Matter (stuff) is made of atoms ATOM is the smallest unit of matter Atoms are made of subatomic particles, There are three types of subatomic particles that will make up our atomic model > Protons > Neutrons > Electrons Protons and neutrons are compacted together in what we call the nucleus of an atom Electrons are distributed in space around the nucleus. They are moving very fast in a volume surrounding the nucleus Protons are positively charged particles located in the nucleus of an atom. > The number of protons a particular atom contains cetermines that atom’s identity MIC NUMBER > The atomic number tells us the number of protons in an atom of that particular element > Atomic number denoted as‘Z’ > For example, — carbon, Z=6 = hydrogen, Z= > Elements are ordered in the periodic table by sing atomic number. Electrons: 1.602 x 10°" Coulombs) Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles > They are light-weight particles that move extremely fast Protons and neutrons are about 2000 times heavier than electrons and therefore compose most of an atom’s mas:Positive (1+) aes DEFINITION ATOMIC NUMBER ee number of protons = = | MASS NUMBER A umber of protons + number of neutrons Particle ~] Mass (ka) ] Electron 9.14 x 10%" | | Proton | 1.673 x 1077 =a Neutron (1.675 x 107” > Atoms are electrically neutral; their total charge is equal to zero, > They have the same number of electrons () as protons (+), so the po: charges add up to zero (cancel) and negative FORCES IN AN ATOM wz > There are four fundamental forces in an atom: Strong ~ Weak __ allprotons increase reducing the binding Stablty of @ nuclear configuration (numberof protons > Gravitational force is the weakest force. MOLECULE > Molecule is a group of two or more atoms that form the smallest pure substance can be divided and stil retain the composition and substance — : eMeNT ‘A motecseo roger. ‘Amolecueot 4 ‘oxyen. Op ‘consnounD ecioiits ee. OCC cule of water co, H,0 oon A molecule may be i) Homonuclear > It consists of atoms of one chemical element, as with oxygen (O2); ii) Heteronuclear > Achemical compound composed of more than one element, as with water (H:0). > Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are typically not considered single molecules ¥ Fr COVALENT BOND . | > Acovalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. > These electron pairs are termed shared pairs or bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is termed-ovalent- bonding ‘| HtH ag H-H A covalent bond forming Ha (right) where two hydrogen atoms share the two electrons oa JONIC BOND > Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond > involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions > tis the primary interaction occurring in joni compounds. > The ions formed by loosing one or more electrons in an atom 8 termed cations. > The ions formed by gaining one or more electrons in an atom S$ termed anions. > Cation is a metal atom > Anion is a non-metal atom > EG: NACL METALLIC BONDING This chemical bonding > rises from the electrostatic attractive force between conduction electrons & posit charged metal ions. > ttmay be described as the sharing of free electrons among 2 structure of positv charged ions (cations). Metalic bonding accounts for many physical properties of metals, such as v Strength > Duetilty ‘Thermal and electrical resistivity and conductivity & > Opacity e > Luster.nmetalic bonding the bond is formed among all from each atom is shared by the whole latice ‘These free electrons move freely throughout the lattice 5 Neglecting the electron-electron interaction and the electron-o ‘electrons move in a confined box with periodic colision with ions in > The random speeds are at an order of 10° mis, > CONDUCTOR ea > Aconductor is a type of material that allows the flow of charge otherwise known current. a > Most electrical conductors are made from metals, due to the presence of free electron or which starts moving when voltage is applied. A > The conductors have very low electrical resistance te SEMICONDUCTOR > Semiconductors are materials that have conductivity in-between conductors and insulators > They can block or allow the current flow providing total control over it > Mostly modified by adding impurities called doping. > The electrical conduction inside semiconductors is due to the movement of electrons & holes. INSULATOR > Aninsulator is a material that has very high electrical resistan« current, 1ce & it does not allow the flow of ‘There are no free electrons in insulators thus they do not conduct electricity. Thus they are used for protection against shock. ¥S297 92g) 2 characteristics peers ‘Aconductor is @ material that allows the flow of charge when applied with voltage Definition he resistance of a conductor increases Temperature with an increase 9 Dependence temperature conductors nave very high conductivity (107 0 im), thus they can e Conauctivity conduct electrical srrent easily ‘semicon ‘a semiconductors 4 ‘material whos conductivity Hes petween conductor & insulator ‘the resistance of @ semiconductor decrease with increases in temperature. Thus it an insulator at acts as ‘apsolulte zero. They have Intermediate conductivity ((107 5 fm to 107° 0 fm), thus ey can acts as auctor conditions. at difterer ‘an insulator '5 2 material that does not allow the flow oF current. insulator has ver resistance but decreases temperature They have very low conductivity (10°17 5 1m), thus they do not allow current rowAbsolute Zero valence Electron in ‘Outer Shell Examples Application Low (105 am) coefficient of resistivity Le. its resistance increase with temperature itnas positive | ‘Some special conductors turn into superconductors when supercooled down to absolute zero while other have finite resistance. 4 Valence electron in outer shell Gola Copper, Silver, Ajuminum ete The metals like iron & copper ete. that ean conduct electnety are made into wires and capie for cainying electric current. Norma (10cm to 108 aim) thas negative coefficient of resistivity. The semiconductors: tum into insulator at absolute Zero, 4Valence electron in outer snel silicon, Germanium, Selenium, Antimony, Gallium Arsenige (known as semi insulator) Boron ete Semiconductors are used every ay electronic devices such as cellphone, computer, solar panel ete as S¥ energy co! ampiiier © ches resistance increase when cooled down to absolute Zero. 8 Valence electron in outer snell. Rubber, Glass, Wood, Air, Mica, Plastic, Paper etc The insulators are used for protection against nigh voltages & prevention of electrical short between cables circuitsfis the permittivity of vacuum Ve is known as the Coulomb potential ELECTRIC CURRENT > Electric current | is the rate of the flow of charge Q through a cross-section A in a unit of time t > One ampere :- Ais charge flo bulomb per second. CONVENTIONAL CURRENT > Imagine a charged capacitor with Q = CV that is allowed to discharge. > Electron flow: The direction of "flowing from — to +. > Conventional current: The motion of +q from + to — has same effect > Electric fields and potential are defined in terms of +a, so we will assume conventional current (even if electron flow may be the actual flow) OHM's LAW ‘Ohm's law states that at constant physical conditions, the current | flowing through a given directly proportional to the potential difference V between its end points.The property ofa substance due to which it opposes or rstrit the flow electrons) through it > The unit of resistance is Ohm denoted by AA conductor is said to have a resistance of one ohm if it permits one ampere current ‘through it when one volt is impressed across its terminals LAWS OF RESISTANCE ‘The resistance R offered by a conductor depend on > Length! > Cross sectional area A “ » Nature of material > Temperature Ral ieR= pl where, pis a constant a A . depending on the nature of the material ofthe conductor and is known as its specific resistance or restivity. Its unit is ohm meter. > Itcan also be defined as the resistance between the opposite faces of a meter cube of that material CONDUCTANCE > The degree to which an object conducts electricity, calculated as the ratio of the current which’ flows to the potential difference present. This is the reciprocal of the resistance, and is measured in siemens or mhos. > If Ris the resistance of a component or device (in ohms), then the conductance G (in siems is given by: G=4R conpucTIVITY Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity. > Itrepresents a material's ability to conduct electric current. itis commonly signified by the Greek letter c (sigma), but x (kappa) (especially in electrical engineering) and y (gamma) are sometimes used. > The SI unit of electrical conductivity is siemens per metre (S/m), FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCEro pa proerty of a mater hat determines Ht. E> “The unit of resistivity is the ohm-meter (Am) L RA COEFFICIENT > For most materials, the resistance R changes in proportion to the initial resistance Ro change in temperature At and to the” > Change in resistance: > The temperature coefficient of resistance.c is the change in resistance per unit resistance Per unit degree change of temperature. > Ina series circuit, the output current of the first resistor flows into the input of the second resistor, therefore, the current is the same in each resistor > Resistors are said to be in series whenever the current flows through the resistors sequentially. > Consider Figure which shows three resistors in series with an applied voltage equal to Vas. > Since there is only one path for the charges to flow through, the current is the same through each resistor. > The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors in @ series connection is equal othe algebraic Sum of the individual resistances. es [ SS EE .. e(b) Equivalent circuit » Since energy is conserved, and the voltage is equal to the potential energy Por tie ‘Sum of the voltage applied to the circuit by the source and the potential drops across. individual resistors around a loop should be equal to zero: Su » The sum of the potential drop of each resistor and the voltage supplied by the voltage should equal zero: V-V1-V2-V3=0 V=V1+V2+V3 V=IRIHR24R3, IFV(R1+R2+R3)=VIRs * Since Rs is sum of all resistors in series & If N resistors are connected in series, the e resistance is N Ry = Ry + Ry + Ret...+Ry1+Ry=) Ri 1) RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL > Ina parallel circuit, all of the resistor leads on one side of the resistors are and all the leads on the other side are connected together. > The potential drop acoss each resistor in parallel connection is the same.{a) Orginal circuit (b) Equivalent circuit > The current flowing from the voltage source in Figure depends on voltage supplied by the voltage source ~ equivalent resistance of the circuit. > The current flows from the voltage source and enters a junction, or node, where the circuit splits flowing through resistors R, and Ra ‘as the charges flow from the battery, some go through resistor Ry and some flow through resistor Ro ‘The sum of the currents flowing into a junction must be equal 10 the sum of the currents flowing out of the junction: Yo fin =D lout: > Iehth v y +> There are two loops inthis circuit, which leads to the equations V=LR: & HRi=bR -V,) and the current iS Note the voltage across the resistors in parallel are the same ( V thel additive:> Generalizing to any number of N resistors, the equivalent resistance Rp of a p ‘is related to the individual resistances by CIRCUIT: A circuits 2 intended to flow. Circult a NODE: isa point ina circuit wnere two or more el His that part of the networ ri which lies between two nodes > BRANC! lement or node is encountered ‘more than once- > LOOP: is a lose path in a circuit in ‘which no el +> MESH. Its alop that contains no other loop within it KiRCHHOFE'S POINT LAWITHE CURRENT LAW-KCl Kirchhoff Current Law or KCL. states that In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point or junction IS zero Or simply The total curent or charge ee) ge entering a junction or node is exactly equal fo the charge + Inother words the ak igebraic sum of ALL psec of ALL the currents entering and leaving a node must be conta + hee * Nesgoe) = This idea by Ki c yy Kirchhoff is commonly known as the Conservation of Charge.Kirchhoff's Mesh Law(Krichoff's Voltage Law (KVL) any closed path or mesh in a network plus the algebraic sum of emf's in that path is zero. DETERMINATION OF VOLTAGE SIGN > The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection Or: current carrying paths or elements such as cables and components, > Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that The algebraic sum of the products of current and resistance in each of the condu ie DIR+TEMF=0 > The algebraic sum ofall voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. > This idea by Kirchhoff is known as the Conservation of Energy. > Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of allt voltage drops, either positive or negative, and retuming back to the same starting point. > Itis important to maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will be equal to zero. > Kirchhoff's voltage law can be used when analyzing series circuits a) Sign of Battery EMF » A. \se'in voltage should be give positive sign’> If we go in the same direction as the current, itis a fallin > If we go in the opposite direction to the current, itis a rise in current current sare a + 2 ow o— MW © A B A B —> motion — > motion Fall in Voltage -IR Rise in Voltage +R > Sign of the voltage drop across a resistor depends on the direction of current through the resistor but is independent of the polarity of any other source in the circuit JOULE'S LAW OF CURRENT (ELECTRIC HEATING) > The heat that is generated because of the current flow in an electric wire is described in Joules. > The joule's first law shows the relationship between heat produced by a flowing electric, current through a conductor. Q=PRT > Where, v Q- amount of heat | -show electric current v R -is the amount of electric v > resistance in the conductor v T- denotes time The amount of generated heat is proportional to wire’s electrical resistance when the current in the circuit and the flow of current is not changed & H «x R [Wien i and t are constant] . > The amount of generated heat in a conductor carrying current is proportional to the square of the current flow through the circuit when the electrical resistance and current supply is constant.