/an-introduction-to-the-shan-people/
12
Hannay, Maj. Simon Fraser. 1847. Sketch of the Singphos, or the Kakhyens of Burmah: The position
of This Tribe as regards Baumo, and the Inland Trade of the Valley of the Irrawaddy with Yunnan and
their Connection with the North-Eastern Frontier of Assam. Calcutta: W. Ridsdale, Military Orphan
Press, p. 6
13
Dun, Capt. E.W. 1886. Gazetteer of Manipur. (2013, Akansha reprint ed.). Calcutta: Superintendent
Government Printing, pp. 200-201

9
 Tai Martial Art (Lai Tai)
Image Source: TAI History Facebook Page

Image Source: TAI History Facebook Page

10
 Siamese Noble Woman
Image Source: TAI History Facebook Page

The Shan immigrants of Upper Myanmar were the oldest branch of the Tai ethnic group being
known as “Tai Long” or “Tai Yai” that is “Great Tai”. Tai Mao and Tai Nua were also classified as
“Tai Long”. Later Shan immigrants to Laos and Thailand were called “Tai Noi” or “Little Tai”.14

There are several sub-groups of Tai people they are Tai Nue, Tai Lam or Dam, Tai Sa, Tai Mao, Tai
Khuen, Tai Sipson Panna, Tai Kham Ti, Tai Lue, Tai Long, Tai Leng, Tai Loi and Tai Lai.15

The Ethnic Tai people who came with Sao Hsam Long Hpa to northern Myanmar called themselves
Tai Leng, but were called Shan -Myanmar by others. They became much Myanmarized. The Tai Leng
settlements were scattered all over the present-day Kachin State, which at that time were Shans.16 The
successive conquests achieved by Sao Hsam Long Hpa over the northern territory encouraged greater
Shan immigration to these new areas and led to further establishment of their Ban-Mong system. The
territories which now belong to Kachin State were once under the rule of the Mong Kawng Saopha
and many Shans (affiliated to Tai-Long ethnic group) can still be found dominating in the Bans and
Mongs of the region. Although the majority of the Shan in these areas are ethnologically affiliated to
the Taileng ethnic group, there are also Shans who belong ethnologically to Tai Hkamti and Tai-nua
groups. They live together in some regions and each tries to maintain its own traditions, customs,
beliefs and dialect.17

14
Hseng, Kwan, ‘The Shan settlement in Myanmar’, p. 1. Retrieved June 19, 2020, from
http://tigerdai426.blogspot.com/2005/08/shan-settlements-in-myanmar- kwan-hseng.html
15
The Shan. Retrieved June 21, 2020, from
http://legacy.unreachedresources.org/profiles/text/t18205.pdf
16
Tun, Sai Aung. 2001. ‘The Tai Ethnic Migration and Settlement in Myanmar’, Myanmar Historical
Research Journal No.(7), June, 2001, p. 5
17
Hseng, Kwan, ‘The Shan settlement in Myanmar’, pp. 3-6. Retrieved June 19, 2020, from
http://tigerdai426.blogspot.com/2005/08/shan-settlements-in-myanmar- kwan-hseng.html

11
According to Captain Grant with reference to his letter dated 5th February 1827, Gumbheer Singh’s
Levy to Tucker, Commissioner, Sylhet, Correspondence Letters between Fort William and Governor
General on the North East Frontier, 1827, R-1/S-B/140, MSA the Samjok Rajah and the Kule Rajah
were inhabitants and descendants of the ancient Rajah of Manipur. The mother of the Kule Rajah was
a native of Manipur.

The Shans designate themselves of the race of Tai, or Tai Loung, and if we may judge from similarity
in feature, language, and religion, there can be little doubt but the inhabitants on the West bank of the
Cambodia river, the Siamese, the Laos, and Shans of the Salween river, the Chinese Shans of
Yunnan, the Shans of Northern Burmah, of the Kyendwen river, and in the Kubo valley, with the
Mons or Peguers, are one and the same people; besides which the Ahoms of Assam are of the Shan
race, and the natives of the Muneepoor valley evidently shew by their features and the fact of their
Royal Chronicles bearing the stamp of Shan origin; that they also belong to the same nation.18

At a very early period the Shans of Yunnan extended their conquests to the country immediately West
of that Province and when in future ages Yunnan came under the dominion of the Tartar dynasty of
China, Moonkong or Moong Khao Loung, the present Mogaung of Burmah, was the seat of a
powerful Shan kingdom, whose dominion extended from the 23° to the 28° of North Latitude and
who overran Assam, founding the present Ahom dynasty of the Burrumpooter valley, and likewise
established their power and dominion in the country West of the Kyendwen river including the valley
of Munneepoor, the inhabitants of which are to this day called Cathay Shans.19

In dress, that of the Siamese is the long and short robe of white cloth worn by the Malays and
Burmese, with a garment wrapped round the loins, called in Burmah a Patso, which is either of cotton
cloth white and colored, or of silk partly colored, according to the wealth of the individual. The
women of the Siamese appear to have a petticoat worn something like the Indian Dhotee, tucked up
between the legs, and different from that of the Burmese which is open in front and shews the bare
knee at every step; the Cathays or Munnipooree women also wear an open garment similar to the last,
wrapped round their bodies.20

In religion the whole race, with the exception of the Ahoms and Cathays, who have become
proselytes to Hindooism, are strict Buddhists, being essentially the same as the Buddhism of the
Burmese, and it is not improbable that it has so existed since the days of Gaudama, when Princes of
the Lichchawe dynasty reigned simultaneously in Weseli (Allahabad) and on the Irrawaddy.21

Handsome pieces of silk, exceedingly rich, and of various cheque patterns, can also be had from the Shan
States, and the art of dying both cotton and silk seems to be very well understood by the N.E. Shans
and the Cathay Shans or Munnipoorees, of whom there may probably be about 20,000 to 25,000 souls
in and about Ava and Ameerapoora.
The Shans are generally great workers in silver, and the art of embossing on different utensils made of
metal, seems to be known to the Cathays, several very handsome specimens of tea-pots, and coffee-pots
having been produced by them to order.22

18
Hannay, Maj. Simon Fraser. 1847. Sketch of the Singphos, or the Kakhyens of Burmah: The position
of This Tribe as regards Baumo, and the Inland Trade of the Valley of the Irrawaddy with Yunnan and
their Connection with the North-Eastern Frontier of Assam. Calcutta: W. Ridsdale, Military Orphan
Press, p. 51
19
Ibid., p. 55
20
Hannay, Maj. Simon Fraser. 1847. Sketch of the Singphos, or the Kakhyens of Burmah: The position of This
Tribe as regards Baumo, and the Inland Trade of the Valley of the Irrawaddy with Yunnan and their Connection
with the North-Eastern Frontier of Assam. Calcutta: W. Ridsdale, Military Orphan Press, pp. 67-68
21
Ibid., p. 70
22
Ibid., pp. 76-77

12
Ney Elias has recorded in J. Geoge Scott book on “Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States”
Part 1. Vol. 1, “This was probably the period of greatest extension reached by the Mao Kingdom, and
certainly, if their own account be accepted, their country now formed a very respectable dominion.”
The following is the list given by the Shan historians of the States under the sovereignty of the Mao
Kings immediately subsequently to Sam Long Hpa’s conquests, but a mere glance at the name of
some of them, such as Arakan, Tali, &c., will show it to be greatly exaggerated, though it is possible
that at one time or another some portion of all the places named may have fallen under their power:-
Mong Kawng or Mogaung, comprising ninety- nine Mongs, among which the following were most
important, Mong Long (Assam), Kahse (Manipur), part of Arakan, the Yaw country, Kale, Hsawng
Hsup (sumjok). &c.

Ney Elias in his “Introductory Sketch of the History of the Shans in Upper Burma and Western Yunnan”
mentioned Munnipooris, or Cathay (Kassei) as belonging to branch of the Shan race and hitherto
considered as situated in the province of Mogaung.23

In the north-western branch may be included all the Shahs and Shah Burmese who are spread over the
north of Burma proper from Manipur and Assam to Bhamo. Mong Kawng (Mogaung) and Mong
Yang (Mohnyin) were both of them capitals of independent Shan States of some importance, and
Mong Kawng, as we have seen, outlasted the kingdom of the Mao Shans, of which it was claimed to
be a province, for something like a century and a half.

Ney Elias also states that in 1493 C.E. Chau-Si-pha who was surnamed Chau-Kwon-pha who reigned
at Mogaung for the extraordinary period of fifty years was followed by Mung-Mau king, Chau-Kaa-
pha, who had abdicated in favour of his son on suffering a defeat from the Chinese, and had retired
first to Khamti and afterwards to Mogaung. He founded a new capital at a distance of one day’s
journey to the N.W. of old Mogaung, and which at first was known by the name of Tsei-Lan, but
afterwards by that of Tsei-En or Chei-En. From here he set out with a considerable army to undertake
the conquest of Asam, but on arriving at the border of that country the Ahom king offered him large
presents of cattle and horses, and he retired peacefully to Tsei-En. Chau-Kaa-pha is also said to have
built another city called Pha-kung, now in ruins. His reign lasted twenty-four years, and sometime
before his death he distributed various portions of his country among his relatives and others who he
appointed governors or tributary tsaubwas. He gave Kassei, or Munnipur to Haw Yot.24

According to G.E. Harvey in his book, “History of Burma”, 1925, recorded Manipur as Shan State during
the reign of Burmese king Bayinnaung in his three campaigns, 1556-59, reduced the Shan states
Mohnyin, Mogaung, Momeik, Mong Pai, Saga, Lawksawk, Yawnghwe, Hsipaw, Bhamo, Kale,
Manipur, and some which are now in Siam-Chiengmai and Linzin (Vienchang).25

Names by which some of the nations surrounding the Mau Shans are known to each other as
described by Ney Elias below;

By the Shans the Burmese are known as Man, Chinese as Kyei or Chyei, Nagas as Khang and
themselves as Tai or Kun. By the Burmese the Shans are known as Shan or Shyan, Chinese as Tarok or
Tarop, Siamese as Yodia Shyan, Nagas as Khyen, Munnipuris as Kathei, Asamese as Athan or
Weithali. By the Chinese the Shans are known as Pa-I, Siamese as Sien lo, Burmese as Mien or Lau

23
Elias, Ney. 1876. Introductory Sketch of the History of the Shans in Upper Burma and Western
Yunnan. Calcutta: The Foreign Department Press. p. 35
24
Elias, Ney. 1876. Introductory Sketch of the History of the Shans in Upper Burma and Western Yunnan.
Calcutta: The Foreign Department Press. pp. 41-42
25
Harvey, G.E. 1925. History of Burma from the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824: The Beginning of
the English Conquest. London: Longmans, Green and Co., p. 165

13
Mien, Assamese as Weisali. By the Munnipuris the Burmese are known as Awa, Asamese as Tekau,
Chinese as Khagi, Shans as Kapo (Kubbo), Pong, Nagas as Hau and themselves as Moitei.26

Edward Harper Parker H.M. Consul, Kiungchow, Officiating Adviser on Chinese Affairs in Burma in
his book, “Burma with Special Reference to her Relations with China”, 1893, states that Chinese have
records of the existence of Manipurese people under the name Kie-sie, this last name being imitation
of the word Casse or Cathay, meaning “Manipur-people.” The Chinese annals also mention Shan’s
possession of the Manipur kingdom at different times, and for several centuries.27

The Nanchao kingdom was formed by the descendants of the Tai kingdom of Yunnan Ai-Lao in 47 CE.
The name Nanchao was meant by ‘Southern Prince’ and its realm extended from Magadha in the
West, Tibet in the North-West, China in the North, Cambodia in the South, Annam (Vietnam) in the
South-East and the Pyu Kingdom in the South-West. There were two capitals. One was not far from
modern Talifu and the other near Yungchang.28

After the destruction of Nanchao Empire in 1253 CE and Pagan Empire in 1287 CE by the Tartars
under Prince Kublai Khan, Shan kingdoms were formed in different parts of Upper Burma and the
kingdom of Manipur had already been a powerful Shan State under the confederacy of Shan
dominion from 1287 to 1531 CE. During that time Manipur king Puranthaba’s successors and their
army stationed at Manipuri boundary of the Chindwin River (Ningthee Turel) with preparation to
defend their kingdom from the attack of the Tartar ruler Kublai Khan.29 During Kublai’s reign the
whole of the Shan Sawbwaships included between Manipur and Annam, was at least nominally
subject to the Mongol dynasty of China. The disintegration of the Shan kingdom of Nan-chao opened
up the way to Burma and led to the expeditions which resulted in the overthrow of the Empire of
Pagan by the Chinese.30

The Nanchao king Ko-lo-feng built a trade route between Manipur and Nanchao in 8th century C.E.31
It is recorded in the ancient Manipuri Chronicle that the Manipuri king Naothingkhong who then
acknowledged the suzerainty of Nanchao under Ko-lo-feng, sent a well trained party of dancers,
singers and instrumental musicians to the Imperial Court of China as a goodwill mission. It must have
been a mission to T’ang Emperor Tien- Pao (Hsuan Tsung’s) court. Since there was no independent
Thai kingdom in Thailand in that early period the reference is apparently to Ko-lo-feng’s conquest of
Upper Burma and Assam including Manipur in the eighth century A.D as described in the T’ang
history.32

Col. G.E. Gerini in his book, “Researches on Ptolemy’s Geography of Eastern Asia: Further India
and Indo-Malay Archipelago”, 1909, writes, “Mauryas belonged to Sakyan race. Every subsequent
dynasty that reigned in Burma claimed descent from the Mauryas or Mayuras through the princes who
founded Tagong and Old Pagan; hence the Burmese kings placed the peacock (Mayura) on their coat-
of-arms, and this bird became the national emblem of the country Burma.”

26Elias, Ney. 1876. Introductory Sketch of the History of the Shans in Upper Burma and Western
Yunnan. Calcutta: The Foreign Department Press. p. 37
27
Parker, Edward Harper. 1893. Burma with Special Reference to Her Relations with China. Rangoon:
Rangon Gazettee Press, p. 25
28
Mangrai, Sai Saimong. 1965. The Shan States and the British Annexation. Ithaca, New York:
Cornell University, p. 20
29
Sharma, Nandalal. 1960. Meitrabak. O.K. Store, Imphal
30
Scott, J. George & Hardiman, J.P. 1900. Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States. Rangoon: The
Superintendent, Government Printing, Burma. Part I, Vol.1, pp. 268-269
31
Sharma, Nandalal. 1960. Meitrabak. O.K. Store, Imphal
32
Singh, Shri Kalawanta, ‘All India Radio Talk’, published in Natun Assamiya, 11th Oct., 1953, Shaw’s, W.
article ‘The Manipuries’ in Eastern Sentinel, June 17, 1959

14
A Map of the Burmese Empire drawn by cartographer James Wyld in 1886, a folding map of Burma
based on documents from the Surveyor Generals Office of India, published after the Third Anglo-
Burmese War depicted Ningtee R. (Chindwin River) meaning beautiful in Manipuri on the map and
the general inhabitants of Kabaw Valley written as Moitay Kubo and Mrelap Kubo. (Appendix 6 & 7)

Bob Hudson, Pamela Gutman & Win Maung (Tampawaddy) in their joint write up “Buddha’s life in
Konbaung period bronzes from Yazagyo”, 2018, writes, “Yazagyo in Kabaw valley lies between the
Upper Chindwin River and the hills which separate Burma from Manipur. Yazagyo is on a side road
from the Myanmar-India Friendship Highway, 35 kilometers north of Kalaymyo. In the latter half of the
19th century, the Kabaw Valley was becoming depopulated due to attacks by Chin tribesmen. Some
villages were destroyed and others were abandoned, their residents moving to larger centers for
protection.”

Yazagyo in present Chin State of Upper Myanmar was the ancient capital of Kassay (Manipur). It is
located at Kabaw Valley (formerly known as Maurya) in a remote area of Northwestern Myanmar.
Lt. General Sir Arthur Phayre mentioned the names of Kabaw Valley specifically which the Burmese called the
territory, west of the Chindwin, Kabaw valley, as Mau-re-ya, Mau-ringa or Mwe-yeng.33

Manipuri historian Prof. Gangmumei Kamei in his book “History of Manipur: Volume One Pre-
Colonial Period” recorded during the reign of King Mungyamba (1562-97); Princess Sana Hekpi was
given in marriage to a Shan ruler of Kabaw Valley. She was described as Kabaw Leima (Queen of
Kabaw). The bride price of this princess was seven elephants.

33
Phayre, A.P. 1867. On the History of the Burmah Race. Transactions of the Ethnological Society of
London, Vol. V, New Series, p. 25

15
 APPENDICES

Appendix 1
List of 83 Tai sub-tribes in the world

16
17
18
19
Appendix 2
Dr. Sai San Aik had mentioned Tai Kassay (Meitei) like Tai Ahom are Tai Mao and spoke Mong Mao
language before their waves of migration to present Manipur. Mentioned is made of more Tai
movements from Nanchao to South (Lanna) than Shan State from 600 CE-1300 CE.

Dr. Sai San Aik on the banner of Tai History Researchers Group, Yangon wrote letter to Hon’ble
Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi dated 23 August 2023 on the protection of Tai Kassay
(Meitei). Dr Sai San Aik’s letter was subsequently covered in Indian newspaper namely India Today
NE dated 27 August 2023 and in online news https://nenow.in/north-east-news dated 27 August 2023.

20
21
22
Appendix 3

23
Appendix 4

24
25
Appendix 5
Tai World Wide (TWW) Group creator Sao Nan Khin Khin post in TWW on the first lady monk in
Myanmar (Burma) was a Meitei and the ethnic Meitei are Tai

26
Appendix 6
Cartographer James Wyld “The Map of Burmese Empire”, 1886, depicted Manipur as Kathee or Kasi
with Chindwin River shown as Ningtee R. The Ningthee River (Chindwin River) was the dividing
marker between kingdoms of Manipur and Burma in ancient times

27
Appendix 7
James Wyld’s map of “The Burmese Empire”, 1886, edited by Tzai Noung shows Kathee Shan and
Mrelap Shan territory on the map

28
Appendix 8
The 1831 map of Birmaine Empire (Burmese Empire) and countries Southeast of Ganges, published
by Henry Teesdale R.C., London shows Chindwin River as Ningtee R. and Manipur written as
Munnypoor on the map

29
Appendix 9
Map of Yuan Dynasty 1335 depicts territory of Northeast India including Manipur as one of the Shan
States. Map source: Wikipedia

30
Appendix 10
Map of Mong Mao Long Kingdom 14th Century CE

31
Appendix 11
The Chinese map of Mong Mao Long Kingdom 14th Century CE

32
Appendix 12
Map of Nanzhao/Nanchao 979 CE shows kingdom of Manipur under the suzerainty of Nanchao

TimeMaps East Asia: China, Korea, Japan 979 CE (Manipur shown under
Nanchao/ Nanzhao suzerainty in 979 CE & 1215 CE)
Map source: Author Peter Britton
Retrieved 26 May 2020 from
https://www.timemaps.com/history/east-asia-979ad/

33
Appendix 13
Sao Nan Khin Khin post on Tai World Wide (TWW) Group on merging of Bagan (Tai) Dynasty with
Kathe (Meitei) Dynasty

34
35
36
Appendix 14
Cover design of the book “The Political Monument: Footfalls of Manipuri History” 2021, authored by
Maheshsana Rajkumar and L. Memo Singh

37
Appendix 15
Chapter on Meitei Tai origin in the book “The Political Monument: Footfalls of Manipuri History”,
2021, authored by Maheshsana Rajkumar and L. Memo Singh

CHAPTER TWO

MANIPUR
A TAINIZED (SHANIZED) KINGDOM AND TAI PEOPLE

As regards the nomenclature of migration in the ancient Southeast Asian region,

Sai Aung Tun, the renowned author has stated that human migration from one region
to another is known to have taken place since time immemorial. Even after “national”
boundaries appeared in history, the migration process remained an on-going one, and
the trends of human migration have continued to the present time, gathering
momentum and involving large numbers of people at certain times more than others. In
some places ethnic crossings over national boundaries become serious problems and
disputes over such issues are common between adjacent and neighbouring countries.
Today any ethnic problem occurring along a border can precipitate an international
crisis, which may need either a short or a long term solution.
During the first millennium A.D., before the emergence of formal states governed
by Tai speaking elites, these people lived in scattered villages drawn together into
muang, or principalities. Each muang was governed by a chao, or lord, who ruled by
virtue of personal qualities and a network of patron- client relationships. Often the
constituent villages of a muang would band together to defend their lands from more
powerful neighboring peoples.1
According to historians, the Tais (Shans) lived as independent people in the south of the
Yangtse River in China, round about 650 BCE. Some descendants of those Tai (Shan)
people are said to have migrated into Burma and the Shan States. Their kins, descended
from the same ancestors, now inhabit in the northeast Assam, Yunnan, Laos, Cambodia
and Thailand. The Tai (Shan) people had been gradually pushed south, at about the
start of the Christian era by the advance of Tartars. About 650 CE, the Tai (Shan) people
established the famous Kingdom of Nanchao. During the years 754 to 763 CE, the Tais
(Shans) of Nanchao extended their rule into the upper basin of the Irawaddy River and
came into contact with the Pyus who were then rulers of the Upper Burma plains. Trade
and commerce, internal and external relations developed through these contacts with
Nanchao and with China. Even in those days, some Shans ventured beyond Upper
Burma into Lower Burma to mingle and live together with the Mons.

38
Appendix 16
Maheshsana Rajkumar’s Interview covered on the front page of “The Sangai Express”, the
most widely circulated English newspaper in Manipur, dated 5 June 2023 on Meitei hill tribe
and Tai Kassay

39
Appendix 17
Article related with Tai covered by “The Sangai Express” on 12, 13 and 14 July, 2023

40
41
42
Appendix 18
Article related with Tai covered by “The Sangai Express” on 31 July, 1 August and 2 August 2023

43
44
 The Writer

Maheshsana Rajkumar is the joint author of the book The Political Monument: Footfalls of Manipuri
History published by Eastern Book House Publishers (India) in 2021. He is a columnist in Manipuri
English dailies, independent researcher and scholar.

He completed his schooling from APS Dhaula Kuan, New Delhi 1992-1993, graduated in B.A.
Political Science Major from St. Xavier’s College, University of Mumbai 1995-96, and pursued MBA
from University of Technology Sydney, Australia 2004.

He worked in the Hydro and Renewable Energy space in Nepal (2009-2012) and Myanmar (2013-16).
He is one of the admin members of Tai World Wide (TWW) Group on Facebook since end 2021.

45