DOI: 10.

2478/s11533-006-0022-9
Research article
CEJM 4(3) 2006 531–546

Cauchy, Ferrers-Jackson and Chebyshev polynomials

and identities for the powers of elements of some
conjugate recurrence sequences

Roman Witula, Damian Slota∗

Institute of Mathematics,
Silesian University of Technology,
44-100 Gliwice, Poland

Received 8 March 2006; accepted 2 June 2006

Abstract: In this paper some decompositions of Cauchy polynomials, Ferrers-Jackson polynomials and
polynomials of the form x2n + y 2n , n ∈ N, are studied. These decompositions are used to generate the
identities for powers of Fibonacci and Lucas numbers as well as for powers of the so called conjugate
recurrence sequences. Also, some new identities for Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind are presented
here.
c Versita Warsaw and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cauchy polynomials, Ferrers-Jackson polynomials, Chebyshev polynomials, Fibonacci and

Lucas numbers, recurrence sequences
MSC (2000): 11B83, 26C99, 11B39

1 A brief exposition of the content of the paper

In Section 2 the following decompositions of Cauchy polynomials:

pn (x, y) := (x + y)2n+1 − x2n+1 − y 2n+1 , n ∈ N,

as well as Ferrers-Jackson polynomials

qn (x, y) := (x + y)2n + x2n + y 2n , n ∈ N,

∗
d.slota@polsl.pl
532 Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546

are discussed (see Lemma 2.2):

(n−1)/3
  
2n + 1 n − k  2k+1 2
pn (x, y) = x y (x + y) (x + x y + y 2 )n−1−3k (1)
k=0
n − k 2k + 1

and
n/3
  
2n n − k  2k
qn (x, y) = x y (x + y) (x2 + x y + y 2 )n−3k . (2)
k=0
n−k 2k
These decompositions are differ from those already published – see especially [13]. Also,
presented here proof of decompositions (1) and (2) by induction is based on a simple
recurrence dependence between polynomials pn (x, y) and qn (x, y) seems to be new. In
this paper, decompositions (1) and (2) are applied to generating the identities for powers
of Fibonacci and Lucas numbers (some of them – the simplest ones – are identical with the
identities discussed in [1, 6, 7]; also in [4] some of these simplest identities are presented).
In Sections 4 and 5 the notion of pairs and triples of conjugate recurrence sequences is
introduced. The identities for the powers of elements of such sequences are also derived.
In the last section of the paper, the following decomposition of polynomials: x2n +y 2n ,
n ∈ N is discussed:
n
x2n + y 2n = ωr,n · (x y)r · (x2 + x y + y 2 )n−r . (3)
r=0

The combinatorial and analytical descriptions of coefficients ωr,n are provided, in partic-
ular the analytical description where Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind are used.
Formula (3) is applied to generate some identities for the powers of Fibonacci and Lucas
numbers. Also, some new combinatorial identities for the Chebyshev polynomials of the
first kind are presented.
Publications concerning the identities of the sums of the powers of elements of recur-
rence sequences, (especially second order), are fairly recent [1–3, 5–11, 14]. The results
presented in the publications generally indicate two directions: generating formulas with
a bounded number of elements (our paper falls into this category) and generating formulas
with an increasing number of elements [6–9]. Some papers are focused on formulas for gen-
erating functions of sequences of the powers of elements of recurrence sequences [3, 5, 14],
as well as generating the identities by means of such functions. Other papers [10, 11]
discuss generalized forms of certain known identities (especially for Fibonacci and Lucas
numbers).

2 Decompositions of Cauchy and Ferrers-Jackson polynomials

Lemma 2.1. The following recurrence relations are satisfied:

pn+1 (x, y) = u pn (x, y) + t qn (x, y) (4)

and
qn+1 (x, y) = u qn (x, y) + t pn−1 (x, y), (5)
Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546 533

for every n = 1, 2, . . ., where p0 (x, y) ≡ 0, t := x y (x + y) and u := x2 + x y + y 2 . For

example, we have
 2
2 q2 (x, y) = q1 (x, y) ,
2 q3 (x, y) = q1 (x, y) q2 (x, y) + 6 t2 ,
p1 (x, y)q1 (x, y) = 6 t u,

etc.

Proof. Only the proof of relation (4) is given here:

q1 (x, y) pn (x, y) = pn+1 (x, y) + (x2 + y 2 )(x + y)2n+1 −

   
− (x + y)2 + y 2 x2n+1 − (x + y)2 + x2 y 2n+1
= 2 pn+1 (x, y) − 2 x y (x + y)2n+1 −
− (2 x y + 2 y 2 ) x2n+1 − (2 x y + 2 x2 ) y 2n+1
= 2 pn+1 (x, y) − 2 t qn (x, y).

Lemma 2.2. The following identities hold

(n−1)/3
  
2n + 1 n − k  2k+1 2
pn (x, y) = x y (x + y) (x + x y + y 2 )n−1−3k
k=0
n − k 2k + 1
 2n + 1  n − k 
(n−1)/3
= t2k+1 un−1−3k
k=0
n − k 2k + 1
:= Vn (t, u), n = 1, 2, . . . (6)

n/3
  
2n n − k  2k
qn (x, y) = x y (x + y) (x2 + x y + y 2 )n−3k
k=0
n−k 2k
 2n n − k 
n/3
= t2k un−3k
k=0
n−k 2k
:= Wn (t, u), n = 1, 2, . . . (7)

where t := x y (x + y) and u := x2 + x y + y 2 .
534 Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546

Proof. The proof of Lemma (2.2) is followed by induction on n and by applied Lemma (2.1).
For example, we have

(n−1)/3
    
 2n + 1 n − k 2n n − k
Vn+1 = u Vn + t Wn = + t2k+1 un−3k +
n − k 2k + 1 n − k 2k
k=0
  
2n n − k 2k+1 n−3k
+ t u =
k=n/3
n−k 2k
(only if 3|n)

(n−1)/3
 (n − k)!(2n + 3) 2k+1 n−3k 
= t u + 3t2k+1 un−3k =
k=0
(2k + 1)!(n − 3k)! k=n/3
(only if 3|n)

(n−1)/3
  
2n + 3 n − k + 1 2k+1 n−3k
= t u +
n − k + 1 2k + 1
k=0
  
2n + 3 n − k + 1 2k+1 n−3k
+ t u =
k=n/3
n − k + 1 2k + 1
(only if 3|n)

n/3
  
2n + 3 n − k + 1 2k+1 n−3k
= t u .
k=0
n − k + 1 2k + 1

The first six polynomials Vn (t, u) and Wn (t, u) are presented below:

n Vn (t, u) Wn (t, u)

1 3t 2u

2 5tu 2 u2

3 7 t u2 2 u3 + 3 t2

4 3 t (3 u3 + t2 ) 2 u4 + 8 t2 u

5 11 t u (u3 + t2 ) 2 u5 + 15 t2 u2

6 13 t u2 (u3 + 2 t2 ) 2 u6 + 24 t2 u3 + 3 t4

Remark 2.3. If n ∈ N and t, u ∈ Z then the following relations hold true:

i) if 2n + 1 is a prime number, then (2n + 1) | Vn (t, u);
ii) n ≡ 1 (mod 3) =⇒ t | Vn (t, u) and u | Wn (t, u);
iii) n ≡ 2 (mod 3) =⇒ t u | Vn (t, u) and u2 | Wn (t, u);
iv) n ≡ 0 (mod 3) =⇒ t u2 | Vn (t, u).
Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546 535

3 Identities for the powers of Fibonacci and Lucas numbers

In this section, the polynomials Vn (t, u) and Wn (t, u) determined in Section 2 are used to
generate two separate sets of identities for the powers of Fibonacci and Lucas numbers.
Below we presented special cases of the following identities:

pk (x, y) = Vn (t, u), k∈N (8)

and
qk (x, y) = Wn (t, u), k ∈ N, (9)
for the values x, y which are Fibonacci and Lucas numbers with appropriately selected
indices. For example, we obtain the following formulas:
 11  
3 Ln+2 − L11 11
n − Ln+4 = 33 Ln Ln+2 Ln+4 8 L2n+4 + 11 (−1)
n
×
  3  2
× 8 L2n+4 + 11 (−1)n + 3 Ln Ln+2 Ln+4 ,

and
13
 13  13
Fn+2m − F2m Fn+1 − F2m−1 Fn =
 2 2
= 13 F2m−1 F2m Fn Fn+1 Fn+2m Fn+2m + F2m−1 F2m Fn Fn+1 ×
 2 3  2
× Fn+2m + F2m−1 F2m Fn Fn+1 + 2 F2m−1 F2m Fn Fn+1 Fn+2m .

We will also consider three variations of (8) for k = 7:

 
p7 (x, y) − 3 t5 = 5 t u3 3 u3 + 10 t2 ,
  
p7 (x, y) − 36 u3 t3 = t 3 u3 + t2 5 u3 + 3 t2 ,
   
p7 (x, y) − t3 5 u3 + 3 t2 = 15 t u3 u3 + 3 t2 .

The above mentioned identities, are discussed for the following values of arguments
(three nontrivial examples are given below):
a) for x = F2m Ln+4m+1 and y = F2m+1 Ln (n, m ∈ N0 ):

x + y = F4m+1 Ln+2m , t = F4m+1 F2m F2m+1 Ln Ln+2m Ln+4m+1 ,

 2
u = F4m+1 Ln+2m − F2m F2m+1 Ln Ln+4m+1
2
 2 
= F4m+1 L2n+4m − F2m F2m+1 L2n+4m+1 + 2 F4m+1 − F2m F2m+1 L4m (−1)n ;

b) for x = Fn and y = Fn+4m+2 (n, m ∈ N0 ):

x + y = F2m+1 Ln+2m+1 , t = F2m+1 Fn Ln+2m+1 Fn+4m+2 ,

 2
u = F2m+1 Ln+2m+1 −Fn Fn+4m+2 = 15 ((L4m+2 −3)L2n+4m+2 + (3L4m+2 −4)(−1)n );

and for x = Ln and y = Ln+4m+2 (n, m ∈ N0 ):

x + y = 5 F2m+1 Fn+2m+1 , t = 5 F2m+1 Fn+2m+1 Ln Ln+4m+2 ,

 2
u = 5F2m+1 Fn+2m+1 − Ln Ln+4m+2 = (L4m+2 + 1)L2n+4m+2 − (3L4m+2 + 4)(−1)n ;
536 Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546

c) for x = −F2m−1 Fn and y = Fn+2m (or x = −F2m−1 Fn , y = −F−2m Fn+1 , n, m ∈ N0 ):

x + y = F2m Fn+1 , t = −F2m−1 F2m Fn Fn+1 Fn+2m ,

 2 2
u = F2m Fn+1 + F2m−1 Fn Fn+2m = Fn+2m − F2m−1 F2m Fn Fn+1 ;

and for x = −F2m−1 Ln and y = Ln+2m (or x = −F2m−1 Ln and y = −F2m Ln+1 ,
n, m ∈ N0 ):

x + y = F2m Ln+1 , t = −F2m−1 F2m Ln Ln+1 Ln+2m ,

 2
u = F2m Ln+1 + F2m−1 Ln Ln+2m = L2n+2m − F2m−1 F2m Ln Ln+1 .

4 Identities for the powers of elements of conjugate recurrence

sequences
The identities of the Fibonacci and Lucas numbers discussed in the previous Section may
be generalized to certain pairs of recurrence sequences {xn } and {yn } satisfying the same
recurrence equation, yet with different initial conditions, i.e. the sequences described in
the following lemma:

Lemma 4.1. Let a, b, c, d, x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ C, a b c = 0. We assume that the following

identities hold
xn+2 = a xn+1 + b xn , yn+2 = a yn+1 + b yn (10)
xn+2 + c xn = yn+1 (11)
and
yn+2 + c yn = d xn+1 . (12)
Moreover, we suppose that the following condition is satisfied:

if A, B ∈ C and A xn+1 + B xn = 0 for sufficiently large n ∈ N then A = B = 0.

Then we have either c = b and d = a2 + 4 b or yn+1 ≡ a xn+1 .

Proof. In turn, from (12), (11) and (10), we have:

xn+3 + 2 c xn+1 + c2 xn−1 = d xn+1 ,

a xn+2 + (b + 2 c − d) xn+1 + c2 xn−1 = 0,

(a2 + b + 2 c − d) xn+1 + a b xn + c2 xn−1 = 0,
Hence, we obtain: ⎧
⎪
⎨ a b = −a (a2 + b + 2 c − d)
⎪
⎩ c2 = −b (a2 + b + 2 c − d),
Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546 537

or equivalently: ⎧
⎪
⎪ a2 + b + 2 c − d = 0
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪ b2 = c2 ⇔ c = ±b
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ d = a2 + 2 b + 2 c.

If c = −b then yn+1 = a xn+1 , n ∈ N. If c = b then d = a2 + 4 b. 

Now, let us suppose that the elements of recurrence sequences {xn } and {yn } satisfy
the conditions (10)–(12) for c = b and d = a2 + 4 b. Then the following eight identities
could be derived (more precisely 3 × 8 = 24 new identities if we count the additional
identities for t and u):
a) for x = xn+2 and y = b xn :
2k+1 2k+1
yn+1 − xn+2 − (b xn )2k+1 = Vk (t, u),
2
where t = b xn+2 yn+1 xn and u = yn+1 − b xn xn+2 ;
b) for x = yn+2 and y = b yn :
 2 2k+1 2k+1
(a + 4b) xn+1 − yn+2 − (b yn )2k+1 = Vk (t, u),
where t = b (a2 + 4 b) yn xn+1 yn+2 and u = (a2 + 4 b)2 x2n+1 − b yn yn+2 ;
c) for x = (a2 + 4 b) xn and y = a yn :
(2 yn+1 )2k+1 − (a yn )2k+1 − ((a2 + 4 b) xn )2k+1 = Vk (t, u),
where t = 2 a (a2 + 4 b) xn yn yn+1 and u = (2 yn+1 )2 − a (a2 + 4 b) xn yn ;
d) for x = a xn and y = yn :
(2 xn+1 )2k+1 − (a xn )2k+1 − yn2k+1 = Vk (t, u),
where t = 2 a xn yn xn+1 and u = (2 xn+1 )2 − a xn yn ;
e) for x = zn+3 , y = −a b zn and z ∈ {x, y}:
((a2 + b) zn+1 )2k+1 − zn+3
2k+1
+ (a b zn )2k+1 = Vk (t, u),
where t = −a b (a2 + b) zn zn+1 zn+3 and u = ((a2 + b) zn+1 )2 + a b zn zn+3 ;
f) for x = a zn+3 , y = b2 zn and z ∈ {x, y}:
((a2 + b) zn+2 )2k+1 − (a zn+3 )2k+1 − (b2 zn )2k+1 = Vk (t, u),
where t = a b2 (a2 + b) zn zn+2 zn+3 and u = ((a2 + b) zn+2 )2 − a b2 zn zn+3 ;
g) for x = yn+1 and y = −a xn+1 :
(2 b xn )2k+1 − yn+1
2k+1
+ (a xn+1 )2k+1 = Vk (t, u),
where t = −2 a b xn xn+1 yn+1 and u = (2 b xn )2 + a xn+1 yn+1 ;
h) for x = (a2 + 4 b) xn+1 and y = −a yn+1 :
(2 b yn )2k+1 − ((a2 + 4 b) xn+1 )2k+1 + (a yn+1 )2k+1 = Vk (t, u),
where t = −2 a b (a2 + 4 b) yn xn+1 yn+1 and u = (2 b yn )2 + a (a2 + 4 b) xn+1 yn+1 .
538 Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546

5 Some relationship for conjugate recurrence sequences of the

third order
The following lemma is a generalization of Lemma 4.1 for recurrence sequences of the
third order:

Lemma 5.1. Let a, b, A, B, w0 , w1 , w2 ∈ C for every w ∈ {x, y, z}. Let us set

wn+2 = awn+1 + bwn + wn−1 (13)

for every w ∈ {x, y, z} and n ∈ N and suppose that the following conjugate conditions
are satisfied
xn+2 + A xn = yn+1 (14)
yn+2 + A yn = zn+1 (15)
zn+2 + A zn = B xn+1 (16)
for every n ∈ N. Then the natural condition:

αxn+1 + βxn + γxn−1 = 0 for sufficiently large n ∈ N ⇒ α = β = γ = 0

implies the following relations:

a) B = (1 + a b)(1 + A3 ),
b) if A3 = 1 then b2 = −3 A2 and a2 = −3 A,
c) if A3 = 1 then b = (a2 + 3 A)/(A3 − 1) and (b2 − a) A3 + 3 A2 + a = 0
or, equivalently:

−a A9 + 3 A8 + 3 a A6 + 3 A5 + 6 a2 A4 + (a4 − 3 a) A3 + 3 A2 + a = 0.

Proof. Apply to equality (16) identities (15), (14) and (13) for w = x we obtain the
identity

(−b A3 + 3 A + a2 + b) xn+2 + ((1 + a b) (1 + A3 ) − B) xn+1 + ((b2 − a) A3 + 3 A2 + a) xn = 0

which implies ⎧
⎪
⎪ −b A3 + 3 A + a2 + b = 0
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪ B = (1 + a b) (1 + A3 )
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ (b2 − a) A3 + 3 A2 + a = 0.


Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546 539

Corollary 5.2. If elements of sequences {xn }, {yn } and {zn } satisfy conditions (13)–
(16) then the following identities hold true (only three identities – generalizations of the
identities from Section 3 are presented below):
a) for x = xn+2 and y = A xn :

2k+1 2k+1
yn+1 − xn+2 − (A xn )2k+1 = Vk (t, u),

2
where t = A xn+2 yn+1 xn and u = yn+1 − A xn xn+2 ;
b) for x = yn+2 and y = A yn :

2k+1 2k+1
zn+1 − yn+2 − (A yn )2k+1 = Vk (t, u),

2
where t = A yn xn+1 yn+2 and u = zn+1 − A yn yn+2 ;
c) for x = zn+2 and y = A zn :

(B xn+1 )2k+1 − zn+2

2k+1
− (A zn )2k+1 = Vk (t, u),

where t = A B zn xn+1 zn+2 and u = (B xn+1 )2 − A zn zn+2 .

6 Third basic identity

The following identity relates to decompositions (6) and (7) and shall be used to generate
a set of the identities for the powers of Fibonacci and Lucas numbers.

Lemma 6.1. The following identity hold

   

n  r
2n 2n − l n − l
x2n + y 2n = (−1)l (xy)r (x2 + xy + y 2 )n−r . (17)
r=0
2n − l l r − l
l=0  
ωr,n

Remark 6.2. For small values r (= 1, 2, . . .) coefficients ωr,n of decomposition of poly-

nomial x2n + y 2n from Lemma 6.1 have the form:

1 1
ω0,n = 1, ω1,n = −n, ω2,n = n(n − 3), ω3,n = − n(n − 2)(n − 7),
2 6

1 1
ω4,n = n(n − 3)(n2 − 15n + 38), ω5,n = − n(n − 3)(n − 4)(n − 6)(n − 17).
24 5!

Coefficients ωr,n for small values of |n − r| it will be generated in Remark 6.5.

540 Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546

Proof (of Lemma 6.1). We have

  n  
2n 2n x+y 2n 2n − k
x +y = Ω2n √ n
(xy) = (−1) k
(xy)k (x + y)2n−2k
xy k=0
2n − k k
  
n
2n 2n − k  n−k
= (−1) k
(xy)k (x2 + xy + y 2 ) + xy
k=0
2n − k k
n  n−k   
2n 2n − k n−k
= (−1) k
(xy)k+i (x2 + xy + y 2 )n−k
2n − k k i

k=0 i=0
  
n  r
2n 2n − l n − l
= (−1)l (xy)r (x2 + xy + y 2 )n−r .
r=0 l=0
2n − l l r − l

where Ωn (x) := 2Tn (x/2) is the so called: modified Chebyshev polynomial of the first
kind (see [16] where many interesting properties of these polynomials are discussed). 

Corollary 6.3. We present an explicit form of identities (17) for n = 4, 5, 7. The

identities were subsequently transformed to derive at the equivalent yet more attractive
forms for further applications:

x8 + x4 y 4 + y 8 = (x2 + xy + y 2 )4 − 4xy(x2 + xy + y 2 )3 +
+ 2x2 y 2 (x2 + xy + y 2 )2 + 4x3 y 3 (x2 + xy + y 2 )

3
= 3(x2 + xy + y 2 )4 − 2 (x2 + kxy + y 2 ), (18)
k=0
10 5 5 10
x +x y +y = (x + xy + y ) − 5xy(x2 + xy + y 2 )4 +
2 2 5

+ 5x2 y 2 (x2 + xy + y 2 )3 + 5x3 y 3 (x2 + xy + y 2 )2 −

− 5x4 y 4 (x2 + xy + y 2 )
= (x2 + xy + y 2 )5 − 5xy(x2 + xy + y 2 )(x + y)2 (x2 + y 2 )2 , (19)

x14 + (xy)7 + y 14 = (x2 + xy + y 2 )7 − 7xy(x2 + xy + y 2 )6 +

+ 14x2 y 2 (x2 + xy + y 2 )5 − 21x4 y 4 (x2 + xy + y 2 )3 +
+ 7x5 y 5 (x2 + xy + y 2 )2 + 7x6 y 6 (x2 + xy + y 2 )
= (x2 + xy + y 2 )7 − 7xy(x2 + xy + y 2 )(x + y)2 (x2 + y 2 )×
 
× (x2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + xy + y 2 ) + x3 y 3 , (20)

Remark 6.4. The identities generated in Corollary 6.3 bring to mind easily verifiable
divisibility relations. Accordingly, for each n ∈ N, 3  | n, there is a polynomial pn ∈
Z[x, y], such as:


2
   4n
pn (x, y) x2 + k x y + y 2 = 3 x 2 + x y + y 2 − x8n − (x y)4n − y 8n . (21)
k=0
Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546 541

For example, we derive:

p1 (x, y) = 2 (x2 + 3 x y + y 2 ),
p2 (x, y) = 2 (x4 + 3 x2 y 2 + y 4 ) (x6 + 9 x5 y + 19 x4 y 2 + 24 x3 y 3 + 19 x2 y 4 + 9 x y 5 + y 6 )
 
= 2 (x4 + 3 x2 y 2 + y 4 ) (x2 + x y + y 2 )2 (x2 + 7 x y + y 2 ) + x2 y 2 (x2 − x y + y 2 ) .
Conversely, for each n ∈ N there are polynomials qn± ∈ Z[x, y], such that:

2
   6n±1
xy qn± (x, y) x2 + k x y + y 2 = x 2 + x y + y 2 − x12n±1 − (x y)6n±1 − y 12n±1 . (22)
k=0

Additionally, if 6n + 1 or 6n − 1 is a prime number, the left side of equation (22) may be

supplemented by multiplier 6n + 1 or 6n − 1, respectively. For example:
q1+ (x, y) = 7 (x6 + x5 y + 3 x4 y 2 + 3 x3 y 3 + 3 x2 y 4 + x y 5 + y 6 ),
q1− (x, y) = 5 (x2 + y 2 ).

Proof. We have
x2 + y 2 = 0 ⇐⇒ y = ±i x
and then we get
 4n
3 x2 + x y + y 2 − x8n − (x y)4n − y 8n =
 4n
= 3 ± i x2 − x8n − (±i x2 )4n − (±i x)8n = 0.
Now, we have
⎧
⎪
⎨ x3 − y 3 = 0,  
x2 + x y + y 2 = 0 ⇐⇒ ⇐⇒ y = x exp ± i 23 π .
⎪
⎩ x − y = 0,

Hence, we obtain:
 4n
3 x2 + x y + y 2 − x8n − (x y)4n − y 8n =
   
= −x8n 1 + exp ± i 83 n π + exp ± i 163
n π =
     
= −x8n 1+(−1)n exp ∓i n3π +(−1)n exp ±i n3π = −x8n 1+2 (−1)n cos n3π =
 
(but cos n3π = (−1)n−1 /2 whenever 3  | n)
 
= −x8n 1 + (−1)2n−1 = 0.
Moreover, we get

 
2 4n

2
3 x + xy + y −x 8n
− (x y) 4n
−y 8n  =0

y=−x

and 
∂  2 
2 4n 8n 4n

8n 
3 x + xy + y − x − (x y) − y  = 0.
∂x y=−x
2
542 Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546

6.1 Some Applications

Identities (18), (19) and (20) (respectively) can be used to generate some identities for
Lucas and Fibonacci numbers.
First, for x = Ln , y = Ln+1 :
 4  4
3 2 L2n+2 + (−1)n − L8n − Ln Ln+1 − L8n+1 =
  
= 10 F2n+1 L2n+2 2 L2n+2 + (−1)n 2 L2n+3 + 3(−1)n ,

 5  5
2 L2n+2 + (−1)n − L10
n − Ln Ln+1 − L10
n+1 =
 
= 125 Ln Ln+1 L2n+2 F2n+1
2
2 L2n+2 + (−1)n ;

next, for x = Fn , y = Fn+1 :

 4   4 
3 2 L2n+2 − (−1)n − 54 Fn8 + Fn Fn+1 + Fn+1 8
=
2
  
= 50 F2n+1 Fn+2 2 L2n+2 − (−1)n 2 L2n+3 − 3(−1)n ,

 5   5 
2 L2n+2 − (−1)n − 55 Fn10 + Fn Fn+1 + Fn+1
10
=
 
= 55 Fn Fn+1 Fn+2
2 2
F2n+1 2 L2n+2 − (−1)n ;

now, for x = Ln , y = Ln+3 :

 5  5
4 L2n+2 − Ln Ln+3 − L10
n − Ln Ln+3 − L10
n+3 =
 2 
= 2000 Ln Ln+3 L2n+2 F2n+3
2
4 Ln+2 − Ln Ln+3 ,

 7  7
4 L2n+2 − Ln Ln+3 − L14
n − Ln Ln+3 − L14 2
n+3 = 280 Ln Ln+3 Ln+2 ×
 2    2   3 
2
× F2n+3 4 Ln+2 − Ln Ln+3 100 F2n+3 4 Ln+2 − Ln Ln+3 + Ln Ln+3 ;

and finally, for x = Fn , y = Fn+3 :

 2
5  5
4 Fn+2 − Fn Fn+3 − Fn10 − Fn Fn+3 − Fn+3
10
=
2 2
 2 
= 80 Fn Fn+3 Fn+2 F2n+3 4 Fn+2 − Fn Fn+3 ,

 2
7  7
4 Fn+2 − Fn14 − Fn Fn+3 − Fn+3
− Fn Fn+3 14
=
    2   3 
2 2 2
= 56 Fn Fn+3 Fn+2 F2n+3 4 Fn+2 − Fn Fn+3 4 F2n+3 4 Fn+2 − Fn Fn+3 + Fn Fn+3 .

Remark 6.5. The coefficients ωr,n from Lemma 6.1 for the values of r near to n are
related to Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind Tn (x) = cos(n arccos x), x ∈ [−1, 1]
(see [12, 15]), because the following lemma holds:
Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546 543

Lemma 6.6. We have

n/2  
n  (−1)k n − k
Tn (x) = (2x)n−2k , x ∈ R. (23)
2 k=0 n − k k

Corollary 6.7. By differentiating the identity (23) for x ∈ (−1, 1) we obtain the following
formulas:
(n−1)/2
  
 n sin(n arccos x) kn− 2k n − k
Tn (x) = √ =n (−1) (2x)n−2k−1 , (24)
1 − x2 k=0
n−k k

 −n2 cos(n arccos x) n x sin(n arccos x)

Tn (x) = +  =
1 − x2 (1 − x2 )3
n/2−1
   
k 1 n−k n − 2k
= 4n (−1) (2x)n−2k−2 ; (25)
k=0
n − k k 2

 (n − n3 ) sin(n arccos x) 3 n2 x cos(n arccos x) 3 n x2 sin(n arccos x)

Tn (x) =  − +  =
(1 − x2 )3 (1 − x2 )2 (1 − x2 )5
(n−3)/2
   
k 1 n−k n − 2k
= 24 n (−1) (2x)n−2k−3 ; (26)
k=0
n − k k 3

etc.

Using identities (23)–(26), for x = 12 , the following ones can be deduced:

1   (−1)k n− k 


n/2
2 Tn 2 = 2 cos n π3
=n ; (27)
k=0
n− k k
 
2   m
l 2m 2m− l
ωm,m = 2 cos 3 πm = (−1) ; (28)
l=0
2m− l l

  
1  1 2√ 2  m−1
k m− k 2m− k
ωm−1,m = T2m 2 = 3m sin 3 πm = 2m (−1) ; (29)
2 3 k=0
2m− k k
√ n/2−1   
1   1  n2  π 3  π  1 n− k n− 2k
T = − cos n 3 + n sin n 3 = n (−1)k
;
4 n 2 3 9 k=0
n− k k 2
(30)

√
1 1   1  1   1  m2 2  3  
ωm−2,m = T2m 2 − T2m 2 = − cos 3 πm − m sin 23 πm =
4 4 2 3 9

m−2   
l 2m 2m − l m − l
= (−1) ; (31)
l=0
2m − l l 2
544 Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546

1   1  4√   4  
T2m 2 = 3m(1 − 2m2 ) sin 23 πm − m2 cos 23 πm =
24 27 9

m−2   
k 2m 2m − k 2m − 2k
= (−1) ; (32)
k=0
2m − k k 3

1 1   1  1 1   1  1   1  1   1 
ωm−3,m = T2m 2 − 4 ωm−2,m = T − T2m 2 + T2m 2 =
8 24 8 24 2m 2 4 2
1√   1  
= 3m(2 − m2 ) sin 23 πm + m2 cos 23 πm =
27 9

m−3   
l 2m 2m − l m − l
= (−1) . (33)
l=0
2m − l l 3
Moreover, from identities (24)-(26) it is possible to generate the following identities
between the derivatives of Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind.

Lemma 6.8. We have

 n/2
  
Tn (x) Tn (x) k n−k
− 2n = −2 n (−1)k
(2x)−2k , (34)
(2x)n−1 (2x)n k=1
n − k k

Tn (x)

Tn (x)  (−1)k k 2 n − k 
n/2
2 Tn (x)
− 2 (2 n − 1) + 4n = 8n (2x)−2k , (35)
(2x)n−2 (2x)n−1 (2x)n k=1
n − k k

  
Tn (x) T (x) T (x) Tn (x)
n−3
− 2 (3 n − 3) n n−2 + 4 (3 n2 − 3 n + 1) n n−1 − 8 n3 =
(2x) (2x) (2x) (2x)n
n/2
 3
 
k k n−k
= −32 n (−1) (2x)−2k , (36)
k=1
n − k k
and the following general formula hold:
l (l−k) n/2
  
Tn (x) 2l−1 k+l k
l
n−k
k
(−2) pk,l (n) =2 n (−1) (2x)−2k , (37)
k=0
(2x) n−l+k
k=1
n − k k
where
p0,l (n) = 1, pl,l (n) = nl ,
pk+1,l+1 (n) = (n − l + k) pk,l (n) + pk+1,l (n), k = 0, 1, . . . , l − 1.
Hence, for x = 12 we get the following identities:
  √   n/2   
π 3 π k n−k
cos n − sin n = (−1) k
, (38)
3 3 3 k=1
n−k k
  √   n/2  2
 
n π 3 π k k n−k
cos n − (3n − 2) sin n = (−1) , (39)
3 3 9 3 k=1
n−k k
  √   n/2  3
 
n π 3 2 π k k n−k
cos n − (2n − 3n + 2) sin n = (−1) . (40)
3 3 9 3 k=1
n − k k
Roman Witula, Damian Slota / Central European Journal of Mathematics 4(3) 2006 531–546 545

Remark 6.9. Because the derivatives of polynomials Tn (x) are recurrently related [12]:

(1 − x2 )Tn(m+2) (x) = (2m + 1) x Tn(m+1) (x) + (m2 − n2 ) Tn(m) (x), m = 0, 1, . . .

thus, for x = 12 , the following identity is derived:

1 1 1
3
4
Tn(m+2) 2
= 12 (2m + 1) Tn(m+1) 2
+ (m2 − n2 ) Tn(m) 2

hence, the following formulas can be obtained

       
1 π  1 2√ π
Tn = cos n , Tn = 3 n sin n ,
2 3 2 3 3
     
 1 4√ π 4 2 π
Tn = 3 n sin n − n cos n
2 9 3 3 3

and the general formula:

     
(m) 1 π π
Tn = α(m) pm (n) sin n + β(m) qm (n) cos n ,
2 3 3
√
where α(m), β(m) ∈ Q, α(m) = 2a(m) 3b(m) 3, β(m) = 2c(m) 3d(m) , and pm (n), qm (n) ∈
Z[n] are polynomials, even and odd degree, respectively.

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