9TH GRADE BIOLOGY PROJECT

MODEL OF DNA

Yamur Yüksel 9/A 487

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface……………………………………………………………………………………………..……2
The Structure of DNA………………………………………………………………………….…..……3
Properties of DNA………………………………………………………………………………..……..6
How Do Genes Make Us Unique?..........................................................................................................10
How DNA Has an Important Role In Representing Us In Society…………………………….………11
My Model……………………………………………………………………………………...………12
References……………………………………………………………………………………………...24

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 PREFACE

I have always been interested in DNA and its effects on us humans. Since I was a kid, I always
tried to learn more about the subject and dreamed of discovering more as an adult. I was genuinely
happy to start this project at the beginning of the year as I needed to gain more information on the
topic and make a model of it using my creativity. My expectations while starting this project were to
learn more about DNA, increase my research skills, practice writing research reports for future studies,
be able to use and expand my imagination while creating an original model of my own, and most
importantly enjoy the process. While completing this research report, I faced many hardships. First of
all, I had to find acceptable and up-to-date references, form my own sentences and state said
references appropriately. Then, I had to comprehend the topic fully and think about every aspect of it
while using my creativity and writing skills to the maximum. Finally, I had to think of artistic and
original materials and ways to construct my model. It was not easy to find suitable materials.
However, through all these challenges, I enjoyed making this project and I look forward to completing
my model. I believe that this project has impacted my personal growth both academically and
mentally. I have developed new skills working on this project and gained new perspectives. Looking
back at my process so far, the only thing I’d change would be organizing the process better and
handling the deadlines more effectively. I strongly believe that I will finish my model the best way I
can and hand in a successful term project overall.

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 THE STRUCTURE OF DNA

The DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) was discovered by Swiss biochemist Frederich Miescher.
However, James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin took important roles
in discovering the double helix structure of DNA. The double helix structure looks pretty much like a
twisted ladder, it has two strands that are bonded by nucleotides and twisted like a chain. The
“backbone” of the strands is made of phosphate and sugar groups. The strands are connected by the
hydrogen bonds between nitrogen-containing bases. For each turn of the DNA, there are 10 base pairs.
The DNA is most likely found inside the nucleus as chromatin threads. Further explanation is
presented below in sections.

THE RELATION BETWEEN DNA, CHROMOSOMES, NUCLEOTIDES, AND GENES

Chromosomes are structures located in the nucleus of cells. Chromosomes’ structures look like
X’s formed by threads and are made of protein and DNA, to be specific, one single molecule of DNA.
In order to create chromosomes, DNA is wrapped around a packaging of proteins called histones
forming “spools”. This packaging avoids DNA to stretch and keeps them tight and wrapped to fit
inside the cell as it has a very narrow and long structure.

Chromosomes are located inside the nucleus of our cells. They are usually stored as chromatin threads.
The chromatin threads are network-like structures made up of chromosomes. While cells divide, the
chromatin threads take the shape of chromosomes again. Then, chromosomes divide, and two identical
DNA molecules are formed by copying the strands of the original DNA molecule.

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 Our cells must divide constantly. They divide to replicate the DNA. This process is either
called mitosis or meiosis. Mitosis happens in order to grow, develop, renew, and repair the cells. On
the other hand, meiosis happens in order to reproduce. Humans have 46 chromosomes, and while all
of them are replicated and transferred to the new cell during mitosis, half of them are transferred to the
new cell during meiosis. This helps the offspring to have both of their parents’ genes equally.

Genes are the basic unit of inheritance. They are the reason why genetic codes are passed
down from generation to generation. They are parts of DNA where your different biological and
physical properties are coded. Genes are made up of structures called nucleotides. The nucleotide
arrangement is different in every person. It is what makes us different than each other physically. We
get half our genes from our mother and the other half from our father. Changes in the genes (the order
of the bases) are called genetic variants. Genetic variants may cause genetic diseases.
Nucleotides are the basic building blocks of nucleic acids which are DNA and RNA.
Nucleotides are made up of phosphate groups, sugar, and nitrogenous bases. The bases used in DNA
are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). The bases of the nucleotide determine
their names. For example, if a nucleotide has adenine as its base, the nucleotide will be referred to as
the adenine nucleotide. Thymine nucleotides only pair with adenine nucleotides and guanine
nucleotides only pair with cytosine nucleotides. The order of these pairs bond together is called DNA
sequencing. The reason why we are different is that our DNA sequencing is different.

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 In conclusion,
nucleotides bond with
each other creating
genes, genes are added
end to end to create
DNA, and DNA is
wrapped around
proteins to preserve
them in the form of X-
shaped chromosomes.

NUCLEOTIDES
Nucleotides are very important structures for the DNA, so furthermore research and
elaboration are needed to comprehend them fully. As stated above, nucleotides are made from three
parts: a phosphate group, sugar, and organic bases.
Each nucleotide is approximately made up of 20 atoms. In the phosphate group, 1 phosphorus
atom connects to 4 oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms attach to the sugar. The sugar is always drawn as
a ring with five sides. It is called deoxyribose. Then, the sugar connects to one of the four organic
bases via glycosidic bonds. The sugar and base paired together is called a nucleoside. So, nucleotides
are made out of nucleosides. The bases can rotate whereas the phosphate group and sugar can’t. The
three parts bond via condensation reactions. Finally, nucleotides join together by dehydration
synthesis.
Adenine molecules are paired with thyme molecules with two hydrogen bonds. They are
drawn with two rings. Thymine molecules are drawn with one ring.

Guanine molecules are paired with cytosine molecules with three hydrogen bonds. They are
drawn with two rings. Cytosine molecules are drawn with one ring.

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 Adenine and Guanine molecules are purines because they have two rings and they are larger
than pyrimidines, which are thymine and cytosine in DNA. Pyrimidines have one ring, they are
thymine and cytosine in DNA and uracil in RNA.

In the DNA, the number of purines and pyrimidines, the number of adenine molecules and

thymine molecules, the number of guanine molecules and cytosine molecules, the sum of adenine and
thymine molecules and the sum of guanine and cytosine molecules, the ratio of adenine to thymine
and the ratio of guanine to cytosine are always equal.
As nucleotides start to bond with each other, strands start to form, and genetic sequencing is
created. The order of the nucleotides is different in every creature as it is what makes us different.
However, only %1 of genetic variation is different among humans. It is nature’s miracle how
outstandingly different people are born with such similar genes.

PROPERTIES OF DNA

As we stated a few times above, DNA contains genetic information and it determines who we
are biologically. We know that we inherit genes from our ancestors. But how does this happen? We
know that DNA replicates itself and has two types of replication: mitosis and meiosis. Meiosis allows
us to reproduce. At the end of meiosis, 23 chromosomes from the mother and 23 chromosomes from
the father combine and produce offspring. If there are mistakes occurred during this process, the child
ends up having a genetic disease. For example, an extra chromosome causes the down syndrome.
Apart from reproduction, DNA always replicates itself as cells need to divide constantly. This process
is called mitosis. Let’s look at both replication types in detail.

DNA REPLICATION

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 Mitosis occurs when the cell needs to divide for growth and renewal purposes. For example,
healing a wound, renewing skin cells, growing up during puberty, etc. Mitosis must happen perfectly
since if it doesn’t it causes genetic disorders. There are five stages of mitosis: Interphase, Prophase,
Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.

Interphase: During interphase, the DNA is copied resulting in two sets of chromosomes. There are
centrosomes that are crucial for cell division, later on, these centrosomes will help us divide
chromosomes. Lastly, microtubules extend from the centrosomes during this phase.
Prophase: During prophase, the chromosomes form X shapes and the chromosomes pair up.
Chromosomes are made out of two identical chromatids. Lastly, the mitotic spindles extend across the
cell and the centrosomes take place at the opposite poles of the cell.
Metaphase: The chromosomes line up end to end in the center of the cell. The centrosomes that take
place in opposite poles now have mitotic spindle fibers extending from them that are attached to the
chromatids.
Anaphase: The chromatids are pulled apart by the mitotic spindles to each pole.
Telophase: Chromosomes gather in both poles, new nuclei are formed and the cell pinches getting
ready to divide. The pinching process is known as cytokinesis.

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 Meiosis occurs to reproduce. Meiosis occurs in our sex cells. These cells are eggs in females
and sperm in males. There are two stages of meiosis: meiosis I and meiosis II. There are nine steps
during meiosis in total.

MEIOSIS I
Interphase: During interphase, the DNA is copied resulting in two sets of chromosomes. There are
centrosomes that are crucial for cell division, later on, these centrosomes will help us divide
chromosomes. Lastly, microtubules extend from the centrosomes during this phase.
Prophase I: During prophase, the chromosomes form X shapes and the chromosomes pair up. The
pair of chromosomes exchange DNA which is a process known as “crossing over”. The nuclear
membrane dissolves. Lastly, the mitotic spindles extend across the cell and the centrosomes take place
at the opposite poles of the cell.
Metaphase I: The chromosomes line up end to end in the center of the cell. The centrosomes that take
place in opposite poles now have mitotic spindle fibers extending from them that are attached to the
chromatids.
Anaphase I: The chromosomes are pulled apart by the meiotic spindles to both poles. The chromatids
stay together.
Telophase I: Chromosomes gather in both poles, new nuclei are formed and the cell pinches getting
ready to divide. The pinching process is known as cytokinesis.

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MEIOSIS II
Prophase II: There are two cells that have 23 chromosomes in each. The membranes dissolve, the
centrioles duplicate, and the meiotic spindle forms.
Metaphase II: The chromosomes line up end to end in the center of the cell. The centrosomes that
take place in opposite poles now have mitotic spindle fibers extending from them that are attached to
the chromatids.
Anaphase II: The chromatids are pulled apart by the mitotic spindles to each pole. The chromatids are
now individual chromosomes.
Telophase II: Chromosomes gather in both poles, new nuclei are formed, and the cells pinch getting
ready to divide.

Presented below is an illustration of how DNA replicates itself during these processes.

First, the DNA opens up like a zipper and each strand is used as a template for the new DNA
strand. Nucleotides from the cytoplasm of the cell come and fill the missing places of the new strands.
Finally, the two DNA molecules end up having one new and one old strand for each. This process is
why the double-helix shape is important because it is extremely convenient to replicate.

CELL FUNCTIONS AND DNA

While it is not the DNA that controls the cell functions, it contains the necessary information
to do so. This information is converted into messages that can be used to produce proteins. The
messages are transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) and then translated into amino acids. Finally,
the amino acids are converted into proteins and proteins maintain cell functions. We will not go into
further detail on how proteins control the cell.

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 HOW DO GENES MAKE US UNIQUE?

As we stated above, our genetic heritage affects our physical and biological properties as well
as looks. Our genes change and combine over time and each and every one of us look different. This
includes humans from hundreds of years ago. Since then, our appearance has changed a lot. This is
because of the Evolution Theory. According to this theory, every creature is related to each other and
develops and changes over time. This also includes us.

“In biology, evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species over several
generations and relies on the process of natural selection.”
-YourGenome

The Evolution Theory belongs to Charles Darwin, an English biologist. He stated that
evolution is based on natural selection. The idea is that the creatures that survive pass on their genes to
their offspring and their qualities such as better hunting, better camouflage, etc. get passed on through
generations and generations which results in changes in the species. For example, the Peppered moth
evolved during the Industrial Revolution. The moth was paler before the Revolution, however, it
evolved to be a darker color over time since the pollution of the factories stained buildings black. The
predators couldn’t see the moths when they were a darker color, so the whole species evolved.

We as humans evolved too. Our journey starts in Africa, as homo sapiens. After evolving in Africa, we
journeyed across the world and our physical appearance changed throughout time according to the
region we lived in. We still continue to evolve.

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 HOW DNA HAS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN REPRESENTING US IN SOCIETY

Our physical appearance is tremendously effective on how other people perceive us in society.
Our skin color, hair color and texture, eye color, and much more affect how we are treated by other
people. Sadly, racism and absurd beauty standards are pretty common in society, so many people try to
change the way they look in order to get treated better. While society has an idealized appearance that
everyone wants to appeal to, the fact that each of us is extremely different from just one stereotype is
undeniable. Ultimately, our DNA is our fate.
Or is it? With science, everything is possible. Genome editing is possible with current
technology. Genome editing is the process of editing DNA in order to change and/or alter the genes.
This method allows for changing the characteristics of a living being. According to yourgenome.org,
“It is against the law to use genome editing in human embryos that will be allowed to develop beyond
14 days.” So even though we have the technology to change our DNA, it is forbidden by the law and
goes against ethics. However, gene editing can be used for multiple causes. Some of them are
research, treating diseases, and biotechnology. These are all good causes for humanity and will do
nothing but develop our technology and living standards. Ultimately, the possible outcomes of gene
editing are all positive if it is approached with the law.
In conclusion, DNA affects our life in every aspect possible. One can argue if DNA editing is
ethical or not, but it certainly is possible, and we might see humans changing their DNA in the future.
For now, we can only guess the outcomes of gene editing, but so far it seems that it will benefit us
greatly and positively impact our lives.

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 MY MODEL

First, I painted the buttons I bought:

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Then, I decided how to arrange the buttons and got straws to make sure there were spaces between the
buttons.

After that, I started measuring the straw and

cutting pieces equal to each other. They were
about 3 millimeters.

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I also cut equal pieces out of yellow straws for the weak hydrogen bonds between nucleotides. They
were about 6 millimeters.

Then, I made one pair of nucleotides to see if I was sure about proceeding. I drew two bonds on the
yellow straw and decided that blue buttons would be thymine and yellow buttons would be adenine. I
threaded the beads through another wire I just bought which was stronger and thicker. I decided that I
would construct my model differently but I did a practical prototype just to see if the straws were a
good idea.

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This is how my desk looked after trying and failing many times:

After I constructed a successful

prototype, I moved on to drawing bonds
to all the yellow straws.

When I was done with the straws, I

asked my father to help me construct
the base of my model. I twisted the wire
and he straightened them with pliers.

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I threaded all of the buttons and straws through the blue wire I bought for the second draft of my
project. My plan was to cut them into nucleotide pairs with my father’s help and secure them to the
base of my model.

After my father cut them to pieces using tools I am too weak to handle, I helped him by holding the
nucleotide pairs while he secured them to the stronger and thicker wire using pliers.
(I couldn’t hold them in this photo as I was the one taking it.)

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Then we worked our way up.

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After tremendous effort and lots of fun, we finally finished the model. The last step was to twist it.

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After I twisted the model, It looked like this:

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I did the last touches by guaranteeing the safety of people looking at the model and using shrink tubing
on the pointy areas of my model.

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After my teacher suggested I write the names of the molecules on the buttons, I wrote them on with a
CD marker.

MY MODEL WAS FINALLY DONE!

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 REFERENCES

“Understanding DNA: The Molecule and How it Works” by Chris R. Calladine

“DNA Structure and Function” by Richard R. Sinden
“Yaşamın Sırrı DNA” by Bahri Karaçay
“9th Grade Biology” Textbook by Oran Yayıncılık
“9th Grade Biology Workbook” Textbook by Oran Yayıncılık
National Institutes of Health (NIH) / https://www.nih.gov/
yourgenome / https://www.yourgenome.org/
American Society of Human Genetics (ASHG) / https://www.ashg.org/

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