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Procedia Technology 12 (2014) 687 – 692

The 7th International Conference Interdisciplinarity in Engineering (INTER-ENG 2013)

Distributed generation technologies and optimization

Lucian Ioan Dulăua,*, Mihail Abrudeanb, Dorin Bicăc
a
PhD School, System Engineering, Faculty of Automation and Computer Science, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania/
Faculty of Engineering, “Petru Maior” University of Tîrgu-Mureş, Tîrgu-Mureş, Romania
b
Department of Automation, Faculty of Automation and Computer Science, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
c
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, “Petru Maior” University of Tîrgu-Mureş, Tîrgu-Mureş, Romania

Abstract

This paper describes the main technologies used for distributed generation and the optimization of a system that contains these
technologies. The term distributed generation refers to the production of electricity near the consumption place. The distributed
generation resources are renewable energies and cogeneration (simultaneous production of heat and electricity). Renewable
energy is energy from natural resources such as wind, sunlight, tides, waves, geothermal heat and biomass. The optimization
aims to minimize the electricity production costs ensuring that the load is served reliably.

© 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

© 2013 The
Selection andAuthors. Published
peer-review by Elsevier Ltd.
under responsibility Open accessofunder
of Department CC BY-NC-ND
Electrical license.
and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Selection
“Petru and University
Maior” peer-reviewofunder
Tîrgu responsibility
Mureș. of the Petru Maior University of Tirgu Mures.

Keywords: distributed generation; renewable energy; micro-hydro; photovoltaic panel; wind turbine; optimization

1. Introduction

In this paper is presented the main technologies used for distributed generation and the optimization of a system
that contains one of these technologies.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +40-265-233-112.

E-mail address: dulau.lucian@gmail.com

2212-0173 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Petru Maior University of Tirgu Mures.
doi:10.1016/j.protcy.2013.12.550
688 Lucian Ioan Dulău et al. / Procedia Technology 12 (2014) 687 – 692

The term "distributed generation" (DG) refers to the production of electricity near the consumption place. The
distributed generation resources are renewable energies and cogeneration (simultaneous production of heat and
electricity) [3].
Renewable energy is energy from natural resources such as wind, sunlight, tides, waves, geothermal heat and
biomass [3].
In Table 1 [8] is presented the most commonly used DG technologies and their typical module size.

Table 1. Typical available size per module for DG

Technology Typical available size

per power module
Combined Cycle Gas Turbine 35 - 400 MW
Internal Combustion Engines 5 kW - 10 MW
Combustion Turbine 1 - 250 MW
Micro-Turbines 35 kW - 1 MW
Fuel Cells, Phos.Acid 200 kW - 2 MW
Fuel Cells, Molten Carbonate 250 kW - 2 MW
Fuel Cells, Proton Exchange 1 - 250 kW
Fuel Cells, Solid Oxide 250 kW - 5 MW
Battery Storage 500 kW - 5 MW
Small Hydro 1 - 100 MW
Micro Hydro 25 kW - 1 MW
Wind Turbine 200 W - 3 MW
Photovoltaic Arrays (PV Arrays) 20 W - 100 kW
Solar Thermal, Central Receiver 1 - 10 MW
Solar Thermal, Lutz System 10 - 80 MW
Biomass Gasification 100 kW - 20 MW
Geothermal 5 - 100 MW
Ocean Energy 100 kW - 5 MW

2. DG technologies

2.1. Micro-hydro

Hydropower systems (Fig. 1) use the energy in flowing water to produce electricity or mechanical energy [12].
For run-of-the-river micro-hydro power systems, a portion of a river's water is diverted to a water conveyance -
channel, pipeline, or pressurized pipeline (penstock) - that delivers it to a turbine or waterwheel. The moving water
rotates the wheel or turbine, which spins a shaft. The motion of the shaft can be used for mechanical processes, such
as pumping water, or it can be used to power an alternator or generator to generate electricity. [12]
 Lucian Ioan Dulău et al. / Procedia Technology 12 (2014) 687 – 692 689

Fig. 1. Small hydro system [2]

The hydraulic power P0 (kW) and the corresponding energy E0(kWh) over an interval time Δt(h) will be [2]:

鶏待 噺 貢 ゲ 訣 ゲ 芸 ゲ 茎待 "岫倦激岻 (1)

継待 噺 貢 ゲ 訣 ゲ 茎待 ゲ ッ建"岫倦激月岻 (2)

where:
H0 – net head (m);
Q - the discharge diverted to the power plant (m3/s).
The final power (PF) delivered to the network is smaller than the available hydraulic power (P 0) [2]:

鶏庁 噺 考 ゲ 鶏待 (3)

where:
η - the global efficiency.

2.2. Wind turbine

The wind turbine works in the following way: the wind kinetic energy is transmitted to the blades, which drives a
shaft coupled to an electric generator that transforms (converts) the wind power into electric energy. [3]
The main parts of a wind turbine (Fig. 2) are: rotor, blades, nacelle (contains all major components such as shaft,
gearbox and the electric generator) and tower [3].
The power that can be generated by a wind turbine is calculated with the following relationship [3]:

鶏 噺 ど の ゲ 貢 ゲ 畦 ゲ 系椎 ゲ 拳 戴 ゲ 考直 ゲ 考長 "岫激岻 (4)

where:
ρ - air density [kg/m3];
A - rotor swept area, exposed to the wind (m2);
Cp - coefficient of performance (depending on turbine);
w - wind speed (m/s);
ηg - generator efficiency;
ηb - gearbox efficiency.
690 Lucian Ioan Dulău et al. / Procedia Technology 12 (2014) 687 – 692

Fig. 2. Wind turbine [3]

2.3. Photovoltaic panel

The photovoltaic term comes from the Greek language, meaning light (photo) and electric (voltaic). A
photovoltaic panel transforms the light from the Sun directly into electric energy. The main components of a
photovoltaic panel are the solar cells. [3]
A solar cell consists of two or more layers of semiconductor material, the most common being silicon. These
layers have a thickness between 0.001 and 0.2 mm and they are doped with chemical elements to form "p" and "n"
junctions. When the silicon layer is exposed to light, then the electrons from the material agitate and an electric
current will be generated. The current generated by a single cell is small, but series and parallel combinations of
these cells can produce currents high enough so they can be used in practice. [3]
Depending on the nature of the semiconductor material used in their manufacture (usually silicon), there are three
different types of photovoltaic cells: monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous (Fig. 3). [3]

Fig. 3. Types of photovoltaic cells [3]

Table 2. The performance of different types of solar cells

Material Efficiency in laboratory conditions Efficiency in mass production conditions

Monocrystalline silicon 24 % 14...17 %
Polycrystalline silicon 18 % 12...15 %
Amorphous silicon 13 % 5...7 %
 Lucian Ioan Dulău et al. / Procedia Technology 12 (2014) 687 – 692 691

To produce electric current, between 36 and 72 solar cells are joined together. Photovoltaic modules consist of
photovoltaic circuits sealed in a protective laminate environment. Photovoltaic panels include one or more
photovoltaic modules. A photovoltaic array is the complete power generating unit, consisting of any number of
modules and photovoltaic panels. [3]
The output power of photovoltaic panels can be mathematically expressed as [3]:

鶏 噺 考 ゲ 荊 ゲ 鯨津 "岫激岻 (5)

where:
η - efficiency of the panel;
I – insolation (the power produced per unit square meter of the panel);
Sn - number of panels.

3. Optimization of a DG environment

The optimization aims to minimize the electricity production costs ensuring that the load is served reliably.
The optimization is done for the system in Fig. 4 using the Neplan software, having the following mathematical
model:

min {C (P)} (6)

with the restrictions:

PiminiPii Pimax; QiminiQii Qimax; UiminiUii Uimax (7)

where:
C(P)- the cost of generated power (lei/MWh);
P- active power generated (MW);
Q- reactive power generated (MVAr);
U- rated voltage (kV).

Fig. 4. Test system

In Fig. 4 there are three types of generators: hydroelectric (G1 having 72 MW), thermoelectric (G2 having 50
MW) and a wind turbine (G3 having 1 MW). There is also a 100 MW consumer (C1). The cost of generated power
is given by the Romanian Energy Regulatory Authority.
692 Lucian Ioan Dulău et al. / Procedia Technology 12 (2014) 687 – 692

The Romanian Energy Regulatory Authority (ANRE) set the average price for different types of energy that I
present in table 3 [11].

Table 3. Average prices for different types of energies

Energy type Average price (lei/MWh)

Nuclear energy 142
Hydroelectric energy 125
Thermoelectric energy 190
Producers beneficiaries of the bonus 189
support scheme type that produce
electricity from high efficiency
cogeneration
Producers with dispatchable energy units 189

The calculation is performed by selecting in Neplan the optimal power flow analysis. The results are: 0.702 MW
active power losses and a generation cost of 504 (lei/h). Also, the results shows that most of the power is supplied
by the hydro generator. The other producers must lower the prices of power delivered in order to have a greater
importance in the system.

4. Conclusions

Distributed generation technologies had changed many aspects of distribution system operation, design and
implementation. By increasing more decentralized systems with smaller generating units connecting directly to the
distribution networks near demand consumption, the distribution companies reduce loss in their networks.
The thermoelectric and “green” energy producers must have a lower price of their electricity given in the power
system in order for the system to be competitive.

References

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with Power Systems, Poster Session; 2013.
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