Instructional Process and Concepts in Theory and Practice

Celal Akdeniz Editor
Instructional
Process and
Concepts in Theory
and Practice
Improving the Teaching Process
Instructional Process and Concepts in Theory
and Practice
Celal Akdeniz
Editor
Instructional Process
and Concepts in Theory
and Practice
Improving the Teaching Process
123
Editor
Celal Akdeniz
Education Faculty
S. Demirel University
Isparta
Turkey
ISBN 978-981-10-2518-1 ISBN 978-981-10-2519-8 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016953654
© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016

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We should educate our children according
to conditions of their epoch, not according
to our time.
Ali
Knowledge is to understand, to understand

who you are.
Yunus Emre
To Ege, Ozan, Selim, Defne and Aya
with best wishes…
Preface
As authors, first, we’d like to say that, we hope this book will add a drop into the
science pool growing a cumulative manner.
There is no the best way to help students learn. This book reinforces this idea by
introducing a wealth of knowledge through theory and practice.
It’s possible to say that the concept of education exists from the beginning of
humanity’s adventure on the earth. Education is a concept that has guided humanity
from Cro-Magnon to clans, then gatherers, hunters, and then to farmers, to those
who made industrialization revolutions, and to those who launched the era of the
information age. He salutes the continuity and development concepts. It had
developed in order to transfer the accumulation of human communities, and it has
transformed today.
Perhaps the concept of instruction is the primary factor affecting the transfor-
mation of education. From the time when the teaching existed in the stage of history
as a profession, education and training have been supporting each other. The nature
of teaching profession has kept consistently its continuous effort live, to achieve the
most effective, the most compliant and the best.
Instruction ¼ teaching þ learning
This book wants to emphasize that instructional process cannot be considered

independent the instructors’ and learners’ interactions based on the results of the-
oretical and experimental studies carried out in a few centuries. The book has three
main aims: handle the nature of the instruction concept theoretically, provide
activity samples based on theory (being practical), and make the readers understand
(in an intuitive way) about the relationship between theory and practice.
In the writing process, compelled by the content, authors have used sometimes
informal sometimes formal language. This book was written not as a rule book but
as an invitation to consider the opportunities for professional decision making that
constitute instruction process.
ix
x Preface
Organization of the Book
The main idea of the book is that the process of instruction should unite all teachers
as professional educators. Our intended audience is teachers of any subject who
teach or plan to teach learners of any age. We have tried to address teaching as a
challenging, exciting, and demanding profession with great rewards for all who
follow it.
This book, Instructional Process and Concepts in Theory and Practice:
Improving the Teaching Process, is organized into three parts: Instruction Process,
Activity Samples, and Effects of Instructional Activities.
Part I: Instructional Process
This part tries to bring suggestions for planning effectively, to examine the basic
concepts of the instructional process, to explain the nature of concepts, to promote
the models, strategies, methods, techniques and tactics to be used in the instruc-
tional process. This part consists of six chapters:
Chapter 1 handles the matter of teaching models. This chapter examines the
basic concepts; gives examples about teaching models developed based on the
behaviorist, cognitive, social-interaction, personalized learning and constructive
theories and their practical key points.
Chapter 2 handles the topic of instructional strategies. This chapter discusses the
nature of core concepts (learning, teaching and instruction). It classifies the
instructional strategies into four groups: traditional, popular, cross-disciplinary, and
activity-based strategies. Also it gives practical samples and examines in detail one
of the activity-based strategies chosen by the author.
Chapter 3 focuses on the instructional methods. It gives detailed information
about the lecture, discussion/debate, problem-solving, case study, dramatization and
presents detailed samples of implementations and practices of each method.
Chapter 4 touches upon the topic of instructional techniques. It classifies the
techniques into three categories: techniques according to the learning environment,
techniques according to classroom size, techniques according to learning skills.
This chapter also gives detailed information about techniques associating them with
instructional methods and useful tips about their usage.
Chapter 5 is about instructional tactics. In this chapter, tactics are introduced as a
group into planning, presentation and evaluation phases. This chapter includes tips
and recommendations on instructional tactics and encourages the teachers to find
their own unique ways.
Chapter 6 handles the topic of the planning of instructional process. In this
chapter, some factors that affect the instructional process and an instructional plan
Preface xi
are presented to the reader. Some of these factors are of national and international
standards, disciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches, basic teaching skills,
involving parents and environment into the instructional process, etc.
Part II: Activity Samples
This part tries to give a wide conceptual framework associated with some disci-
plines (English language acquisition, Turkish language acquisition, history, geog-
raphy, and ICT), and to present ready-to-use activity samples with detailed steps.
Also readers will find useful tips about the implementations. This part consists of
seven chapters:
Chapter 7 includes activity samples for teaching English as a foreign language.
The design of the activities was based on the guiding principles in curriculum
development and foreign language teaching approaches and methods. The chapter
consists of “Presentation of the Field”, “Activity Samples”, and “Conclusion”
subchapters.
In Chap. 8, examples of advanced theoretical expression of Turkish as a foreign
language and the activities in this level are presented. In developing advanced
language activities, the theoretical framework and the stages of the TTFL process
were taken into account. This theoretical framework and stages were detailed in the
activities. This chapter has the following subsections: “Introducing the Advanced
Level Domains”, “Advanced Level Activity Examples”, and “Summary”.
In Chap. 9, theoretical explanations of intermediate level (B1 and B2) in Turkish
language teaching as a foreign language and the activity suggestions for this level
are discussed. In designing the activities for intermediate level, EU’s Common
Reference Guide for Languages was considered. These conceptual frame and steps
are detailed through the activities.
In Chap. 10, activity examples of the first levels (A1/A2) are presented. The
theoretical framework of Turkish as a foreign language is briefly mentioned. In two
previous chapters, this framework was widely presented. This chapter contains
following subsections: “Introduction to Beginner and Elementary Levels Field”,
“Activity Examples for Elementary Level”, “Abstract”, “Glossary”, “References”
and “Bibliography”.
In Chap. 11, sample activities based on modern method and techniques towards
History Education are developed. The activities aiming the students to participate
actively the lesson in the learning process have diversified as a topic, teacher, and
student-centered. In these activities, appropriate steps in accord with collaborative
learning, complete learning, computer-based learning, project-based learning and
5E learning models have been followed. The sample activities in the chapter have
been designed as a guide for teachers and the other practitioners and in the way of
being able to be modified for different history topics.
xii Preface
In Chap. 12, theoretical explanations of Geography Education and sample

activities based on modern method and techniques are developed. The ready-to-use
activities in this chapter are designed as a guide for teachers and the other readers
and in the way of being able to be modified for different geography topics.
In Chap. 13, there are activity samples regarding the Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) discipline. The terms and conditions of the
teaching process of curriculum development and teaching were considered in
developing these activities. These mentioned terms and conditions were detailed
under the “Activity Sample” title. This chapter contains “Presentation of Field”,
“Activity Samples”, and “Conclusion” subchapters.
Part III: Effects of Instructional Activities
Chapter 14 primarily discusses the factors that are affecting the instructional pro-
cess, and effects of the instructional activities on five interlocutors: pupils, teachers,
parents, school, and society. This chapter also contains research suggestions about
some effective factors.
Isparta, Turkey Celal Akdeniz

Key Points
Firstly, look at the theoretical chapters and then go to the practical chapters! To
use this book effectively readers may note the following suggestions:
A. To thoroughly understand the THEORETICAL sections;

examine the contents (1), part and chapter introductions (2) to
understand clearly the context!
Part One Introduction

This part contains six chapters: teaching models, instructional strategies, instruc-
tional methods, instructional techniques, instructional tactics, and planning for in-
struction.
Part One starts to introduce the “teaching models” that come from the “learning
theories” and finish with “planning for instruction”. As discussed in the chapters, in
a hierarchical format, learning models and theories come from the psychological
theories. We can show this situation in a chart as below:
In this chapter, detailed information will be given about teaching techniques. This
chapter has four sections: Definitions; include explanations about core concepts,
classification; include techniques classifications in related literature and short
explanations of them, activities; include the definitions of each of the techniques,
and the application of them. The pedagogical benefits and limits of each of the tech-
niques are clarified. Suggested activities based on the explained techniques are also
given in this section. Conclusion includes the abstract of the section, glossary, and
references.
review the definitions and descriptions of the related primary

concepts! (3)
read carefully chapter questions! (4)
Bibliography
Crawford, A., Saul, W., Mathews, S. R., and Makinster, J. (2005). Teaching and Learning Strate-
gies for the Thinking Classroom. New York: The International Debate Education Association. for further understanding please follow the linked sources
Fox, R. (2007). Teaching and Learning: Lessons from Psychology. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub-
lishing.
Hiltz, S. R. and Goldman, R. (2005). Learning Together Online: Research on Asynchronous Learn-
placed in the Bibliographies! (5)
ing Networks. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Leask, M. and Meadows, J. (Edi.) (2000). Teaching and Learning with ICT in the Primary School.
London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Weil M., Joyce B., & Kluwin B. (1978). Personal models of teaching. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-
Hall.
and ask these questions to yourself:

what is the main link between core concepts?
what is the main offer of this chapter?
what this chapter has added to my knowledge?
xiii
xiv Key Points
B. To thoroughly understand the PRACTICAL sections;

examine the contents (1), part and chapter introductions (2),
read the Presentation of the field sections (3) and choose one of
the ACTIVITY SAMPLES (4)!
Presentation of the field

Part Two Introduction
Examples of instruction activities developed by the authors in this section basically A. The significance of Teaching Geography
has been developed according to the Gangé’s “The Events of Instruction” model. In Geography is the science examining the relations and interactions between people
addition to Gagné’s model, it is devoted to some sections such as; “Semantic and the environment. From the past to present geography helps the humans learn
Networks”, examining the relationships between the concepts contained in the about the world, nature, and the environment. Geography provides a way of helping
activity samples; “Learning outcomes”, where the acquisitions / attainments /
achievements of the activity, and tips on the activities, including some key points to
the practitioners. B. Current Approaches in Geography teaching
Besides, in the “Tag of Activity” section, detailed descriptive information about Nature is the natural lab for geography courses, but it is not always possible to study
the activity is given for those who want to enrich their instructional activities and to in nature. Traditional teaching approaches that put a teacher in the center of the
develop new activities related to their fields.
According to the particular subjects, in some activity samples; authors used dif- C.Factors influencing the determination of the teaching methods/techniques
ferent instructional models instead Gagné’s model. And in some activity samples, As Kaya (2011) states, the increase of technologic devices and the demand for social
authors had adopted mixed-type practices bringing together two or more different media decrease the interest of students towards traditional methods. So teachers
instructional models. Here, authors don’t aim to develop an ambitious approach to need to do something to get the students involved in the lessons. Modern methods
the instructional process, but they want to bring a suggestion to the diversification
of instruction. Methods and techniques in Geography Teaching
One of the aims of science is brought to the best; the most accurate, the useful, In order to teach geographic skills efficiently, there are six important points. These
the most effective, the easiest one deliver to the target. So, we need to be open to are; the application of teaching methods, using effective teaching materials and aids,
new perspectives do not contradict with the nature of instruction and learning. This teacher and student interaction, organizational conditions, teacher qualifications,
study, in a way, is the result of these perspectives. correlation of geography lesson with other lessons and finally raising awareness of
Activity samples presented in this part, are not lesson plans. And also, they are
not one hour or block indoor lesson draft. Aims of these activities are offer a frame Suggestions to parents
plan to reach targeted acquisitions, achievements, attainments. Practitioner will de- The role of parents in their children’s learning as the part of teaching-learning pro-
cide to implement the activity in how much time, in which environment, with which cess is important. Parents can be guides of their children in their learning. According
participants. to Kaya (2010), most of the students have good relations with their parents and
Activity Samples
Activity One : Energy Sources, The use of Social Network in Teaching
Activity Two : The language of Climates, The use of Drama in Teaching Geography
Activity Three : The use of Projects in Teaching Geography
Activity Four : The use Web based GIS in Teaching Geography
Activity Five : Collaborative Learning: Teams-Games-Tournaments
Activity Six : The use of Media in Teaching Geography
Tag of Activity
Focus of Teaching: Student-centered instruction
Method of Teaching: The use of Social Network in Teaching
read the “Tag of Activity” section! (5) This section at first
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary; geography, sociology, engineering, socio-
logy
glance, gives important information to introduce key points of
Approach /Method: The use of Social Network in Teaching
Types of Learning: Visual, interpersonal learning
the activity: which instructional methods included, types of
Prerequisite knowledge: Students are expected to know environment, basic ge-
ographical facts related to nature
teaching and learning, prerequisite knowledge, participation of
Students’ participation: Students use their social network sites in order to parti-
cipate in the lesson activities.
the students and parents, keywords and a mini scenario.
Parents’ participation: Parents support the internet and social media facilities
for their children
Keywords: social network, social media, facebook group, teaching process, sus-
tainable environment, energy sources, fossil energy sources, renewable sources of
energy
Mini Scenario: In the preparation stage, the teacher makes a mini conversation
activity with pupils.
Teacher: Do you like cars?
Ss: Yes. Especially sports cars.
T: How do they work?
Key Points xv
Stages of the Lesson

Inform the target: The teacher informs the students that they will study sources of after the reviewing the “Tag” please go to the “Instructional
energy and the importance of sustainable environment
Using preliminary information: The teacher reminds the students some basic
Design” section. Practices in this section do not refer to an
fundamental physical geographic features as; sun, wind, rivers, mines, seas and
oceans, etc. that can be useful in producing energy.
lesson plan. Activities aim to give students the specific
Presentation of Content:
achievements / acquisitions / attainments. So, just focus the
Warm up: Teacher talks about the significance of social network in the modern activity purposes and objectives! (6)
world.
Lesson stages are primarily designed to Gagné’s “Nine
1. Teacher shows the students answers and discussions in the Facebook group.
All the answers, discussions, and comments done by the students are exami- Events” model. But, each activity contains its own
ned and evaluated during the lesson.
2. Teacher shows the students their answers, discussions, and comments in an
organized way. This time, the categories as, renewable energy, non-
characteristics.
3.
renewable energy, sustainable environment, slogans for energy sources.
Teacher presents the subject.
Follow each activity’s practices
a. Non-renewable Sources of Energy: coal, natural gas, and petroleum
are the sources of energy that we use the most. These fossil sources
take millions of years to get formed and used once. To produce energy,
they are put through the combustion process, and this process causes
pollution. They may also cause acid rain and global warming indirectly.
b. Renewable energy sources can be used over and over again. Solar
energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, biomass, and hydropower are
among these types of energy. They cause less pollution than non-
renewable sources of energy.
Tip 1: Teacher shows the students answers and discussions about sources of energy
in the Facebook group that were taken from their facebook group page. All the
answers, discussions, and comments done by the students are examined and
consider the TIPS! (7) evaluated during the lesson.
Tip 2: Teacher shows the students their answers, discussions, and comments in an
organized way. This time, the categories as; renewable energy sources, non-
renewable energy sources, sustainable environment, slogans for energy sources are
determined.
consider the other sections! (8)

Further activities: Students prepare a Project for the theme “Renewable energy
sources in 2100.” further activities refer to next level practices
Assessment: Students are given the words of sources of energy and are asked to assessment refers to evaluation suggesstions
distinguish them from renewable and non-renewable sources of energy categories
by filling in the chart. semantic networks describes the relationships between
Semantic networks: The types of energy are so significant in terms of sustainable concepts in the activity
environment. In order to survive on earth, it is necessary to use renewable energy
and using fossil energy sources will threaten our planet and decrease the quality of
our lives. The use of fossil fuels may cause acid rains and global warming. One of
outcomes show a list about the attainments,
the most significant problems among the world countries is energy. So the problem
for future energy sources should be solved.
achievements and acquisitions
Outcomes:
Students will be able to classify energy sources
Students will be able to be aware of sustainable environment
Students will be able to comprehend the difference between renewable
energy sources and fossil energy sources.
Students will be able to understand the significance of renewable energy
Students will be able to understand the significance of energy
and ask these questions to yourself:

which are the main effective factors in the instruction
process?
how can I regulate and modify the process?
how can I consider the details?
how pupils and parents can involve the process?
how do I associate my instructional aims and objectives
with instructional methods and techniques?
how can I organise further activities?
etc.
Acknowledgements
Many people offered contribution during the preparation of this book. First of all,
we appreciate the chapter authors that reveal this work, at the end of selfless and
intense working process.
We would also like to acknowledge the faculty members and our students who
reviewed this text at various stages.
We wish to specially thank Prof. Dr. Bahadır Erişti, and our revered teacher Prof.
Dr. Oktay C. Adıgüzel for their positive effects and inspiration.
Besides, we cannot deny that the presence of our children and our spouses gave
us the power to finish this job.
On behalf the authors
Isparta, Turkey Celal Akdeniz

2016
xvii
Contents
Part I Instruction Process

1 Models of Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Çiğdem S. Belikuşaklı-Çardak
2 Instructional Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Celal Akdeniz
3 Instructional Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Levent Vural
4 Instructional Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
G. Feryal Gündüz
5 Instructional Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Demet Sever
6 Planning for Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Celal Akdeniz
Part I Summary
Part II Activity Samples

7 English Language Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Hilal Bozoğlan and Derya Yılmaz
8 Language of Turkish: Advanced Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Necmi Aytan
9 Language of Turkish: Middle Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Ferdi Bülbül
10 Language of Turkish: First Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Vedat Kartalcık
xix
xx Contents
11 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Murat Keçe
12 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Hüseyin Kaya
13 Information and Communication Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Veysel Demirer
Part II Summary
Part III Effects of Instructional Activities

14 Effects of Instructional Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Celal Akdeniz
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Editor and Contributors
About the Editor
Dr. Celal Akdeniz is currently Assistant Professor at

Curriculum and Instruction Department in Suleyman
Demirel University, Isparta, Turkiye. He attained his
Ph.D. in Interdisciplinary Instruction in Curriculum and
Instruction, Anadolu University. He has taught full time
at S. Demirel University. He has a varied and rich
experience base spanning over 12 years of research,
development in the areas of interdisciplinary instruc-
tion, personality, and learning, personality and teach-
ing, brain-based learning, intercultural education,
instructional theories, models, strategies, methods,
techniques and tactics, instructional skills, curriculum
development, and evaluation. In these areas of expertise, he has published articles and
a book and has given international presentations. He has organized then conducted
two European Union Education projects on culture, education, environment and
energy topics and subsequently edited a book based on the writings of the projects. He
also has 13 years of teaching and administration experience in the public schools.
Contact
Work: celalakdeniz@sdu.edu.tr
Home: akdenizcelal@yahoo.com
Work: +902462114549 (Direct)
Fax: +902462114505
Cell: +905052523493
Work Address: S. Demirel University, East Campus (Doğu Yerleşkesi), Education
Faculty, Room: 354, Isparta, Turkey
xxi
xxii Editor and Contributors
Contributors
Necmi Aytan, Ph.D. was born in Kula, Manisa. He

completed his primary, secondary, and higher education
in Manisa. He graduated from Celal Bayar University,
Faculty of Arts, Turkish Language, and Literature
Department. He worked as a litgrature teacher in dif-
ferent cities of Turkey for 10 years. He got his graduate
degree from Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University,
Institute of Educational Sciences, Department of
Turkish Education in 2012. He finished his doctorate in
the same university in 2014. After having worked at
Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University in 2012–2013
academic year, he has started his career as a lecturer at
Suleyman Demirel University as of 2013. He is still working at this university.
Work Address: Süleyman Demirel University, Doğu Yerleşkesi, Education Faculty,

Room 252 Isparta, Turkey
Work: +902462114136 (Direct)
Work: necmiaytan@sdu.edu.tr
Çiğdem S. Belikuşaklı-Çardak, Ph.D. got her

Bachelor’s degree in the field of Computer Education
and Instructional Technologies from Middle East
Technical University (METU), Turkey in 2003 and, in
the same year she received a minor degree in the field of
Philosophy and History of Science from the
Department of Philosophy at METU. After working as
a computer teacher at secondary education level, she
started to work at Anadolu University, Faculty of
Education as a research assistant in December 2004.
She received both her MS degree (in 2006) and Ph.D.
degree (in 2012) in Curriculum and Instruction at
Anadolu University. During her work experience at Anadolu University, she
assisted and taught various courses such as curriculum development, instructional
planning and evaluation, measurement and assessment, in-service teacher educa-
tion, science ethics, instructional methods and techniques, instructional technolo-
gies and material design. Her research interests are blended learning, e-learning,
effective teaching process, teacher education, and program evaluation.
Faculty of Education, Anadolu University, P.O. Box 26470, Eskisehir, Turkey
Telephone: +90 2223350580
E-mail: csbelikusakli@anadolu.edu.tr
Website: http://academy.anadolu.edu.tr/xdisplayx.asp?kod=1&acc=csbelikusakli
Editor and Contributors xxiii
Hilal Bozoğlan, Ph.D. currently works at Süleyman

Demirel University, English Language Teaching
Department in Turkey. She holds a Ph.D. in English
Language Teaching. She is interested in foreign language
teaching methodology, psychological and social aspects
of foreign language teaching and the use of information
and communication technologies in language learning.
Faculty of Education, Süleyman Demirel University,

P.O. Box 32260, Isparta, Turkey
Telephone: +90 2462114596
E-mail: hilalhome42@gmail.com
Ferdi Bülbül, Ph.D. is Assistant Professor at the

Turkish Education Department in Artvin Coruh
University, Artvin, Turkey. He obtained his Ph.D. in
Turkish Teaching as a Foreign Languages, Çanakkale
Onsekiz Mart University. He has taught full time at Artvin
Coruh University. He has a varied and rich experience
base spanning over 12 years of research, teaching Turkish
as a mother tongue and foreign language, meaningful
learning, personality and teaching, brain-based learning,
intercultural education, concept mapping technique,
strategies, methods, reading, listening, speaking and
writing skills, grammar teaching. In these areas of exper-
tise, he has published articles and has given international presentations. He also has 12
years of teaching and administration experience in the public and private schools.
Work Address: Artvin Coruh University, City Campus 08000 Artvin/Turkey

Work: +90 466 215 1043 (Direct)
Work: ferdibulbul@artvin.edu.tr
Veysel Demirer has a Ph.D. degree in Curriculum and

Instruction. Currently, he is Assistant Professor in
Faculty of Education, Department of Computer
Education and Instructional Technology, Süleyman
Demirel University where he lectures on educational
science, educational technology, and technology inte-
gration and teacher education. He specializes in teacher
training, educational technology, and psychosocial
aspects of technology use. In these areas of expertise,
he has published articles, books and book chapters and
has given international presentations. He is an active
xxiv Editor and Contributors
member of the Association Turkish Information & Communication Technologies

Educators. He currently lives in Isparta, Turkey with his wife and two daughters,
where he enjoys running, tracking, traveling and driving.
Faculty of Education, Süleyman Demirel University, P.O. Box 32260, Isparta,
Turkey
Telephone: +90 5063157766
E-mail: veyseldemirer@sdu.edu.tr
G. Feryal Gündüz, Ph.D. is currently an ICT teacher

at 700.yıl Osmangazi Elementary School in İstanbul,
Turkey. She has 14 years of teaching experience in the
public schools. She has an M.A and a Ph.D. in
Curriculum Development and Instruction, Anadolu
University. She has a varied experience spanning over
11 years of research in the areas of self-directed learn-
ing, instructional theories, strategies and methods, scale
development about learning strategies, action research,
life-long learning, social learning environments, cur-
riculum development and evaluation and effective
learning. In these areas of expertise, she has published
articles and has given international presentations.
700.yıl Osmangazi Secondary School. Halkalı Küçükçekmece/İstanbul/Turkey
Work: +902126939400; Fax: +902124702163
E-mail: gferyal.kucuker@gmail.com
Vedat Kartalcık, Ph.D. is Assistant Professor in

Turkish Language Education (Former Turkish Language),
Art & Science Faculty at Suleyman Demirel University,
Isparta, Turkiye. He has taught full time at S. Demirel
University. He has a varied and rich experience base
spanning over 21 years of research, development in the
areas of former Turkish language teaching, methods, and
techniques in teaching Turkish and Tatar languages. In
these areas of expertise, he has published articles and
books and has given national/international presentations.
He also has teaching and administration experience in the
state/private schools.
Work Address: Süleyman Demirel University, Doğu Yerleşkesi, Education Faculty,
Room 252 Isparta, Turkey
Work: vedatkartalcik@sdu.edu.tr
Work: +902462114136 (Direct)
Editor and Contributors xxv
Hüseyin Kaya, Ph.D. is currently Associate Professor

in Primary Education, Social Studies department at
SuleymanDemirel University, Isparta, Turkiye. He
attained his Ph.D. in geography education, in Marmara
University. He has taught full time at S. Demirel
University. He has a varied and rich experience base
spanning over 18 years of research, development in the
areas of geography teaching, methods and techniques in
teaching geography/social studies, using technology in
teaching, curriculum development in geography/social
studies courses, health geography. In these areas of
expertise, he has published articles and several books
and has given national/international presentations. He has organized than conducted
a European Union Education project on culture and education, and two national
projects on geography education projects for students and teachers and subse-
quently edited a book based on the writings of the projects. He also has 12 years of
teaching and administration experience in the state/private schools.
Faculty of Education, Süleyman Demirel University, P.O. Box 32260, Room 335,
Isparta, Turkey
Telephone: +90 2462114508
E-mail: husekaya@gmail.com
Murat Keçe, Ph.D. is currently Assistant Professor in

the Social Studies Education Department at Suleyman
Demirel University in Isparta, Turkey. He obtained his
Ph.D. in Social Studies Education at Gazi University.
He is teaching full time at S. Demirel University. Upon
completing and graduating from his undergraduate
education in 2007, he taught as a teacher for three years,
and he has worked at different universities as a research
assistant and Asst. Assoc. Dr. since 2010. His studies
include the teaching of history, values education, social
studies education, citizenship education, history teach-
ing methods and techniques, articles published in the
international scientific peer-reviewed journals and based on quantitative and qual-
itative research methods about interdisciplinary teaching methods and processes,
the papers presented at national and international symposia, and sections written in
handbooks on history teaching. Moreover, he worked as a specialist researcher in
the European Union funded a project titled Democracy Generation:
Democratization, Citizenship, and Human Rights. Additionally, he has taught at
various undergraduate and graduate programs including theoretical and
practice-based classes on special teaching methods in history teaching, instructional
technology, and material design, and current debates in history teaching.
xxvi Editor and Contributors
Faculty of Education, Room 339, Süleyman Demirel University, P.O. Box 32260,
Isparta, Turkey
Telephone: +90 2462114534
E-mail: muratkece@sdu.edu.tr
Demet Sever, Ph.D. got her Bachelor’s degree in
Science Education from Middle East Technical
University. Later, she got her Master’s degree in
Curriculum and Instruction from the Department of
Educational Sciences in Anadolu University. She got
her Ph.D. degree from the Department of Curriculum
and Instruction of the same university. Dr. Sever started
her professional life as a research assistant at Anadolu
University, and she currently works as Assistant
Professor in the Department of Educational Sciences.
During 10 years of professional life, she has published
and presented articles and papers especially on teacher
training, effective teaching-learning process, and program evaluation.

Telephone: +90 3350580
E-mail: dpala@anadolu.edu.tr
Levent Vural, Ph.D. is currently Assistant Professor

at Curriculum and Instruction Department in Trakya
University, Edirne, Turkiye. He obtained his Ph.D. in
Curriculum and Instruction, from Anadolu University.
He has taught full time at Trakya University. He has a
varied and rich experience base spanning over 12 years
of research, development in the areas of interdisci-
plinary instruction, personality, and learning, person-
ality, and teaching, instructional theories, models,
strategies, methods, techniques and tactics, instructional
skills, curriculum development, and evaluation. In these
areas of expertise, he has published articles and a book,
and has given international presentations. He also has 5 years of teaching and
administration experience in the public schools.
Faculty of Education, Trakya University, P.O. Box 22030, Edirne, Turkey

Telephone: +902842120808
E-mail: leventvural@trakya.edu.tr
Editor and Contributors xxvii
Derya Yılmaz got her B.A. in 2012 from Middle East

Technical University, English Language Teaching
Program of Foreign Language Education Department in
Turkey. Currently, she is about to pursue her M.A.
degree at Foreign Language Education Department in
Süleyman Demirel University. She has been working as
an English Language Teacher at primary level since
2012. She is interested in current and practical appli-
cations of English language teaching methods and
approaches.
Institute of Educational Sciences, Süleyman Demirel University, P.O. Box 32260,

Isparta, Turkey
E-mail: deryayilmaz32@gmail.com
Part I
Instruction Process
2 Part I: Instruction Process
Introduction
This part contains six chapters: teaching models, instructional strategies, instructional
methods, instructional techniques, instructional tactics, and planning for instruction.
Part I starts to introduce the “teaching models” that come from the “learning theories”
Psychologic Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism Neurophysiologic Humanist

theories
Learning Watson— Piaget— Piaget— Hebb-Neurophy Maslow—
theories methodological genetic cognitive siologic hierarchy of needs;
experimental epistemology; development; theory; Jensen Roger—
behaviorism; Miller— Vygotsky— & Caine & Caine facilitation; Kolb—
Pavlov— information social —brain-based experiential
classical processing; development; learning learning; Goleman
conditioning, Ausubel— Montessori— —emotional
Thorndike— presentation; Montessori; intelligence; Deci
connectionism; Spiro— Weiner— & Ryan—
Wertheimer, cognitive attribution; self-determination;
Tolman— flexibility; Reigeluth— Malone—intrinsic
gestalt; Hull— Pavio—dual elaboration; motivation
systematic coding; Sweller—
behavior; Lave— cognitive load;
Skinner— situated Collins—
operant learning; cognitive
conditioning; Bransford— apprenticeship;
Bandura— anchored Gardner—
social learning; instruction; multiple
Bruner— intelligence
discovery
learning;
DeBone—
thinking;
Teaching Bloom—Mastery Learning; Engelman—Direct Instruction; Slavin—Cooperative Learning (Jigsaw
models Model, Role Playing Model, Team Interview Model, Graffiti Model, Think-Pair-Share Model;
Memory Models (Link, Loci, Memory Through Motion, Names And Faces); Atkinson–Shiffrin—
Memory; Baddaley-Working—Memory; Vocabulary Acquisition; Gagné—Instructional Events;
Problem-Based Learning; Linkletter—Concept Attainment; Taba—Concept Development
(Strategy); Suchman—Inquiry; Dodge—Webquest; Gordon—Synectics; Taba—Cause And Effect;
Keller-ARCS; Carrol—Resolution Of Conflict; Picon—Value Development; Toulmin—
Argumentation, and etc. For detailed information see Chap. 1
Instructional Discovery, Presentation, Cross-disciplinary, Focus, Process, Direct, Indirect, Individual,
strategies Experiential, Cooperative/Collaborative, Brain-based, Effective Instruction, Activity-based
Instruction, etc. For detailed information see Chap. 2
Instructional Lecture, Discussion, Case Study, Dramatization, Demonstration, Tutorial, Seminar, Study
methods Assignment, Discussion, Self-Study, Problem Solving, etc. For detailed information see Chap. 3
(continued)
Part I: Instruction Process 3
(continued)
Psychologic Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism Neurophysiologic Humanist
theories
Instructional Conference, Seminar, Forum, Question and answer, Oral Presentation, Concept map, Mindmap,
techniques Role play, Improvisation, Mime/Pantomime, Simulation, Puppetry, Forum Theatre, Hot Seat,
Demonstration, Educational games, Project, Observation, Field trip, Exhibition/Gallery,
Brainstorming, Six thinking hats, Six action shoes, Fishbone diagram, Case study, Problem solving
house, Send-a-problem, Workshop, Brainwriting, Kollegium, Class Discussion, Talking ring,
Debate, Panel discussion, Fishbowl, Buzz groups (Philips 66, Clark’s 22, Huddle), Snowball,
Jigsaw, Socratic method, Three-step interview, Chalk talk, Circle of Voices, Chalk Talk, Think pair
share, Asynchronous discussion techniques (blog, Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, etc.), Synchronous
discussion techniques (video conferencing, web conferencing, instant messaging, chat, etc.) For
detailed information see Chap. 4
Instructional Planning Phase: Decide What to Teach, Decide How to Teach; Presentation Phase: Get A Maintain
tactics Students’ Attention, Motivating Students, Guiding Students’ Studies, Classroom Management;
Evaluation Phase: Monitoring Students’ Understanding. For detailed information see Chap. 5
and finish with “planning for instruction”. As discussed in the chapters, in a

hierarchical format, learning models and theories come from the psychological
theories. We can show this situation in a chart as below:
Chapter 1
Models of Teaching
Çiğdem S. Belikuşaklı-Çardak
This chapter provides information about behavioral, cognitive, and social interac-
tion models of teaching in addition to a model of teaching related with the affective
domain and the model of the personalized system of instruction. At the end of the
chapter, differentiated instruction as an approach to responding to student diversity
is explained briefly.
1.1 Introduction
There is a famous proverb about teaching: “For forty years, I will be a slave of the
one who teaches me a letter”. Obviously, “a letter” does not mean a letter in the
alphabet; rather it refers to a piece of information. This proverb reminds me of a
story about a novice teacher working in a primary school in a small town. This
teacher had a little student who had difficulty in learning English as a foreign
language. The teacher called the parents, but instead, the grandmother of this stu-
dent came to school in order to learn what the matter with her grandson was. After
getting over the first shock of meeting with a very old grandmother, the novice
teacher told her the problem which was affecting the student: “he cannot be able to
learn English, he has difficulty in learning”. After a few seconds, the teacher heard
the response of the grandmother which had never dismissed till the end of her
teaching career: “You are the teacher, teach him”.
Before the information age “teachers were teaching” quite sufficiently. By way
of contrast, what about the teachers of the information age? What is their role?
Some will say “they guide the learning”, others may say “they show the way which
Ç.S. Belikuşaklı-Çardak (&)

e-mail: csbelikusakli@anadolu.edu.tr
URL: http://academy.anadolu.edu.tr/xdisplayx.asp?kod=1&acc=csbelikusakli
© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 5

C. Akdeniz (ed.), Instructional Process and Concepts in Theory and Practice,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_1
6 Ç.S. Belikuşaklı-Çardak
leads to learning”. Nevertheless, for many people, teachers and teaching are still
significant although the knowledge society gives emphasis on learning rather than
teaching, and even though the information is a click away for any member of the
knowledge society. The difference of today’s teaching from the past might be the
emphasis given on the process and outcomes. In other words, unlike the past
teaching practices, today’s teaching gives emphasis on both learning process and
the learning outcomes simultaneously. Moreover, “learning to learn” has obtained
more importance in the information age. Because of this holistic perspective of the
teaching profession, the concept of teaching requires new definitions.
Moore (2007) provides a definition of teaching by focusing on assisting students
to gain their highest level development in physical, social, emotional and cognitive
aspects. Accordingly, teaching might be described as the art of designing and
re-designing learning experiences to guide students through their learning process,
enhance their meaningful learning and learning in upper levels in cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains. Paul Torrance, the distinguished
American psychologist, states that “teaching is perhaps the greatest of the arts
because the medium is the human mind and spirit” (cited in Ornstein and Lasley II
2004, p. 23).
Like other fields of art, the art of teaching requires enthusiasm, creativity,
devotion, open-mindedness, knowledge, and skills. That’s why some teachers
secure fond memories, while some others shed a grey shadow on the memories of
their past school teaching years. Most teachers would like to be seen as a legend for
their students, though they might not be sure about how they would reach this
enviable position in their learners’ hearts and minds. In my humble opinion, a
teacher holding most of the qualities of an artist can be one of the best teachers only
if she/he understands teaching, successfully implements his/her knowledge and
skills related to the teaching profession, and as a result, contributes to students’
learning. This point of view also requires perceiving teaching as a craft. Bolin
(1995) emphasizes the “craft dimension of art” (p. 31) regarding teaching. She
distinguishes art from craft art as a usefulness of art by introducing both beauty and
useful function. Because teaching deals with learners, accomplishing meaningful
and upper-level learning might be considered as a useful function of teaching
similar to craft art. A craft art must use scientific knowledge in order to produce a
functional artifact. Kauchak and Eggen (1989) explain the art and science of
teaching; the art of teaching involves individual decisions teachers make according
to their professional judgements in order to solve problems intuitively, and the
science of teaching requires research-based skills, application of laws and princi-
ples. Similarly, Ornstein and Lasley II (2004) refer to teaching as a combination of
art and science. According to them, a good teacher can teach well and can explain
why it is suitable and what the ground of their practice is.
Accepting teaching as a craft art or combination of art and science requires
comprehension of the learning process because teaching is expected to lead learning
(learning to learn, learning concepts, principles, procedures, culture, ethics, etc.).
Individuals learn during their interactions with the surrounding environment, and
these interactions or experiences result in some changes in the individuals’
1 Models of Teaching 7
behaviors, thoughts, feelings or emotions (Özden 2003). Various learning theories

explain these changes from different perspectives. To put it more simply, to design
teaching activities originating from planning changes according to the grounded
learning theories explain the learning process considering important variables. On
the other hand, as Senemoğlu (2002) stated that a learning theory could not solve
all kinds of problems related solely to learning, and according to the context various
principles should be deduced from various learning theories.
A teacher might ask a reasonable question about the learning theories: “how will
I implement the information provided by various learning theories into teaching
processes?” Models of teaching taking roots from various learning theories will
guide the teachers while they are designing teaching-learning processes. Joyce et al.
(2004) highlight the function of models of teaching: “a model of teaching is a
description of a learning environment, including our behavior as teachers when that
model is used” (p. 25). According to them, a teaching model does not only provide
information about how to design curriculum or plan lessons, but also help teachers
while developing any kinds of instructional materials. Senemoğlu (2002) defines
models of teaching as explanations for important variables which affect learning
levels and their relationships in order to ensure learning as being the most effective
and efficient. Similary, Kilbane and Milman (2014) define models of teaching from
the perspective of facilitating learning: “They are designed to promote specific
learning outcomes related to required standards in the academic disciplines through
the use of a specially set of activities” (Kilbane and Milman 2014, p. 18). From
their perspective, when a specific model of teaching is used, learners follow a
sequence of steps to achieve learning outcomes in cognitive, affective and psy-
chomotor domains. While developing a curriculum or planning a course, a teacher
might use various models of teaching and design her/his instruction accordingly
with the help of compatible instructional strategies, methods, techniques, and
tactics.
Models of teaching are classified into families and the classification according to
learning theories which begins from a behavioral family of teaching models and
continues with cognitivist models. Models of teaching encouraging group works
and social interactions are also grouped into a social family of models (Kilbane and
Milman 2014). The aim of this chapter is to introduce some teaching models to
provide a perspective to the readers of the various families of teaching models.
Valuable and effective teaching models are explained briefly under five groups:
Behavioral models (BM) of teaching, cognitive models (CM) of teaching, social
interaction models (SIM) of teaching, a model of teaching related with the affective
domain (AD), and a personalized model of teaching for personalized learning (PL).
In addition, as a valuable teaching approach, differentiated instruction is explained
briefly in order to emphasize the personal needs of each student.
1.2 Behavioral Models of Teaching
Teaching models taking roots from behaviorism focus on the desired behaviors
which are showed during or at the end the teaching-learning process. Behavioral
learning theories conceive that learning occurs through building a link between
stimulus and behavior and change in behaviors occurs with the help of reinforce-
ment (Özden 2003). The behavioral family of teaching models uses the behavior-
istic learning principles, such as gaining students’ attention, reinforcement,
providing students corrective feedback, and providing the student an opportunity of
practicing correct responses or behaviors (Burden and Byrd 2003). The behaviors
that are desired are stated as educational objectives. Direct instruction and mastery
learning are two notable examples of teaching models which use the principles of
behavioral learning theories and focus on gaining the desired behaviors effectively.
1.2.1 Direct Instruction
Being a traditional teaching model, the direct instruction might be considered as the
principal used model by teachers in any education level. The teacher is at the center
of the teaching-learning process, and actively transmits the academic information to
the students by using various instructional materials. How do the students behave
when their teacher uses direct instruction? Do they just sit silently, listen and follow
the active teacher on the stage of the classroom? The answer is a definite no.
Students answer the questions, practice the skills, and put forward their questions.
Although direct instruction places the teacher at the center of education and
renders the learner receiver of the new information, teacher-student interactions
should occur. Moore (2009) states teacher-student interactions involve “questions
and answers, review and practice, and the correction of student errors” (p. 145).
According to student responses, the teacher might present additional explanations,
examples, or visuals (picture, map, table, flowchart, animation, and video) in order
to make the content clear for students. At the same time, the teacher asks questions,
provides clues, feedback and corrections, and reinforcement. Students listen, take
notes, think about the new information, answer the questions, and practice the skills
individually, in pairs or groups, after the teacher’s demonstrations. From this per-
spective, students actively involve learning process while they are practicing the
presented and demonstrated skills by the teacher. Moreover, during the teaching-
learning process, both teacher and students deal only with academic information
and skills, nonacademic materials such as toys, games, or discussing personal ideas
are discouraged (Joyce et al. 2004).
The stages of direct instruction help teachers while using this model for their
lessons. Moore (2009) explains a series of steps for direct instruction: State learning
goals and objectives, orient students to the lesson, review and complete the
pre-requisites, present new information by using materials, provide an opportunity

for practicing the skills, assess the performance, provide feedback, and review the
lesson and assign homework. In similar manner, Gunteret al. (2003) explain the
direct instruction in six steps: Review previously learned material, state the
objectives of the course, present new material, guide practice, assess performance,
provide feedback and corrections, assign independent practice, assess and provide
corrective feedback, and review periodically. Joyce et al. (2004) provide five stages
for direct instruction: Providing orientations, presenting new materials, providing
structured practice, providing guided practice, and providing independent practice.
The following five stages derived from these three sets of stages might help teachers
while planning teaching-learning process according to direct instruction:
1. Orient students to the lesson
2. Review and complete the pre-requisites
3. Present new information
4. Provide guided practice
5. Provide independent practice.
Step 1—Orient Students to the Lesson. Regardless of the used teaching model,
the first step of teaching in the classroom is to draw the attention of the students.
Naturally, this is not undemanding, especially when dealing with large classrooms.
The teacher can use a variety of tactics suitable for students’ age, interests, and
content of the course. After capturing the students’ attention, the teacher tells or
shows the aims and objectives of the course. She/he should inform the students
about what they will able to do at the end the lesson. Simply put, the rationale of
explaining why learning the content is important for daily life is also unfolded
running parallel to the objectives of the lesson (Dell’Olio and Donk 2007). The
teacher should also convey her/his expectations, responsibilities of the students,
content and the flow of the lesson (Joyce et al. 2004). If students have negative
attitudes towards the lesson, the teacher should also deal with these negative atti-
tudes in order to prepare the students ready for the lesson.
Step 2—Review and Complete the Prerequisites. Before presenting new infor-
mation, any pre-requisites for the lesson should be reviewed. The teacher can ask
questions about the past lessons, provide a quiz, remind about the homework
related to these pre-requisites, or re-emphasize the related concepts which are key
for the new lesson. Because of this second step, direct instruction is more suitable
for the courses which have sequentially structured content. In direct instruction, it is
important for students to understand how the new information is connected or
related to what has been learned previously (Gunter et al. 2003). Gunter et al.
(2003) suggest pre-testing the class in order to determine their skill levels before
presenting new information. However, in each lesson, pretesting and feedback
might be very difficult and take too much time. The main idea in direct instruction is
to fulfill the required pre-learning before proceeding with the new information.
How to review and fulfill the past lessons changes according to context. Hunter
(1994, p. 95) defines the first and the second steps as “anticipatory activity”
which is warm up activity for the new lesson in order to get students ready for new
learning.
Step 3—Present New Information. In this step, the teacher presents the new
materials, transmits the new information (concepts, facts, principles, skills, etc.),
and provides detailed explanations when necessary with a variety of examples and
demonstrations. During the presentation activities, the teacher could use visual
materials, demonstrate how to conduct a process or practice. This step is a kind of
lecture. The teacher should give information in small steps and after each step,
she/he should ask questions to the students to check for understanding. Before
proceeding to guided practice, the teacher should present one or more step by step
demonstrations and provide students with an opportunity to repeat each step
directly after the teacher’s demonstration.
Step 4—Provide Guided Practice. Following each step of information presen-
tation, providing students with practicing opportunity is important in direct
instruction. After presenting new information, the teacher provides practice, and
support students while they are practicing. Dell’Olio and Donk (2007) highlight the
importance of this step because during this step teacher assess the progress of the
students, identifies the errors and deals with the needs specifically. The teacher
should spend sufficient time on guided practice to ensure that students are ready for
independent practice (Gunter et al. 2003). During the guided practice sessions, the
teacher helps students, provides clues, feedbacks, and reinforcements, corrects their
errors and guides their progress. If the students experience difficulty while prac-
ticing, the teacher might revert and provide extra information about the new con-
cepts, facts or skills. A good way of providing guided practice might lie in the use
worksheet. The teacher delivers worksheets, students work on them individually or
in groups, and while they are studying, the teacher monitors and provides clues
when necessary. The teacher gives feedbacks, corrects the errors, provide rein-
forcements according to the performance of the students on the worksheets.
Step 5—Assign Independent Practice. The teacher provides students with an
opportunity to practice the new skills independently to enhance retention. Students
work alone or in groups to practice the skills without the support of the teacher. The
teacher could design independent practice activities which are conducted in the
classroom or assign them as homework. In both cases, the teacher must assess the
performance and provide delayed feedback (not too much delayed, may be until the
next lesson), correct the errors and repeat the lesson when necessary. Joyce et al.
(2004) advice to present five or six independent practice opportunities during the
learning process to enhance retention.
The implementation of these five steps to use direct instruction might change
according to educational level or educational aims. Nevertheless, it should not be
used for all educational aims and objectives, and for all students (Joyce et al. 2004).
It is worth noting that teaching sequentially connected skills might require direct
instruction in some cases if those skills could be cut into small pieces and require
explanations and demonstration before practicing. Gunter et al. (2003) pinpoint to
direct instruction for relatively short instructional activities followed by practicing
sessions until mastering new information. Nevertheless, the teacher might prefer
using this model because it provides positive and measurable learning outcomes by
using time and resources efficiently (Kilbane and Milman 2014). Carefully
implementing direct instruction for appropriate educational objectives might
enhance the effectiveness of teaching-learning process.
1.2.2 Mastery Learning
Another example of behavioral models of teaching is mastery learning model which

is based on Caroll’s model for school learning. Although mastery learning is a
teaching model targeting whole group learning, individual differences of the
learners are also considered. Thus, this model is also referred to as “a type of
whole-group individualized model” (Ornstein and Lasley II 2004, p. 373).
However, in this book, the model is grouped into a behavioral family of models.
Mastery learning model was developed by Bloom for group teaching or
school-based learnings, and based on the view that all of the students could learn
new behaviors with the help of a planned and sensitive approach (Bloom 1995).
The promise of mastery learning is helping more students to show a satisfactory
level of performance in school subjects (Joyce et al. 2004). As Demirel (2005)
indicates, mastery learning is a learning process which increases the expected
success in school from 20 % to the range of 75–95 %. Bloom (1995) connects the
reason of this success to the teaching process in which students are continuously
motivated, and whenever they face a difficulty in learning, they were provided with
appropriate support.
Mastery learning model highlight the differences between students’ abilities or
entry behaviors most of which have gained during school years. While a type of
teaching is effective for some students when teaching 20–70 students at the same
time, it might not be for others (Bloom 1995). According to mastery learning model,
the reason of some of the students’ failure is not related to their abilities; rather it
arises from the teaching service provided (Bloom 1995; Öztürk 2016). If necessary
time and learning opportunities are provided, almost all of the students are able to
learn new behaviors (Senemoğlu 2002). On the other hand, if the learning difficulties
of the students are not considered and solved, they cannot comprehend the learning
unit at hand at mastery level (Bloom 1995). At this point, Carroll’s definition of
aptitude is one of the key concepts of mastery learning. According to Carroll, aptitude
is the amount of time that a student needs for learning any given material (Joyce et al.
2004). Thus, while designing and implementing teaching-learning process, differ-
ences in students’ aptitudes should be considered.
Another important concept of mastery learning is the learning unit. A learning
unit is defined to be a teaching module which consists of a series of elements to be
learned. It is neither as large as a whole content of the course nor as small as a
concept, fact or relationship (Bloom 1995). The content of the course is divided into
sequentially ordered units, and in this order, each learning unit contains the
pre-requisites or behaviors in cognitive domain required for learning in the fol-

lowing learning unit. Having the pre-requisites learnings in the cognitive domain
for a unit is very significant for learning the subsequent learning unit. Bloom (1995)
emphasizes the importance of these pre-requisites for a learning unit such that the
differences between the observable learning outcomes of the students at the end of a
learning unit is connected to the differences between the students’ knowledge, skills
and pre-requisite learnings related to this learning unit at the beginning.
Mastery learning proposes three basic variables for more effective and efficient
school learnings; first two are independent variables which can be controlled, and
the third is the dependent variable which is affected by the independent variables
(Bloom 1995; Senemoğlu 2002). The first independent variable is students’
changeable characteristics during their education in schools. These are cognitive
and affective entry behaviors required for a new learning unit. The second inde-
pendent variable is related to the factors affecting the quality of teaching-learning
process: clues, participation, reinforcement, feedback, and correction. Dependent
variable corresponds to learning outcomes which are comprised of learning level,
the pace of learning, learning in the affective domain. If teachers can manage
independent variables, desired learning outcomes will arise for most of the students.
In other words, if a teacher completes the pre-requisites learnings of the students
related to new learning unit in cognitive domain and deals with their effective entry
behaviors such as motivation, attitudes towards the lesson, anxiety, self-confidence,
etc., and designs teaching-learning process effectively by incorporating clues,
reinforcements, students’ participation, feedbacks, and corrections, consequently
students can accomplish mastery learning.
The first group of independent variables of the model is related to qualifications
of the students (Bloom 1995). Some of these qualifications are innate such as
intelligence, psychological type or learning styles, and others are open to chance or
development such as readiness for learning, previous pre-requisite learnings, atti-
tude, motivation, and interest. Mastery learning model deals with the latter groups
of variables which are open to chance through education. Completing previous
learnings, increasing attention, motivation, and positive attitudes, enhancing
self-confidence can be accomplished by school learnings (Senemoğlu 2002). Bloom
divides these entry behaviors into two; cognitive and affective entry behaviors.
While cognitive behaviors are knowledge, skills and behaviors pre-requisite for
subsequent new learning units, affective entry behaviors are composed of a complex
mixture of interests, attitudes, self-views (Bloom 1995). Cognitive entry behaviors
for a given learning unit are very important for new learning if they are
pre-requisites for the subsequent learning units. Affective entry behaviors are also
very important for new learnings both in cognitive, affective or even psychomotor
domains. This group of variables helps to identify the level of effort students will
spend on learning a particular learning unit (Bloom 1995). The entry qualifications
of the students related to affective behaviors are specified as 25 % of the related
success of the students’ in cognitive domain (Bloom 1995). If teachers control these
two groups of entry behaviors, then more students can benefit from school
learnings.
The second group of variables is related to the teaching service: cues, rein-
forcement, students’ participation, feedback, and correction (Bloom 1995). They
have a potential to affect the quality of teaching-learning process and are considered
by most teachers in order to enhance students’ learning and satisfaction. Cues mean
any kinds of messages which show students what, why and how to learn and digest
a learning unit (Senemoğlu 2002). Cues might be verbal, visual, audial,
two-dimensional, three-dimensional, pictures, graphics, animations, video films,
questions, examples, and so forth. Another important variable which affects the
quality of teaching-learning process is reinforcement. With the help of positive and
negative reinforcements, teachers strengthen students’ desired future behaviors. The
third variable affecting the quality of teaching service is implicit or explicit par-
ticipation (Bloom 1995). Participating in learning activities mean being involved
into the learning activities, and is a very crucial aspect of the learning process.
Learning is achieved by the learner, and nobody can learn as a substitute of others.
As Öztürk (2016) states, learning is an individual activity, and students should
actively participate in the learning process by taking their learning responsibility.
Öztürk (2010) highlights the importance of practicing a behavior for learning, and
this requires actively participating in learning activities. Bloom (1995) states that in
order to learn, students must do something with the cues provided to her/him.
Feedback and corrections are other important factors affecting the quality of the
teaching-learning process (Bloom 1995). Feedback is defined as the cumulative of
the messages that gives information to the students regarding the accuracy or the
errors of their learnings (Senemoğlu 2002). Formative tests are used at the end of
each learning unit to identify each student’s learning and additional learnings that
she/he needs (Bloom 1995). Teachers should give feedback to their students
according to the results of formative assessments and provide extra time and
learning materials for the ones who needs them. The use of feedback given after a
follow-up test during the formative evaluation is stated to be effective for increasing
learning levels (Öztürk 2010) in the case of providing additional support as cor-
rections. In correction studies, different cues for the same educational behavior,
additional time and repetition and practice opportunities are provided to students
who need them (Bloom 1995).
The third variable of the mastery learning model is the learning outcomes which
are affected by the cognitive entry behaviors, affective entry behaviors and the
quality of the teaching (Bloom 1995). The steps for designing instruction according
to mastery learning to gain desired learning outcomes are the followings
(Senemoğlu 2002):
1. Educational aims and objectives should be defined with corresponding learning
units.
2. Pre-requisite learning for each learning units should be defined.
3. A test to measure pre-requisite learning in cognitive domain should be
administered.
4. Previous learning unit should be revisited if it is needed.

5. New activities for the new learning unit are implemented.
6. A follow-up assessment should be conducted.
7. Additional time and teaching-learning materials, activities should be provided to
the students who need them.
8. A parallel follow-up test should be administered.
Step 1—Educational aims and objectives should be defined with corresponding
learning units. Teachers should first identify the learning units. Educational aims
and objectives should clearly be written by the teacher before teaching a particular
learning unit, preferably at the very beginning of the semester. Objectives of each
educational aim should include an observable verb, behavior. Then the teacher
should match each educational aim and objective with the content of the learning
unit. This first step of mastery learning is very important for the success of the other
steps. Thus a teacher should spend time for writing objectives and matching them
with the content. In this step, it is better to define the learning levels of each
educational aim and their objectives. As Bloom (1965, p. 2) states “curriculum
builders should find that the taxonomy helps them to specify objectives so that it
becomes easier to plan learning experiences and prepare evaluation devices”.
Writing educational objectives according to Bloom’s taxonomy in cognitive do-
main sheds light on teaching-learning process, formative and summative evalua-
tions. It would be wise that at the first step, a targeted mastery level could be
defined, for example, if 90 % of the educational objectives of a learning unit is
accomplished by each student, after which a new learning unit is introduced.
Step 2—Pre-requisite learning for each learning unit should be defined.
Pre-requisite learnings in the cognitive domain for each learning unit should be
defined. If learning a particular unit as a whole heavily depends on learning the
previous one, this requirement becomes inevitably important. Most of the learning
units of the courses in schools are sequentially ordered, and few are separate
modules which do not require previous learning units to be learned. In the latter
cases, any previous learning in cognitive domain required for a course as a whole is
considered as a pre-requisite. If the pre-requisite learnings are defined according to
learning levels in the cognitive domain, developing a test for the following step
becomes much more meaningful.
Step 3—A test to measure pre-requisite learning in the cognitive domain should
be administered in order to diagnose the students’ pre-requisite learning at the
beginning of a new learning unit. Before administering this test at the beginning of
a learning unit, the teacher should spend time on the questions which should be
developed according to pre-defined pre-requisites learnings and their learning
levels. For example, if a pre-requisite learning requires a definition of a concept,
then the test should include questions measuring knowledge or comprehension
levels. Moreover, if pre-requisite learning requires problem-solving, then applica-
tion level questions should be written. Although writing test items in upper levels
(application, analysis or evaluation) might be a difficult task, a teacher can
accomplish this task by carefully analyzing the learning levels of pre-requisite

learnings and doing some readings on how to write test items which measure upper
levels.
Step 4—According to the results of the diagnostic test, previous learning units
should be revisited if it is needed. If the pre-requisite learnings are very important
for a subsequent learning unit, the teacher should first complete the missing
learnings of students, and then progress to a new learning unit. Indeed, devoting too
much lesson time to pre-requisite learnings might cause the new learning unit to be
studied in a very limited time. However, with the help of carefully designed
learning materials and mobile learning opportunities, lesson time in school could be
spent more economically. Also, if step seven is managed effectively, the teacher
does not need to spend too much time on revising previous learnings.
Step 5—After completing pre-requisite learnings, new activities for the new
learning unit are implemented. This step requires carefully designed lesson plans
and related materials which include cues. The teacher should design and conduct
high-quality teaching-learning process which includes appropriate cues, students’
participation, and suitable reinforcements for learning levels. The teacher might
conduct lectures, question and answertechniques, and demonstrations.
Step 6—After helping students gain the desired behaviors, a follow-up assess-
ment should be conducted. According to the educational aims and objectives, and
their relation to the content of the learning unit, a test should be developed by
considering the learning levels of the objectives and administered at the end of a
learning unit.
Step 7—According to the results of formative assessment, students who do not
reach mastery learning criteria should be identified, and additional teaching-
learning process should be provided to these students. Each student’s learning
should be analyzed according to the pre-defined objectives of the learning unit in
Step 1, and related supportive teaching-learning process should be provided. In this
step, individualized instruction might be called for help because students’ educa-
tional needs might vary. Demirel (2005, p. 123) lists choices for those students who
need additional teaching-learning activities in order to reach the mastery level: one
to one instruction, small group instruction, additional instruction at school or home,
programmed instruction, resource book based instruction, educational games, and
re-teaching.
Step 8—A parallel follow-up test should be administered to the students who
receive additional help for achieving objectives of the learning unit. After finishing
additional supportive teaching-learning activities, participating students are
administered a parallel follow-up test which measures the same objectives via
different questions. Only if the students meet the pre-defined criteria of mastery
learning, the instruction process progresses to the following learning unit.
Mastery learning model is stated to be effective from pre-school age years to
expert classes for all educational levels, but not for all educational aims and
learning units (Bloom 1995). However, in conventional school settings, it is very
difficult for a teacher who has large classrooms to help each student learn at mastery
level by providing extra time and material. Because of this fact, many mastery
learning programs implement programmed instruction (Joyce et al. 2004) for

individual study. With the help of instructional technologies, programmed
instruction evolved to more individualized learning systems which help each learner
achieve the educational objectives for the subjects being studied by considering
their various characteristics and learning needs.
1.3 Cognitive Models of Teaching
Models of teaching based on cognitivist learning theory focus on cognitive pro-

cesses rather than observed behaviors. According to the cognitivist learning theo-
ries, learning is a process which cannot be observed directly and mostly focus on
understanding, thinking, and creating (Özden 2003). Among the most cited
teaching models in this group, Gagne’s Events of Instruction, Concept Attainment
Model, and Synectics: Teaching Creative Thinking can be listed.
1.3.1 Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction
Gagné’s model of teaching is primarily based on Information Processing Model,

which is one of the cognitivist learning theories. Though Gagné’s events of
instruction model is based on cognitivist approach to learning, it includes some of
the implications of behavioral learning theories. The internal process of learning
which is “a chance in human disposition or capability, which persists over a period
of time …, exhibits itself as a change in behavior” (Gagné 1977, p. 3). Learning
occurs as a result of a series of internal learning phases which are affected by
external events (Senemoğlu 2002). In other words, external factors, like learning
environment teaching-learning activities and materials are in interaction with the
internal conditions, such as previously learned capabilities (Gagné 2005).
As a result of interaction between external factors and internal conditions, some
kinds of learning outcomes are revealed. Gagné classifies these learning outcomes in
five major categories; intellectual skills, cognitive strategy, verbal information, motor
skills and attitudes as learned capabilities (Gagné et al. 2005). He defines internal and
external conditions for each category of learning outcomes. Five major categories of
learned capabilities are stated as follows (Gagné 1977; Gagné et al. 2005):
• Intellectual Skills: Intellectual skills are seen as “building blocks” for most
curricula and referred to as “higher-order learning skills” because they require
more upper-level cognitive process than rote learning, such as categorizing,
applying rules and principles to solve problems. There are various intellectual
skills changing in complexity such as discriminations, concepts, basic rules to
higher order rules, which help learners to carry out symbolically controlled
procedures. The internal condition to gain intellectual skills recalls the
pre-requisite skills for learning the new ones. The external condition is guiding
students to combine the related skills.
• Cognitive strategies: Students have cognitive strategies internally to manage
“attending and selective perceiving”, “coding for long-term storage”, “retrieval”,
and “problem-solving”. Cognitive strategies refer to learners’ control over their
own learning processes. Recalling the intellectual skills and related information
for a learning task at a given is the internal conditions required for cognitive
strategies. The external condition is providing opportunities to practice these
strategies.
• Verbal information: This points to the stored knowledge in the learner’s
memory. Learning verbal information, names, facts or ideas, requires recalling
of meaningfully organized structure of ideas and having basic linguistic skills as
an internal condition. Externally, relating new information to the previously
learned structure by providing cues and organizers.
• Motor Skills: Motor skills which require mind and muscle coordination, coor-
dinated muscular movements, or the movements of skeletal muscles to do
purposeful actions, can be learned if the sequence of a performance and partial
skills which constitute the total performance are recalled. External condition is
providing repetition of each performance; that is to say practicing the perfor-
mance as much as possible.
• Attitude: Attitudes which direct the personal actions toward anything are learned
in lots of ways such as modeling a previously learned real or imagined person.
For such internal condition, the external condition requires presenting the
desired behaviors by the model and rewarding the desired behavior.
Each learning outcome develops during a learning process which is composed of
series of phases. Gagné labels them as “events of learning” and lists the sequence of
these internal phases based on the information-processing model. “Learning begins
with the intake of stimulation from the receptors and ends with the feedback that
follows the learner’s performance. Between these events are several stages of
internal processing” Gagné (1977, p. 69). The internal learning process is sum-
marized in eight phases (Gagné 1977, p. 58; Gagné et al. 1992, p. 4):
• Attention: The extent of receiving stimulation to activate receptors to produce
patterns of neural impulses.
• Selective Perception: Processing the received stimulation for storage in
short-term memory.
• Rehearsal: Renewing the items stored in short-term memory.
• Semantic encoding: Meaningfully encoding the items to store in long-term
memory.
• Retrieval: Returning the stored information in long-term memory to the
short-term memory, which is also called as conscious or working memory.
• Response organization: Selecting and organizing the performance for the

exhibition.
• Feedback: Observing the exhibited performance and receiving information
about it, and establishing reinforcement for future recall, exercise, and use of the
performance.
• Executive control processes: Selecting and activating the cognitive strategies to
modify the learning process.
According to the context or the teaching process, the order of the learning phases
may change or follow this sequence (Gagné 1977; Senemoğlu 2002). Learner’s
cognitive strategy helps her/him to moderate the learning process, and if any feed-
back loop is needed, the first phases of the learning process may be revisited.
Although these internal phases of learning may occur during individual studies,
teacher guided school-based learning activities enhance the effectiveness of the
process. “The purpose of instruction, however, it may be done, is to provide support
to the processes of learning” (Gagné et al. 1992, p. 2). Instruction facilitates learning
if it supports the internal events of information processing (Gagné et al. 2005).
Gagné identified the sequence of instructional events correspondingly to the phases
of learning for an effective course (Gündoğdu 2016; Senemoğlu 2002). These
external instructional events may influence these learning processes (Gagné et al.
1992). Gagne’s instructional events are the following steps (Gagné et al. 1992):
1. Gaining attention
2. Informing learners of the objective
3. Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning
4. Presenting the stimulus material
5. Providing learning guidance
6. Eliciting the performance
7. Providing feedback about performance correctness
8. Assessing the performance
9. Enhancing retention and transfer.
Step 1—Gaining attention. The first step or event of instruction for a teacher is
gaining attention. This event is related to “reception of patterns of neural impulses”
(Gagné et al. 1992, p. 4). The purpose of the first event is to direct learner’s
attention toward the teaching-learning process (Gagné et al. 2005). For all learned
capabilities, this step requires “rapid stimulus changes” (Petry 1987, p. 16). In
other words, gaining attention is achieved by instantaneous changes in stimulus
(Senemoğlu 2002). It is a very difficult task for a teacher to teach anything to a
group of students who are engaged with various things other than the lesson or the
teacher. A teacher may speak in a high or low voice suddenly, start a short video,
show an interesting object or picture, tell a story, joke, ask a different question, or
come into class with a glove puppet. Activities targeting to the students’ attention
do not need to be related to the objectives of the course though they must be
acceptable events or materials by society and suitable for the learners’ ages. During
the course, a teacher occasionally needs to take attention on the important issues by
writing on the chalk/whiteboard, underlying the importance, highlighting, repeat-

ing, etc.
Step 2—Informing learners of the objective. The second event is conducted for
“activating a process of executive control” which is the other step of a learning
process (Gagné et al. 1992, p. 4). Informing students of the objectives of the lesson
requires telling or presenting students what they will be able to do at the end of the
lesson and what they will do with the newly acquired learnings in life. Informing
students about these two issues help them motivate themselves to learn and develop
an expectation about the lesson on the students’ minds, and as a result, this
expectation helps them develop their self-efficacy (Gagné et al. 2005; Senemoğlu
2002). Also, this information leads learners to answer a very important question:
“How will I know when I have learned?” (Petry et al. 1987, p. 17). A teacher should
also summarize the lesson process by explaining briefly what kinds of learning
activities will be conducted.
Step 3—Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning. The third event of instruc-
tion deals with another stage of learning process; “retrieval of prior learning to
working memory” (Gagné et al. 1992, p. 4). This step directly targets one of the
conditions of meaningful learning: having previous learnings related to new
learning material and connecting new learning to the related previous ones
(Ausubel 1968, 2000). By doing so, the third event “provides an anchor for new
learning, relating to what is to come to what the learner already knows” (Gagné,
et al. 2005, p. 30). Establishing a connection between the previous learnings and the
new learning material waiting to be learned can be assured by using carefully
developed advance organizers such as concept maps, stories, flow charts, or
analogies. Only after pre-requisite learnings are recalled and missing ones are
completed, the new learning materials are presented as indicated in the next step.
Step 4—Presenting the stimulus material. The fourth event of instruction is
related to “emphasizing features for selective perception” (Gagné et al. 1992, p. 4).
Well-designed and developed learning materials for the objectives of the lesson are
presented as a fourth instructional event. Concepts, facts, principles, or procedures,
attitudes, motor skills, values, etc., each descriptive and normative content type
requires specific visual or verbal materials to be presented through related learning
activities. While presenting new learning materials, the selective perception of the
students is directed to learning materials by emphasizing and highlighting dis-
criminating points (Senemoğlu 2002). For instance, while teaching validity and
reliability of a measuring instrument, the instructor could tell the students “validity
requires reliability” and might present a diagram which shows the relationship
between these two terms. Bounding new information to the previously learned
capabilities helps students learning by facilitating encoding into long-term memory
(Gagné et al. 2005).
Step 5—Providing learning guidance. The purpose of the fifth instructional
event is helping “semantic encoding; cues for retrieval” (Gagné et al. 1992, p. 4).
The teacher helps students conduct meaningful learning so as to transfer new
learnings to the long-term memory (Senemoğlu 2002). Providing learning guidance
enriches the knowledge structure (Gagné et al. 2005). In this step, teachers guide
students and teach how to learn by exemplifying learning strategies appropriate for
objectives of the lesson (Senemoğlu 2002). For example, to help learners, under-
stand the relationships between a set of concepts, the teacher might draw a concept
map with the participation of the students. Another example might be about
memorizing some important information. For instance, to learn the chemical for-
mula of a water molecule (H2O), a teacher may introduce mnemonic strategies and
could give a specific example: a glass of water was carried with two hands of one
old man.
Step 6—Eliciting the performance. The focus of the sixth event is “activating
response organization” (Gagné et al. 1992, p. 4) by eliciting learners’ responses
(Gagné et al. 2005). Previous instructional events guide students while they code
the new learnings into long-term memory. This instructional event requires learners
to exhibit their new learnings with the help of learning activities designed by the
teacher to help students elicit their performance. Regarding the educational
objectives in psychomotor domain, a teacher might request students to exhibit the
behavior or a series of behaviors in the correct sequence. For concept learning,
students might be asked to compose a sentence with the concepts, or provide
different examples for those concepts. To elicit performance for rule or principle
learnings, a problem-solving activity might be conducted. Objectives related to
affective domain might be performed by role-playing activities. The focal point of
this instructional event is directing students to present observable behaviors of each
educational aims.
Step 7—Providing feedback about performance correctness. The next instruc-
tional event is related to “establishing reinforcement” (Gagné et al. 1992, p. 4). This
instructional event must be conducted just after the previous one in order to provide
feedback to the students about the correctness of their performance. If the perfor-
mance is missing or incorrect, additional supplementary learning materials are
provided.
Step 8—Assessing the performance. The purpose of this event is “activating
retrieval, making reinforcement possible” (Gagné et al. 1992, p. 4). This step “tests
the delayed retention of learned knowledge or skills” (Gagné et al. 2005, p. 30).
A student needs to exhibit the performance in various situations in order to trust
herself/himself (Senemoğlu 2002). By considering the content validity, which
means measuring all of the critical objectives, a teacher should develop valid and
reliable measure instruments as much as possible, which requires learners to exhibit
new learnings in various situations in means of observable behaviors, in order to
assess the performance of the students. For instance, “be able to write an essay” is
an educational objective in synthesis level of the cognitive domain. A teacher could
design an essay type exam in order to measure students’ performance for this
objective. Teachers must carefully develop the measuring instruments by consid-
ering the categories of learned capabilities. Assessing performance is stated to have
two main functions: understanding the stability of new learnings and providing
additional practice to be performed with the help of tests (Petry et al. 1987).
Step 9—Enhancing retention and transfer. The last instructional event is related
to “providing cues and strategies for retrieval” (Gagné et al. 1992, p. 4). Enhancing
retention requires applying new learnings or exhibiting performance in various new

situations, or contexts (Gagné et al. 2005) after the related learning activities.
Teachers should provide students with additional opportunities to exhibit the per-
formance, in other words, use their new learnings in new situations or solve dif-
ferent questions. These opportunities, occasionally provided within critically
decided specific time intervals, help students enhance transfer of knowledge and
connect new knowledge with the previous ones within a learning unit or between
the units (Senemoğlu 2002). Retention is an important term for learning because the
long-lasting change in behavior is desirable as Gagné (1977, p. 3) states: “The
change must have more than momentary permanence; it must be capable of being
retained over some period of time”.
Gagné’s model divides direct instruction process into nine well-defined in-
structional events which support one or more phases of the internal learning pro-
cess. Teachers first describe the learning outcomes or objectives according to
learned capabilities, intellectual skills, verbal information, cognitive strategies,
motor skills, and attitudes, then she/he selects appropriate teaching strategies,
methods, techniques and tactics, and develops learning materials suitable for each
objective, and designs her/his instruction by following nine events of instruction.
1.3.2 Concept Attainment Model
From first years of life to its cessation, individuals learn various concepts. They
conceptualize things while they are trying to interpret and interact with the world
they that live in (Şimşek 2006). During the school years, first learning units of
nearly each course are devoted to basic concepts related to the courses. During my
previous teaching experiences at secondary education, and as an instructor at higher
education at present, I first teach the concepts of specific courses as the first learning
unit and include “pre-requisite concepts” within the “related previous learnings” at
the beginning of each of my lesson plans to revisit them first before introducing
new learning materials. Much of the content taught in schools is concepts, and most
of the important aims of classroom instruction are related to these concepts
(Kauchak and Eggen 1989). Teachers should facilitate concept learning of students
by considering their development levels and the concreteness-abstractness of the
concepts; for instance, pre-school age students can learn the concept “toy” at
classification level earlier than an abstract concept, for example, “time” (Senemoğlu
2002).
Concepts have such important role in human knowledge because as Kauchak
and Eggen (1989) state they guide our thinking process and help us understand the
environment that surrounds us. Hunter (1994, p. 66) defines the concept as “name
of a category (chair, red, mammals, courage) that includes many perceptively dif-
ferent members”. For example, the concept of “tree” involves every long-lived
plant. Its roots grow towards the deep inside of the surface and trunks are woody,
branched, thick and high. The concept of “tree” is a name of a category, and the
“plane tree” is an instance of it. Şimşek (2006) also provides a similar definition for
the concept: “Concept is a common name given to objects, ideas or events which
share similar attributes” (p. 27). According to these definitions, concepts are defined
by attributes which are their distinguishing features (Gunter et al. 2003). Burden
and Byrd (2003, p. 187) define concepts as “main ideas used to help us to cate-
gorize and differentiate information”. Whenever we do a categorization and name
the category, we use concepts. As Kauchak and Eggen (1989, p. 243) state, “they
are abstract ideas, categories, or classes of objects, events, or ideas, illustrated by
examples and defined by common characteristics”.
A concept can be taught directly, which means providing the student with the
name of the concept, definition, critical attributes and then instances of that concept,
or indirectly, which provides students with the opportunity of discovery learning. In
short, students discover that concept’s critical attributes by analyzing its instances.
These deductive and inductive approaches to concept teaching require encouraging
student involvement and assessing their understanding (Kauchak and Eggen 1989)
if designed wisely to enhance effective teaching. Regardless of the teaching
approaches for the concepts, directly or indirectly, students should generate the
meaning of a concept and can be able to discriminate the meaning of that concept
from other concepts which have similar attributes (Hunter 1994).
As an indirect way based on Bruner’s discovery learning, concept attainment
model could be an effective way of teaching concepts. Concept attainment process
helps teachers while teaching concepts by comparing examples and non-examples
of a concept until a definition is derived by the students (Gunter et al. 2003; Burden
and Byrd 2003). This model of concept teaching also helps to discover the thinking
process of the students (Joyce et al. 2004). It is “a dynamic, interactive, teaching
model that supports students’ deep understanding of concepts and development of
conceptual knowledge” (Kilbane and Milman 2014, p. 117). In this instance, the
concept attainment model, which defines a process in which essential attributes of
concepts are clarified by discriminating their examples and non-examples is
introduced briefly.
Gunter et al. (2003, p. 83) explained concept attainment process in nine steps:
1. Selecting and defining a concept
2. Selecting the attributes
3. Developing examples and non-examples
4. Introducing the concept attainment process to the students
5. Presenting the examples and listing the attributes
6. Developing a concept definition
7. Giving additional examples
8. Discussing the process with the students
9. Evaluating.
Step 1—Selecting and defining a concept. The first step is among preparatory
studies of the teachers to answer which concepts will be learned according to the
objectives of the course: which ones have clear attributes, that is, can be clearly
distinguished from the other similar concepts (Gunter et al. 2003). According to the
objectives and having clearly distinguished attributes, in the first step of the model,
teachers select the concepts. Selected concepts might have coordinate, subordinate
and superordinate concepts waiting to be distinguished from the concept attainment
model (Gunter et al. 2003). For example, “cat” is a concept which has many
coordinate concepts such as tiger, lion, or weasel. This concept is one of the
superordinate concepts which is a mammal, and some of the subordinate concepts
of cat are Van Cat, Siamese Cat, British Shorthair, Ankara Cat, Bengal Cat, Sphynx
Cat, etc. Thus, the teacher should think about the related concept with the selected
ones. After selecting the concept to be learned, teachers should write a definition
clearly to define the selected concepts (Gunter et al. 2003). In textbooks and on the
internet, teachers could find many various definitions for a specific concept. By
critically examining many trustworthy definitions of others the teacher should
define the concept with her/his own words.
Step 2—Selecting the attributes. After selecting and defining the concept(s) the
teacher should clearly identify the defining attributes of each concept (Gunter et al.
2003). Hunter (1994, p. 68) states this as “critical attributes or functions of the
concept that make that concept what it is”. These attributes, which show the
placement of the concept in the conceptual category, help students determine the
members of a given concept (Gunter et al. 2003; Hunter 1994). For example,
defining attributes of the cylinder are listed as; a geometric solid, having two
circular bases, bases being parallel, a rectangular side rounding and connecting two
bases, having an axis joining the center of the bases (http://www.mathopenref.com/
cylinder.html).
Step 3—Developing examples and non-examples. For the third step, teachers
should develop as many examples and non-examples as possible (Gunter et al.
2003). Examples could be drawn on the whiteboard; three-dimensional models can
be prepared, pictures or photographs can be drawn or taken, or other real objects
can be provided if possible. All the examples should have the critical or essential
attributes of the concepts, and the negative examples should not include all the
essential ones (Gunter et al. 2003). This step requires teachers to develop and
organize materials in order to present and sequence positive and negative examples
of a concept carefully (Joyce et al. 2004).
Step 4—Introducing the concept attainment process to the students. The first
three steps are for teachers’ preparations for the concept teaching. During the
teaching-learning process, the teacher should first inform students about the concept
attainment model. Gunter et al. (2003) advise teachers to introduce this activity as a
concept game. A teacher might tell the students the following: “We will play a
concept game. I will divide the board into two columns, write and/or show you
positive and negative examples of a secret concept. Your job is to infer the critical
or essential attributes of the secret concept by analyzing the examples in two
columns. If you need, I will present additional examples until you find out all the
essential attributes that the secret concept has. You must find all the common
attributes that the positive examples have. Then you can guess the name of the
concept and define it in your own words.” The teacher should prepare all the
materials and be ready for recording/or writing what the students will infer
regarding the attributes of the secret concept.
Step 5—Presenting the examples and listing the attributes. The teacher presents
examples and negative examples of a concept decided by her/him before the course
(Joyce et al. 2004). She/he could write on the chalk/whiteboard, draw its shape,
show picture, video, model or a real object. Firstly, one of the positive examples is
presented. Students’ are asked to list the attributes of the presented example. The
teacher should write or record all the attributes that students have inferred and make
the list seen by all of the students in the classroom. Then the second example is
presented. Students again try to say the attributes of the second example. If any of
the attributes in the list is not restated for the second example, it is crossed out (not
erased to help students see and understand the process) (Gunter et al. 2003).
Meanwhile, negative examples, which do not have all of the essential attributes, are
also presented. The process continues until the students list all of the essential
attributes of the secret concept.
Step 6—Developing a concept definition. After finding out the essential attributes
of the concept, students could guess its name or first define the concept in their
words by selecting help from the list of attributes (Gunter et al. 2003). The teacher
should be patient, encourage and motive the students to define the concept. She/he
might conduct various teaching methods in this step to help student define the
concept. For example, the teacher might let students work in pairs and generate a
shared definition. This step could take more time, but the teacher should keep in
mind the objective is not only generating a definition but also engaging students in
this learning process as much as possible (Gunter et al. 2003).
Step 7—Giving additional examples. After generating an acceptable definition,
which includes the essential attributes of the concept, the teacher could provide
additional examples to test the definition and ask students to tell, draw or show their
examples for the same concept (Gunter et al. 2003). Additional examples provided
by the students are very important for more meaningful learning because by doing
so students will link the new concept with their previous learnings. In this step,
subordinate, coordinate and superordinate concepts can also be asked to the student
to bound new concept into a suitable place in their conceptual organization in their
minds.
Step 8—Discussing the process with the students. In this step, teacher and stu-
dents should discuss the process from beginning to the end to help the students
discover their thinking process. If the students become aware of their thinking
process, this might help prospective learning experiences. Teachers should ask how
they find essential attributes, at which points, which examples helped best (Gunter
et al. 2003).
Step 9—Evaluating. The last step helps the teacher understand if the students
have processed the objectives. The teacher might ask students additional positive
and negative examples of the concepts, or ask broader or expanded definition by
providing another set of examples, and regularly check for retention (Gunter et al.
2003). The teacher might also request students to use concepts in sentences, and/or
find related other similar concepts and a very uncommon example for the concept.
In this model, both teachers and students are active during the teaching-learning
process. Teachers’ preparations before the course have crucial importance because
the process will be based on these previously prepared materials which include
examples and their sequence. During the teaching process, the functions of a tea-
cher are recording the students’ inferences from the examples and non-examples,
providing cues and presenting additional positive and negative examples (Joyce
et al. 2004). Besides, students are more active than the teacher during the process
since they should analyze the presented examples, deduce attributes, guess the
concept and define it in their words. Students could also work in groups to expe-
rience cooperative learning. In some occasions, teachers could provide a positive
and negative example as one set; students could separate them (Gunter et al. 2003).
The activities students should conduct to learn a concept might be more challenging
for young children. Therefore, teachers should select relatively simpler concepts
and examples for young children and conduct much more teacher-centered and
shorter lessons (Joyce et al. 2004). Kilbane and Milman (2014) suggest this model
when teaching the concepts which have critical attributes and if the teacher could
identify and share high-quality examples of these concepts.
1.3.3 Synectics: Teaching Creative Thinking
Developing important skills like creativity, intelligence and problem solving is seen
as important for individuals, educators, psychologists and the society (Maker et al.
2008). Among these, creativity has crucial importance for individuals to meet the
needs of today’s world. Creativity as one of the higher order thinking skills is
generally seen as an innate ability that few people have. Though creativity is a very
special ability of some talented individuals, what about the others? Can they
develop their creative thinking skills? According to Özden (2003), the answer is yes
as everyone can develop her/his creativity potential in the borders of genetics.
Torrance (1972) believed that teaching children creative thinking is possible and
there are a variety of ways for doing so. Education can help individuals to
accomplish this, enhance their creativity potential to the highest level. As
Karwowski and Soszynski emphasize (2008, p. 163) the essence of educational
programs for ensuring “the fullest possibilities of the development of their partic-
ipants’ creative potential.”
Creativity potential requires creative thinking to reveal creative products such as
a poem, a story, paintings, machine, etc. Creative thinking is defined as “putting
together information to come up with a whole new understanding, concept, or idea”
(Moore 2009, p. 226). While some students can develop their thinking skills
without any assistance, most need the guidance of their teachers and parents (Moore
2009).
For one of my blended course about teaching methods, I organized activity on
asynchronous forum discussion called “sharing new and creative ideas related to the
course topics”. During the first weeks of the activity, no students shared a new idea,
and thus I decided to talk regularly about the importance and value of creativity in
face-to-face classroom lessons, and appreciated the students who shared any cre-
ative new ideas. Fortunately, this worked, and more students began to compose new
messages to share their creative ideas. On the other hand, informing students about
the value of creativity and providing them a very flexible sharing platform (such as
7/24 available forum environment or weblog) may not be enough for most cases.
According to Moore (2009), teachers cannot teach their students “how to be cre-
ative”, but they could conduct some activities that enhance creative thinking.
Brainstorming, role playing-improvisation, imagination, and synectics are some
ways that teachers might follow while they design learning activities for creativity.
In the next section, synectics, a teaching model of developing creative capacity is
explained briefly.
Coming from corporate groups which have emerged as various forms over the
years, Synectics was adapted by Gordon and associates for classroom use in the
1960s (Dell’Olio and Donk 2007). The term synectics has two Greek roots: syn
(bring together) and ektos (diverse elements/forces) (Nolan 2003; Weaver and
Prince 1990), which means “joining of different and apparently irrelevant elements”
(Gordon 1961, p. 3). Gordon (1961) highlights the use of synectics for
problem-stating, problem-solving situations (he uses them together) to increase the
probability of success in means of technical or artistic inventions as results.
Synectics model of teaching requires consciously using the preconscious psycho-
logical mechanisms in individuals’ creative activity (Gordon 1961).
The mechanisms that Gordon states in his model are various analogies and
metaphors it was designed for increasing problem-solving, creativity, empathy and
social relations (Joyce et al. 2004). The basic idea of this model is putting various
analogies side by side so that dissimilar things can be compared (Dell’Olio and
Donk 2007). Gordon lists them as a personal analogy, direct analogy, symbolic
analogy and fantasy analogy for making the familiar strange (Gordon 1961). In the
book of Joyce et al. (2004) three types of analogy are explained:
• Direct Analogy: Direct analogy requires comparison of two ideas, concepts or
objects. For example, Earth and Orange, Hearth, and Apple, Computer main-
board and highway.
• Personal Analogy: This analogy requires empathizing with ideas, objects, and
concepts, losing self, and describing the feelings. For example: How I feel if I
am an orange.
• Compressed Conflict: This analogy requires finding conflicting pairs such as
stranger friend, sweet salt, coward hero, helpful enemy, healer poison.
Joyce et al. (2004) highlight the stretching exercise for each type of analogy as
warm-up activities of the creative thinking process. These previous warm-up
activities could start with asking questions related to three types of analogies:
Direct Analogies
“How the Earth looks like orange?”
“How computer mainboard is like highway.”

“a teacher is like … what will you write in the blank?”
Personal Analogies
“Be a highway, what are you doing? How do you fell?”
“Be a motorcycle, where are you going? How do you fell when your wheels round
and round?”
“Be a flower in the garden. What do you do when a bee lands on you?”
Compressed Conflicts
“How is a soldier hero and coward?”
“How can you describe sweet salt?”
“Which animal is a stranger and a friend?”
After conducting a warm-up activity by asking questions related to three types of
analogies, a teacher could progress to implementation of synectics in order to help
students create new things or making the strange things look more familiar (Joyce
et al. 2004), which Gordon (1961) explains “making the strange familiar and
making the familiar strange”. In this unit, the steps of synectics model for making
the familiar strange is explained. It is a way for viewing a known problem in a new
way, and “the conscious attempt to achieve a new look at the same old world,
people, ideas, feelings, and things” (Gordon 1961, p. 34). The steps of making the
familiar strange are the following (Gunter et al. 2003, p. 137):
1. Describing the topic
2. Creating direct analogies
3. Describing personal analogies
4. Identifying compressed conflicts
5. Creating a new direct analogy
6. Reexamining the original topic
7. Evaluating the process.
Step 1—Describing the topic. The process starts with describing a familiar topic,
such as a concept, an animal, and a machine, selected by the teacher and/or stu-
dents. Students describe the topic in their words aloud or write their descriptions in
their notebooks. For the pre-school age students, students could describe the topic,
and the teacher writes their descriptions, or they could draw a picture of the topic,
which they know before. Appreciating all of the answers and not evaluating stu-
dents are very important for the sake of creating a friendly atmosphere which
supports creativity.
The familiar topic might be “forest”. The objective might be writing an essay on
the forest. It is better to formulate the task as a problem: “How can we write an
interesting story about the forest?” But at first, the teacher should ask students to
describe forest. Students might describe this concept as “full of trees”, “green land”,
“full of oxygen”, “various life-forms”, “useful ecosystem”, “important life source”,
“relaxing”, “trekking”. The teacher should write all of the descriptions on the
chalkboard.
Step 2—Creating direct analogies. In the second step, teacher guide students to
form direct analogies with the descriptions on the chalkboard remained from the
first step and an unrelated thing. Continuing from the example in the previous step,
the teacher could ask the student to form an analogy with the description of forest
and an object, plant or animal: “What do the words on the board remind you? And
why?” The teacher tries to take all of the views and writes them to a place each
student can see. Students might form the below analogies:
“Aquarium, because big aquariums are green and contain various life-forms.”
“Waterbed, because it is very relaxing.”
“Spruce tree, because it gives lots of oxygen and is a home of various animals and
insects.”
“Koala, because it is relaxing all the time on a tree.”
“Bicycle, because it is better than trekking and, it is relaxing, it is important for
healthy life, and useful for the ecosystem.”
With the guidance of the teacher, students might vote analogies and select one,
or they might consider more than one analogy. It might be better to select more
divergent analogy to increase its distance from the topic. Throughout the activity,
direct analogies must stay on the chalkboard.
Step 3—Describing personal analogies. In this step, students empathize with the
object, animal, or something else in the previous step, and describe her/his feelings.
The teacher should encourage each student to express feelings and be careful not to
evaluate any students. Continuing from the previous step, students might express
their feelings as the following:
“I am a koala, I feel sleepy; I am the luckiest creature of the world.”
“I can imagine being a water bed, it is very annoying to imagine someone lying to
me, the water inside me changes its place occasionally and this makes me angry.”
“I am now a bicycle, my wheels rounds very fast on the smooth way, I am very
happy because I am going very fast.”
“I want to be a spruce tree, I fell peaceful because many small birds are singing their
songs on me, the wind blows, and my leafs dances with the wind accompanying to
the song of the birds. I feel very happy.”
If they select only one direct analogy from the previous list, this might encourage
their creativity more because each student will express various feelings about one
analogy by taking its various aspects. The teacher should write all of the expres-
sions of the students in a place where each student can easily see. They will use
these sentences for the next step.
Step 4—Identifying compressed conflicts. This step is stated to be most exciting
and important step of the model (Gunter et al. 2003). Teacher asks the student to
select two words which conflict or fight each other by examining the feeling list of
the previous step. The teacher should write all of the conflicting pairs and give a
chance to each student for stating her/his pairs. Students might state the following
according to the list of the previous step:
“Sleepy and fast.”
“Angry and happy.”
“Peaceful and annoying.”
Step 5—Creating a new direct analogy. This step resembles step two but this
time, the new analogies are asked by considering the conflicting pairs of the pre-
vious step. Students might vote on the pairs and choose the one to produce more
direct analogies, or try to form many analogies by using more than one conflicting
pairs. Continuing from the previous example, students might state the analogies
below:
For “sleepy and fast”:
– A Formula1 pilot stayed up late at the previous night of the race.
– A rabbit is racing with a turtle.
– A boat in rough sea.
For “angry and happy”:
– A dishwasher; angry when it is full of dirty dishes and waiting to be turned on,
happy when it is washing all the dishes.
– An eagle; trying to catch a lizard.
– A baby; crying for no reason in the arms of his mom.
For “peaceful and annoying”:
– A Greenpeace act in front of a parliament building.
– Moth insect; it is peaceful and annoying.
– Eating chocolates
Step 6—Re-examining the original topic. The teacher helps students return to the
starting point, the topic of the first step, and ask students to select a direct analogy
from the list of the previous step. In this step, the teacher asks students to compare
the original topic with the selected direct analogy. For instance, if the students select
moth insect, the teacher asks students to describe a forest considering the moth
insect after describing it. Students might state the following about the moth insect:
“It looks like a colorless butterfly”, “It flies at nights”, “It doesn’t harm anyone”, “it
is a flying insect”, “and birds eat them”.
After describing the moth insect, students could try to compare the forest and
moth insect, and state what they have imagined about these two:
“Forest have had lots of moth insects.”
“Forest is like moth insects because it does not harm anyone, it is a natural beauty,
it provides food.”
“A little moth insect is lost in the forest.”
The teacher should welcome all of the views stated by the students and if
possible write them on a flipchart so that students can see them while they are
studying on the problem. The task or problem, which has been stated in the first
step, is presented again; in this example, writing an interesting story about the
forest. Until the sixth step, the teacher tries to increase the distance between the
original topic and the analogies to enrich vocabulary, analogies, and their imaginary
world. In the sixth step, students could take help from all of the sentences and
words written on the chalkboard and flipcharts throughout the process, or continue
with the last analogy, in this case, “forest and moth insect”, for accomplishing the
task of the first step.
Step 7—Evaluating the process. In the last step, the teacher asks students to
express their thoughts about the process (Gunter et al. 2003). Small group dis-
cussion activities might be conducted to help students express their feelings and
thoughts freely in groups. The activity might be found irrational or of no value
especially for elder students. In this case, the importance of analogies for creative
thinking and the richness of the process could be highlighted and explained before
and after the process.
Synectics could be used at all educational levels (Gunter et al. 2003; Joyce et al.
2004; Dell’Olio and Donk 2007). It helps students enhance their creative thinking
skills by directing them to use their imagination with the help of various analogies.
With the use of synectics, students could progress from analyzing the problems to
generating many new ideas for problem solving (Weaver and Prince 1990).
Students could see the familiar topics from very different aspects that they did not
consider before. Gordon (1961) states that use of apparent irrelevancies helps to
generate energy for problem solving and new viewpoints related to the problem.
The model could be used for increasing students’ creative writing skills, exploring
social problems, solving problems by using different strategies, designing a new
product, broadening the perspectives of a concept (Joyce et al. 2004). Indeed,
students are actively involved in the learning process by seeking, exploring and
making sense of the information (Dell’Olio and Donk 2007). As educators, we
could also use more contemporary techniques of synectics and can adapt the
techniques to online learning environment if we are pressed for time for synectics in
face-to-face lessons.
1.4 Social-Interaction Models of Teaching
Individuals interact with their surroundings during the learning process, and these
interactions are seen as one of the important factors that enhance learning (Arbaugh
2000; Arbaugh and Benbunan-Fish 2007; Bilen 2002; LaPointe and Gunawardena
2004; Picciano 2002; Rovai and Barnum 2003; Senemoğlu 2002; Sher 2009;
Şimşek 2000). In school settings, students may interact with teachers, other stu-
dents, learning materials, contents of the courses, media, etc. Student-student and
student-teacher interactions could be grouped as social interactions of the students
during teaching-learning processes. There are various teaching models and strate-
gies that accomplish these two types of social interactions. These models emphasize
“how we learn social behavior and how social interactions can enhance academic
learning” (Joyce et al. 2004, p. 204). In this section, cooperative learning and
Toulmin’s model of argumentation, two models for enhancing social interactions
and learning of the students, are explained briefly.
1.4.1 Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning, which was developed by Dewey, Vygotsky, and Slavin and
takes roots from the cognitivist theory of learning and democracy in the classroom
(Sönmez 2007), enriches student-student interactions and contribute to the learning
process (Slavin 1995; Gülbahar 2009). It is seen to be the most important social
skill a student should have because of its importance in family, leisure activities, in
future work experiences (Gunter et al. 2003). To conduct cooperative learning in
the classroom, students form small groups; then they decide how to achieve the
objectives or learn the content; each student takes her/his responsibility, studies
accordingly, and helps others to learn (Özer 2008; Saban 2002).
Cooperative learning groups are heterogeneous, though there are times when
students with similar ability work in a group. Heterogeneous groups in which
students have a diverse background and abilities appear to have advantages
(Johnson and Johnson 1999). Students are assigned to groups depending on such
(not limited to) variables: gender, multiple intelligence, ethnicity, social consider-
ations, special needs, and internet usage (Mandel 2003). Moore (2009, p. 2003)
calls cooperative learning groups “mixed-ability groups in accomplishing a set of
tasks”. On the other hand, if only academic performance will be considered for
group formation, Kagan and Kagan (1999) advise caution when it comes to always
using heterogeneous groups because high achievers will never interact in the same
group.
The size of the group is another consideration worth reflecting on while forming
groups. According to the Johnson and Johnson (1999), the smaller is preferable,
typically two to four student in one group. Kagan and Kagan (1999) suggest four
students in each group. According to Mandel (2003), four to six students in one
group is more preferable. However, Johnson and Johnson (1999) criticize forming
groups including four, five, and six members before the students have the required
skills for cooperation. When the size of the group increases and some students work
hard, others might rely on the hardworking ones, and managing the cooperative
learning process might become more difficult for students and the teacher. Kagan
and Kagan (1999) also stress the difficulty of participation in large groups (groups
including more than four members) and managing group tasks. If the population of
the class is more than 20, assigning five to six students in one group might be a
necessity. In this case, role assigning might help them reach the shared goal of the
group. Assigning specific roles to the members such as recorder, encourager,
captain, reporter, etc. might encourage participation and cooperation if the roles
support the objectives and students understand their roles (Moore 2009).
Meanwhile, each student in a group might take on different roles and responsibil-
ities, but the load on each member should be ideally equal.
Cooperative learning groups require more components than regular groups of
students which sit together but learn individually (Saban 2002). In cooperative
learning groups, students help each other, conduct discussions, assess the knowl-
edge of other members of the group, and help each other’s understanding (Slavin
1995). The difference of cooperative learning groups is a set of components that
makes a regular group work as a cooperative learning group. These components are
the following (Johnson and Johnson 1999):
• Positive Interdependence
• Individual and Group Accountability
• Social Skills
• Promotive Interaction
• Group Processing.
Positive interdependence is perceived as the heart and core component of the
cooperative learning groups (Baloche 1998; Johnson and Johnson 1999). When
positive interdependence is accomplished, the efforts of each group members
contribute to the success of the group as a whole (Baloche 1998). The members of
the group should believe that they “sink or swim together”, and abide with the
slogan as “we, not me”, and “all for one and one for all” (Johnson and Johnson
1999). Positive interdependence develops “whenever a gain for one means a gain
for another” (Kagan and Kagan 1999). Nine types of positive interdependence are
stated (Baloche 1998, p. 117; Johnson and Johnson 1999, p. 77): Goal, resource,
role, identity, sequence, fantasy or simulation, outside-force, environmental, and
celebration interdependence. Among these interdependence ways, goal interde-
pendence might be the most important one for cooperative learning. Johnson and
Johnson (1999, p. 5) states that “cooperation is working together to accomplish
shared goals”. Resource interdependence requires sharing a set of resources or
having resources which help each group member reach the goal of their group. Role
interdependence means various supplementary, interconnected roles to group
members. Identity interdependence is helpful for feeling a commitment to the group
through naming it, writing a slogan, motto, composing a song or designing a flag
for their group. Sequence or task interdependence refers to sequential subtasks of
the group to be completed at specific dates. Another way for positive interdepen-
dence is fantasy interdependence. Group members might act their roles as if they
are in a hypothetical scenario, for instance, during laboratory experiments the group
might imagine themselves as they are trying to develop a drug for a disease.
Outside-force interdependence might occur when the group is trying to finish rel-
atively easier tasks in limited time, or each member competes against own indi-
vidual scores, only if the class has a strong sense of community. Environmental
interdependence means arranging where and how to sit or stand during group
works. As the last interdependence type, celebration interdependence occurs when

each member of the group shares a common incentives or celebration when they
achieved the task of the group or reach the group’s goal (Baloche 1998; Johnson
and Johnson 1999).
Individual accountability requires assigning specific responsibilities to each
member in a group and assessing individual performance. When the individual
accountability is sustained, the “free-rider effect” is also eliminated because each
student knows his/her individual effort and success will be considered by the tea-
cher and other members of the group. Slavin (1995) explains “free-rider effect”, in
which while some group members do all or most of the work, others go along
without less involvement. Johnson and Johnson (1999) suggest some ways for
ensuring individual accountabilities, such as keeping the size of the group small,
testing the students individually, conducting individual oral examinations,
observing individual progress of each member, having students teach other mem-
bers of the group, having students apply what they learn to different problems.
Group accountability exists when the overall performance of the group as a whole
is assessed (Johnson and Johnson 1999). Group accountability helps student
enhance positive interdependence. Introducing both individual and group
accountability might enhance the effective cooperative learning process.
Social skills refer to interpersonal and teamwork skills that are required for
successful cooperative learning groups. These skills are also helpful for intergroup
cooperation which refers to cooperation between groups in the classroom or school.
Teachers must teach the students interpersonal skills that they need while working
with each other effectively (Johnson and Johnson 1999). Without these skills,
students cannot accomplish the task of the group and reach the goal.
Promotive interaction exists when the group members meet regularly to com-
plete the tasks and promote the success of each other (Johnson and Johnson 1999).
Face-to-face interactions are valuable for many reasons and more preferable.
However, if conducting face-to-face meetings regularly and working together are
not possible, at that times synchronous and asynchronous Web 2.0. tools, such as
instant messaging, e-mail lists, forums, and weblogs might be used. Face-to-face or
online, each meeting must be arranged, and each member must attend the meetings.
Group processing requires reflecting on how the group is functioning (Johnson
and Johnson 1999). In each group meeting, group members should review their
responsibilities, ongoing and completed subtasks, pitfalls of their group work, and
try to solve the problems. The aim of group processing is to improve the effec-
tiveness of each member of a group. The teacher should also observe the group
process and provide reflection preferable after the students’ reflections. One of the
difficult tasks of teachers while guiding cooperative learning process is following
each group process. Occasionally participating in group meetings and filling the
observation forms, interviewing with the randomly selected members of a group,
collecting information from peer, group and self-assessment forms, cooperating
with parents, asking for video or voice records of the group meetings, asking for
photographs which reflects the group process, asking students to write journals on
group work might help teachers guide the group process.
If the above-mentioned components are not considered during cooperative

learning, cooperative learning process might be a very annoying process for some
smart students. Avoiding “free-rider effect” might be accomplished by preparing
materials before the class, clearly conveying the expectations from cooperative
works to the students, assigning specific roles to members of the group, and
structuring the process.
Structuring the cooperative learning process requires planning the process in
detail and conducting cooperative learning through well-defined methods or tech-
niques. Slavin (1995, p. 2) defines cooperative learning as “a variety of teaching
methods in which students work in small groups to help one another learn academic
content”. In this section, these various methods of cooperative learning are referred
to as “teaching techniques for cooperative learning”, which helps teacher structure a
cooperative learning process. Some of the teaching techniques cited in the literature
for cooperative learning are the following (Slavin 1995; Slavin and Madden 1999;
Sherman 1999; Kagan and Kagan 1999; Johnson and Johnson 1999; Gunter et al.
2003; Moore 2009; Özer 2008):
• Jigsaw
• Group Investigation
• Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD)
• Teams-Games-Tournaments (TGT)
• Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC)
• Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI)
• Peer Tutoring
• Three-Step Interview
• Graffiti
• Think, Pair and Share
• Rotation Learning Centers
• Co-op Co-op
• Color-Coded Co-op Cards
• Role Play
• Reciprocal Questioning.
Among the various techniques for cooperative learning, it might be difficult to
select the best technique for a lesson. The aim and objectives of the course, topic,
the needs of the students, and allocated time for the cooperative learning activity,
the inclination of the teacher, and media and materials at hand might affect that
choice. Teachers might also select the techniques with the cooperation of the stu-
dents or on their own before the course. In each case, they should check for their
knowledge linked with cooperative learning, prepare the required materials for each
proposed or selected techniques and plan the lesson before the cooperative learning
process. According to the selected technique of the cooperative learning, the steps
of conducting it changes in detail. However, Sönmez (2007) lists general steps of
cooperative learning, which run parallel to the steps of group investigation that
directs students working in small groups to solve a problem or design a project and
requires assessments based on the final projects of the groups (Kauchak and Eggen
1989). The general steps of cooperative learning according to Sönmez (2007) are
the following:
1. Select the content, determine subtopics
2. Plan for cooperative learning
3. Study for cooperative learning
4. Analyze and synthesize, plan the presentation
5. Present the process and the results
6. Assessment.
Step 1—Select the content, determine the subtopics. According to the objectives
of the lesson, the teacher should select the content of the course with its sub-topics.
For example, if the content is “oceans” in Geography course, the teacher should
select the sub-topics, Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Antarctic
Ocean, Arctic Ocean, and the related information for each decided according to the
educational levels of the students and the objectives of the lesson. The teacher
should also prepare the sources (print or electronic) for the content of the lesson,
and bring them to the classroom or inform the students about bringing the required
sources of information with them to the classroom. Cooperative learning requires
students to form a small group before or after informing students about the
objectives and the content of the lesson. Each student in groups (as in the jigsaw
technique), or group of students as a whole select the subtopics that they are
interested in.
Step 2—Plan for cooperative learning. The second step is planning the process
with the participation of the students in a democratic way. The teacher might
suggest two or more cooperative learning techniques and students could select one
by voting, or the teacher might come to the classroom with related materials of only
one technique. After deciding the cooperative learning technique, students share the
responsibilities within each group, collect the sources of information, plan the
details of the process, decide how to analyze the findings, how to synthesize all of
the information that they have, select a group leader and speaker, etc. Students can
plan all these only if the teacher informs them about the process before the activity
in detail; her/his expectations from them, allocated time for the activity, evaluation
tools for process and the outcomes, sources of information that are welcomed, and
the criteria of the expected products as a result of cooperative learning activity.
Informing students about these important aspects of the cooperative learning pro-
cess requires teachers to be prepared before the lesson. As a last decision of the
planning phase, students might decide how to present the results.
Step 3—Study for cooperative learning. Cooperative learning process might take
one or more lesson hours or continue after the schools and last for one or more
weeks later. The allocated time is changeable according to the task of the coop-
erative learning activity. During the process, a class hour or couple of weeks,
student searches information in library or databases, conducts observations and/or
interview with responsible agents for collecting data, informs group members and
the teacher about how the studies go on, solves the problems or seeks help in order
to fulfill the responsibilities decided in the planning step. In cooperative learning,
students are responsible for their peers’ learning in a group. Thus, each student
should give information to other group members about each step of her study.
During the third step, the teacher should collect information about the responsibility
of each student within a group, their study plan and follow the groups. In-class
activities are somehow more manageable for a teacher in terms of following the
studies of the groups; however, more large-scale cooperative learning task might
require cooperation with the parents and other teachers in addition to the students. If
the groups select groups leader, leaders also follow the members and guide the
group work.
Step 4—Analyze and synthesize, plan the presentation. After collecting the
required information from pre-decided sources, each group should analyze the
whole data and derive findings. Students might be a novice in analyzing various
types of data, and thus the teacher should guide them during data analysis
step. Each student in a group might analyze a piece of data or data analysis might be
conducted within the group via cooperation. The latter might be more meaningful
for cooperative learning because each student is responsible for others’ learning.
Besides, more than one student participating in analysis of a piece of information
increases the reliability of the findings. As the second task of the fourth step, a
group of students collects all the finding as a written report ready for presentation.
Groups might prepare a poster, electronic presentation material, or a web page by
using free weblog services according to their decision and teacher’s expectations
related to presentation method to present their report on cooperative work process
and the results.
Step 5—Presenting the process and the results. The teacher should allocate
enough class hours for presentation of the results. According to the selected pre-
sentation method, each group presents their cooperative learning process and the
results they reached. Regarding the process, groups might present information
about the responsibilities of each member of the group, data sources, data analysis
techniques, problems they came across, how they solved problems, whom or where
they asked for help, how they manage the process, etc. Group leaders or speakers
might present the process, and results, or each member of the group might present
one part of their reports. After the presentation of a group, other groups, and the
teacher ask questions to the presenting group. A panel discussion session might also
be organized for presentations, and if enough time could be allocated to each group,
and the members of the group constitute the panelists.
Step 6—Assessment. The teacher should evaluate each student and each group if
cooperative learning activity is organized (Sönmez 2007). More holistic approaches
should be considered for the assessment step of the cooperative learning. Not only
the outcomes of the cooperative learning but also the process should be assessed by
using more authentic assessment methods and tools. Self-assessment,
peer-assessment, group assessment methods are included with specially designed
rubrics or form and predefined criteria. In-class observations could be conducted by
teachers to collect information about cooperative learning process by using
specially designed observation forms and interviews might be conducted with

randomly selected members of the groups about the studies of a group. Mandel
(2003) recommends caution for being fair while assessing the cooperative learning
process and outcomes and suggests collecting information from teacher observa-
tions, anecdotal evidence, debriefing sessions with the groups and by asking
questions to the students within the group. Furthermore, it is better to measure
individual learning outcomes besides group achievement level by using achieve-
ment tests or essay type exams, both of which include all the objectives of the
lesson. As such, all of the students in the classroom are expected to learn all of the
topics studied by various groups. The previous step of cooperative learning, step
five, and presented reports (as posters, blog pages, office files) of the groups help
students learn the other topics studied by other groups. In addition to the
achievement, non-cognitive outcomes, such as self-esteem, attitudes towards the
course, cooperative learning skills, might be measured.
Cooperative learning involves students working cooperatively in small,
mixed-ability groups to achieve specific instructional aims through supporting and
helping each other during the learning process (Burden and Byrd 2003).
Cooperative learning presents an increase in the academic achievement of the
students (Gunter et al. 2003). Apart from academic achievement, cooperative
learning process helps students develop their social skills, understand the impor-
tance of fulfilling responsibilities, enjoy learning and teaching from peers, conduct
investigations, etc. As Slavin (1995) states, cooperative learning is an important
way of gaining a variety of affective and interpersonal outcomes, besides those
academic. When students study together during the cooperative learning process,
they help other members of their group or other groups and develop self-direction
and responsibility for their learning (Sharan and Sharan 1999). Indeed, cooperative
learning provides students sense of being accepted, cohesiveness among them,
more interpersonal liking, and trust (Kauchak and Eggen 1989). Designing lessons
according to cooperative learning also help teachers become more student-centered
and less tied to lecture methods, transmission of the content to the students (Sharan
1999), and bypass rote learning.
1.4.2 Toulmin’s Model of Argumentation
Stephen E. Toulmin’s model of argumentation, which is a dynamic, interactive and

social process, helps individuals while they are putting forward a claim and/or
challenge the others’ in everyday reasoning. Toulmin’s model of argumentation,
which helps students develop and organize ideas, is based on a model of law;
making a claim, giving grounds that supports the claim and its warrant (Karbach
1987). Hence, this model falls under the social interaction models of teaching.
Teachers should teach students how to ground and support their assertions.
Toulmin (1990) identifies three basic elements in an argument as a result of his
analysis of arguments of various fields:
• Claim
• Grounds
• Warrant
The claim, as a basic purpose of an argument, can be an assertion, standard or
thesis (Karbach 1987). An individual who puts forward a claim desires his state-
ment to be taken seriously (Toulmin 1990). The claim acts as the conclusion a
person reaches. Although taking a claim seriously or not depends on many cir-
cumstances, such as the reliability, status, and experiences of the owner of that
claim, it is mostly affected by how well that person supports his claim. To support a
claim, evidence-based data is needed as grounds. Grounds, the foundation of the
argument, are evidence or facts that support the claim (Karbach 1987).
A claim: “The weather will rain”.
Ground: “The sky is covered with dark clouds.”
The supporting data of the above example grounds the claim “the weather will
rain”. On many occasions, one can take this claim seriously because of its ground.
However, sometimes the provided data might not be convincing or enough to take
the claim seriously because one might not be able to relate grounds and the claim.
For such cases, Toulmin identifies another element, namely, warrant. A warrant is
used to link the claim and grounds by providing grounds general support (Karbach
1987). Warrants are “general, hypothetical statements” (Toulmin 1990, p. 98) that
make the claim legitimate by providing a kind of bridge between the data and the
conclusion. “Warrant (W) is itself neither a datum (D) nor a claim (C), since it
implies in itself something about both D and C-namely, that step from one to the
other is legitimate” (Toulmin 1990, p. 101). The presented data for supporting the
claim acts as variables which might be accepted in the scope of the warrant
(Carofiglio and de Rosis 2003) that links the data and claim.
Warrant: “When the sky becomes covered with dark clouds, the weather will rain.”
During any kind of reasoning, deductive, inductive or analogical, the simple
claim-ground-warrant structure of argumentation could be identified (Karbach
1987). The dialogue below between Ozan and his mother also exemplifies three
basic elements in everyday reasoning:
Ozan: Mummy, my little sister, is getting sick. [Ozan expresses his claim.]
Mother: How do you know this Ozan?
Ozan: She has sneezed three times. Sneezing is one of the signals of being sick. [Ozan
presents his ground for the claim and links the ground and claim with the warrant.]
Apart from three main elements, Toulmin distinguishes three other elements in
arguments:
• Qualifier
• Rebuttals
• Backings
Qualifiers (Q), which are models, indicate the strength that results from the
presence of the warrant, whereas rebuttal (R) indicates “the circumstances in which
the general authority of the warrant has to be set aside” (Toulmin 1990, p. 101). It
might be still not enough to present these five elements to make the challenger
satisfied. As Toulmin underlines caution, he might question the general accept-
ability of the warrant and asks for other assurances, what Toulmin refers to as
backing (B). “In case the warrant itself is challenged, its backing can be put in”
(Toulmin 1990, p. 105). Therefore, the backing increases the reliability and the
relevance of the warrant (Karbach 1987). Toulmin shows the place of qualifies
beside the claim and the exceptional condition, rebuttal, are placed just below the
qualifier. The backing takes its place below the warrant.
These six elements of an argument can be symbolized by revisiting Ozan’s claim
like the following:
D Q C
My little sister has So, My little sister
sneezed three times is getting sick
Since
Unless
Sneezing is one of She is allergic

W the signals of being to something
sick.
R
On account
B
Experiences of the people
Clark (1991, p. 38) proposes to read the elements of Toulmin’s argumentation

as: “Grounds, so qualified claim, unless rebuttal, since warrant, on account of
backing”.
Thought to analyze the structure of arguments generally feature in everyday
reasoning, mostly perceived as a task devoted to philosophers, Toulmin (2003)
stresses the necessity of such reasoning in everyday arguments.
It might be coercive to propose a step by step approach to using the model
presented in the Toulmin’s book, The Uses of Arguments (first published in 1958) in
education since there are no standards for argumentation process, it changes
according to the context (Fettahlıoğlu 2013). Albeit, teachers, should first help
students understand the structure of an argument. Thus, teaching argumentation
could start with the analysis of the structure of various arguments. Then, students
could build their arguments and get ready to challenge the others’ (Karbach 1987).
Since the students need to practice the model continuously in the classroom, teachers
might design various learning activities such as (but not limited to) role playing, pair
discussions, small group discussions, and debate. During each activity, teachers
should encourage students to question themselves and each other while they are
presenting grounds and warrants for their claims and using rebuttals, qualifiers, and
backings reasonably. A science teacher especially could benefit from this model.
According to Sağır and Kılıç (2012), science teachers do not direct the class to
conduct argumentation rather they act as an authority who provide the right answer.
Similarly, Osborne et al. (2001) point the monolog while transmitting arguments to
students. According to them, students cannot question the arguments of the teacher
because they lack the resources for challenging him/her. To avoid such approaches
for science teaching, teachers could conduct discussion sessions and guide students
to challenge the presented arguments and structure their own ones.
1.5 A Model of Teaching Related with the Affective

Domain
Instructional aims related to motivation, perseverance, cooperation, and other

behaviors related to attitudes and values are classified in the affective domain,
which is concerned with the heart (Kauchak and Eggen 1989). Implicitly or
explicitly, teachers design learning activities targeting students’ motivation,
self-esteem, self-confidence, attitudes, anxiety, and values, such as democracy,
respect, integrity, honesty, and open-minded. If teachers could change these
affective variables in a positive way, they might also change the behaviors of the
students.
Among the effective attributes, values have an important place because our
behaviors are generally affected by our own values. Students need to become
conscious of the values that direct their behaviors and learn to criticize those values
by analyzing their consequences (Shaftel and Shaftel 1967). What portion of school
learning should be devoted to this need changes according to the philosophical
background of the curriculum, and consequently stated educational goals. Kauchak
and Eggen (1989) state three value positions in education: value-free curriculum,
value clarification, and value-explicit curriculum. Value-free curriculum supporters
claim that school only serve for the intellectual development, and there is no
consensus on the values. On the other hand, the value-explicit curriculum
emphasizes position on the importance of teaching fundamental or universal values.
Value clarification is in the middle of these two and aggresses with teaching values
but not the ones that teachers’ have. In essence, value clarification rejects imposing
teachers’ specific values on students. The role-playing model for social values
might help teachers achieve value-clarification.
1.5.1 Role-Playing for Social Values
Role-playing has been used by many teachers effectively to help students solve
interpersonal classroom problems and teach them human relation skills and
subject-matter content such as historical or current events (Chesler and Fox 1966).
The following model explained is based on the model of Shaftel and Shaftel (1967)
on role-playing for social values. Before the brief explanations for the model, it
might be relevant to clarify that role-playing is considered under the social inter-
action models of teaching. In this chapter, it evolved immediately after the social
interaction models and stood alone as a model of teaching to devote a great deal of
importance to affective domain.
The role-playing process involves exploring human relations problems through
enacting a problem situation and discussions (Joyce et al. 2004), explaining the
alternatives to the behaviors, exploring their consequences and decision-making
(Shaftel and Shaftel 1967). As Joyce et al. (2004, p. 233) indicate “empathy,
sympathy, anger, and affection” are generated during the role-playing process.
Additionally, with the use of role-playing effectively in the classroom, students
might be able to “explore their feelings, gain insight into their attitudes, values, and
perceptions, develop their problem-solving skills and attitudes, explore subject
matter in varied ways” (Joyce et al. 2004, p. 233).
The steps of role-playing for social values are the following (Shaftel and Shaftel
1967; Joyce et al. 2004):
1. Warm-up the group, explain the problem situation
2. Selecting role-players
3. Preparing audience to observe
4. Setting the stage
5. The enactment
6. Discussion and evaluation
7. Further enactments (reenact)
8. Further discussion and evaluation
9. Sharing experiences and generalizing.
Step 1—Warm-up the group, explain the problem situation. Every role-playing
activity should begin with a warm-up session (Dell’Olio and Donk 2007). This step
also involves identifying the problem, explaining the problem, interpreting problem
story and exploring the issues in the problem situation, and explaining the
role-playing (Joyce et al. 2004). Firstly, teachers should use appropriate techniques
to warm-up the students for the role-playing process cognitively, affectively and
physically. In the literature dozens of warm-up techniques could be found. Chesler
and Fox (1966) share various warm-up techniques in their book, Role Playing
Methods in the Classroom. For instance, a teacher could come to class with a little
ball in her hands and throw the ball to a student with whom she made eye contact
and called the name of the student while she is throwing the ball. The student who
catches the ball throws it immediately to another student by making eye contact and
calling the name. This warm-up activity might continue until each student hands the
ball. The teacher might also introduce a short game related to the focus of the
role-playing process as the second tour of the warm-up section. After ensuring all of
the students are relaxed and feel safe, the teacher should explain the problem
situation, which is a dilemma convenient to educational levels of the students and a

reality of the interpersonal relations in the classroom. The books of Shaftel and
Shaftel (1967) and Chesler and Fox (1966) present various problem situations that
teachers could benefit from when they use this model. The teacher chooses a
problem situation that suits well to an urgent need of the classroom and guides
students to explore the dilemma presented in the problem situation, and realize
everybody in the classroom has had to face similar problems through a brief dis-
cussion period (Shaftel and Shaftel 1967).
Step 2—Selecting role-players. Participants who will be the actors are selected in
the second step (Joyce et al. 2004). Chesler and Fox (1966) advice selecting
socially competent students for the first enactments, therefore, the class could start
with an enjoying scene. These more socially competent students are the first vol-
unteers of such role-playing activities in the classrooms. Shaftel and Shaftel (1967)
make caution of not selecting the students who have been volunteered by other
students because these particular students might not see themselves in the offered
role. In general, volunteer students or the students who need enacting specific roles
for their development are selected as role-players.
Step 3—Preparing audience to observe. In this step, the teacher prepares the
class to become “participating observers” (Shaftel and Shaftel 1967, p. 71). The
task of observers is explained beforehand. The participating observers’ task is
watching the enactments critically, explaining the acted feelings, guessing the
consequences of the behaviors, etc.
Step 4—Setting the stage. The roles of the actors are restated. The role players
prepare the outline of the scene, but avoid writing a specific dialogue (Joyce et al.
2004). Dell’Olio and Donk (2007, p. 293) suggest students such questions: “Who
are our characters? Why have we chosen these characters? Where is the scene
taking place, and why? What time of day does our scene occur? What are the
characters doing as the scene begins?” In addition, Shaftel and Shaftel (1967)
advise teachers to help students describe the furnishings they need and to arrange
them quickly.
Step 5—The enactment. In this step, students enact their pre-defined roles. The
role-players respond to one another’s speech and actions as they feel the actual
people in their role would behave (Shaftel and Shaftel 1967). The teacher and the
observer students watch the scene quietly until the role-players finalize the scene or
teacher breaks it because of various reasons. Teachers ensure that the class do not
perceive the enactment as a theatrical performance and do not evaluate role-players
for their interpretation of their roles (Shaftel and Shaftel 1967).
Step 6—Discussion and evaluation. The first enactment is reviewed by dis-
cussing the major focus, events, positions, decisions, realism and the next enact-
ment is developed (Joyce et al. 2004). If the teacher observes that students have not
comprehended the events and roles, she might direct students to re-enact the same
scene (Joyce et al. 2004). The teacher might ask such questions during this step
(Shaftel and Shaftel 1967): What has happened? Which role has affected you most?
What will happen? Could such a problem arise in real life?
Step 7—Further enactments (reenact). The revised roles in the previous step are
enacted. For further enactments, the observers and actors and/or their roles are
alternated. This step is the second, third, or even fourth chance to solve a dilemma.
Students discover the complex dimensions of the problem, various solutions, and
personal-social considerations that lead to solutions (Shaftel and Shaftel 1967).
Step 8—Further discussion and evaluation. Immediately after each enactment,
the process is discussed and evaluated as in Step 6.
Step 9—Sharing experiences and generalizing. In this step, students try to relate
the problem situation to their real experiences and current problems (Joyce et al.
2004). Students might share their feelings and experiences. As a final reflective task
of the role play, the teacher asks students what they have learned as a result of this
activity (Dell’Olio and Donk 2007). This question directs the class to arrive at a
generalization. However, some role-playing activities do no help students to reach
the level of a generalization since the students might require many role-playing
sessions on specific problems (Shaftel and Shaftel 1967). Moreover, the teacher
should avoid stating the generalization because students should discover this on
their own.
Role-playing helps students step outside the accustomed roles of their lives and
enact the other roles which are real or fictitious (Chesler and Fox 1966). As a result,
their sensitivity to feelings and welfare of other people is developed, and they
clarify their own values (Shaftel and Shaftel 1967). The role-playing process
requires a friendly atmosphere in the classroom where each student does not
hesitate to express his views or enact a role. Thus, the questions and directions of
the teacher should be encouraging, and she should avoid making value judgements
(Joyce et al. 2004). Kauchak and Eggen (1989) also caution teachers against
imposing his or her own values and views on students. In the end, students are
expected to understand that individuals choose how to behave and their values and
beliefs give information about their behaviors (Dell’Olio and Donk 2007). This
model could be used at all educational levels for various social problems regarding
values that students might come across in schools, and in their everyday life.
1.6 Personalized Learning
Students are different from each other, and each student is unique and has various
needs. This well-known fact leads educators, and curriculum designers to adapt
learning processes to the individual learner. Tailoring a learning process according
to the needs of each student requires instruction to be personalized. Regarding the
personalized learning, Keller’s Personalized System of Instruction, which addresses
the individual learning pace, is explained in this section. Additionally, some fea-
tures of differentiated instruction are summarized to help educators who hesitate to
conduct Personalized System of Instruction because of some personal or formal
reasons, respect the differences of students in the classroom and enhance each
students’ learning.
1.6.1 Personalized System of Instruction
Most teachers might observe the fact that while some students in the classroom
could follow the instruction others left behind and request repetition if the teacher
encourages them to do so. According to Keller (1968, p. 84), in such courses, “a
lonesome, ill-favored underprivileged, badly schooled, or otherwise handicapped
boy or girl can be assured at least a modicum of individual attention, approval,
encouragement, and a chance to succeed.” Personalized System of Instruction
(PSI), also known as The Keller Plan, was developed by Keller and his colleagues
in 1960s to be used in college-level and gives the instructor the responsibility of
enhancing students’ learning, even the ones who are behind the class. PSI seems
programmed instruction and computer-supported learning (Senemoğlu 2002) since
all provide learners with an opportunity of controlling the pace of learning and
mastery of critical objectives of the course (Kulik, nd.). Keller (1968) also states
this similarity with programmed instruction. Another similarity is that both pro-
grammed instruction and PSI ground on Skinnerian theory because both provide
reinforcements and feedbacks after the completion of each learning unit (Taveggia
1976). The difference between PSI and other models is using “proctors” who help
the instructor of the course through evaluating each student’s performance on a
learning unit, providing tutoring assistance in the classroom and contributing to the
interpersonal atmosphere of the classroom during PSI (Kulik nd.).
The PSI based courses are “mastery-oriented” (Kulik et al. 1974) which means
critical or important objectives of the course ought to be achieved by each student in
the classroom. Keller (1967; quoted in Keller 1968, p. 83, 1974; Kulik et al. 1974)
lists the basic features of the PSI as the following:
• The go-at-your-own-pace feature: This feature helps a student to progress the
course at a speed that suits her/his ability and other needs.
• The mastery demanded each learning unit: The students should achieve all of
the objectives of a learning unit.
• The use of lectures and demonstrations as vehicles of motivation: Teacher
motives the students to learn rather than transmitting critical information.
• The use of printed study guide: Information is provided to the students via
printed study guide as a packaged information kit.
• The use of peer-proctors: Proctors conducts repeated testing, immediate scoring,
tutoring, and contribute to the interpersonal relationships in the instruction
process.
These features together form the system of personalized instruction. PSI based
courses have two main steps: Preparation and Learning Process which at total might
involve 13 steps as the following:
Preparation Steps
1. Gaining permission from school administration to conduct PSI
2. Deciding on the learning unit and the sub-topics of the unit, and the sequence of
learning units
3. Writing the educational objectives of each learning unit
4. Preparing study guides for each learning unit
5. Constructing short tests for each learning unit
6. Preparing a learning agreement form
7. Planning learning environments
8. Choosing proctors among students and informing them about PSI
Steps of Learning Process
1. Informing students about the process and presenting learning agreements
2. Presenting first study guide for the first learning unit
3. Testing a student whenever she feels ready
4. Presenting the next study guide to the students who demonstrate mastery
learning
5. Conducting few lectures and demonstrations in the whole term
Preparation Step 1. The instructor of the PSI based course spends time for
preparations for the course. First of all, she must take an official permission from the
school administration for conducting the course based on the PSI. The students of
the PSI based course could complete the requirements of the course within few
weeks or might finish the course long after the end of the academic term. Besides,
lectures in the conventional setting are organized at most 5 or 6 times within
approximately 14 weeks-term period, and attendance to these lectures are not
mandatory for a PSI based course. The school administration should be consulted
and let the instructor officially conduct PSI in her course.
Preparation Step 2–3. After gaining an official permission, the instructor could
start deciding on important issues and developing all the materials. Firstly, the
instructor should divide the course content into smaller learning units and each
learning units into sub-topic. The learning units must be ordered sequentially. For
each learning unit, the instructor should decide on the important educational
objectives and write them clearly. If a learning unit has 15 objectives, the mastery
level might be required in achieving all these 15 objectives. However, in many PSI
courses, it might be difficult to achieve all of the objectives and instructors might
decide to score 80 or 90 % in the test of a learning unit (Eyre 2007; Grant and
Spencer 2003). Therefore, instructors should decide on the mastery criterion for
each of the learning units.
Preparation Step 4, 5. After deciding on these important issues, the instructor
should construct the materials. The study guide is the heart of the PSI and includes
introduction section for a learning unit, educational objectives, information (con-
cepts, fact, principles, skills, etc.), and study questions related to the educational
objectives of the learning unit. For each learning unit, the instructor should develop
a study guide ready for individual learning. Additionally, she must construct tests to
measure the objectives of each learning unit. It is better to prepare at least three
stand-alone tests for the objectives of a learning unit. In case a student fails in one
test he/she can take the others after remedial studies. The other important issue
regarding the tests is considering the educational levels of the objectives and
content validity. In essence, if the learning level of an objective is comprehension
according to Bloom Taxonomy in the cognitive domain, the items measuring this
objective should target comprehension level, not an application or other levels.
Additionally, all of the objectives stated in a study guide should be measured
through the related items in the test.
Preparation Step 6. Another step of preparation is preparing a learning agree-
ment form. This form should include the roles and requirements of both teachers
and students, and requests signing up. It would be better to prepare two copies of
the form, one for the instructor and the other is for the student to keep. The form
should also inform the students about the grading system of the course.
Preparation Step 7. Afterwards, the instructor should arrange the learning
environments. Where the students will study, where they will take the tests, where
proctors will communicate with the students and when the classroom will be used
for lectures. The instructor might reserve a seminar hall or computer class for more
than three hours in a week until the end of the academic year in order to test the
students after each learning unit. At the same time, she could plan the dates for
lectures and demonstrations in the classroom and for the remaining weeks let
students use the classroom for their individual studies and meeting with the
proctors.
Preparation Step 8. Choosing proctors amongst undergraduate students who
demonstrated mastery level in the same course before is the other (but probably not
the least) task of the instructor for the preparation step. Being a proctor is an offer to
the students who have demonstrated mastery level of the course, and some
incentives or extra credits might be provided for them. Because working as a
proctor is not an easy task, proctors should be hired on a voluntary basis. According
to the number of the students in the course, more than one proctor is assigned to the
course. In the case of not finding volunteer proctors, or dealing with many students
in one or more courses, assistants of the department, if available and volunteer,
might help the instructor during the process. All of the proctors should be trained to
guide the process of PSI.
Learning Process—Step 1. At the very beginning of the learning process, the
instructor could arrange a face-to-face meeting in the classroom with the class and
inform them about the PSI, the structure of the study guide and the requirements of
the students. It might be better to decide the days and time of the office hours for
consultation with the instructor about the process in the first meeting. Additionally,
learning agreement forms are delivered to the students during this initial meeting.
Moreover, the proctors and/or teaching assistants are invited to the first meeting and
introduced to the students.
Learning Process—Step 2. After collecting the learning agreements and
ensuring each of the students have understood the process, the first study guides are
delivered. The instructor let students study the guides on their own until they feel
ready to take the test at the end of the learning unit in order to move to the next.
Learning Process—Step 3, 4. When a student is ready to take the test of the
studied learning unit, she informs the responsible proctor and takes the test in the
place decided in the preparations steps by the instructor. If she demonstrates the
mastery level in the test, the proctors mark the student as satisfactory, if not, the
proctor advices some remedial studies to the students. After the remedial studies
(such as following lectures given by the instructor or the proctors, assistants,
re-reading the study guide and/or solving additional practice tests on the learning
unit, etc.), the student informs the proctor again to take a different but correlated test
of the same learning unit. The proctor does not grade the test, only indicates the
status of a student as satisfactory or unsatisfactory at a particular learning unit. In
the case of demonstrating mastery level, a student could move to the next learning
unit, so that the system provides an opportunity of progressing at one’s own pace in
the course.
Learning Process—Step 5. Unlike traditional lecture-based courses at the col-
lege level, the instructor of the PSI course presents few lectures and demonstrations
throughout the whole term. Attending these lectures in the classroom is not com-
pulsory. If a student wishes to follow the lectures or the responsible proctor advices
to do so, students come to class to follow the limited number of lectures.
The outcomes of the PSI are reported to be superior to the conventional courses
according to the views of the students and the results of experimental studies (Kulik
et al. 1974; Taveggia 1976). This should be the case because any student who
completes the test must receive the grade A (or AA). Though PSI courses have a
potential effect on learning outcomes, accomplishing a PSI course, of course, is not
an easy task for a student because they have to study on their own and demonstrate
mastery level. Students spent more time and effort on PSI courses (Kulik et al.
1974). It is not also an easy task to manage a PSI course for an instructor, especially
for the one who has large classrooms. As Pear and Crone-Todd (1999) state,
administering PSI requires many hours of an instructor.
An instructor might not have a chance to be freed from other university
demands, or taking the responsibility of only one or two courses, or demanding help
from highly qualified assistants. Keller (1974) stated the need of technology for the
future of PSI almost 40 years ago. Fox (2004) states the advantage of having more
information about PSI and handling modern information technology today.
Computers have resolved the difficulty of grading multiple-choice tests and pro-
viding feedback, and they facilitated the grading of short-answer tests (Eyre 2007).
Fortunately, today’s mobile learning opportunities help both instructors and stu-
dents to manage the PSI courses much more easily than the past. With the help of
content development tools, evaluation tools and recording features of Learning
Management Systems (LMSs), an instructor could easily upload the study guides
for each of the learning units, constructs short tests, assign tasks, follow the results
of the tests and assignments, block the next learning unit to the students who could
not achieve the objectives, order the sequence of the learning units, interact with the
students synchronously or asynchronously, etc.
Although technology might ease the job of the instructor of the PSI course, and
computer-aided PSI eliminated the dependence on assistants or students as proctors,
the same kind of study materials and learning mode for each of the students might
not be convincing and efficient because each student has various characteristics
such as learning preferences, multiple intelligences, cultural background, level of
motivation, attitudes, values, etc. The developments in the last two decades show an
inclination to adaptive educational hypermedia that addresses not only the learning
pace of the students but also another characteristic of the learners. By using
accommodating and matching strategies, adaptive teaching could be conducted by
the educators (Corno 1995) through the use of educational hypermedia.
If an instructor/teacher has only one large classroom to deal with, has
e-learning-teaching skills, and adaptive teaching skills, she could adapt her
instruction addressing the students’ learning pace, interest, learning styles, multiple
intelligences, attitudes, etc. On the other hand, the reality at least in Turkey in
Higher Education shows that an instructor has to deal with more than one crowded
classroom in a week. In such cases, still, the students in the classrooms have
differences and still she ought to arrange her instruction respecting these differ-
ences. In the last paragraph of his article, “Goodbye Teacher”, Keller (1968, p. 88)
states, “I learned one very important thing: the student is always right.” Each
student has his needs, the pace of learning, requests, attitudes, and learning pref-
erences, etc. The eagerness of the teacher/instructor and the principles of differ-
entiated instruction might help her achieve this hard task, addressing the needs of
the students, even though she has more than one course with many students in each.
1.7 Differentiated Instruction: An Approach

to Responding to Student Diversity
In this section, some principles of differentiated instruction are summarized though

it is not a model of teaching. Differentiated instruction is an approach for respecting
the individual differences of the students, albeit it is group-based rather than indi-
vidualized or personalized instruction. It takes roots from some theories and
approaches such as social constructivism, brain-based learning, learning styles,
multiple intelligences (Avcı and Yüksel 2014). Its basic idea is adapting instruction
to respond to student differences (Adams and Pierce 2006). Differentiated
instruction, which takes its roots from differentiating instruction for gifted and
talented students, and later for special-education students (Blaz 2006), is stated to
be a teacher’s response to learner’s need according to the general principles of
differentiation (Burden and Byrd 2003). In essence, teachers provide specific ways
for each student in order to help her/him learn as quickly and deeply as possible
(Tomlinson 2005). According to the definition of Heacox (2002, p. 5), differentiated
instruction deals with “changing the pace, level, or kind of instruction” a teacher
provides in order to “response to individual learner’s needs, styles or interests”.
A teacher affording for differentiated classroom perceives each student as a

unique individual and avoids the “one fits for all” approach. “How can a teacher
differentiate her/his instruction according to each student during group-based
instruction?” is the important question that needs to be answered. According to
Tomlinson (2005, pp. 3, 9), “there is no one ‘right way’ to create an effectively
differentiated classroom” or a “single formula”. As Moore (2009, p. 47) states,
“there is no receipt for differentiation. Rather, it is a way of thinking about teaching
and learning that values the individual and can be translated into classroom practice
in many ways”. The creativity, enthusiasm and the principle ideas of differentiated
instruction guide teachers to find the best way(s) that suits well the needs of her
students.
The key idea in the ground of differentiated instruction might be found in a
sentence in the excellent book of Tomlinson (2005, p. 10): “In a differentiated
classroom, the teacher unconditionally accepts students as they are, and she expects
them to become all they can be.” With this premise in mind, a teacher attends to the
individual differences of the students and enriches content and teaching-learning
process respecting those differences; assesses the needs, the process, and the out-
comes in most suitable ways for each student. According to Burden and Byrd
(2003), a teacher can differentiate the instructional activities beginning from
planning, then grouping students, designing and implementing instructional activ-
ities and materials, identifying assignments and determining how to conduct
assessments.
Differentiated instruction devotes an important portion to assessment and does
not separate it from the instruction (Roberts and Inman 2007). Assessment in a
differentiated classroom is an ongoing process and a very holistic, comprehensive
task which could be conducted by using various methods and tools. Teachers
should first diagnose the needs, the differences of each student in the classroom
through various methods, techniques, and tools such as observation,
question-answer, questionnaires, attitude scales, scales for measuring learning
presences or multiple intelligence, interviews, achievement tests, etc. The diag-
nostic assessments continue throughout the learning process whenever the teacher
needs to identify an attribute or pre-requisite learning for a new content. Apart from
the diagnostic one, formative assessment is conducted during the learning process
via standard and authentic methods such as self-assessment, peer-assessment,
portfolio, diaries or journals, observation forms, etc. According to Tomlinson
(2005), teachers use this variety of methods, techniques, and tools in order to help
students fully display their knowledge, skills and understanding.
By using the results of assessments, the teacher could differentiate the below
elements of a curriculum according to the needs of the students (Tomlinson 2005,
p. 11):
• Content
• Process
• Product
Differentiated content might be the easiest and most frequently used method of
differentiation (Blaz 2006). The content, which involves ideas, attitudes, skills, or
facts can be differentiated in various ways (Blaz 2006). Before developing differ-
entiated content, teachers should select the content; identify the sub-topics, basic
concept, important principles, and skills that each student ought to learn in order to
achieve the learning outcomes. Case studies, real-life examples, as well as theo-
retical information related to the content of the course, could be presented as text,
voice and/or visual formats. Moreover, content could be presented in an electronic
environment such as podcasts and multimedia rich web-pages. Besides, instead of
asking students to learn each detail of the content, learning the concept, general-
izations, and key skills are more important.
The differentiating process requires conducting a variety of “respectful activities
for every student” (Blaz 2006, p. 11). These activities should ensure that each
student uses the basic skills to make sense the essential ideas and information
(Tomlinson 2005). Setting learning centers, providing various entry points
according to multiple intelligences, presenting learning contracts, conducting
cooperative learning techniques as well as independent studies, conducting various
methods such as 4Mat, problem-solving or introducing portfolios might be useful
while differentiating the process (Tomlinson 2005).
Product means “vehicles through which students demonstrate and extend what
they have learned” (Tomlinson 2005, p. 11). Expecting the same product from
every student regardless of their prior knowledge, ability, interest, learning styles or
even multiple intelligences could not match the requirements of the differentiated
instruction. If a teacher differentiates the content and the teaching-learning process
to address the needs of the students, then she/he is supposed to differentiate the
product expected from each student.
Moore (2009, p. 46) includes “learning environment” into the differentiated
elements. The teacher should equip the classroom with suitable furniture, tech-
nology, media, and materials to provide students with individual study corners,
group work centers, materials that help students feel comfortable, etc. Flexible
grouping is an important feature of differentiated learning environments. With the
help of flexible grouping arrangements, teachers create opportunities the meet the
individual needs (Adams and Pierce 2006). “Students are rearranged for each lesson
based on the lesson design and their individual needs” (Adams and Pierce 2006,
p. 8). Flexible grouping help teachers respond the occasionally changing needs of
the students. Not only grouping but also desks, seats, chairs, other furniture should
be flexible enough to let reorganizations whenever teacher and students need.
Tomlinson and Strickland (2005; cited in Wormeli 2007) adds one more
dimension that might be differentiated according to the needs of the students:
Affect. It refers to “the socio-emotional factors that influence learning” (Wormeli
2007, p. 71). Considering this dimension for differentiated classroom requires
teachers to deal with social and emotional situations of the students. It goes without
saying that most teachers listen to their students, try to help them solve their
problems, make an effort to take their attention, deals with their social and
emotional problems. Differentiated instruction requires teachers to adjust their

instructions according to students to help them feel safe and invited (Wormeli
2007).
While differentiating all curricular elements, the teacher addresses students’
readiness, interests, and learning profile (Tomlinson 2005). Readiness refers to
student’s background knowledge and skills related to new knowledge or skills.
Interest means a student’s “affinity, curiosity, or passion for particular topic or skill”
(Tomlinson 2005, p. 11). Learning profile corresponds to various aspects of how
students learn. Learning styles and preferences is stated to describe the learning
profile of an individual. A student might choose to study case studies first, or study
the content step by step; another student might prefer thinking on theories, the other
one requires examples and more practice, or a student might discuss the issue in a
group while another one asks for individual learning activities.
As Tomlinson (2005) states, teachers could differentiate only one or more ele-
ments of the curriculum according to only readiness of the students, or more than
one characteristics. Trying to differentiate the entire curricular element all of the
time might be exhausting for a teacher, especially a novice one in differentiated
instruction. Differentiated instruction requires modifying a curricular element when
there becomes a need for differentiating instruction (Tomlinson 2005).
Differentiated classroom is student-centered; teacher and the students coopera-
tively participate in the teaching-learning process, where sometimes whole-class,
sometimes individualized learning activities are performed by using various
instructional strategies. A teachers’ role is being a facilitator and collaborator
(Heacox 2002), not the transmitter of the information. Teacher’s work is not dif-
ferentiating every component for every student every day. Instead, differentiation
occurs whenever it is required and whenever it produces much higher performances
according to assessment results. A review study on dissertations addressing dif-
ferentiated instruction reports that most of the studies were conducted to analyze the
effect of differentiated instruction in academic achievement of the students
(Karadağ 2014). However, when a teacher applies differentiated instruction, a
student might gain various outcomes apart from academic ones. For instance, a
doctorate dissertation of Karadağ (2010) reports a series of outcomes as a result of
differentiated instruction in mother language course at primary education level such
as positive attitudes towards the course, enhanced higher level thinking skills, some
effective outcomes as cooperation, empathy, respect, and gaining awareness of the
learning styles.
1.8 Conclusion
All the best teachers might be not only the gifted ones who were born to be a
teacher, but also the ones who take teaching as a science and use pedagogical
knowledge in order to enhance students’ learning in cognitive, affective and/or
psychomotor domains. The teachers who use one model of teaching and defends
herself as “this is the way of my teaching, I have been teaching in the same way for
years” are perhaps not the ones that Ornstein and Lasley II calls good teachers.
Because a good teacher does not have a single approach to teaching and they use a
variety of models of teaching to achieve the instructional goals (Ornstein and
Lasley II 2004).
Models of teaching might be reviewed within the perspective of differentiated
instruction because today the uniqueness of each student with her individual
characteristics is accepted by almost all the educators. Therefore, while using direct
instruction, mastery learning, synectics or any other teaching model, a teacher could
approach the instruction considering individual characteristics and needs of the
students and modify some steps or components of the models to address readiness,
interests and learning profiles of the students as much as she can.
Glossary
Affective Educational aims and objectives that are related to emotions

domain such as motivation, self-esteem, self-confidence, attitudes,
anxiety, and values.
Argumentation The process of making and presenting arguments.
Interaction A reciprocal action of two or more people or things to effect, or
influence one another.
Teaching Description of a teaching-learning process that promotes
model specific learning outcomes trough following sequential steps.
Value The principle or standards that guide one’s behaviors in the
affective domain.
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Chapter 2
Instructional Strategies
Celal Akdeniz
In this chapter, detailed information will be given to instructional strategies.

Alongside, clues and activity samples will be given associated with each strategy.
This chapter has two main sections: Definitions; include explanations about core
concepts, Classifications; includes brief strategy taxonomies and their rationales to
give you an idea about the classifications.
2.1 Definitions
2.1.1 Instruction, Teaching, Learning
In the related literature, there are a lot of definitions of core concepts of instruc-
tionscience. It’s possible to create new ones taking into account developments in
society and science. To me, the instruction is a product of teaching and learning.
Instruction can be defined as the whole process applied for learning to occur and for
the development of the target behavior that learners are expected to have.
According to Şimşek (2011), instruction requires not only systematic guidance
for learning but also a purposeful organization of experiences to help students
achieve the desired change in their performances. Instruction is also known as an
action taken by teachers to create a stimulating learning environment for the pur-
pose of providing guidance along with the necessary instructional tools and car-
rying out activities that will facilitate learning and help develop behavior
appropriate for the gains students are supposed to have (Clark and Starr 1968;
C. Akdeniz (&)
Education Faculty, S. Demirel University, East Campus (Doğu Yerleşkesi),
Room: 354, Isparta, Turkey
e-mail: akdenizcelal@yahoo.com

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_2
58 C. Akdeniz
Moore 2000). Instruction is also defined as procedures and activities planned for
teaching (Canady and Retting 1996).
As can be seen, the concept of instruction has a broad definition field. You can
find more of them as follow list:
• Instruction is a combination of teaching and learning activities.
• Instruction is a whole process includes facilitating the learning process and
guiding the pupils.
• Strategies determine the approach a teacher may take to achieve learning
objectives (Saskatchewan Education 1991).
• Instruction is an effort that supporting the individual’s growth and formation
(Bruner 1960).
• Act of building into the mind, knowledge of facts, relations or principles of one
kind or another (Ducasse 1958).
Instruction is an activity process that is helping individual’s self-actualization
and self-fulfilling (Moore 2000).
It’s quite difficult to separate of teaching and learning activities from each other
with precise borders. According to Moore (2000), learning is a change based on
experience into individual’s performance capacity. Because of its nature, the con-
cept of learning refers to individual processes. Learning of a knowledge unit, skill,
behavior, and attitude is all about one’s effort. So, learning is an individual process.
Depending on the context the concept of learning can be defined in different
ways:
• Learning is an information acquisition process (Piaget 1972),
• Learning is a process of changing behavior (Gardner 2004; Mayer 1982; Shuell
1986),
• Learning is to make connections between neurons (Hebb 1949),
• Learning is the process of construction of meaning (Piaget 1972; Resnick 1989),
• Learning is the changes in performance capacity (Driscoll 1994; Marzano
2003).
Teaching is an interactive process includes guidance, supporting and guiding the
students learning.
Sometimes instruction and teaching concepts can be used interchangeably.
Gagné (1977) and Bruner (1960) have used the concept of teaching and instruction
in their statements almost synonymously. According to Gage, teaching is any ac-
tivity that executed by someone at any time to facilitate another one’s learning. To
this definition, teaching is a planned implementation that performed in the
instructionprocess.
According to another definition of teaching is provide the information required
in that field in agreement with a particular purpose in a certain field; arrangement of
the activities that facilitate learning; providing the materials and guidance. The
concept of teaching generally describes the indoor and classroom activities. As a
core concept teaching is;
2 Instructional Strategies 59
• An interaction between student and source

• The method of influence on student learning
• Regulation environment of the student to engage in a particular behavior under
certain conditions
• Selecting and using appropriate teaching methods and techniques to reach the
instructional goals
In short, teaching is guidance. Judging from these definitions we can say that
teaching is a natural part of instruction process and a cross-section in the unit time
of the process. Yes, this situation has put you in a bit of dilemma. It can be viewed
as a way to solve the problem: instruction refers to the process, teaching relates to a
cross-section of the process.
2.1.2 Nature of Instruction
Anyone can show, tells and points out something to another one. Parents tell their
children what to do; doctors point out proper procedures to their patients;
auto-mechanics may show how to make minor adjustments to a car. All these
actions refer to the concept of teaching. At this point, we can say that everyone
teaches others to do things, and so everyone is a teacher, at least in an amateur
sense. According to Gunter et al. (2003), there is nothing special or unique about
being a teacher considering the concept of teaching. But in the professional sense,
teachers not only teach in the usual sense of a word, but they also instruct. The
meaning of the word instruct derives from the root “to build” or “to structure”. The
professional teachers structure classroom environments and build series of expe-
riences for students who have a broad range of abilities, interests, and learning
needs. Whereas parents, doctors and auto mechanics teach spontaneously by telling,
pointing out or showing, professional educators must carefully design and plan for
their teaching.
According to Smith and Ragan (1999), the instruction is the development and
delivery of information and activities that are created to facilitate attainment of
intended, specific learning goals. On the side, Smith and Ragan say “teaching to
refer to learning experiences that are facilitated by a human being, not a videotape,
textbook or computer program, but a live teacher. Instruction, on the other hand,
includes all learning experiences in which the instructional support is conveyed by
teaching and other forms of meditation… it means a live teacher is not essential to
all instruction.”
As seen, teaching mostly needs field experience but in the professional sense, it
needs instruction design. The difference starts at this point. At this point, it is not
possible to ignore the concept of learning. If someone tells, shows, points out the
things to someone, then someone hears, sees and notices. So, we can say, this is an
interactive and some time multidirectional process. We may consider instruction as
a concept formulated as follow (Table 2.1):
60
Table 2.1 Instruction process: relation between instruction, teaching, and learning
Instruction Curriculum
Process Unit One
Topic a Topic b Topic c Topic d Topic e
Teaching Situation Taught? Taught? Taught? Taught? Taught?
process Assessment ✓ ✓ X ✓ X
Keep Keep Repeat and find another Keep Repeat and find another
going going way going way
Learning Situation Learned? Learned? Learned? Learned? Learned?
process Assessment ✓ ✓ X ✓ X
Keep Keep Repeat and find another Keep Repeat and find another
going going way going way
Evaluation Unit One successful, go to the Second
C. Akdeniz
Instruction ¼ teaching þ learning
If the instruction refers to the whole process (sum of teaching and learning
processes), as a core concept it must have some features. Some of them as follow:
• Instruction changes the learners’ attitudes, motivation, and interests,
• Instruction strengthens psychomotor, cognitive and social skills,
• Instruction leads concepts, rules, and principle learning,
• Instruction facilitates individual development and learning to learn skills,
• Instruction develops off the learners’ and instructors’ self-evaluation skills,
• Instruction recommends using information technologies,
• Instruction ensures systematicity,
• Instruction gives feedbacks to curriculum,
• Instruction supports the governments to achieve their official and national goals.
And, etc.
2.1.3 Instructional Strategy
According to Richardson (2001), besides the studies of early progressivism, Lev

Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner and Albert Bandura studied on instructional
strategies and they had created new theories. Cognitive psychology and construc-
tivist approaches placed instructional strategies in the center of the curriculum such
as exploration and research-based teaching activities.
Instructional strategies point the ways and approaches followed by the teachers,
to achieve the fundamental aims of instruction. Strategies are defined in various
ways in the related literature. Sources called them as “teaching strategies” or “in-
struction strategies.” In fact, it’s hard to say flatly, that there is the existence of a
concept of unity about the strategies. Nevertheless, because of our view about the
concept of instruction, as mentioned previous section (Nature of Instruction), we
named them as “instructional strategies”.
When the related literature is examined, it is seen that many researchers try to
create a conceptual framework for instructional strategies. It could be stated that the
conceptual frameworks include instructional organizers and arrangers as well as
instructional strategies and tactics. Instructional organizers put forward practical
ideas regarding the application of instructional activities. For instance, instructional
organizers could be said to be carried out to organize instructional goals of Bloom’s
taxonomy or Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence. The instructional behavior
that instructors have long tended to apply could also be regarded as instructional
tactics. These are essential activities which are most common in the instructional
process and which limit the instructional strategies of instructors. Behaviors such as
directing an appropriate question, checking learners’ understanding, giving exam-
ples, making visual presentations or contributing to both parties of a discussion
62 C. Akdeniz
could be given as examples of instructional tactics. Tactics have resulted from

experienced instructors’ practices (Richardson 2001 in Erişti and Akdeniz 2012).
Marzano (2003) states that instructional strategies influence learners’ achieve-
ment and let teachers diversify the instructional applications. According to
Marzano, the effectiveness of instruction can be achieved mainly by preventing the
random or mysterious occurrence of this process. The instructional process should
be structured, applied and evaluated in a purposeful, planned, and systematic way.
According to another aspect of the strategies; instructional strategies are
instructional methods that include specialized instructional phases in line with the
particular purposes of the subject and the features of the content area so that learners
can gain the target behavior (Silver et al. 1996). Instructional strategies include
activities that help create the classroom environment for good-quality learning to
occur. These activities should consider instructional goals as well as the content of
the curriculum. Instructional strategies pointing out the components that will
influence target learning are factors which have a significant impact on the quality
of learning; that determine which instructional activities will be carried out in the
instructional process and which instructional methods and techniques will be
employed in the process (Baker and Dwyer 2005). The underlying determinants in
choosing the instructional strategies and using them in the instructional pro-
cessinclude the instructional approach, the instructional theory, and the related
models that the teacher has adopted (Joyce and Marsha 2000; Richardson 2001 in
Erişti and Akdeniz 2012).
Modern understandings regarding instructional strategies acknowledge that
instructional goals are complex and sophisticated and that instructors are supposed
to have a variety of approaches to the educational needs of students from different
socio-cultural environments and to help them achieve effective learning. In this
respect, it could be stated that today, instructors should prefer among various
instructional strategies to help learners gain active learning experiences in cogni-
tive, affective and kinetic fields (Williams 2004).
Instructional strategies are mostly used to apply learning theories in a useful way
and to obtain the target learning outcomes. Besides, one of the related questions
discussed in academic contexts in recent years is the question of which learning
theory can be effectively used with which instructional strategies (Miller and
Veatch 2010). Discussions between educators and community are collected at the
point of the effectiveness of the method of expression or discussion, direct
instruction or research-based instruction. It is not possible to say that this debatecan
reach a conclusion because of the instructional strategies are not implemented in the
same effectiveness (Saskatchewan Education 1985, 1991).
Views are claiming that the context of instruction should be a determinant in
choosing the instructional strategies. For example, Shulman (1987) asserts that
different instructional strategies should be applied for different subject fields and
contents. In short, the instructional strategies to be implemented in the instructional
process should be chosen and applied according to the content in addition to other
elements of instruction. For instance, the instructional strategies that a math teacher
uses to help students understand the Pythagoras theorem will differ from the
instructional strategies that a teacher of Turkish language uses while teaching the
structural features of Turkish. Similarly, when students’ background knowledge
and their development areas are taken into consideration, it could be stated that
first-grade teachers at an elementary school will sometimes have to apply instruc-
tional strategies, methods, techniques, approaches, and tactics different from those
to be applied by second-grade teachers (Erişti and Akdeniz 2012).
It can be said that learning environment may be effectivethe use of instructional
strategies. Classrooms give the teachers and students interaction each other. At
certain times, some types of classes can appropriate for instruction than other types.
Both formal and informal learning are ensured using effective instructional strate-
giesin certain environments created by instructors. For example; In the quite dis-
tinctly structured learning environment that lecture method was applied, learners are
expected to observe, listening and take notes. In another example; if instructor
separates the learners for collaborative/cooperative learning activities, learners are
supposed to identify the interaction’s direction and limit and to express themselves
effectively.
Contemporary approaches into instructional strategies say the purpose of
instruction carried out in schools that are complex and multi-faceted, and besides,
for practical learning, instructors should be able to provide a wide variety of
instructional approaches to the students from different socio-economic environ-
ments. Today, it would say the instruction based on a single teaching method is
inadequate even impossible. We can say that effective teachers choose from a
variety of instructional strategies for students have successful learning experience
cognitively and behaviorally (Marzano 2003; Lim 2002).
2.2 Classifications
Some of the discussions regarding instructional strategies involve several headings

under which instructional strategies can be classified. When the classifications put
forward are examined, it could be stated that several variables played a role in doing
these classifications. These variables include who is the focus of instructional
activities; what methods and techniques are used in the process; whether the process
is followed with an inferential, deductive or inductive understanding; and which
constructs are taken into consideration in the preparation, presentation, and
restructuring of the information. In addition, instructional strategies are also clas-
sified in some studies according to how the process functions; in some studies,
according to how information is produced and how this information is acquired by
learners; and in some other studies, they are classified based on the instructional
models that act as a source for strategies.
In the topic of instructionalstrategies, it can be seen a number of taxonomies
based on different variables in the literature. It’s clear that learning and teaching
approaches, theories and models have influences on the formation of strategy
groups to categorize strategies.
64 C. Akdeniz
Table 2.2 Classifications of instructional strategies

Author Classification systems
Saskatchewan
Education (1985, Direct instruction Interactive instruction Independent/individual study Experiental instruction Indirect instruction
1991)
Merrill (1987) Regulation strategies Message strategies Orientation strategies
Sedgwik (1999) Give up / Discourage Warn / Alerted To be informed / To inform Volunteer / Make voluntary Win / Bring
Nonlinguistic
Identifying Reinforcing representations Setting objec-
Summarizing Activating prior knowledge
similarities effort and Homework and such as mental Cooperative tives and Generating and testing
Marzano, (2001) and note tak- via questions, cues, advance
and differ- providing practice images, graphs, learning providing feed- hypotheses
ing organizers
ences recognition acting out con- back
tent
O’Brien (2005) Effective instructional strategies Teacher oriented strategies Student-oriented strategies
Web-based strategies
Encouragement of
Ray (2005) Encouragement of student Encouragement of ef- Giving prompt Create high Supporting implicit learn-
student-centered in- Emphasizing on-time duties
collaboration fective learning feedbacks expectations ing
struction
Brain-based strategies
Huang (2006) Cognitive domain group Affective domain group Physico-motor domain group
Metacognitive Security and trust Social-
Whole brain str. Left brain str. Right brain str. Attention str. Physical environment str.
str. str. interaction str.
Small group Cooperative in- Problem-solving Role playing
Killen (2007) Direct instruction str. Discussion str. Inquiry str. Case studies Writing str.
discussions str. struction str. str. str.
Bazan (2007) Student directed str. Teacher directed str. Without instruction design str.
Macro strategies Micro-strategies

Edvantia (2005)
Metacognition Active student engagement Higher order thinking Cooperative learning Independent practice/homework
Focus strategies Process strategies
Eri ti & Akdeniz Problem Discussion, Modeling, simu- Thinking, criti-

(2012) Instructor ori- Learner- Presenta- Question – Writing, summariz- Project, investiga-
solving-case brainstorming lation, role play- cize, comment
ented str. oriented str. tion str. answer str. ing, taking notes str. tion str.
studies str. str. ing str. str.
Adapted from Saskatchewan Education (1985, 1991), Merrill (1987), Edvantia (2005), Sedgwik
(1999), Marzano (2003), Killen (2007), Ray (2005), Huang (2006), Bazan (2007), Erişti and
Akdeniz (2012)
When the examine the related literature we can see that in some researches each
of methods, techniques, tactics and activities applied in the instructional process is
considered and explained as an instructional strategy. In this way, a lot of in-
structional strategies have been developed (Table 2.2).
In some researchs, instructional strategies are connected with instructional
models. According to this approach, strategies can be collected in three groups:
presentation, inquiry, and discovery. In another approach, the strategies are col-
lected according to the interlocutor. Some of them are teacher-centered strategies,
student-centered strategies, process-based strategies; learner-oriented instruction,
teacher-oriented instruction, instruction excluded design, etc.
In some new taxonomies, that we will examine them in popular taxonomies,
instructional strategies are connected with brain-based learning rules. In this topic,
another taxonomy collects the strategies in five groups: strategies for experimental,
indirect instruction, direct instruction, interactive instruction, independent
study/individual instruction. Last of all, due to the variety of classifications made, it
is quite difficult to say that there is an agreement on this subject in the literature.
In this section, we’re going to examine taxonomies of the instructional strategies
in four categories by some criteria: traditional taxonomies, popular taxonomies,
cross-disciplinary taxonomies, activity based taxonomies. In the following sections,
firstly we will examine some known taxonomies widely and then others will be
summarized.
2.2.1 Traditional Taxonomies
In this subsection, strategies are grouped into four categories: instruction through
presentation, instruction through discovery, instruction through inquiry and inves-
tigation, and cooperative learning. These strategy groups generally associated with
the instructional and learning models (Table 2.3).
Presentation strategies based on the Ausubel’s Meaningful learning theory. The
main concept of this category is meaningful learning instead of rote learning
(memorizing the information). According to Ausubel, the most general ideas of a
subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in terms of
detail and specificity; instructional materials should attempt to integrate new
material with previously presented information through comparisons and
cross-referencing of new and old ideas. A major instructional mechanism proposed
by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers:
These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a
higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content
of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for
explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they precede, this strategy simulta-
neously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing the
organization strength of cognitive structure. (Ausubel 1963, p. 81).
Meaningful learning has three phases: advance organizer, presentation of

learning task or material and strengthening the cognitive organization. The main
elements of the Meaningful learning as shown in Table 2.4.
Discovery strategies based on Bruner’s Theory of development
(Constructivismand Discovery learning). According to Bruner (1957), the outcome
of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from experience
“generic coding systems” that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly
fruitful predictions.
The concept of discovery learning implies that a learner constructs his or her
knowledge for themselves by discovering as opposed to being told about some-
thing. According to Bruner, the teacher should facilitate the learning process by
developing lessons that provide the learner with the information they need without
organizing it for them. This idea of discovery learning is often referred to as
constructivism, which emphasizes the active role of the learner in building
understanding and making sense of information (Bruner 1960).
Bruner emphasized four characteristics of effective instruction which emerged
from his theoretical constructs: (1) Personalized: instruction should relate to
learners’ predisposition, and facilitate interest toward learning, (2) Content
Structure: content should be structured so it can be most easily grasped by the
learner, (3) Sequencing: Sequencing is an important aspect of the presentation of
material and (4) Reinforcement: rewards and punishment should be selected and
placed appropriately.
A sample discovery includes nine stages:
Table 2.3 Traditional taxonomies
66
Strategy Related theory and theorists Key points Eligible methods and techniques
Presentation strategies Based on D. Ausubel’s Learning • Teacher-centered The workshop, question and
Theory • Deductive reasoning answer, lecture, case study,
• Informative instruction discussion, brainstorming,
• Abstract to concrete demonstration, etc.
• Preprocessing information
• Acquisition
Discovery strategies Based on J. Bruner and J. Piaget • Learner-centered Brainstorming, role playing,
• Inductive reasoning question & answer, discussion,
• Comprehensive instruction debate, drama, analogy, case
• Concrete to abstract study, etc.
• Reinforcements and samples
• Discovery
Inquiry strategies Based on Suchmann and J. Dewey • Learner-centered Trip, observation, individual
• Deductive and inductive reasoning study, experiment, lab, case
• Higher-order thinking study, problem-solving, etc.
• Experiential
• Problem-solving
• Analysis, synthesis, evaluation, reflection,
creation
Cooperative/Collaborative Based on L. Vygotsky • Learner-centered Student Teams-Achievement
strategies • Group studies/social interaction Division (STAD), Problem
• Work sharing solving, case study, inquiry,
• Democratic values Learning Together,
• Problem-solving and case studies Think-Pair-Share, Group
• Analysis, synthesis, evaluation Investigation investigation,
teams-game-tournament,
Cooperative Integrated Reading
and Composition (CIRC), jigsaw,
etc.
C. Akdeniz
Table 2.4 Ausubel’s model of meaningful learning

Phase one: advance Phase two: presentation of learning Phase three: strengthening
organizer task or material cognitive organization
Clarify aim of the Make the organization of the new Relate new information to
lesson material explicit advance organizer
Present the organizer Make logical order of learning Promote active reception
material explicit learning
Relate organizer to Present material and engage students
students’ knowledge in meaningful learning activities
1. Teacher gives examples

2. Students describe the examples
3. Teacher adds new examples
4. Students describe new examples and compare them previous ones
5. Teacher gives some more cases and non-cases examples
6. Students compare opposite examples
7. Teacher emphasizes relations, rules or features created by students
8. Students explain the relations, rules, and features
9. Teacher asks for some more examples from students
Inquiry strategies mainly based on Suchman’s and Dewey’s studies. Inquiry-
based learning is an approach to teaching and learning that places students’ ques-
tions, ideas, and observations at the center of the learning experience. Educators
play an active role throughout the process by establishing a culture where ideas are
respectfully challenged, tested, rede ned and viewed as improvable, moving chil-
dren from a position of wondering to a position of enacted understanding and
further questioning. Underlying this approach is the idea that both educators and
students share responsibility for learning (Scardamalia 2002).
Dictionary meaning of Inquiry is seeking knowledge, information, or truth
through questioning. The inquiry process is mainly the gathering of data and
information and applying them to senses like smelling, tasting, touching, hearing
and seeing. There are four essential elements on which inquiry-based learning
depends on, which are, first is that the patterns and meanings should not be
deceptive to the beginners, second is that the useful knowledge about a field should
be structured, third is that the knowledge which is structured should be applicable,
transferable, and accessible to a vast range of situations, fourth is that the structured
knowledge should be easily retrieved so that new information in that particular field
could be gained without much effort. Inquiry-based learning can be applied to all
disciplines which have been confirmed by different researchers. Learners have
different perspectives of viewing the world like economic, historical, scientific,
artistic, etc. The disciplines can be interrelated through inquiry-based learning,
which ensures the integrity of different disciplines and the world views about them.
The teachers must organize their lesson plans according to the changing, interre-
lating, and communicating of knowledge. A good teacher’s worksheet enables the
68 C. Akdeniz
student to increase its study skills by providing different ways of viewing the world,
communicating with it, and successfully introducing new questions and issues of
daily life and finding answers to them. Questioning and finding answers is an
extremely important factor of inquiry-based learning as it aids you in effectively
generating knowledge. In the end, inquiry-based learning is teaching the students to
have a greater understanding of the world they work, communicate, learn, and live
in (teach-nology.com).
A sample inquiry may include six stages:
1. Feel the problem and confront it
2. Describing the problem and making it clear
3. Collecting related data and making hypothesis
4. Finding appropriate methods and collecting substantiating data
5. Testing hypothesis through analysing data and evidence
6. Reporting results
Cooperative learning is a form of small group instruction where students work in
a social setting to solve problems (Slavin 1991). While the essence of cooperative
learning is easily understood. Theorists are less in agreement as to what constitutes
cooperative learning. The cooperative learning experience has five factors: positive
interdependence, face-to-face interaction, individual accountability, small group
and interpersonal skills, and group self-evaluation. Positive interdependence is
achieved when each group member comes to understand and value the need for
group cooperation in the attainment of their own personal goals, the other group
member’s goals, and the goals of the entire group. Interdependence may take
several forms including goal interdependence, task or labour interdependence,
resource interdependence, role interdependence, or reward interdependence.
Face-to-face interactions work in conjunction with positive interdependence.
Face-to-face interactions involve individual group members encouraging and
facilitating other group members’ efforts to complete tasks and achieve to have
successful group goals. Individual accountability involves holding each student
accountable for mastering the relevant material. It involves both completing one’s
task within the group, and supporting the work of other group members (Doolittle
1995).
The fourth basic element of cooperative learning requires and teaches students
how to use interpersonal and small group social skills. The social skills that are
necessary for a student to perform competently in a small group are taught directly
during cooperative learning. Simple small group social skills such as staying with
one’s group, speaking in a low conversational voice, trusting other group members,
managing intragroup conflict, and the sharing of leadership responsibilities usually
require specific and direct attention by the teacher. The purpose of group
self-evaluation is to clarify and improve the productiveness of all group members in
contributing to the cooperative efforts of achieving the group’s goals. Group
self-evaluation provides for a type of group metacognition, a process of evaluating
the group’s processing. Group self-evaluation should result in describing what
group member actions were beneficial and detrimental, and what group member
actions should be continued or changed (Johnson and Johnson 1998; Johnson et al.
1991; Kagan 1994 in Doolittle 1995).
2.2.2 Popular Taxonomies
In this section, we have put together the taxonomies based on some properties.
Here, we selected the most commonly encountered strategy classifications in related
literature. Among them, we may count Saskatchewan Education’s quintet classi-
fication, a sestet classification based on Bloom’s taxonomy, Huang’s brain-based
classification, Ray’s web-based classification and others. Besides some other
classifications summarized in “other classifications” section. Readers can be found
further sources about instructional strategies in Bibliography section.
2.2.2.1 Saskatchewan Education Taxonomy
This classification is the most common and the most used one in the related lit-
erature. In this taxonomy, instructional strategies are collected in five groups: direct
instruction, indirect instruction, interactive instruction, independent study and ex-
periential learning.
According to Saskatchewan Education (1991), decision making regarding
instructional strategies requires teachers to focus on curriculum, the prior experi-
ences, and knowledge of students, learner interests, student learning styles, and the
developmental levels of the learner. Such decision making relies on ongoing stu-
dent assessment that is linked to learning objectives and processes. Although
instructional strategies can be categorized, the distinctions are not always clear-cut.
For example, a teacher may provide information through the lecture method (from
the direct instruction strategy) while using an interpretive method to ask students to
determine the significance of the information that was presented (from the indirect
instruction strategy).
According to Saskatchewan Education (1985, 1991), instructional strategies
refer to individual and specialized fields. These fields named five different
instructional strategies: Direct instruction, indirect instruction, interactive instruc-
tion, independent study and experiential instruction. There is a hierarchical link
between teaching models and instructional strategies. To this link; instructional
methods and techniques determined by instructional strategies. These activities will
be changed by selected strategy. For example; if you execute the instructional
process according to direct instruction, you use, lecture, exercises, comparisons,
demonstration, and if you execute the process according to indirect instruction, then
you use, problem-solving, concept mapping, reflective discussions, etc.
70 C. Akdeniz
The Direct instruction strategy is highly teacher-directed and is among the most
commonly used. This strategy includes methods such as lecture, didactic ques-
tioning, explicit teaching, practice and drill, and demonstrations. The direct
instruction strategy is effective for providing information or developing
step-by-step skills. This strategy also works well for introducing other teaching
methods, or actively involving students in knowledge construction. Indirect
instruction is mainly student-centered, and examples of indirect instruction methods
include reflective discussion, concept formation, concept attainment, cloze proce-
dure, problem-solving, and guided inquiry. Indirect instruction seeks a high level of
student involvement in observing, investigating, drawing inferences from data, or
forming hypotheses. It takes advantage of students’ interest and curiosity, often
encouraging them to generate alternatives or solve problems. Interactive instruction
relies heavily on discussion and sharing among participants. Students can learn
from peers and teachers to develop social skills and abilities, to organize their
thoughts, and to develop rational arguments. The interactive instruction strategy
allows for a range of groupings and interactive methods. These may include total
class discussions, small group discussions or projects, or student pairs or triads
working on assignments together.
Experiential learning is inductive, learner-centered, and activity oriented.
Personalized reflection about an experience and the formulation of plans to apply
learnings to other contexts are critical factors in effective experiential learning.
Experiential learningcan be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all of which
are necessary: experiencing (an activity occurs); sharing or publishing (reactions
and observations are shared); analyzing or processing (patterns and dynamics are
determined); inferring or generalizing (principles are derived); and applying (plans
are made to use learnings in new situations). Independent study encourages students
to take responsibility for planning and pacing their learning. Independent study can
be used in conjunction with other methods, or it can be used as the single in-
structional strategy for an entire unit. The factors of student maturity and inde-
pendence are obviously important to the teacher’s planning. Independent study is
very flexible. It can be used as the major instructional strategywith the whole class,
in combination with other strategies, or it can be used with one or more individuals
while another strategy is used with the rest of the class (Saskatchewan Education
1985, 1991).
2.2.2.2 Strategies from Bloom’s Taxonomy
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) have proposed some minor changes to include the
renaming and reordering of the Bloom’s taxonomy. Revised taxonomy includes
instructional strategies of each stage. Strategies are presented Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 Strategies from Bloom’s taxonomy

Stage Explanation Instructional strategies
Remember Shallow processing: drawing out Highlighting, rehearsal,
(knowledge) factual answers, testing recall and memorizing, mnemonics
recognition
Understand Translating, interpreting and Key examples, emphasize
(comprehension) extrapolating connections, elaborate concepts,
summarize, paraphrase, students
explain, students state the rule,
creating visual representations:
concept maps, outlines, flow charts
organizers, analogies,
pro/congrids, metaphors, rubrics,
heuristics
Apply Knowing when to apply; why to Modeling, cognitive
apply; and recognizing patterns of apprenticeships, mindful practice,
transfer to situations that are new, part and whole sequencing,
unfamiliar or have a new slant for authentic situations, coached
students practice, case studies, Simulations,
algorithms
Analyze Breaking down into parts, forms Models of thinking, challenging
assumptions, retrospective
analysis, reflection through
journaling, debates, discussions
and other collaborating learning
activities, decision-making
situations
Evaluate According to some set of criteria, Challenging assumptions,
and state why journaling, debates, discussions
and other collaborating learning
activities, decision-making
situations
Create Combining elements into a pattern Modeling, challenging
(synthesis) not clearly there before assumptions, reflection through
journaling, debates, discussionsand
other collaborating learning
activities, design, decision-making
situations
Adapted from Anderson et al. (2001)
2.2.2.3 Other Classifications
It is possible to reach various classifications have been developed for relevant areas
in the instructional strategies. Some strategies will summarize here in the various
aspects to give you an idea.
72 C. Akdeniz
2.2.3 Cross-Discipliner Taxonomies
Cross-disciplinary taxonomies address the strategies in different disciplines, like;

personality and instruction, neuroscience and instruction, etc. In this subsection,
we’re going to examine the relationship between instructional strategies and per-
sonality and neuroscience disciplines (Table 2.6).
2.2.3.1 Personality and Instruction
A lot research findings show that (including author’s studies) there is a strong
relationship between success of instruction process (learning and teaching) and
personality (Ehrman 1989; Cano and Garton 1994; Bloom 1956; Silver et al. 1996;
Moore 2000; Rushton et al. 2007). Myers and Briggs conducted some studies on
personality based on Jung’s (1971) widely accepted the classification of personality
types, stated that teachers with different personality types follow different ways in
instructional and learning processes and have different preferences.
According to some personality researchers (Myers, Briggs, Silver, Strong,
Hanson, Perini, and others), instructional strategies in the process may vary to the
personality. In Table 2.7 (from Chap. 14), A wide relationship among some edu-
cational and instructional variables and personality types (in another saying, learner
types, and teacher types) is presented.
2.2.3.2 Neuroscience and Instruction: Brain-Based Taxonomy
The brain-based approach to learning and teaching developed by researchers and

educators enhance the role of the teacher as a facilitatorof learning. The brain-based
approach is an approach that mainly focuses on the learner’s learning processes.
This approach deemed the brain-based teaching strategy approach, is based on brain
research theory (Huang 2006).
Table 2.6 Some instructional strategy classifications

Author Specifications
O’Brien, 2005 Effective Strategies, Student-based Strategies, Teacher-based
Strategies
Class Manage- Teaching/Learning Evaluation
Binkley, 2005 ment Activities
Traditional Strategies Constructive Strategies
Merrill, 1987 Arrangement, Message, Orientation.
Bazan, 2007 Teacher-directed, Student-directed, Non-designed
DeVito, 2008 Student-centered activities, individualized instruction, teaching
style based instruction, helping students to meet needs, creat-
ing classroom climate, creating unattended learning environ-
ment, and individual development
Table 2.7 The relationship of the personality types and instructional variables
Variables Personality types
ST NT SF NF
How can we Organize factual information, Create a problem-solving Provide for group work or a Provide choices for
organize practice for recall mode where students sort out task that involves the effect completing assignments and
teaching data, analyze and draw projects or assign task that
tasks? conclusions involves imagination,
innovation
2 Instructional Strategies
How can we Traditional rows or pairs; Teams that will create a Groups or pairs for Learning centers, pupils
adjust teacher at focus debating atmosphere; teacher collaboration; teacher meets arranged for interest, teacher is
settings? moves from team to team pupils at eye level a resource
How can we Frequent, quick, short/need to Infrequent but with Frequent, quick with an Infrequent but with emphasis
give know if they are right explanation of why they emphasis on the amount of on its value; its uniqueness and
feedbacks? received the grade they did effort that is evidenced creativity
What kind of Provide a model of what a Problem-solving, analyzing Opportunities for articulating Projects or opportunities to
homework complete and accurate work; it too must be modeled ideas, learning from others, create new or different ways of
will we give? assignment look like, practice develop skills of collaboration looking at material, important
and drill designed to convince pupils to set criteria
they have knowledge
How do we True and false, fill in the Critical essays, debates, Interviews in and out of class. Anything that can show what
do blanks, any measure that research projects which Let the pupils question you the pupils can do with what
assessment allows to pupils to recall measure the ability to see they have learned
and factual material relationships
evaluation?
Teacher Trainer, informative, Intellectual challenger, Educator, emphasizer, Facilitator, modeler, creator
characteristics director-conductor researcher, theorist supportive
Learner Realist, practical, focusing on Logic, intellectual, Syphatic, interpersonal, Curious, insight owner,
characteristics events and real knowledge-based friendly imaginative
(continued)
73
Table 2.7 (continued)
74
Variables Personality types

ST NT SF NF
Learning Purposeful study organized or Discovery, inquiry, and Personal intimacy, interaction, Originality, flexibility,
environment competitive independency and cooperation imagination
What will we Basic skills, concept Critical thinking, concept Positive subject, socializing Creative thinking, moral
teach? acquisition developing development
Which Practices and drills, Information processing, Group projects, group Imagination, divergent
instructional convergent thinking, inquiry, inductive reasoning, research, individual sharing, thinking, synectic, creative/
strategies, demonstration, making written reports, oral reports, communication artistic explanation, describing
methods, and portfolio, mastery fields, problem-solving, research, activities, peer to peer sharing, the values, data, and
techniques team-game-tournament, concept acquisition, concept class meetings, peer learning, information collecting,
will we use? memorization formation, reading, and team-game-tournament breaking mental patterns,
interpreting, asking socratic creative problem solving,
questions, comprehensive inductive learning activities
planning
How do we True and false, fill in the Critical essays, debates, Interviews in and out of class, Anything that can show what
do blanks, any measure that research projects which let the pupils question you, the pupils can do with what
assessment allows to pupils to recall measure the ability to see personal diaries, oral reports, they have learned, fluency
and factual material, objective relationships, open-ended rubrics, structured practices, flexible responses,
evaluation? examinations, control lists, questions, essays, observations, self-assessment taking into account the details,
criteria tests, uncovering interpretation and synthesis and self-evaluation developing creative products,
original skills activities, compositions observations, collecting
unknown data
Adapted with Myers & Myers (1997), Silver and Hanson (1996), Silver et al. (2007), Akdeniz and Erişti (2015)
C. Akdeniz
In this active teaching approach, teacher and student always interact and involve
themselves in learning activities. If a teacher has knowledge of how the brain
develops, learns, and organizes itself, the teacher can make better decisions about
teaching, and use each learning component well. For example, a teacher under-
stands that fear or threat causes abnormally high levels of cortisol and adrenaline to
be released, which decrease semantic learning and recall (Schmitz and Galbraith
1985; Jensen 2000). The teacher, therefore, creates an enriched and safe classroom
atmosphere that students perceive as non-threatening, which aids their ability to
think, plan, and remember. Moreover, understanding the students’ abilities or skills,
the teacher provides them with material just a little beyond their level. Providing
students with real-life situations and experiences such as field trips can motivate
students through increased interest and curiosity, which improves long-term
retention of concepts (Jensen 2000). Real-life situations also enhance the learning
of abstract concepts and help students view learning as a practical component of life
and not just a classroom activity (Huang 2006).
In Huang’s study, brain-based teaching strategies and techniques used identified
cognitive domain, affective domain, psychomotor domain, and other instructional
techniques.
Cognitive domain strategies include the whole brain, left the brain, right brain,
and metacognitive strategies. Huang explains the whole brain, left brain and right
brain strategies as follow:
A review of the literature indicates that both the left and right brain work together; they are
activated to enhance learning. For example, in math class, the student uses the whole brain.
The text and lecture presentation activate the left hemisphere, and pictures, graphs, and
other visual material activate the right hemisphere. Caines and Crowel (1994), states that if
cooperative learning incorporates the intellect and the emotions, it calls for spontaneous
adaptations to the meaningful challenge. In class, a lesson can be arranged using different
activities. First, all students participate in reading aloud and discussion, then they listen to a
tape. Later, in small groups, students can choose their own way to do their projects for the
lesson by reading from other books or searching on the Internet. At the end of the lesson,
they can present information that appeals to either left or right brain students by writing,
singing songs, role playing… (p. 38)
Left brain strategies;

In language arts or other academic subjects, teachers provide structure and clear direction to
assignments; offer students the chance to work alone such as Internet searches or web
quests; guide students to solve a problem by breaking it down into parts and solving it by
steps; provide writing and reading aloud or oral drills in lesson plans; have students write an
outline and a paper to describe their research findings as they connect it to their daily life;
and allow time for students to think aloud in order to identify the main idea and to make
inferences (p. 39).
Right brain strategies;

Students are engaged in group work in the classroom; provided choice and incorporate
hands-on activities, i.e. role-playing; offered chances to work in groups; allowed to use
intuition and to solve problems in holistic ways; allowed to do assignments in a more
creative way. Teachers use graphic organizers to help students to remember and organize
76 C. Akdeniz
details. In order to activate the right brain, teachers use humor, music, art, and dance in the
classroom to focus attention and influence the growth of connections between brain cells in
the cortex. Teachers use these strategies in class to assist students in learning the content
and in meeting the objective of the lesson. In this way, students cannot only participate in
left and right brain activities and connect their strengths, but also learn to work with their
less-developed side. This also helps students to create meaningful in learning by creating
different paths to learning the same content (p. 39).
According to Huang, Metacognitive strategies help students to learn and

remember through outlining, rehearsing, and repeating. Metacognition can facilitate
learning by controlling and directing thinking process. Some of the suggested
strategies are chunking, elaboration, mental images, organize information, repeti-
tion, and reflection.
In affective domain Huang goes to say:
The mind is a complex mix of thoughts, perceptions, feelings, and reasoning. The studies of
the effects of attitudes and emotions on learning indicate that continuous stress and constant
fear can impede the brain’s normal circuits. Sylwester (1994), Wolfe and Brandt (1998) and
other researchers confirmed that emotions could contribute to long-term memory and
higher-order thinking processes, which enhance the ability to think and learn effectively.
Jensen (2000) and LeDoux (1996) point out that emotions activate and stimulate our
amygdala, which is critical for recall and learning. Thus, teachers should establish a
relaxed, stress-free learning environment, and connect learning activities to positive emo-
tions (pp. 41–43).
Some of teaching strategies recommended to set-up an emotional environment to

help students to learn are safe feeling and motivationstrategies, attention strategies,
social interaction strategies. Safe feeling and motivation group include; predication,
harmonious relationship, trust and acceptance, safe environment, control and
choice, movement, experience and hands-on and, mastery strategies. Attention
group includes; novelty, need, emotion, and meaning components.
According to Huang, a physical environment that is visually stimulating and that
is supportive of students’ physical needs require thinking and planning. To create a
positive atmosphere for learning, following strategic techniques can be useful;
order, color, music, light and plants, seating space, multi-cultural theme.
2.2.4 Activity Based Taxonomies
So far, we examined the strategies in various ways. In this subsection, we will

examine the use of strategies as effectiveness in the instruction process. In some
sources the strategies are connected with particular objectives: strategies for cre-
ative writing, strategies for argumentation, strategies for observation, strategies for
effective researching, strategies for collaboration and cooperative learning, etc.
At the end of this section, we’ll look at some of the strategy groups and then
we’ll examine this book’s activity based taxonomy and its approach to the handling
of the strategies.
2.2.4.1 Marzano’s Nine Instructional Strategies
Marzano (2003) collected strategies into nine groups: Identifying similarities and
differences, summarizing and note taking, reinforcing effort and providing recog-
nition, homework and practice, nonlinguistic representations such as mental ima-
ges, graphs, acting out content, cooperative learning, setting objectives and
providing feedback, generating and testing hypotheses, activating prior knowledge
via questions, cues, advance organizers. Explanations of the strategies as follow:
1. Identifying Similarities and Differences: This strategy helps students under-
stand more complex problems by analyzing them in a simpler way, and also
Enhances students’ understanding of and ability to use knowledge by engaging
them in mental processes that involve identifying ways in which items are alike and
different. Sample activities related to this strategy as follow:
• Use Venn diagrams or charts to compare and classify items.
• Engage students in comparing, classifying, and creating metaphors and
analogies.
2. Summarizing and Note-taking: This strategy promotes comprehension
because students have to analyze what is important and what is not important and
put it in their own words. This strategy also Enhances students’ ability to synthesize
information and organize it in a way that captures the main ideas and supporting
details. Sample activities related to this strategy as follow:
• Provide a set of rules for asking students to summarize a literary selection, a
movie clip, a section of a textbook, etc.
• Provide a basic outline for note-taking, having students fill in pertinent
information.
3. Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition: This strategy Enhances stu-
dents’ understanding of the relationship between effort and achievement by
addressing students’ attitudes and beliefs about learning. Showing the connection
between effort and achievement helps students helps them see the importance of
effort and allows them to change their beliefs to emphasize it more. Note that
recognition is more effective if it is contingent on achieving some specified stan-
dard. Sample activities related to this strategy as follow:
• Provide students with abstract tokens of recognition or praise for their accom-
plishments related to the attainment of a goal.
• Share stories about people who succeeded by not giving up.
• Find ways to personalize recognition. Give awards for individual
accomplishments.
• “Pause, Prompt, Praise.” If a student is struggling, pause to discuss the problem,
then prompt with specific suggestions to help her improve. If the student’s
performance improves, as a result, offer praise.
78 C. Akdeniz
4. Homework and Practice: This strategy Extends the learning opportunities for
students to practice, review, and apply knowledgeand enhances students’ ability to
reach the expected level of proficiency for a skill or process. And also provides
opportunities to extend learning outside the classroom, but should be assigned
based on relevant grade level. All homework should have a purpose, and that
purpose should be readily evident to the students. Additionally, feedback should be
given for all homework assignments. Sample activities related to this strategy as
follow:
• Establish a homework policy with a specific schedule and time parameters.
• Vary feedback methods to maximize its effectiveness.
• Focus practice and homework on difficult concepts.
5. Nonlinguistic Representations: This strategy Enhances students’ ability to
represent and elaborate on knowledge using mental images. Sample activities
related to this strategy as follow:
• Incorporate words and images using symbols to represent relationships.
• Use physical models and physical movement to represent information.
6. Cooperative Learning: This strategy Provides students with opportunities to
interact with one another in ways that enhance their learning. Organizing students
into cooperative groups yields a positive effect on overall learning. When applying
cooperative learning strategies, keep groups small and don’t overuse this strategy be
systematic and consistent in your approach. Sample activities related to this strategy
as follow:
• Group students according to factors such as common interests or experiences.
• Vary group sizes and mixes.
• Focus on positive interdependence, social skills, face-to-face interaction, and
individual and group accountability.
7. Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback: this strategy provides students
with a direction for learning and with information about how well they are per-
forming about a particular learning objective so they can improve their perfor-
mance. Setting objectives can provide students with a direction for their learning.
Goals should not be too specific; they should be easily adaptable to students’ own
objectives. Sample activities related to this strategy as follow:
• Set a core goal for a unit, and then encourage students to personalize that goal
by identifying areas of interest to them. Questions like “I want to know” and “I
want to know more about…” get students thinking about their interests and
actively involved in the goal-setting process.
• Use contracts to outline the specific goals that students must attain and the grade
they will receive if they meet those goals.
• Make sure feedback is corrective in nature; tell students how they did in relation
to specific levels of knowledge. Rubrics are a great way to do this.
8. Generating and Testing Hypotheses: This strategy enhances students’

understanding of and ability to use knowledge by engaging them in mental pro-
cesses that involve making and testing hypotheses. Research shows that a deductive
approach works best, but both inductive and deductive reasoning can help students
understand and relate to the material. Sample activities related to this strategy as
follow:
• Ask students to predict what would happen if an aspect of a familiar system,
such as the government or transportation, were changed.
• Ask students to build something using limited resources. This task generates
questions and hypotheses about what may or may not work.
9. Cues, Questions, and Advanced Organizers: This strategy helps students use
what they already know to enhance what they are about to learn and also enhances
students’ ability to retrieve, use, and organize what they already know about a topic.
Sample activities related to this strategy as follow:
• Pause briefly after asking a question to give students time to answer with more
depth.
• Vary the style of advance organizer used: Tell a story, skim a text, or create a
graphic image. There are many ways to expose students to information before
they “learn” it (Marzano 2001).
2.2.4.2 Consulting Psychologist Press’s Strategies
In the form of “Teacher ObservationProtocol and instructional strategies” devel-

oped by CPP, observation subjects are gathered in ten groups: Habits of mind,
Metacognition (Students’ thinking about their thinking), Student discourse and
collaboration, Rigorously challenged ideas, Student preconceptions and miscon-
ceptions, Conceptual thinking, Divergent thinking, Interdisciplinary connections,
Pedagogical content knowledge, and Multiple representations of concepts. This
instrument is included here in order to give an idea to the reader about in-class
instructional strategies (Table 2.8).
2.2.4.3 Explicit Teaching Strategies for Scientific Argumentation
“Explicit teaching strategies for scientific argumentation”, developed by Park,

Young-Shin, for his doctoral dissertation. We will present Explicit Teaching
Strategies from her dissertation. The form (Table 2.9) displays Mr. Field’s explicit
teaching strategies with the name of each instructional strategy and a description of
its implementation in the classroom.
Table 2.8 Teacher observation protocol and instructional strategiesa
80
Activity Focus Teacher activity N/O: 1 2 3 4 Student activity N/O: 1 2 3 4

Encouraging the students to seek and value Habits of mind • Presented open-ended questions • Discussed problem-solving
various modes of investigation or • Encouraged discussion of alternative strategies
problem-solving explanations • Posted questions and relevant
• Presented inquiry opportunities for students means for investigating
• Provided alternative learning strategies • Shared ideas about
investigations
Encouraging the students to be reflective about Metacognition • Encourage students to explain their • Discussed what they
their learning (Students’ thinking understanding of concepts understood from the class
about their • Encourage students to explain in own words and how they learned it
thinking) both what and how they learned • Identified anything unclear to
• Routinely asked for student input and them
questions • Reflected on and evaluated
their own progress toward
understanding
Interactions reflected collaborative working Student discourse • Organized students for group work • Worked collaboratively or
relationship and productive discourse among and collaboration • Interacted with small groups cooperatively to accomplish
students and between teacher and students • Provided clear outcomes for group work relevant to task
• Exchanged ideas related to
lesson with peers and
teachers
Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the Rigorously • Encouraged input and challenged students’ • Provided evidence-based
challenging of ideas were valued challenged ideas ideas arguments
• Wan non-judgmental of student opinions • Listened critically to others’
• Solicited alternative explanations explanations
• Discussed/challenged others’
explanations
(continued)
C. Akdeniz
The instructional strategies and activities probed Student • Pre-assessed students for their thinking and • Expressed ideas even when
students’ existing knowledge and preconceptions preconceptions and knowledge incorrect or different from
misconceptions • Helped students confront and/or build on the ideas of other students
their ideas • Responded to the ideas of
• Refocused lesson based on student ideas to other students
meet needs
The lesson promoted strongly coherent Conceptual thinking • Asked higher level questions • Asked and answered higher
conceptual understanding in the context of clear • Encouraged students to extend concepts and level questions
learning goals skills • Related subordinate ideas to
• Related integral ideas to broader concepts broader concept
Students were encouraged to generate Divergent thinking • Accepted multiple responses to • Generated conjectures and
conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and problem-solving situations alternate interpretations
ways of interpreting evidence • Provided example evidence for student • Critiqued alternate solution
interpretation strategies of teacher and
• Encourage students to challenge the text as peers
well as each other
Appropriate connections were made between Interdisciplinary • Integrated contends with other curricular • Made connections with other
contending and other curricular areas connections areas content areas
• Applied content to real-world situations • Made connections between
content and personal life
Teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter Pedagogical content • Presented information that was accurate and • Responded to instruction
content and how to teach it knowledge appropriate to student cognitive level with ideas relevant to target
• Selected strategies that made contend content
understandable to students • Appeared to be engaged with
• Was able to field student questions in a way lesson content
that encouraged more questions
• Recognized students’ ideas even when
vaguely articulated
81
(continued)
82

Teacher used a variety of means to represent Multiple • Used multiple methods, strategies, and
concepts representations of teaching styles to explain a concept
concepts • Used various materials to foster student
understanding (models, drawings, graphs,
concrete materials, manipulative, etc.)
Adopted from Park (2005), Analyzing explicit teaching strategies and student discourse for scientific argumentation (p. 239, 240)
a
Like this protocol, there are some other “teacher observation protocols” in the literature. One of the best is Marzano, Carbaugh, Rutherford, and Toth (2014).
Marzano Center Teacher Observational Protocol for The 2014 Marzano Teacher EvaluationModel. Updated observation protocol is designed to meet
rigorous standards, including CCSS, for deep implementation across subjects and grade levels. Please refer to this source for further information
http://www.marzanocenter.com/Teacher-Evaluation-2014-Model.pdf
C. Akdeniz
Table 2.9 Mr. Field’s explicit teaching strategies for scientific argumentation
Teacher actions Framework Classroom observations
Develop ideas for open-ended Daily science In this section, Mr. Field provided chances for students to express their different ideas every
question day at the beginning of the lesson. The content of Daily Science included subject matter in
Differentiate dependent from asking the conceptual knowledge and scientific inquiry to assess students’ procedural skills
independent variables
Develop the claim and Claim-evidence approach In this section, Students are given chances to develop their own claims and hypotheses
hypothesis based on general principles from the textbook. Students predict the results to explain what
Predict, observe and explain would happen and why it would happen. Students develop their background information
with Mr. Field through reading and discussing some topics related to the content
Provide two competing issues
Construct argument (warrant)
Reflect on investigation as a Explicit reflective In this section, Mr. Field emphasizes students’ opportunity to reflect on what they have
holistic way assessment (inquiry done in their experiments, such as if their data gave support to answer the questions if their
Find the pattern from the data guideline) conclusions were based on their collected data, and if their claims of hypotheses reflected on
their content. Mr. Field uses the self-designed Inquiry Guideline for this purpose
Find limitation in
experimentation
Assign students’ roles in Johns Hopkins learning In this section, Mr. Field uses this model to assign students into new groups with specific
groups model students’ roles in each
Discuss the current scientific Wednesday’s oregonian In this section, Mr. Field discusses the current scientific topic from the local newspaper with
issue the emphasis on students’ skills or interpreting scientific symbols and gaining extended
knowledge. These whole class discussions are supposed to take place every Wednesday
Differentiate evidence from Scoring guide In this section, Mr. Field discusses Oregon Scoring Guide with students so that they could
data understand how their lab reports are assessed based on what criteria
Differentiate higher order Bloom’s taxonomy In this section, Mr. Field discusses Bloom’s Taxonomy so that students could understand
thinking from lower what higher-order thinking and lower thinking is
Adopted from Park (2005), Analyzing explicit teaching strategies and student discourse for scientific argumentation (p. 131, 132)
83
84 C. Akdeniz
2.2.4.4 Some Other Classifications
In some other instructional strategyapproaches; some instructionalmethods, tech-

niques, and tactics have been accepted as instructional strategies, like; Berg’s
English learning strategies (2005); Differentiated instruction strategies Gregory and
Chapman (2002); Tomlinson (1995a, b, 1999), and others (Table 2.10).
2.2.4.5 Beristi and Akdeniz’s Focus and Process Instructional

StrategiesClassification
The information contained herein has been added to the section with the permission
of Erişti and Akdeniz (2012).
According to them, instructional strategies are supposed to meet certain criteria
to consider them within a scientific systematicity. It may be better to regard
applications failing to meet these criteria not as instructional strategies but as
methods, techniques, and tactics in line with their pattern. They created some basic
criteria created depending on the review of the related literature constitute the basis
for the classification of instructional strategies developed in their study. These
criteria are as follows:
Table 2.10 Some other activity-based instructional strategy classifications

Author Specifications
Ray (2005); Web-based teaching strategies Encourages contact between students and
based on Seven Principles for Good faculty, develops reciprocity and cooperation
Practice (Chickering and Gamson 1987) among students, encourages active learning,
gives prompt feedback, emphasizes time on
task, communicates high expectations, respects
diverse talents and ways of learning
Merrill (1983, 1994) Component display theory: presentation (tell),
demonstration (show), recall (ask), and apply
(do). For kinds of content the presentation tells
a definition (information); the
demonstrationshows an example (portrayal);
the recall is remembering the definition
(information), and the application is classifying
a new example (portrayal)
Joyce et al. (2014) Social, information processing, personal and
behavioral systems. Social strategies include
cooperative learning, peer tutoring,
project-based learning, reciprocal teaching.
Information processing strategies include
concept formation, inquirylearning, and
synectics. Personal strategies include
individualized instructionand nondirective
teaching. Behavioral system strategies include
mastery learning, direct instruction,
computer-assisted instruction
1. Strategies should be able to explain how information will be processed;

2. Strategies should be able to be associated with instructional models;
3. Strategies should be able to explain how the instructional process will be applied
(Erişti and Akdeniz 2012; adapted with permission).
They have identified three basic questions to assess their teaching strategies: How is
information obtained/created/taught?; How is information obtained/created/taught?;
Based on which instructional models are strategies developed?
Let’s see their explanations.
How is information obtained/created/taught? Another possible grouping of
strategies focuses on teaching and obtaining/gaining/creating the information. In
this respect, two dimensions appear. The first dimension focuses on the question of
how is information taught? While in the second dimension, the question of how is
information obtained/gained/created is important. The literature acknowledges the
constructivist and behaviorist theories as a response to these two questions.
According to the behaviorist theory, information exists, and the learner obtains
information in various ways, or the information in question is taught to the learner
in a planned way. According to the constructivist theory, information is not refined,
and the learner processes, shapes and constructs it depending on his or her internal
processes. In this way, the learner internalizes the information and transforms it into
permanent knowledge.
How is the instructional process operated? Do classifications seek an answer to
the question of how is the instructional processoperated? Examine instructional
strategies under two dimensions: (1) Learner-focused/student-oriented strategies,
and (2) instructor-focused/teacher-oriented strategies. When the instructional pro-
cess is executed on the learner-focused basis, the instructional activities are planned
and carried out mostly in line with the learners’ interests, needs, skills, learning
pace, and their other characteristics. However, when the process is executed on the
instructor-focused basis, the instructional activities are carried out based on the
instructor’s individual characteristics and preferences and in the ways determined in
the curriculum and teaching plans.
Based on which instructional models are strategies developed? Instructional
strategiescould be gathered into four groups, though more in number, depending on
the instructional models that could act as a source for them. These are information
processing, behaviorist, individual, and social strategies. Behaviorist strategies are
designed to develop learners’ basic knowledgeand skills. Information processing
strategies mostly aim at organizing the process of learners’ obtaining and using the
information. Social strategies try to strengthen the consciousness of community and
to facilitate learning via social skills. As for the individual strategies, they mostly
emphasize awareness and reinforcement of personal development.
In their study, instructional strategies are taken into consideration from a com-
posite perspective involving the characteristics of the three groups previously
mentioned. In this respect, instructional strategies are gathered into two groups: the
focus and the process.
86 C. Akdeniz
The classification of instructional strategies formed divided strategies into two

basic groups: Focus and Process strategies. Instructional strategies concern what an
instructor sometimes does, how he or she achieves it and for what purpose he or she
does so. In this respect, in constructing the instructional process, how and for what
purpose an instructor carries out the activities reveals to whom he or she bases the
instructional process on or based on whom he or she executes the instructional
process; in other words, which really constitutes the focus of the instructional
process. The strategies revealing based on whom the instruction was made are
called focus strategies. Focus strategies gather instructional strategies under two
groups: instructor-focused and learner-focused. Instructor-focused instructional
strategies refer to application and execution of basically teacher-oriented instruc-
tional activitiesduring the instructional process. The learner-focused instructional
strategies show that the instructional process has a learner-oriented structure and
that instruction is designed in line with the learner’s needs, interests, desires, and
skills.
The responses were given to the question of “what and how did I teach?” to
determine which of the components of the process and to what extent the instructor
includes in the activities he or she carries out in the instructional process will point out
the process strategies and the components of these strategies. In the grouping, the
strategies revealing “how” the instruction is executed are called process strategies.
Process strategies include eight basic instructional skills which the instructor applies
and which can be classified as the knowledge and skills regarding teaching profession.
These are Problem Solving-Sample Event, Discussion- Brainstorming, Modeling/Role
Playing/Simulation, Making Pupils Think/Interrogate/Interpret, Presentation,
Question-Answer, Making Write/Take Notes/Summarize, Research/Project.
2.3 Strategy Activities
In this section, we show some instructional activities and its clues that refer to
theoretical basis and practical views. Activities based on the classification of in-
structional strategiescreated by Erişti and Akdeniz (2012; adapted with permission).
Each activity sample has its clues and prompts. Activities divided into two sections:
focus and process. Activities of the focus strategies are divided into two subsec-
tions: learner-focused and instructor-focused.
2.3.1 Focus Strategies
The strategies revealing based on whom the instruction was made are called focus
strategies. Focus strategies contain learner—focused and instructor—focused
strategies. The following section will provide application examples of instructional
strategies based on activities (Tables 2.11 and 2.12).
Table 2.11 Learner-focused instruction activities

Tips Activities
For effective instruction 1. Benefiting from metaphors in the instructional process
• Use peer learning + teaching 2. Choosing real-life examples related to the learning
activities! context by taking the students’ characteristics into
• Transform instructional practices consideration
to the games! 3. Explaining instructional goals of the course to the
• Give immediate feedbacks! students
• Encourage the pupils to 4. In the instructional process, preferring to use
cooperation as much as possible! cooperation and discussionskills effectively rather
• Keep group sizes small! than teachingsimply
• Support solidarity! 5. In the instructional process, establishing a relationship
between the students’ background knowledge and
what they have just learnt
6. Helping students determine the contents of subjects
for student independent studies
7. Encouraging students to direct more questions and to
state their views
8. Having students discuss the problem-solving
strategies they apply in the learning process
9. Having students make their learning preferences on
the basis of their interests in the subject being taught
2.3.2 Process Strategies
The strategies are revealing “how” the instruction is executed are called process strategies.
There are a number of learning skills connected with process strategies. Some of
them are: explains, solves, shows, thinks, transfers, gives examples, explains,
makes statements, makes comments, develops proposals, solves problems, asks
questions, answers questions, finds, plays a role, develops projects, explores,
reveals product and improves it. In this category we have eight group of instruc-
tional strategies: problem solving-sample event, discussion-brainstorming,
modeling/role playing/simulation, making pupils think/interrogate/interpret, pre-
sentation, question-answer, making write/take notes/summarize, research/project.
Below, will provide application examples of instructional strategies based on
activities (Tables 2.13, 2.14, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19 and 2.20).
Table 2.12 Instructor-focused instruction activities

Tips Activities
For effective instruction 1. Teaching by considering all the students in the class and their
• Be a facilitator! individual differences
• Make a positive class 2. Assigning the same duties and responsibilities to the students
climate! in class regarding the content of instruction
• Take into account of 3. Correcting the deficiencies and mistakes in students’ products
your personality! 4. Having students take notes regarding the subject during the
• Control amount of the lesson
information! 5. Having the whole class acquire all the gains envisaged in the
curriculum
88 C. Akdeniz
Table 2.13 Problem solving and sample event activities

Tips Activities
For effective instruction 1. Regarding a specified problem, having students discover
• Focus the real life issues! the basic causes of that problem
• Break down the problem 2. Having students obtain information from various sources
into smaller pieces! regarding a problem they believe it exists
• Come up with more than 3. Having students provide suggestions for solutions to a
one solution! certain problem in the light of the information they have
• Simplify the issues! obtained
• Focus on core event! 4. Having students develop hypotheses regarding the
• Improve intrinsic solution to a specified problem, find evidence supporting
motivation! the hypotheses and test these hypotheses
• Take complete 5. Having students share the solutions with teachers and other
responsibility! students in order to solve the current problem
6. Telling students sample events regarding the instructional
context
7. Having students share daily-life examples related to the
subject
Table 2.14 Discussion and brainstorming activities

Tips Activities
For effective instruction 1. Forming student discussion groups regarding the
• Always make the pupils instructional context
well-prepared! 2. Encouraging students to share their thoughts to help them
• Make clear the border of reach broader concepts and generalizations
discussion! 3. Encouraging students to put forward as many views as
• Use effective feedbacks! possible about the subject in the instructional process
• Address distracting 4. Having students make evidence-based discussions
behaviors! 5. Having students discuss their views with each other
• Make a safe zone!
Table 2.15 Modeling and role playing and simulation activities

Tips Activities
For effective instruction 1. Clothing as appropriate to the subject of the lesson and
• Use sources effectively! dramatizing the situation
• Choose the 2. Having students develop a role model regarding the subject
surviving-competitive students are interested in and having them present this role
materials! model in class
• Focus on details! 3. Having students develop a process model for laboratory
• Encourage the pupils to studies and test the process model they have developed
make drafts! 4. Having students develop a solution model regarding a
problem/subject as a result of their structured observations
5. Having students prepare an application plan covering the
goal, content, instructional processes, measurement and
evaluation criteria regarding the learning context
Table 2.16 Thinking and interrogating and interpretation activities

Tips Activities
For effective instruction 1. Having students emphasize the unanticipated dimensions of
• Direct the pupils use both a salient problem
of hemispheres! 2. Having students interrogate the strategies applied by the
• Engage the pupils to teacher and other students to solve a problem
challenging situations! 3. Having students make predictions regarding a new situation
• Support individual and provide alternative related explanations
experience! 4. Encouraging students put forward their contrary views and
• Control environmental challenge other students’ views
factors in class! 5. Encouraging students use their imagination power and
• Constraints the pupils time creativity regarding a subject
to time! 6. Helping students revise their views when their views are
• Use compare and contrast not in line with their knowledge or with their personal
activities! observations
Table 2.17 Presentation activities

Tips Activities
For effective instruction 1. Teaching a subject in an audio/visual way to students by using
• Take into account the various instructional materials
attention limits! 2. Having students present their subject-related studies to the
• Consider the technical teacher and other students
environment! 3. Supporting students’ story-development and story-telling
• Prepare yourself! studies
• Control mediaand 4. Having students read the subject-related sources from a
process! critical perspective and share the results they have obtained
• Keep it simple! with other students
5. Having students provide additional information about the
subject and elaborate the information they present
6. Teaching the subject to students non-verbally by using
appropriate instructional materials
Table 2.18 Question and answer activities

Tips Activities
For effective instruction 1. Encouraging students to direct appropriate questions to
• Bring into play the questions each other
of WH! 2. Randomly choosing the students to ask questions during
• Encourage the pupils to ask the lesson
compelling questions! 3. Having students wait for a while before they direct
• Make the questions and consecutive questions
answers are clear! 4. Asking open-ended/unfinished questions to students
5. Having students prepare questions about a subject that
interest students and provide answers to these questions
6. Having students ask the subject-related questions they
have prepared to each other and provide answers to
these questions
90 C. Akdeniz
Table 2.19 Making write and taking notes and summarize activities
Tips Activities
For effective instruction 1. Having students write down an original essay
• Avoid stereotype habits! regarding how to solve a problem
• Encourage the pupils to summarize! 2. Having students write down an article/essay
• Encourage the pupils to write every about a subject they have determined and
single day! evaluate this product according to the writing
• Encourage the pupils to emulate the criteria
syntactic structure of famous writers! 3. Having students form an original process map
that shows the teaching phases of a subject
4. Having students form graphical organizers
related to the subject (mind, knowledge and
concept maps)
5. Having students take notes regarding the
important points of the subject being taught and
create remindful signs
Table 2.20 Project and research activities

Tips Activities
For effective instruction 1. Having students prepare a project draft
• Focus the pupils to make good proposals! regarding a subject that interests’ students
• Encourage group projects! 2. Having students apply and test the project
• Encourage the pupils to write a draft they have prepared
well-prepared study plan! 3. Having students inform the teacher and other
• Advice the pupils being careful about students about the results of a project they
appraisal, assessment and evaluation have applied
processes! 4. Sharing subject-related previous sample
• Direct the pupils work step by step! studies with students
5. Having students obtain information by
examining various sources regarding a
subject that they are interested in
6. Having students hold interviews regarding
the subject they are investigating
7. Having students share the results of a study
they have conducted with the teacher and
other students
8. Having students make structured
observations in designed or real-world
environments regarding a certain research
subject
2.4 Conclusion
In this chapter, the concept of instruction was examined. Definitions, conceptual

frame, and its own nature were discussed. This chapter accepts the concept of
instruction as a combination of teaching and learning processes. And formulate it as;
Instruction ¼ learning þ teaching
The second main concept of this chapter is an instructional strategy that comes
from the teaching models. After describing instructional strategies detailed and
clearly, strategy classificationswere examined.
It’s possible to say that there are various classifications of instructional strategies
in the related literature. Some of these classifications were developed on the basis of
an instructional model; some in line with instructional theories; and some were
developed on the basis of instructional methods and techniques.
In the chapter, we addressed the strategy classifications in four categories: tra-
ditional, popular, cross-disciplinary, and activity-based. At least two examples were
examined in detail, and some others summarized for each category.
At the end of the chapter, we presented this book’s instructional strategy clas-
sification. The strategy classification and its philosophy explained in detail, and
some practical tips were given for each group. According to the classification;
instructional strategies collected into two groups: focus and process. Focus strate-
gies refer to the center of the instruction process, and it puts the teachers and pupils
in the center. The other groups, process strategies collect the instructional strategies
into eight subgroups: problem-solving, sample-event, discussion-brainstorming,
modeling/simulation/role taking, thinking/interrogating/interpreting, presentation,
question-answer, writing-note taking-summarizing, and research-project.
Glossary
Activity is a practical study, implemented as a part of the

process that served concrete objectives (Şimşek
2011).
Adaptation An equilibrium between the action of the
organism on the environment (Piaget 1972).
Affective Domain That area of learning devoted to developing
attitudes, values, or appreciations (Morrison
et al. 2001).
92 C. Akdeniz
Alternative Assessment An evaluation that applies to any and all

assessments that differ from the multiple-choice,
timed, one-shot approaches that characterize
most standardized and many classroom assess-
ments (Marzano et al. 1993).
Assessment Assessment is the process of gathering data on
student learning or the measurement of
pre-determined criteria (Sherman 1999).
Attitude A learned predisposition to respond in a con-
sistently favorable or unfavorable manner with
respect to a given object (Fishbein and Ajzen
1975).
Authentic assessment An evaluation that conveys the idea that
assessments should engage students in applying
knowledge and skills in the same way they are
used in the world outside of the school setting
(Marzano et al. 1993).
Behaviorism Learning theory in which subject content is
divided into a series of small steps; the learner
participates actively, receives feedback on effort,
and is guided to success (Morrison et al. 2001).
Behaviour Observable actions that can be seen and counted
(Moore 2000).
Classifying The process of grouping things that are alike in
categories on the basis of their characteristics
Cognitivism Philosophical orientation based on the belief
that people actively construct their knowledge
of the world through experience and interaction
rather than through behavioral conditioning
(McNergney and McNergney 2009).
Collaborative Learning “An instruction method in which students at
various performance levels work together in
small groups toward a common goal” (Gokhale
1995). A planned interaction working with other
learners for a shared purpose.
Collaborative Teaching The simultaneous presence of two or more
educators in the general education classroom,
jointly planning for, instruction and evaluating
heterogeneous groups of students (Hourcade
and Bauwens 2002).
Collaborative Cooperative group activities that tap the social

power of learning better than competitive and
individualistic approaches (Daniels et al. 2001).
Comparing The process of identifying similarities and dif-
ferences between or among things or ideas
Constructivism View of knowledge as constructed by individ-
uals acting within a social context that molds
knowledge but does not determine absolutely
what constitutes knowledge (McNergney and
McNergney 2009).
Creating Analogies The process of identifying relationships between
pairs of concepts, in other words, identifying
relationships between relationships (Marzano
et al. 2001).
Creating Metaphors The process of identifying a general or basic
pattern in a specific topic and then finding
another topic that appears to be quite different
but has the same general pattern (Marzano et al.
2001).
Curriculum Courses constituting an area of specialization in
the secondary educational institution (Canady
and Retting 1996).
Demonstration An action in which a trainer shows learners how
to successfully perform a given task through
illustration, explanation, and skill performance.
Differentiated Instruction An approach to teaching in which teachers
proactively modify curriculum and content,
teaching methods and processes, resources,
learningactivities and student products to effec-
tively address the diverse needs of individual
students or groups to maximize learning
opportunities.
Direct Instruction The foundation for most instructional models,
which includes six steps: review previously
learned material, state the objectives for the
lesson, present new material, provide guided
practice with corrective feedback, assign inde-
pendent practice with corrective feedback, and
review both during and at the end of the lesson
(Canady and Retting 1996).
94 C. Akdeniz
Distributed Education Often used to describe programs in which

courses are taught online and collaboration and
“virtual interaction” among students in the same
course are encouraged (Connick 1999).
Diversity The ethnic background of students. Learners
who are different based on their age, race, class,
gender, or handicap (Banks et al. 2001).
Effective Instruction Instruction that enables students to acquire
specified skills, knowledge, and attitudes, and
which students enjoy (Reiser and Dick 1996).
Effective Teacher The result of a combination of many factors,
including aspects of the teacher’s background
and way of interacting with others, as well as
specific teaching practices (Stronge 2002).
Epistemology Branch of philosophy concerned with the nature
of knowledge or how we come to know things
Evaluation The formal reporting about a system, practice,
individual, or group and a performance grade
within the report (Danielson and McGreal
2000). Evaluation is a decision made about a
student at some temporal point based on data
accumulated during assessments. As Sherman
(1999) stated, based on the information received
from assessment tools such as rating scales or
rubrics, “The teacher’s judgments are translated
from assessment to evaluation, from a mea-
surement to a letter grade” (Bazan 2007).
Experiential Learning A training strategy in which participants are
active learners involved in the concepts of
knowledge, activity, and reflection of
information.
Explanation Activities (lecture, review of previous materials,
demonstration, board work, video clips, and
reading assignments) currently observed in a
traditional setting (Canady and Retting 1996).
Facilitator A person assisting in needs identification and
learning strategies for students (Knowles 1980).
Feedback Providing the learner with answers to exercises

and other information about progress in learning
(Morrison et al. 2001).
Individualized Instruction Instruction tailored to the individual abilities of
students. Means of individualizing instruction
include allowing each student to proceed
through instruction at his or her own pace,
providing different instructional materials for
different students, and allowing different stu-
dents to work on different objectives (Reiser and
Dick 1996).
Inquiry Group is a form of professional development where
teachers meet in collaborative groups to discuss
topics and issues within their practice and give
and receive feedback on their practice as nee-
ded. Teachers are producers and decision mak-
ers of the knowledge received (Tillema and
Imants 2005).
Inquiry Learning Answering and solving problems by analyzing
data and creating and testing theories and
hypotheses to expand the conceptual system
with which one processes information
Instructional Activities The steps (events) that take place when the
instruction is presented to students (Reiser and
Dick 1996).
Instructional Models Deliberate, explicit, complete plans for teaching
that can be fitted to students and objectives
Instructional Objective Statement is describing what the learner is
specifically required to learn or accomplish rel-
ative to a topic or task (Morrison et al. 2001).
Instructional Strategy The daily transactions that occur between
teachers and students which lead to the attain-
ment of the identified outcomes. These trans-
actions should include multiple materials,
techniques, and activities supported by model-
ing, intensive coaching, supervised practice, and
monitoring.
96 C. Akdeniz
Instruction Planned action, practice, or procedures for

teaching (Canady and Retting 1996).
Intelligence Mental adaptation to new circumstances (Piaget
1972).
Interactive Group is a form of professional development where
teachers interact with each other and an outside
trainer who chooses and presents information
the trainer or other outside source deems
important (Tillema and Imants 2005).
Journal Written collections of students’ reflections on
learning (McNergney and McNergney 2009).
Knowledge A type (or domain) of learning outcome that
focuses on the ability to recall and state-specific
information (Reiser and Dick 1996).
Learner-Centered Learner-centered also known as
Instruction student-centered activities are based on the
interests, needs, and desires of the students.
Students are given more control of how and
what they learn (Knowles 1973).
Learning Centers Situations designed to provide individuals or
pairs of students the opportunity to practice
skills extend knowledge and skills beyond those
gained by the typical class, rehearse knowledge
and skills before assessment, and practice skills
that have not been mastered in an earlier
assignment or activity (Canady and Retting
1996).
Learning The assimilation of new information into the
existing structure, and accommodating or mod-
ifying the existing structure to deal with the new
information (Cohen and Younghee 1999).
Lecture A popular training method in educational insti-
tutions where an instructor or trainer stands and
delivers information to be learned. One of sev-
eral direct instruction approaches, which con-
sists of delivering information verbally (Canady
and Retting 1996).
Literacy One’s ability to read, write, and calculate
Mentee A person being guided, advised, or tutored by
the mentor (Evans 1992).
Mentors People who assist students by being their

guides, advisors, leaders, or tutors (Evans 1992).
Multiple Teaching Strategies Instructional tactics and activities used by
teachers, instructors, and other training person-
nel for helping learners progress from where
they are to where they must be (Bonwell and
Eison 1991).
Non-directed Model Teaching strategy in which teachers act as fa-
cilitatorsand reflectors to encourage students to
define problems and feelings, to take responsi-
bility for solving problems, and to determine
how personal goals might be reached
Non-instructional Behaviors Many actions, activities, discussions, and
directions occurring in a classroom are impor-
tant to the flow of the class, support of the
school, and establishing an appropriate learning
environment, yet are not instructional in nature
and do not relate directly to subject matter.
Examples include talking to students about their
weekend activities to establish rapport, relaying
information from the school office about school
events, or telling jokes to start the class in a
relaxed mood. These activities are intrinsically
part of any class, yet do not directly further a
curriculum (Costa and Kallick 2004).
Observation The act of using a variety of data collection
techniques to track classroom events and to
evaluate teacher performance.
Pedagogical Content Particular teaching knowledge necessary to
Knowledge impart content knowledge (McNergney and
McNergney 2009).
Performance Assessment Assessment based either on observation of a
process while skills are being demonstrated or
on the evaluation of products created (Stiggins
1997).
Personalizing Instruction Instruction and course objectives are based on
the unique needs and abilities of each student
(Conti 2004).
Prerequisite Skills The skills, knowledge, and attitudes students
mus possess to be ready for (capable of
98 C. Akdeniz
understanding) instruction on related skills,

knowledge, or attitudes (Reiser and Dick 1996).
Problem-Based Learning Problem-Based Learning (PBL) teaching
(PBL) Teaching Method method uses problems as a base to motivate
student learning of knowledge and skills. In the
PBL teaching method, students encounter a
problem or dilemma and use an organized,
logical method to solve the problem. This
method of teaching is a student- centered and
inquiry-based. According to Schwartz et al.
(2001), in a standard PBL classroom, students
will work in small groups, and the teacher is a
catalyst for learning and guides students through
the problem-solving process rather than merely
acting as a dispenser of knowledge (Dobbs
2008).
Project-Based Learning Involvement of students in relatively long-term,
problem-based units of instruction that allow
students to pursue solutions to problems posed
by students, teachers, or curriculum developers
Psychomotor Domain That area of learning devoted to becoming
proficient in performing a physical action
involving muscles of the body (Morrison et al.
2001).
Rubric Scoring key (McNergney and McNergney
2009).
Self-Directed Learning This is the educational goal of self-regulation
theories and is developed through
student-directedinstruction where students guide
and have input into, their own learning. “A
self-directed person can be described as being
self- managing … self-monitoring …
(and) self-modifying” (Costa and Kallick 2004,
p. 6). Strategies designed to develop these skills
of independence and provide experiences for
students to practice these skills are frequently
student-directed.
Self-Regulation Self-regulation consists of the cognitive pro-
cesses, behaviors, and strategies involved in
monitoring and controlling oneself (Ormrod
2004).
Simulations A teaching strategy using a scenario or model to

be played out by participants to provide them
with lifelike problem-solving experiences
Socratic Method Teaching through inquiry and dialogues in wich
students discover and clarify knowledge
Socratic Seminar A strategy for provoking student thought, dia-
logue and ownership for learning in which stu-
dents usually speak 97 % of the class time,
prompted by the teacher’s open-ended and
provocative questions (Canady and Retting
1996).
Student-Directed Instruction Ormrod (2004) described a student-centered
instruction as instruction that “encourages stu-
dents to construct their own knowledge and
understandings… Discovery learning,
whole-class and small group discussions,
cooperative learning, and group
problem-solving activities are all examples of
student- centered instruction” (p. 242).
Following this definition, as all instruction
focuses on students, Ormrod suggested that
student-directed replace the misnomers
student-centered, child-centered, or
learner-centered to properly describe instruction
where students direct their own learning and
learning activities with the teacher as guide or
facilitator.
Synchronous Communication in which all parties participate
Communication at the same time. Communication occurs in “real
time” (Connick 1999).
Synectics Teaching model that seeks to increase students’
problem-solving abilities, creative expressions,
empathy, and insight into social situations
Synthesis The connecting of the taught and applied cur-
riculum (Canady and Retting 1996).
Tactic Differences in the way of doing tasks (Şimşek
2011).
100 C. Akdeniz
Teacher-Centered A process whereby the teacher controls and

Instruction directs how and what students learn (Knowles
1980).
Teacher-Centered Learning Direct instruction, sometimes synonymous with
expository or didactic teaching, in which the
teacher is the major provider of information
(Borich 1988).
Teacher-Directed Ormrod (2004) described a teacher-directed in-
Instruction structionas instruction “in which the instructor
directly presents the material to be learned – for
instance, through lectures, explanations, text-
books, and educational videos” (p. 241). As all
instruction centers on students, Ormrod sug-
gested that teacher-directed replace the mis-
nomer teacher-centeredproperly to describe
instruction where teachers’ direct student
learning and activities (Ormrod 2004).
Teaching Style Teaching styles have been defined as the range
of practices by which a teacher can operate and
accomplish objectives (Weng 2002). Teaching
style research has found that teachers demon-
strate patterns of beliefs that guide their
instructional choices.
Teaching The ability to transfer knowledge so that the
learners acquire—even own-the knowledge and
skills for themselves (Stronge 2002).
Traditional The term, traditionalteaching methods, covers a
TeachingMethods variety of methods that most teachers use in
varying degrees. These methods include:
(a) teacher lecturing and student note-taking,
(b) individual student pen-and-paper practice
problems, (c) pen-and-paper assessment,
(d) laboratory activities with predetermined
outcomes in science classes, and (e) discussions
(Llewellyn 2005; Morgan et al. 2000 in Dobbs
2008).
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Chapter 3
Instructional Methods
Levent Vural
This chapter focuses on instructional methods, features of the classifications con-

cerning these methods, samples of student and teacher centered instructional
methods, and choosing an appropriate instructional method for a given outcome.
Some of the focal questions of instructional methods are as follows;
• What should the teachers take into account while determining the instructional
methods?
• Why is it necessary to specify an appropriate method in teaching-learning
process?
• Which specifications identify if an instructional method is whether teacher or
student-centered?
• Which methods are more effective on mental processes?
• In different teaching methods, what’s the role of the students?
3.1 Introduction
There are several factors defining the quality of teaching-learning process. The
notion of quality here refers to the quality of teacher, teaching program, readiness of
students, and physical atmosphere of learning environment. Positive and negative
contributions of these factors are crucial for the success of teaching-learning pro-
cess. Among these, teacher, learner and instructional program are the basics of the
“instructional process”. Of these three basics, teacher, as a guide, facilitates the
interaction of students with the instructional program. In this sense, the basic
responsibilities of teachers during a course can be specified as conducting and
L. Vural (&)
Faculty of Education, Trakya University, 22030 Edirne, Turkey
e-mail: leventvural@trakya.edu.tr

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_3
108 L. Vural
managing the teaching-learning process. Defined as teaching service in this process,

teachers organize some activities based on instructional methods to help students
attain their instructional goals.
In literature, “methodology” is defined as “a systematic path designed to
accomplish certain goals (Turkish Language Association 2016)”, “A systematic
way of studying on phenomena and concepts (Öncül 2000)”. Method,
education-vise, can be described as “a way consciously employed in order to realize
identified instructional and educational goals (Öncül 2000).” These ways may vary
according to the target, time, level of the student, modern approaches, and practices
in educational sciences. Specifying an appropriate teaching method for the goals of
the instructional program and applying them during the classes can be seen as one
of the teaching skills.
The teaching method is a concept that should be considered together with model,
strategy, and technique. There is a hierarchical relation among these concepts.
Model and approach rank highest in terms of hierarchy. In this respect, the
instructional model can be deemed as an umbrella term. As for terminological
hierarchy, techniques are embodied into methods that are subordinated by
approaches. Ocak (2008), states that some educators feel like employing methods
when using materials, studying on reading passages, conducting activities, and
doing exercises. According to him, the concept of method has a different meaning
than the others such as A course of activities that help the learners to achieve their
objectives at the earliest and in the shortest way. Within this scope, a method is a
total of activities that are conducted and is a path or a situation that these activities
refer to. Accomplishing instructional goals also depends on the goal, student, tea-
cher, subject, as well as finding and conducting an appropriate method for the
available materials.
As an indispensable component of the process, the instructional method should
be considered within the educational aspect of the program. Asserting that a method
is the best to reach all kinds of educational goals, or claiming that one is better than
the other would technically be misguiding. Rather than thinking that a method is
good, it is better to look for compatibility among the target, students’ features, and
other factors. Therefore, teachers have to have a rich and large command of
experience so as to determine the suitable method and technique. A teacher utilizing
different but correlated and compatible instructional methods in one lesson will be
more able to support his/her students in achieving effective, permanent, and
meaningful learning (Fer and Cırık 2011).
Gözütok (2007) reports that literature hosts different classifications regarding
instructional methods. Some sources group instructional methods in terms of the
size of the class, some do it according to the type of the roles that teachers and
students bear, some categorize them with respect to the physical setting (labs,
studios, in or outside the class), and still some others classify them in accordance
with the skills and behaviors (cognitive, affective, and kinetic) to be infused on
students. In this sense, teachers should know the properties, limitations, and con-
tributions of all methods.
3 Instructional Methods 109
One of the classifications concerning instructional methods was done by Fer

(2011), who noted that some of the methods are categorized as techniques and some
of the techniques are recorded as methods in the literature due to the closeness and
interwoven nature of the two terms. So, she categorized instructional methods as
teacher-centered, individual-centered, and interaction-centered.
Teacher-Centered Instructional Methods

• Lecture
• Demonstration
Individual-Centered Instructional Methods

• Problem Solution
• Project
• Experime
• Assimilation
Interaction-Centered Instructional Methods

• Question-Answer Active Learning
• Discussion Role-Play
• Brain Storming Case Study
• Cooperative Learning.
• Creative Drama
• Learning with Games
Source: Fer, S. (2011). Instructional Design (2 nd Edition). Ankara: Anı Publishing

(p.240)
Another classification within the literature belongs to Hesapçioglu (2008), who

adopts two approaches for the categorization of instructional methods. The first
approach is based on research methods, which differentiates methods deductive and
inductive ones. These two are shown as two ends of a continuum, and there also lies
some mixed types in between. It is noted that inductive ones would be more useful
with younger learners, and deductive ones should be preferred as learners get older
and the goals shift to teaching general thoughts of the mind.
110 L. Vural
Second approach, on the other hand, is similar to the first one, in that, it also puts
two different methods at two ends based on the dominance of teachers or learners,
one is when the teacher is the center as in lecture method, and the other is when
students are the center as in active method.
Lang and Evans (2006) consider instructional methods more as a component of

instructional strategies. One or more methods can be found in one strategy as parts
of it. In this sense, some behaviors such as demonstration, question-answer, and
presentation that are performed by teachers and included in one method are also
classified instructional skills. Lang and Evans (2006) Categorize instructional
strategies under five groups, which are direct, indirect, experimental, coopera-
tive, and individual learning strategies. Selection of an instructional method
should be rationalized based on the resultant of goals, information, skills, high level
of cognitive competence, values, and affective features. A good lesson plan should
include two or more instructional methods and strategies. There is no miracle
method or strategy that is the best for all students.
Teachers should carefully study the variables within teaching-learning process
while deciding on methods-strategies. Literature reviews yield some kind of con-
sistency as to the variables effective over teachers’ selection of methods-strategies.
Following are the factors influencing decisions about methods and techniques
(Demirel 2011; Küçükahmet 2001; Bilen 1999; Yasar 1998):
The level/quality of the goal: Goals are the primary determiners of method
selection. Methods are employed depending on the content of goals, be it cognitive,
affective, or kinetic. As for cognitive goals, either teacher-centered or
student-centered methods and techniques may be adopted depending on the level of
the goal. Mostly, lecture method is preferred for teaching abstract and basic con-
cepts while discussion or case study are regarded more effective over higher levels
of cognitive goals. With respect to effective goals, methods that help build empathy
such as drama, role-play, and conversation circle may be more efficiently used.
Lastly, demonstration-practice and drama methods are reported to be more useful to

attain kinetic goals.
Student Features: Several other factors such as students’ baseline levels,
socio-economic status of their families, and cultural characteristics may determine
the selection of methods and techniques as well. In a classroom where there are
students with different levels of motivation, methods, and techniques that would
attract students’ attention, or that would bring daily life into the classroom may be
preferred. Considering that learners bear different learning styles, it is of great
significance to offer a variety of methods that would appeal to as various learning
needs as possible. In addition, the size of a class may also be a criterion for the
selection of methods. A teacher using discussion method may go for small or large
group discussion based on the size of the class. Contemporary methods are more
suitable to classes with fewer students.
Content: Along with instructional goals, the learning content is also another
factor determining method selection. Methods such as discussion and case study
may be more appropriate for social subjects while the use of experiment method
would produce more fruitful results for science subjects such as biology, physics,
and chemistry. Also, heavy loads of contents might as well direct teachers to
employ lecture type methods more.
The physical arrangement of the class and what schools can offer: If the layout
of the class is suitable for forming groups within cooperative learning, it will
influence the teacher’s choice of methods and techniques. Large classes with stable
rows of desk might direct teachers to adopt lecture methods and may inhibit the
variety of techniques. Thus, classrooms should be arranged in a way that would
ease cooperative learning. Moreover, tools, materials, and equipment of the class
and school are taken as another factor influencing teachers’ selection of methods
and techniques. Besides, technological infrastructure in classes facilitates use of
computer-assisted learning.
Cost: Teachers may go for different methods for the same target in the same
domain (cognitive, affective, kinetic) due to cost related concern. Since methods
such as expedition, learning by doing and experiencing may be expensive, teachers
may have to adopt lecture, discussion, or problem solution methods.
Teacher’s methodological knowledge/instructional preferences: Teachers
might employ one of the methods more than others during teaching-learning pro-
cess. This frequency of some methods may cause teachers to feel alienated and
stranger for other methods. Especially lack of student-centered methods may lead to
loss of competence regarding the application skills of those methods. At times, the
rush to complete the curriculum might also be a reason for teachers to use more
traditional methods.
Some other factors, apart from those above, can be influential over the selection
of methods. Recently, teachers have been strengthened in terms of planning the
process due to the prevalent use of activity-based instructional programs based on
constructivist approach and inclusion of methods-techniques, and activities con-
cerning the outcomes within the program. Therefore, teachers have the chance to
add variety to the methods techniques and activities suggested in the instructional
112 L. Vural
program and to re-cast their activities in accordance with the variables noted in the
program.
Enhancing teaching-learning process by including as many methods as possible
has almost become a universal principle and generalization (Küçükahmet 1992). On
teaching goals, the literature is full of with different instructional methods. Teachers
are advised to employ student-centered methods more often than the others (Sözer
1998). The number of methods that teachers can adopt for an effective instruction is
unlimited. Each teacher may develop new methods based on their creativity
(Küçükahmet 1992). Some of the methods frequently employed in the literature are
explained below, and relevant examples are provided. Following is the list of
methods studied in this chapter:
• Lecture
• Discussion
• Case-study
• Demonstration-practice
• Drama
• Self-study.
3.2 Instructional Methods and Activity Samples
3.2.1 Lecture
This is one of the oldest and most often employed methods by the teachers during
teaching-learning process to convey a well-structured learning content. The lecture
can be classified as a teacher-centered method. Using this method, teachers deliver
the content supported with various instructional materials to their students in a
top-down (from the general to the specific) manner. Students are mostly idle in this
method, which is noted as one of the limitations of lecture method by some
scholars. Eggen and Kauchak (2006) state that there are three factors as to why
lecture method is one of the most frequently applied one during teaching process:
• Lecture method eases planning of teaching process
• Lecture method can be adapted to all learning fields and contents
• Lecture method is easy to apply
Eggen and Kauchak (2006) also report that this method, together with its pros,
has some cons such as pacifying the learners, being ineffective over young learners
and those with low academic success, forcing the limits of students’ working
memories, and thus, making it difficult to assess the learning process. Similarly,
Ornstein and Lasley (2004) underline that this method falls short when teaching
research-based goals, when the learning content should be retained in the memory
for a long time, when the content is rather complex, and student participation is
deemed significant, when high-level skills such as analysis and synthesis are
teaching goals, and when learners’ profile is lower than average.
Teachers may employ lecture method in order to convey fundamental knowl-
edge to their students when the aim of instruction is to teach basic concepts,
principles, and generalizations within the learning content. Besides, this method can
also be used to teach abstract concepts. Since a dense learning content built in a
top-down manner (from the general to the specific) and enhanced by several other
learning materials can be conveyed to large groups, the lecture may perfectly be
labeled as an economical method. Having a different approach, Ocak (2008) relates
the circumstances when lecture method is employed to the method itself and its
steps. He notes that this method can be used in order to start teaching in or outside
the class; to explain events, principles, and relations; to state the goals of teaching
process; to start a new unit; to further clarify the vague points students have
difficulties in; and to conduct opportunity learning through explaining things that
come up randomly during the lesson.
Theoretically, lecture method can be related to Ausubel’s (1963) meaningful
learning theory. Because meaningful learning is based on linking previous
knowledge with new information, teacher-centered practice will be more effective
in order to build this link via deductive lectures, use of concept maps, and high-
lighting similarities and differences to eradicate the unclear points. Teachers mostly
apply lecture method and its techniques to carry out all those activities. Moreover,
Lang and Evans (2006) underpin that teachers have to be good at addressing the
class when using lecture method. According to them, a lesson conducted with this
method should be in the form of a good speech. Emphasizing five or six points or
introducing a certain number of new concepts in a lesson are key features of this
method. Teachers should avoid long and non-stop talks, and pay special attention to
include students through question/answer and summary techniques. Ornstein and
Lasley (2004) report that accomplishing the following steps of teaching process is
important when using this method:
• Establish rapport with students: In this step, students’ attention is directed to the
lesson before the start. Cases, stories, and current issues are brought to the class
to build a relation between the students and the goals.
• Prepare lectures: This step involves identifying basic concepts and ideas,
structuring the learning content from the general to the specific, and preparing
any additional material support that may be necessary during the lecture.
Teachers should not directly read from their notes, should deliver a fluent
speech, and also should incorporate some informal talks, when necessary.
• Control the length of lectures and explanations: Teaching span should be
adjusted for students at different levels. Short presentations are mostly appro-
priate for younger groups, and at least one activity should be carried out after a
10-min presentation. For older groups, the length of presentations may be
longer, yet activities such as clarification, summary, and discussion should be
conducted after the presentations.
114 L. Vural
• Motivate students to pay attention: Interest motivates learners. Students’ ages,

skills, educational backgrounds, environments, and needs should be taken into
account in order to attract their attention. Teachers should strive to sustain
students’ attention via use of other methods and materials.
• Establish structure and sequence: A poorly designed and planned presentation
might be boring and confusing for students. Therefore, a linear and logical
sequence should be followed for the presentation of important concepts and
ideas. Moreover, these concepts and ideas should be linked with previous
knowledge and educational experience. In the meantime, the vocabulary and
complexity of the presentation should be age and level appropriate.
• Provide appropriate graphic organizers: Teachers should employ concept webs
and graphic designs so as to help students better understand and internalize the
learning content. This provides a visual clue for students as to significance and
sequence of learning content. Visual tools indicating the relations among
foundational concepts in a text can be considered as graphic designs.
• Combine instructional materials and strategies: Use of various learning mate-
rials and activities during learning contributes a lot to the visualization of
learning in minds. Learning is retained and sustained for longer periods only if
learners are provided with a vast and enhanced amount of learning experiences.
Planning an activity-oriented lesson for younger groups is more effective than
plain lectures.
• Encourage students to take notes: Taking notes during learning strengthens
students’ coding processes. Crucial concepts and ideas are more easily trans-
ferred to the long-term memory through note taking.
• Summarize content: Each teaching-learning process has to end with a summary
and relevant discussions. The best way of summarizing is quickly reviewing
what has been learned, asking questions to assess if learning is complete or not,
asking for new examples, and finishing follow-up exercise questions. Finally,
assigning homework at the end of a lesson helps relate the learning content with
the next learning topic.
Although there has been a negative bombardment by some experts in the lit-
erature, lecture method is still employed by teachers to teach basic concepts and
ideas. What makes this method monotonous and boring is that other methods do not
accompany it, it is planned poorly, and other learning materials do not support it.
Furthermore, Demirel (2011) warns teachers about the following points when
applying this method in their classes:
1. Teachers should use simple, short, and clear sentences appropriate for students’
features.
2. Teachers should adjust their tone of voice effectively, and should be audible at
every corner of the class.
3. Teachers may include age-appropriate jokes during their presentations.
4. Presentations should be enriched with audio-visual supports.
5. Examples should be appropriate regarding students’ features.
6. Students should be free to ask questions either to the teacher or to their

classmates.
7. Teachers should walk during the presentation as much as possible.
8. The presentation may be followed by short discussions to increase student
participation.
9. At the end of a lesson, teachers should assess the process and try to improve
incomplete points.
Following are a sample activity and a teaching scenario where lecture method is
employed with an interdisciplinary approach.
Sample Activity
Mehmet is a teacher for 5th graders at a primary school. Next week, he will be
teaching sets for math class, and he will cover the sub-theme of “Equality and
Equivalence in Sets” and how to symbolize them during the lesson. His aim is to
teach his students the skill to determine if two sets are equal and equivalent or not.
However, Mehmet teacher wants to teach more than technical information about
mathematics and intends to help his students build relations with other disciplines
when learning about this topic. In this way, he hopes to help his students learn the
topic and see the same topic within other disciplines as well. So, he plans to teach
the values of equality and justice in the same lesson along with the main learning
content.
The reason why he chooses these values is the thought that justice may be the
basic rationale when determining equality and equivalence in sets. In other words,
does making things equal also mean being just or is it enough to make everything
equivalent to be just and fair? Accordingly, he formulates a question for the values
he will teach: “Do you think we are just and fair if we make two different things
equivalent, or do you think they become equal?”
He thinks about how to link this topic with other disciplines so as to conduct the
teaching-learning process he identified at first and to provide his students with
plenty and fruitful learning experiences. He tries to find current pieces of news
about equality and being fair. He figures that things the leading character in “Les
Misérables” (Jan Valjean) do, which he read earlier, to be fair and just might be
suitable to link the learning content with Turkish language class. Then, he decides
to bring in a short story that his students will decide about the end, which he hopes
will sow seeds of justice in his students. Moreover, he remembers that the concepts
of fraternity and honesty are included within the lyrics of Beethoven’s 9th
Symphony, which he can use to link the math topic with the field of music. Lastly,
he thinks what Bayezit the 2nd did in Ankara War in 1402 could be given as an
example of fairness from the field of history. Although his viziers told Bayezit the
2nd that Timur’s armies were not ready and it would be wise to attack them
immediately, Bayezit said that it wouldn’t be a fair fight and silenced them.
116 L. Vural
Scenario
School: Atatürk Primary School
Grade: 5th Graders
Course: Mathematics
Topic: Equality and Equivalence Relations in Sets
Duration: 80 min
Concepts and symbols of the unit: Equality, equivalence, =,
Teaching-Learning methods and techniques: Value Development Model, Teaching
via Lecture Method, Question-Answer, Case Study, Making Decisions.
Sources, materials, and equipment: Various materials and equipment in the class,
History Coursebook, CD player, Beethoven’s CD, the novel “Les Misérables” by
Victor Hugo, a storybook titled “Boy who Defeats Difficulties”.
Outcomes: Students will be able to understand the concepts of equality and
equivalence in sets; to provide relevant examples from his/her daily life; notice the
significance of values such as equality and justice for individual and social life.
Instruction Process
Stage One: Start
Attention: Mehmet teacher walks into the class with the storybook “Boy who
Defeats Difficulties” in his hand, stands in the middle of the class, and shows the
book to his students. He checks if his students read that book earlier or not through
questions. A majority of his students tell him that they haven’t read that book. The
teacher wants his students to guess what the topic of that storybook may be? Based
on the name of the storybook, students say that it is about a boy who faces various
difficulties. Mehmet teacher approves their answers and tells them that he read this
book when he was at their age and that he liked it a lot. Furthermore, he says that he
will leave the book to the class library at the end of the lesson, and they can borrow
and read the book if they like. Since students are curious about the topic of the
book, they ask questions to their teacher. Mehmet teacher tells them that the book is
about a boy at their age and that he faces many difficulties in his school life since
his conditions are not equal with those of his classmates. Then, he reads a short
sentence spoken by the boy in the book: “Since I did not have a separate notebook
for each course, I used to keep notes of two courses in one notebook, and when the
notebook was full, I used to erase those I had written earlier, and write the new
ones. Moreover, I had to use a piece of dough that my mom gave to me and that my
grandpa rolled and squeezed as an eraser.” Students tell that they are moved by
the difficulties that the boy went through, and they are willing to read the book.
Then, Mehmet teacher asks why the boy in the story has to go through difficult
times. Students reply that the boy does not have the same conditions as his friends.
Then he asks his students whether the boy would go through the same difficulties if
he had the equal conditions as his friends. Students respond that equal conditions
would disappear all the difficulties for the boy.
The teacher asks, “What can we do when equality does not exist, and do you
think two things become equal if we make them equivalent?” Students cannot
answer these questions, yet. The teacher says that he will ask the same question at
the end of the lesson again, and wants his students to think about their first answer
when the lesson is over.
Motivation: The teacher says, “If you listen to me carefully and participate the
lesson effectively, you will learn how to make sets equal and equivalent, will be
able to answer questions about them, and also will be able to understand the
importance of being equal and fair to those around us at the end of the lesson.”
Revise: The teacher will say, “In this lesson, we will learn equality and equivalence
relations in sets and the significance of equality and justice in social life, and we
will find out real life examples from our daily lives.”
Preliminary Learning and Recall: In this step, the teacher reminds his students of
relevant preliminary learning and asks the following question.
How many elements are there in Set A?
A
.a .+
.7 .m
.2
There are five elements in Set A. In other words, Set A consists of 5 elements.
a is an element of Set A. a € A
+, is an element of Set A. + € A
7, is an element of Set A. 7 € A
m is an element of Set A. m € A
2, is an element of Set A. 2 € A
Linking: After the teacher reminds his students of the features of sets and elements,
he focuses the teaching-learning process onto the concepts of “being equal” and
“being equivalent.” Accordingly, he picks up a red pen and asks what can be an
equal of that red pen.
Stage Two: Improving

Practice 1: Students tell their teacher that an equal of that red pen may be another
red pen with the same height and thickness. Then, the teacher holds a piece of chalk
parallel to the board and draws a line. Subsequently, he asks his students to draw
another line equal with that one. One of the students go to the board, picks up the
chalk, holds it parallel to the board, and draws an equal line. Afterward, the teacher
checks with the class if the two lines are equal or not. All students shout “equal.”
Based on this, the teacher asks what it means to be equal to his students. Students
answer, “to be the same as the other.”
Interim Summary: The teacher states that two things have to bear the same features
to be equal.
118 L. Vural
Interim Transition: The teacher says, “I want you to form sets based on the letters of
two words I’ll tell you.”
Practice 2: The teacher says the words “LEMON” and “MELON” to his stu-
dents. Students draw the following sets and match the elements.
A B
Then, the teacher asks his students what they can say about the elements of the
sets above. Students say that the elements of both sets are the same. The teacher
asks if they can call two sets with the same elements as “equal sets” or not?
Students respond that they can name such sets as “equal sets.”
Interim Summary: The teacher says, “So, in this way, we’ve learned that sets with
the same elements are called equal sets.”
Interim Transition: After helping his students discover the concept of “equal sets,”
the teacher decides that he can move onto other activities about being equal and fair
as he mentioned at the beginning of the lesson.
Practice 3: The teacher asks if a similar version of being equal or not, as they
learned for sets, can be true for our individual and social relations or not. Then, he
wants them to think about the possible consequences if the same case is handled
differently for different people in the eye of the law. Students state that it would be
unfair and injustice. Afterwards, the teacher asks if that would create any kind of
inequality or not? Students answer that it would certainly lead to inequality, and
thus same rules have to apply everybody.
Later, the teacher underlines that not being equal would demean the feeling of
justice in their society. After that, the teacher explains that the book in his hand was
written by a person who values justice and equality more than anything else in his
life. Next, he tells his students that Jan Valjean of Les Misérables by Victor Hugo is
put behind the bars unfairly, fleets out of the prison, and turns out to be the mayor.
Then, he recites the following to underpin how strong Jan Valjean’s feeling of
justice is.
“As a mayor, Jan Valjean finds out that somebody else was caught instead of
himself. That person is immediately taken to the court, and sentenced to death.
Soon, he will be executed. Upon hearing this, Jan Valjean goes to the court and
exposes his identity because he believes that the other way around is completely not
fair.”
Next, the teacher tells that something similar was witnessed in our history. When
Bayezit the 2nd caught his enemies unprepared, he refused to fight them because he
thought it would not be fair despite lots of pressures by his viziers. This behavior of
his was appreciated even by his enemies.
Interim Summary: The teacher informs his students that the consequences would be
unbearable for everybody once the principle of equality is violated in society, and it
is the same in the classroom as well.
Interim Transition: After studying equal sets and conducting relevant activities for
concepts such as equality and justice, Mehmet teacher thinks that he should move
onto the concept of “equivalent sets” and related activities. Therefore, he shows sets
with different elements to his students and asks them to organize these sets in two
different groups.
Practice 4: The sets are as follows:
A = { a, 5, m, + }
B = { < , ?, 9 }
C = { %, 4 }
D = { g, r, 7, p, $ }
E = { @, 4, + }
Students develop several alternatives by studying the set lists above. One of the
students say that two of the five sets contain three elements but not the others, and
s/he say that these five sets can be classified as those with three elements and those
without. The teacher tries to learn how and why that student came up with such an
answer. The student says the number of elements in Sets B and E is the same. Next,
the teacher formulates a question, “So, can we call those with the same number of
elements but not with exactly the same elements as equivalent sets?”. Students reply
that “we can.”
Interim Summary: Sets are having the same number of elements but different ele-
ments are called equivalent sets.
Interim Transition: Later, the teacher tells his students that he will play them a song.
Practice 5: The teacher puts the CD of Beethoven’s 9th symphony into the player
and plays it. Then, he asks his students if they can guess the meaning of lyrics in
that song. Students answer that the lyrics are about fraternity, freedom, honesty, and
equality. Next, the teacher asks them to give examples of some events that harm the
feeling of equality and justice from their own lives. Some of the students state that
everybody does not live under equal conditions.
Stage Three: Finishing and Evaluation
Last Summary: In this phase, the teacher summarizes the lesson briefly. He
underlines that they studied the features of equal and equivalent sets in this lesson.
Furthermore, he rewords that they talked about equality, which is an important
value, and that individuals and societies without the feeling of equality and justice
may harm others around.
120 L. Vural
Re-motivation: The teacher states that the world would be a better place if we pay
close attention to being equal and fair in our relations with the environment and
with others.
Finishing: The teacher repeats the questions he asked in the Attention part; “What
can we do when equality does not exist, and do you think two things become equal
if we make them equivalent?” Students reply that making two things equivalent
does never mean to make them equal.
As homework assignment, the teacher asks his students to create equivalent sets
by classifying things in their environment based on their features.
Evaluation: Mehmet teacher asks the following questions to his students to assess
today’s learning and to have information about his students’ learning levels. One of
these questions regards a concept map prepared in relation to this topic. He wants
his students to fill in the missing information in that map of concepts. The other
question concerns the value of ‘equality’ studied during the lesson. He wants his
students to produce fair solutions for the case he prepared. Accordingly, he first
reflects the map of concepts onto the board.
1. Fill in the concept map below with appropriate concepts.

SETS
consist of are shown as
exactly the same the number of elements is the same
2. Produce a plausible and possible solution for the case in the following text
(Table 3.1):
Mister Ahmet’s favorite race horse escaped from the farm. It hasn’t been found
yet although they searched every nook and cranny. So, Mr. Ahmet feels terribly sorry. One
day, one of his neighbors tells Mr. Ahmet that there is a lost & found horse in the nearby
village. Then, Mr. Ahmet goes to that village to see that horse. He recognizes the horse and
wants the farmer to give it back to him. The farmer tells him that he found the horse next to
his farm, and he has been feeding it since then. Therefore, he does not want to give the
horse back. So, they go the wise man to solve the case. What kind of a solution do you
think the wise man will find to be equal for both men?
Table 3.1 Conceptual summary of inter-disciplinary instructional scenario

Themes and Basic Sources Links with Lesson plan
values question other
disciplines
Being fair Do we make Various materials and Music: Anticipation
Objects’ two things equipment in the Songs with Equal or
equality equal by classroom, History lyrics on equivalent
Equality and making them Coursebook, CD fraternity cases or
Equivalence in equivalent? player, Beethoven’s and objects in the
Sets Fundamental CD, the novel “Les equality environment
Differentiating Value Miserables” by Victor Turkish Noticing
equal and Equality Hugo, the storybook Language: Events and
equivalent sets titled “Boy who A novel conditions
Defeats Difficulties” and a story leading to
on equality inequality in
History: the
Ankara environment
War Consolidation
Case studies
that require
being equal
and fair
Adapted from Gunter et al. (2003), p. 253.
3.2.2 Discussion
Discussion means exchanging opinions and ideas individually or in a group during

teaching-learning process so as to attain the specified goals of a lesson. It is a
student-centered method in which students share their opinions about a topic under
teacher’s supervision. This method is considered to be effective overachieving
cognitive and affective goals. It can perfectly be employed to teach understanding
skills or above within cognitive domain and responding and above within affective
domain. This method can be applied only if students have already achieved the
outcomes in “knowledge” domain.
Discussion helps improve critical thinking skills, democratic attitude, creativity,
and self-expression during the learning process. It is based on oral explanations of
ideas and phenomena about a topic that appeals to students, and it facilitates
learning and gaining experience about a topic. This method can serve directing
students to a certain subject, clarifying vague points, and reinforcing what students
already know about a topic (Ocak 2008).
If not planned carefully, discussion method can lead to some unwanted conse-
quences such as waste of class time. In this sense, there are some principles that also
teachers should be careful about as much as students do. Güven (2011) underscores
that teachers have a critical role in this method more as a guide rather than a
manager. Therefore, the teacher plans and conducts instructional activities as an
entrepreneur, organizer, informer, supporter, and assessor. Önce et al. (2008) report
that discussion is one of the widely used methods in Turkey. According to them,
122 L. Vural
teachers in Turkey employ this method in order to help students express them-
selves, to increase the retention of knowledge, to activate students, to prevent
courses from monotony, and to raise sensitivity for contemporary social and cul-
tural events.
As for Hesapçioglu (2008), settings where certain attitudes are adopted for or
against several topics and issues, where different points of views are valued, and
where nurturing democracy awareness is considered important accentuate the merit
of discussion method. Hesapçioglu lists the strengths of discussion method as
follows:
1. Students participate in the class actively.
2. There is an opportunity for constant control of comprehension, cooperation, and
attention.
3. Students become social via group discussions.
4. Learning process becomes more fruitful when accompanied with different
opinions of the learners.
Discussion method is applied more effectively with relatively smaller groups of
students in classes where every student can see each other. It is of great significance
that teachers work hard to design atmospheres where students can freely provoke
others’ opinions during the implementation of this method. Building up a demo-
cratic classroom atmosphere may clearly serve as a ground for students to openly
express their ideas. Hesapçioglu (2008) regards a qualified discussion as an
explanation and expression of social life. Discussions provoke the need for help and
the feeling of friendship. Students learn to help the slow learners, to restrain
themselves, and to respects others’ opinions by taking turns in a conversation. In an
experimental study, Dai (2014) notes similar results as to how discussion method
improves communication skills. Omatseye (2007) focuses on social and affective
outcomes of discussion method and reports that this method encourages students to
hold cooperative activities, which creates a sense of belonging and helps to gain a
team spirit. In addition, she also underlines that this method positively affects
academic success of students at different levels, and improves interpersonal relation
skills of those students.
Despite its strengths, discussion method is not free from some limitations that
also guide the users as to how effective the method can be employed. Following is a
list of these limitations: (Pollock et al. 2011; Güven 2011):
1. Each student may not equally participate.
2. It is difficult to practice this method in crowded classes, and it takes a lot of time.
3. If not managed well, it may lead to some negative feelings such as competi-
tiveness and race.
4. Sometimes, the discussion may drift away from its real goal.
5. It may not be effective with the first graders in primary school and larger groups.
6. The further the discussion gets; the more difficult class management becomes.
7. Discussion may not produce desired outcomes if students haven’t mastered
prerequisite learning contents.
8. Discussion requires a meticulous planning by the teacher.

9. Discussion method may not be suitable for every course and topic.
Omatseye (2007) reports that the physical arrangement of the class matters
dramatically for the success of discussion method, and advises to stick with two
basic types of seating layout, which are centralized and decentralized organizations.
Central seating organization is of three sub-types; wheel, chain, and Y shape.
Wheel design puts the teacher in a central position physically. In this design,
students may also be given the opportunity to moderate the discussion. The duty of
the teacher or the moderator in this design is to announce the topic of discussion
that the participants will perform. This seating layout might be influential regarding
cooperation and high levels of interaction with the participants. Following is a
diagram for wheel shape seating layout.
S S
S S
TEACHER
S S
S S
Another possible arrangement is to have a chain-like organization. In this layout,

the teacher takes his place at the apex of the chain. In his position, inputs on
discussions are fed back to him. Teacher filters ideas, concepts and rules, and sends
back to other participants. He also sends back decisions arrived at, corrects obvious
fallacies in arguments encountered, and proffers solutions to problems arrived at. In
this regard, the teacher acts like the person in charge who stores information and
emphasizes significant points. Below is a diagram of chain model.
Teacher S
S S
S S
124 L. Vural
In Y shape organization, the teacher sits in the center of two or three commu-
nication channels. S/he meets all the needs of each participant manages opposing
ideas, eliminates some of the opinions, keeps a record of comments and solution
offers, and presents them. This form of communication in Y design may be noted as
a drawback of this layout. Following is a diagram of Y shape layout.
S S
S S
TEACHER
S
The Y pattern
Decentralized seat arrangement may also lead to effective outcomes as a result of
discussion method. In this design, no one adopts the role of a moderator, including
the teacher. Either the teacher or a student with enough command of knowledge can
direct the discussion. What makes this arrangement different is the freedom it offers
to students in terms of participating the discussion process. Students can easily
change their opinions. Moreover, eye-contact during discussion improves the
quality of communication.
Some sources list several steps to employ discussion method. As cited by Güven
(2011) from Gunter et al. (1999), discussion method can be applied in accordance
with the given guidelines below:
1. Reading the material and preparing questions
2. Planning and grouping the questions
3. Introduction of the method to the students
4. Discussion
5. Review
6. Evaluation
Of all the above steps, especially “preparing questions” and “discussion” are
critical steps of the whole procedure. For an effective discussion process,
open-ended questions should be developed in order to elicit different opinions.
Students should be encouraged to express their opinions, and proofs should be
sought for the causes of ideas shared during the discussion. In the end, key points
should be underlined, and notes should be taken if necessary. The whole class time
should not be dedicated to discussion. Following is a model practice of discussion
method.
Sample Activity*
Scenario
Course Name: Social Studies
Target Group: 4th Graders
Unit: Friends Far Away (Unit 8)

Duration: 40 + 40 min
Outcome: 1. Students will be able to notice that there are other countries in the
world
Skills: Communication skills, Critical thinking skills, Social participation skills,
Language skills, Research Skills, Information technologies skills
Instructional Method and Techniques: Discussion, Cooperative Learning
Materials and Equipment: World physical map, Cardboard for posters, Materials
containing students’ research results, Markers, Scissors, Glue, Assessment forms
Instruction Process
Stage One: Start
Attention: The teacher greets the students: “Hello everybody, how are you today?”
“I brought you different games today, and these games do not belong to our
country. I will tell you one of them. Its name is ‘Catch the Beans’. 4-to-6 people can
play the game. First, a little pit is dug in the garden, and a line is drawn approxi-
mately 10 m away from that pit. Players collect even number of beans in their
hands. Next, each player throws his/her beans to the pit from the line. Then, the
player collects the beans in the pit, puts them on the back of his/her hand, then
throws them again in the air, and tries to catch as many as s/he can. Each player
repeats the same actions one after the other. The one who has the highest number of
beans in his/her palm wins the game. Afterwards, the teacher asks his students,
“How did you like the game?”, and says, “We will learn the origin of this game at
the end of our class.” At this point, the teacher does not comment on what students
say.
Motivation: The teacher says, “If you listen to me carefully, and pay close attention,
we will learn new countries today. Besides, we will learn some of the games played
in these countries, and we will play those games. But, first, let’s learn about the
countries.”
Revise: The teacher says, “In a moment, we will start learning about the countries
by working altogether.”
Transition: The teacher says, “Before we start working, I want to share something
with you. I’ve been searching for a topic. I’ve collected some information about it,
but still I need to learn your opinions as well. Therefore, let’s discuss the topic first,
and let’s be respectful during the discussion.”

Practice 1: The teacher shows either the world map or the sphere to the students and
asks “Kids, you know that the world is composed of lands and oceans, right? We all
know that these lands are not one single country. So, how do you think people
separated the lands into countries, according to what?” A discussion starts in the
class. Depending on the answers by the students, the discussion can be lead to the
desired direction.
126 L. Vural
Interim Summary: The teacher says, “So, what can we conclude based on what you
all said?”, and starts organizing the answers; then, he asks, “So, can we say that the
language spoken by the people, the land that they live on, their way of life, their
cultures, and similarities have shaped how countries were created?”
Interim Transition: The teacher says, “Now, I want everybody to sit with their
friends in the groups that we formed last week.” Last week, students formed groups
of five, each group was assigned one country to search about; and all students were
informed about research criteria. Thus, they are in class right now with their
research notes, ready to work in groups.
Practice 2: The teacher says, “Kids, in a moment, you’ll be preparing your
posters. I know you completed the distribution of duties last week, and today you
will prepare a poster as a group work by using all the pictures and information you
collected so far. Yet, first let me introduce you the country that I prepared to present
to you.” The teacher presents the posters/he prepared to his students. Then, the
students are given almost 25 min. Students complete their poster within the set time
and carry out their presentation the following session.
Last Summary: The teacher asks, “What do you think we talked about today?” to all
his students. S/he organizes and reviews the answers and says, “In this lesson, we
learned how countries were formed, that there are different countries, and we shared
what we know about other countries.”
Re-Motivation: The teacher says, “Everybody has been introduced with a different
country today. Everybody has some information about these countries. When
names of these countries come up sometime somewhere, you will already know
about them.”
Finishing: The teacher announces that the game introduced at the beginning of the
lesson belongs to Mexico, and shows his students a short video about Mexico.
Evaluation:
I can… Yes No Partially
• Give examples of countries in the world
• Show the countries on a map
• Give information about countries
• Give examples of countries neighboring Turkey
• I am curious about the countries in the world
*(Thanks to Aslıhan Sarıyıldız, a student at Faculty of Education.)
3.2.3 Case Study
Case study is teaching/learning through detailed analysis of either real or imaginary

problems and fiction-like situations and events that can occur in daily life in the
classroom. It is generally employed in social sciences and mostly used in law and
medicine for instructional purposes. Main goal of case study method should be
developing different viewpoints and different solutions, depending on the outcomes,
for the problems brought into the class. It is conceived as a method that nurtures
creative and lateral thinking skills. The case study is restructured through discus-
sions and debates from every possible angle, and it is reported again together with
solutions Students discuss the causes, how the case happened, and possible results
during their quest for solutions.
In case study method, the cases to be examined in the classroom do not have to
be in scenario forms as in problem solution method, or the steps to be followed are
not the same as in scientific problem solution. The teacher brings in a social case, an
environmental issue, or a current event to the classroom either orally, or in the form
of a text, picture, movie, and role plays. Students read, watch, interpret, and analyze
the case. First, students should try to examine the causes behind the case and should
identify the problem clearly. Then, students begin producing opinions and solutions
for the problem case either in individual or group activities. Hesapçioglu (2008)
signify that case studies should be realistic practical, current, and problem oriented.
Students should be convinced that they may encounter such an event in their
professional or daily lives.
Kimbal (2006) notes that case study was first used as an instructional method by
Prof. Langdell at Harward University School of Law in 1870. Similarly, Herried
(2011) reports that real events in trade business were utilized during instructions at
Harward University Business School, and then the practice spread to other schools
and faculties. Cases brought to the classroom are scrutinized via socratic method,
which may be considered as one of the techniques of instruction through discovery.
It is used to teach understanding skills and above within cognitive domain and
responding skills and above within affective domain. Herried (2007) simply
describes this method as “case studies are stories with an educational message.”
According to Herried (2011), when cases are defined in this way, stories can be told
in a variety of ways: by discussion, lecture, small-group methods, and a host of
other, including the use of clickers in large classes. As reported by Şahin et al.
(2010), literature hosts a number of different approaches and techniques developed
in relation with case study method, which is as follows:
• scaffolded case,
• the open-ended case,
• the reflective case,
• the historical/contemporary case,
• dilemma based case
128 L. Vural
• situated case
• multi-cultural case
• ethics based case
One of the above approaches may be selected by the content of learning target.
In open-ended cases, the solution is left suspended for students, and possible
suggestions are discussed. In multi-cultural cases, on the other hand, the aim is to
furnish students with new viewpoints regarding other cultures. Below are several
examples of texts that can be brought to the classroom as case studies. These texts
are to improve the skills that teachers should have in order to conduct an effective
planning of the . What is the type of case studies given below, and why?
Sample Activity 1
Teacher Mehmet is an MA student. He learns that “In-service Program
Development” course will be based on practice. In this regard, the professor asks
them to contact with a public institution to develop an in-service educational
program for them. Students are free to choose which public institution they will
work with. The professor tells them that he will guide them during the development
of educational programs and also underlines that they should always be in touch
with the institutions.
So. Mehmet chooses Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality as his public institu-
tion. He figures that educating workers would make the authorities in the munici-
pality happy. Therefore, Mehmet wants to start developing in-service educational
program at once. However, he has difficulties deciding where to start the program
development. So, he formulates several questions in order to find out his weak-
nesses in program development. He thinks the answers he will give to these
questions will clarify what needs to be done during the process. Following are
questions that teacher Mehmet formulated:
1. What should I do first, and where should I begin in order to develop an
in-service education program?
2. What kind of an action plan should I have to avoid possible problems during the
process?
3. Whose advice can I seek for program development?
4. What do the participants (trainees) want to experience within the program?
5. What components should the program include?
6. What steps should there be in the program that I will develop?
Can you also help teacher Mehmet in answering these questions?
Sample Activity 2
Professor at Law Faculty, Mr. Mehmet will not be able to attend his classes that
week due to a national congress on the law to be held in Ankara. So, he seeks help
and asks Research Assistant Ahmet to cover him for his classes that week. Having
no previous teaching experience, Ahmet panics a little bit. Upon seeing his stu-
dent’s panic, Professor Mehmet tells him that he will share the outcomes and
learning content of the classes with him and that he will also guide him about
teaching-learning process. The subject to be covered in that week is “domestic

law.” Professor Mehmet, has already identified learning outcomes of this subject as
follows:
Outcomes; students will be able to
1. list the concepts related to domestic law
2. explains the place of domestic law within the private law
3. identify which of the articles in domestic law can be classified under the civil
law
4. obtain cases and verdicts that are examples of domestic law
5. interpret these verdicts based on the related articles in civil law
Research assistant Ahmet studies the outcomes and finds the subject of that week
from the coursebook. He talks with Professor Mehmet about the activities that he is
planning to conduct during that course. Professor Mehmet tells his student that he
should bring in plenty of real life examples, should teach about abstract concepts by
using the concrete materials and situations he will take to the class, and that he
should take students’ previous knowledge into account. Moreover, Professor tells
his student to make use of teaching principles. Ahmet tries to remember the prin-
ciples of teaching quickly, and decides to search and learn about them in detail by
going through sources on educational sciences.
What are the principles of teaching Ahmet will find in books on educational
sciences? Can you help Ahmet about that?
Güven (2011) notes that teachers should be careful about several points when
applying case study method and that case study method has some superior features
over the other ones, which may be listed as follows: Case study method,
1. raises genuine interest in students and motivates them considerably since real
life situations are handled in class;
2. helps students develop their skills in many areas such as understanding, com-
prehension, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation;
3. produces a dynamic learning environment since all students are motivated to
participate;
4. is suitable for cooperation among students;
5. brings in joy and variety to the class by way of different materials;
6. improves students’ problem solution and critical thinking skills;
7. offers opportunities that expand students’ points of view about a troublesome
issue.
Yadav et al. (2007) report data on a national survey of 101 faculty members who
used cases. Faculty members stated that case-based teaching lead to students’
stronger critical-thinking skills, better ability to make connections across multiple
content areas, and deeper understanding of concepts. They also reported that during
case study teaching, students were better able to view an issue from multiple
perspectives and were more engaged in the class when using cases. Şahin et al.
(2010) held a content analysis by meticulously examining 115 academic studies that
130 L. Vural
had employed case study method for teacher training in the literature. Research
findings help create an overall idea about using case study method. According to the
researchers, case study method can be applied in various academic disciplines and
there are different approaches to handling this method Technological advances and
instructional approaches have increased the dose of interaction and cooperation
during the use of this method. Furthermore, experts report that other learning
outcomes (problem solution, multi-cultural awareness, gaining historical perspec-
tives, critical thinking, reflective thinking, decision making, and transfer) can also
be achieved when case study method is employed.
Steps of the Case Study Method
Although this method has different versions, it is practiced in the classroom through
more or less the same steps, which do not vary across individual or group activities.
If the class is a large one, groups of 5 or 6 can be formed.
• Presentation: The case is presented to the students as a text enhanced with a
variety of visual materials.
• Understanding: Some questions that elicit whether the case is understood or not
are directed to the students.
• Focusing: This is when the case is analyzed. Discussions are initiated through
questions about the causes, how the case happened, and the features of the
people and objects involved in the case.
• Enlightenment: Solution suggestions are proposed in this step. “How else do
you think it could have been?” etc.
• Integration: The case is re-written or role-played, if necessary, based on the
solution suggestions.
It requires a well-planned preparation step to employ the case study method
effectively in accordance with the aforementioned steps. It is a time-consuming
method. Sometimes, it may be difficult to come up with cases compatible with the
learning outcomes. One session is generally not enough to figure out a plausible
solution for the cases. Thus, cases that can be gathered around one question but
conducive to multiple solutions should be brought to the class. So, these are listed
among the limitations of the method. In addition, some of the sources note the
following as the limitations of case study method:
1. It takes the time to prepare and apply cases.
2. The teacher has to make a solid preparation before the class.
3. Planning, practice, and evaluation are formidable tasks with crowded groups.
4. If solutions are not within students’ inventory, they may have difficulties in
formulating possible solutions.
5. It may not work well with students not used to problem solution, discussion, and
critical thinking.
6. Students’ interest is fueled when the case is clear and realistic (Hesapçioglu
2008; Güven 2011).
Both the steps and limitations of case study method indicate that a detailed
planning process is required for a successful practice. Especially, choosing a suit-
able topic and finding a good example of a case are the most crucial elements of
planning. Irrelevant cases that are not open to more than one solution may turn out
to be a waste of time. Therefore, the teacher should seek either real or fictional
contemporary cases compatible with students’ levels and learning outcomes.
Sample Activity 3
Science teacher spreads sheets of paper that s/he cut from newspapers about
environmental pollution such as “Air pollution in our town”, “The world is dying”,
and “Continent Dirt in the Pacific.” S/he asks students to determine possible
environmental issues in their neighborhood by means of visuals. Students run short
discussions as to possible causes of these problems in small groups. Then, the
teacher asks students what to do in order to prevent such problems from reoccur-
ring. Possible solutions are listed and shared with the entire class.
3.2.4 Dramatization
This method helps students’ versatile development with its holistic approach (in
cognitive, affective, and kinetic senses). Dramatization is based on role-playing an
abstract concept, situation, or phenomenon in game-like settings. The word drama
comes from the Greek language, and it means “to do something” or “to act” In a
way, it is the art of converting abstract situations into tangible events. Making
things concrete and role playing are two basic ways of expression that drama offers
individuals, especially students. During the expression process, creative and
impromptu solutions are required (Demir 2010). Adigüzel (2010) reports that it was
Finlay Johnson who first started using drama in a school building in 1904, and that
“Dramatic Instruction Method”—written by Harriet Finlay Johnson and contributed
to the understanding of education drastically via creative and, for some, unusual
ways—was introduced to the public in 1911. So, drama started to develop as an
instructional method in 1911, yet did not become prevalent within 50 years. In the
1960s, the drama began to grow in its intended form and was redefined with
Dorothy Heathoche, who embraced drama as a significant learning method and
designed it as a means that children could use to practice what they knew instead of
creating games and role plays. Heathcote published “Drama as an Instructional
Method” in 1979, and systematized the duties and responsibilities of a drama
teacher (Çelikkaya 2014). Within the literature, drama is defined as a method
aiming to teach children how to behave in certain circumstances by doing and
living (Boudreault 2010; Anderson 2012; Hendrix et al. 2012). Ocak (2008)
describes drama as a method that facilitates students’ active participation, trust, and
skill exploration.
In drama method, students role-play about a topic or situation given by the
teacher. Providing that students are given some details about the characters they act
132 L. Vural
out, drama may also be conducted based on a flexible scenario. At times, drama
activities may be used without any scenario and by letting students totally free to
reflect their creativity. After students present the drama in accordance with the
features of characters, a discussion session may be held to analyze the process by all
means.
Hendrix et al. (2012) say drama supports the social constructivist paradigm that
learners attain meaning through firsthand experience in a social setting. The practice
of creative drama has been defined by Davis and Belm in 1978. Creative drama
includes role-playing, improvisation, pantomime and script writing. Güven (2011)
states that students are given the opportunity to practice their imagination and
creativity at length in accordance with their roles, and that drama is a double sided
method for both the individual (player) and the spectators. Benefits of creative
drama are noted in the literature as follows (Young and Kellogg, 1993; San 2002;
Güven 2011; Anderson 2012):
• It develops empathy and social skills.
• Students grow their skills to understand cause and effect relations.
• It furnishes students with skills necessary to express feelings and attitudes.
• Students can make sense of what is going on in their environment and daily
lives through drama.
• It improves effective use of body language.
• It reduces students’ anxiety and increases their self-esteem.
• Dramatization brings in the events that are out of students’ reach in terms of
time and space, and it provides students with opportunities to exhibit their
creativity.
• It is useful in analyzing social situations, figuring out solutions for several
aspects of social problems, and improving leadership and management qualities.
• It nurtures democracy and feeling of equality.
• It supports students to deal positively with conflicts.
• For younger students, it brings fun and happiness to the class and spreads hope
and optimism.
According to drama method, role plays that students act out with no scenario and
by using their creativity, subjective thoughts, and knowledge are defined as “cre-
ative drama.” In this regard, creative drama offers an educational atmosphere that
gives an individual to be himself/herself as much as possible. All students have to
partake in creative drama activities, and they are practiced as a whole-class activity.
Creative drama activities consist of several steps. Maden (2010) reports that these
steps can be adjusted in accordance with students features and needs. Following is a
classification of these steps (Üstündag 2000; Maden 2010):
Preparation Step (Warm-up and relaxation): This step includes practice exercises.
Groups are formed, and physical and tactile exercises are carried out to gain trust
and to get to know each other.
Action (Acting and Improvisation): This step includes acting out and developing
plays according to some ground rules identified earlier. Plays are performed
together with the group to solve the problem as a group. During improvisation,
students may utilize a text, a joke, or a proverb so as to dramatize the focal concept.
The main source of improvisation is students’ lives.
Development and Assessment: This is the end step of the process where students
review and reflect on their experience. Group leader helps students express how and
what they felt during the performance by asking questions. Drama leader aids
students warming up with the activity and guides the group.
For a successful creative drama activity, the goals should be clear for students; it
has to be significant, interesting, and compatible with students’ needs; lastly, the
setting has to comfort students and help them feel safe and secure (Güven 2011).
The best drama topics are those that appeal the most to the students. Following are
some warnings and guidelines that teachers can follow during the practice if they
want to apply drama method effectively and if they want to arouse students’
interests (Özden 1998; Bowel and Heap 2013; Wooland 2016):
• Samples must be compatible with students’ age and expectations.
• The setting has to evoke feeling of comfort and security for students
• Drama activities should not be interpreted unless really necessary.
• Discussion session should be held at the end of the performance.
• If the drama activity is acted out based on a specific scenario, then the teacher
should do his/her best to help students understand their characters in detail.
• Should students fail to internalize and comprehend their roles, then the activity
turns out a flop.
• The same students may always volunteer to partake in drama activities.
Before the performance, necessary tools and equipment should be brought to the
class, and the performance should start with volunteering students. Students must
be eager to work, produce, and share. During the practice, a play prepared earlier in
accordance with learning outcomes is acted out (Ocak 2008). Below is an
instructional scenario based on drama method.
Sample Activity*
Scenario
Course: Social Studies
Topic: Seasons
Outcomes: Students will be able to notice the differences that living creatures go
through as a result of climatic change.
Duration: 40′ + 40′
Grade: 2-a
Materials and Equipment: Cards with names of seasons on them
Method and techniques: creative drama method, role-play technique
134 L. Vural
Instruction Process
Stage One: Warm-up
Practice 1: Students are told to walk around the stage freely and to move according
to the information in the following text.
“You are in a car… You have to go some somewhere, you are in a rush, but your
car won’t start due to snow…You step out of the car…It’s snowing on you…
Suddenly, you want to forget all about what you have to do and enjoy the snow…
you pick up a snowball and throw it…Interestingly, the weather starts to improve…
You feel that you’re warming…You begin to feel the smell of flowers that blos-
som…It gets warmer and warmer…You feel that you’re sweating…You see people
heading for the beach…You also want to join them, but it starts to rain suddenly,
and you take out your umbrella…It gets cold again…You listen to the sounds of
leaves drifting around on the wind…”
At the end of the activity, students are asked to express how they feel, and their
ideas are noted.
Practice 2: Four cards with the names of seasons on them are left to the four
corners of the stage. Students are asked to move to the center of the stage. They are
told to run to the related corner upon hearing the features read to them. The latest
student to reach the correct corner is eliminated or excluded for one round.
Example:
It snows. (Winter)
Leaves are falling. (Autumn)
Flowers blossom. (Spring)
Clothes are light. (Summer)
It begins to gel cold. (Autumn)
We wear pullovers. (Winter)
Snow melts. (Spring)
It is the hottest season. (Summer)
Practice 3: Similarly, season cards are placed in four corners of the stage.
Students stand in the center. The name of a month is announced. Students are
expected to run to the relevant season corner. The latest student is eliminated or
excluded for one round.
Practice 4: Students form a circle. They are named as Fall, Winter, Spring, and
Summer as they stand in the circle. The leader stands in the center of the circle and
announces the name of a season. For example; “Where are the Falls?” Those named
as Fall move to the center and they say, “Here are the Falls, where are the
Summers?” The game is repeated like this for several times.
Practice 5: Students have the same season name. One of them is selected as it,
and s/he moves to the center. When it announces the name of a season, those with
that name has to switch their places. While the players are swapping their places, it
also tries to find a place for him/herself. The one who is left out or loses his/her
place becomes it. The game is repeated like this for several times. The game may be
expanded as the players wish. For instance, when it announces “all for seasons”,
then everybody has to switch their places.
Stage Two: Role-play
Practice 6: 4 groups are formed. Each group is assigned with a different season
name. Each group writes a short story about taking a vacation in the season they are
named after, they act it out. When role-playing is over, a short discussion is held
about the features of the season.
Interim Evaluation: How do you feel when role-playing? Are there any other
characteristics of these seasons that influence people’s lives? Is there anything you
want to add to the features of seasons?
Practice 7: Four different groups are formed. Students in each group tell some of
their memories lived in different seasons to each other. Next, they are asked to
report a TV news about their interesting memories. TV shows are watched. Then, a
small talk is held about the relevance of these TV shows with the seasons.
Stage Three: Evaluation
Practice 8: Students talk about the activities of that day briefly:
• What is the topic of today?
• How are the lives of living creatures affected by the seasonal change?
• Was any of the activities difficult for you?
• Which of the activities did you like the most?
• How can you summarize what we learned today?
*(Thanks to Yasemin Özdemir, a student at Faculty of Education)
3.2.5 Demonstration Method
The demonstration is a method in which the teacher teaches a kinetic skill, how to
use a tool, or working principles of a tool to students by showing several tools or by
actually using that tool. It is employed to teach kinetic skills. How a kinetic skill is
performed or how a tool works is shown and explained to students in steps, then
students are offered practice opportunities until they master the skill or the tool.
Here the aim is to escalate students to the “mechanization” step of the kinetic
domain. Students learn through seeing a role model. Tan et al. (2002) underline that
demonstration is a highly effective method since it appeals to more than one sense
of students. During the demonstration, other methods such as discussion and drama
can also be employed, and it may easily be enhanced with other visual instructional
materials such as graphics, schemata, models, and slides.
Demonstration method is more powerful and influential than lecture method and
other relevant techniques. It is both student and teacher-centered. Demonstration
136 L. Vural
part is the teacher-centered phase, and practice step is the student-centered one, and
it attracts students interest a lot. The demonstration is used to introduce a new skill
to a whole group, but it should apply to individuals or a small group whenever more
support is needed for their learning (Matteson and Freeman 2006). Demonstrations
are most likely to be successful (1) in teaching manipulative and operative skills,
(2) in developing understanding, (3) in showing how to carry out new practices,
(4) in securing the acceptance of new and improved ways of things, and (5) in
developing psychomotor skills (Morgan et al. 2012). Certain guidelines should be
followed during practice (Ocak 2008; Güven 2011; Sünbül 2011, Morgan et al.
2012; Ekeyi 2013):
• Target skill should be suitable for students’ baseline levels.
• The demonstration should be carefully planned, and should be performed where
everybody can clearly see.
• Demonstration place should be visited earlier than the performance so that
necessary security precautions can be taken, if necessary.
• Prior emphasis should be assigned to daily life skills.
• The demonstration should be performed by the teacher from the start to the end
with no intermissions, and everybody should be able to see the whole process.
Whole-Part relation.
• Then, the steps of the skill should be shown one by one, and enough time should
be allocated for each student to practice as much as they need.
• Part-Whole relation.
• A new step should be demonstrated only after the previous one is totally
understood and performed at an acceptable level.
• During the demonstration, techniques such as question and answer should be
utilized in order to keep students alert mentally and to motivate them.
Of all the principles of demonstration method, planning has a special impor-
tance. Skills that are poorly planned and not studied in detail may turn out as waste
of time. If immediate feedback and correction is not provided while learning one of
the steps, it may be more difficult and time consuming to better that skill step later.
Taspinar (2012) notes that following points should be taken into account during the
planning step of a demonstration: (1) The Title of Demonstration (2) The Goal of
Demonstration (3) Necessary tools and materials (4) Skill steps of the target skill
(5) Activities students will perform after the demonstration. Even though demon-
stration is carefully planned; there are still some limitation reported in the literature,
which can be listed as follows (Güven 2011; Sünbül 2011):
• It requires a lot of time and effort.
• It is difficult to apply in crowded classes.
• Teachers with a limited amount of experience may have difficulties using this
method.
• It is not effective in teaching high-level cognitive skills.
• All students may not watch and observe the presentation equally.
• Since it takes a long time for each student to try the skill and to correct the
mistakes during these trials, target skill may not sometimes be attained.
Morgan et al. (2012) report that there are two kinds of demonstration method,
which are method demonstrations and result demonstrations. According to them,
these two types are used separately, but they may be combined in some cases. The
main features of each of these types of demonstration are given below (Morgan et
al. 2012, pp. 140–141):
Method Demonstrations: These show how to do something. They involve the materials
used in the job being taught, show what is done, how it is done, and explain each step as it
is taken. Method demonstrations can usually be completed in a relatively short time and are
inexpensive to present. Result demonstrations: These are intended to show by example
the results of some practice by means of evidence that can be seen, heard, or felt.
Commercials on television are often based on result demonstrations. ……They often have
to do with production procedures, operational costs, time and labor economics, or with the
quality of a product.
Dale (1954) developed a 6-step guideline-set to help use demonstration as a

method. Below are those steps (Borcher 1970):
1. A demonstration is a dramatic performance
2. Plan every step (including materials) carefully
3. Rehearse your demonstration
4. Outline the steps on the chalkboard
5. Be sure that everyone can see and hear
6. Prepare written materials
Following is an instructional scenario in which demonstration method is
employed. The teacher designs and experiments in order for his/her students to
understand the variables that are influential across wind formation. S/he follows
Dale’s steps during using demonstration method.
Sample Activity
Scenario
Course: Science
Topic: Wind Formation
Outcomes: Students will be able to explain that whether temperature may vary
depending on the structure of the Earth’s surface, and to name the basic
variables in wind formation.
Duration: 40 + 40
Grade: 7
Materials and Equipment: Glassware, water, soil, two thermometers, light
source, and smoke
Methods and Techniques: Demonstration method, question, and answer,
guessing-observation-explanation
138 L. Vural
Instruction Process
Stage One: Start
Attention: The teacher asks an open-ended question to the students at the beginning
of the class: “Have you ever wondered how natural events that we witness in our
daily lives occur?” S/he listens to students’ guesses.
Motivation: Learning about natural events and their causes will help us become
more aware of nature’s working principles.
Revise (Informing about the goal): In this lesson, we will analyze the variables
effective over wind formation.
Transition: Before this step, the teacher has already completed the following
preparation steps.
1. A demonstration is a dramatic performance: The teacher knows that a natural

flow and presentation matters a lot for a successful demonstration experiment.
2. Plan every step (including materials) carefully: The teacher determines the steps
and materials to be used during the experiment in advance. S/he outlines the
questions that s/he will ask his/her students during the process.
(a) Can we say that pressure will be the same as long as the temperature of
water and soil stays at the same level?
(b) Why do you think temperature rises more in soil than in water?
(c) Do you think pressure differences indicate temperature differences?
3. Rehearse your demonstration: The teacher controls the materials to be used for
the experiment and conducts the experiment before the demonstration. So, s/he
gains insight in terms of possible problems.
4. Outline the steps on the chalkboard: S/he hangs or reflects the steps of the
experiment where everybody can see. When necessary, s/he falls back on the
steps to underline key points.
5. Be sure that everyone can see and hear: S/he carries out necessary arrangements
in the laboratory to make sure that everyone will be able to see the experiment.
6. Prepare written materials: S/he copies the documents containing required
materials and the goal of experiment and hands them to the students so that they
can use it for their reports.

Following the completion of relevant preparation, the teacher conducts the exper-
iment where everyone can see. In the meantime, s/he clearly announces that it is
important for everybody to see how the experiment is conducted. During the
experiment, s/he asks several questions in order to encourage students to express
their opinions. Following questions are directed in this step:
(a) What does it mean when the smoke moves towards the soil?
(b) Accordingly, how can you explain the air-flow from the sea towards land?
(c) What may be the reason for the air to escalate over land yet to lower on the sea?
(d) What is the relation between all these events and pressure?
Re-motivation: It matters significantly to know about the causes of natural events

and to gain scientific insights about them. All events in the world follow the chain
of causality, and all relations can be explained with a scientific standpoint.
Summary: Pressure differences are the main cause of wind formation. Air-flow
between high and low air pressures result in winds.
Assessment and Evaluation: Design a poster on wind formation.
(Courtesy of Cepni and Ayvaci 2008.)
3.2.6 Self-study Method
In self-study, students learn a topic by doing and experiencing. This method is

employed when a student wants to learn or study a subject on his/her own. Besides,
it may also be utilized to furnish students with practical, analysis, and synthesis
skills within learning through research and mastery learning (Demirel 2011; Aykaç
2014). In this method, students study on their own. Therefore, it offers self-learning
experience to students. These experiences help learners attain skills on top of their
taxonomies.
This method may not be as effective as expected for students with poor
self-regulation skills. In this sense, students with a good command of responsibility
can make use of this method efficiently by regulating their studies. Students with a
different pace of learning can have the chance to move within their limits. In
addition, it is conducted in accordance with students’ interests, abilities, and needs
since it is a student-centered method.
Hesapçioglu (2008) notes that there are three different ways to practice self-study
method: (1) Individually Prescribed Instruction—IPI) (2) Program for Learning
According to Needs—PLAN (3) Individually Guided Education—IGE. In IPI, the
curriculum is always divided into units that will last a class time for each
instructional branch. Outcomes for each unit are tailored for students. Teachers
apply a pretest to each student at the beginning of the instructional year in order to
determine their baseline levels. Bolvin and Glasser (1968) state that the aims of IPI
system are: (1) to provide instruction that is adapted to reliably assessable indi-
vidual differences among learners (2) to develop mastery of subject matter as the
140 L. Vural
child moves through the curriculum (3) to develop self-directed and self-initiated
learners through instructional procedures which provide for self-selection and
self-evaluation (4) to provide opportunities for the child to become actively
involved in the learning process. On the other hand, in PLAN, outcomes are ranked
across different grades, and they are sequenced realistically. Then, “modules”
containing five goals are formulated. Approximately, it takes a two-week time to
finish each module. The student and his/her teachers work together so as to decide
on the module that the student will start studying. IGE, on the contrary, is another
system that requires planning of courses for student units in groups of four, and
these student units are also classified across grades.
Several principles should be taken into account for a successful application of
self-study method (Yeager 1969; Demirel 2011):
• Learners’ goals should be realistic.
• Learners should be informed about the sources, and access to various sources
should be facilitated.
• Studying should be considered as a student responsibility, and they should be
given enough time to study.
• Learners should be provided with guidelines for individual study, and they
should follow them.
• Learners should be monitored closely to see their level, and a solid planning
should be done.
• Learners should experience the feeling of success.
• Learners should be informed about learning strategies.
Demirel (2011) states that students and teachers should adopt new roles when
using self-study techniques. Instruction has to be student-centered, and teachers
have to manage student-centered activities while providing necessary guidance.
Teachers determine learning outcomes for each unit and uses follow-up tests in
order to monitor if those outcomes are achieved or not. All these tests shed light
upon learning difficulties and success levels of students.
Despite the strengths above, self-study method also has some limitations
(Senemoğlu 2003; Demirel 2011), which are as follows:
• It may require long-winded planning step.
• It is not effective for students with poor self-study skills.
• If study guidelines are not monitored regularly, expected achievements may not
be realized.
• If not planned carefully, it may lead to superficial learning or to uncontrolled
ramifications of a study subject.
• Students have limited amount of chances to improve their social skills.
Some scholars do not classify self-study and other related methods (programmed
instruction and computer-assisted instruction) as one of the real instructional
methods since they reduce the role of a teacher to minimum levels. Experts note
that this method makes learning process mechanical, cold, and inhuman
(Senemoğlu 2003).
Sample Activity*
Studying at Social Studies Teacher Training Department of an Education Faculty,
Serap wants to prepare for the teaching proficiency exam to be held at the end of the
instructional year. She asks the opinions of her professors at the faculty to decide
whether to attend a private course or not so as to prepare for the subjects within
instructional methods course. After consulting with her professors, she makes her
mind to use self-study method. Accordingly, she asks Dr. Mehmet Ayas’s guidance
to be able to develop a study guideline for herself. They formulate study guidelines
together and plan her schedule. Below is the outline of the guidelines and schedule
they formed:
Study Guidelines for Teaching Principles and Methods Sources
1. Sonmez, Veysel: Teaching Principles and Methods
2. Demirel, Ozcan: Teaching Principles and Methods, The Art of Teaching
3. Eskicumali, Ahmet, Isman, Aytekin: Instructional Planning and Evaluation
4. Sahin Cavus, Genc, Salih Zeki: Teaching Principles and Methods
5. Doganay, Ahmet: Teaching Principles and Methods
Study Plan
Week Subject Follow-up tests

1 Basic concepts and teaching principles
2 Cooperative learning Tests on the 1st and 2nd subjects
Problem-based learning
Project-based learning
3 Multiple intelligence theory
Brain–based learning
4 Learning styles Tests on the 3rd and 4th subjects
5 Instructional methods
Thinking skills
6 Individual teaching techniques Tests on the 5th and 6th subjects
Group teaching techniques
7 Review Placement test on all subjects
Study Rules
1. During studies, attention and review strategies should be accompanied by
monitor strategies.
2. Concept maps should be formulated on each subject.
3. Exercise questions at the end of each unit have to be answered.
4. Studies should not be left for the last day.
142 L. Vural
5. If necessary, the mentor should be contacted.

6. The student should practice on as many questions as possible to consolidate the
subjects.
*(Thanks to Mehmet Ayas, Ph.D., Mentor, Faculty Member)
3.3 Conclusion
One of the key components of the learning process is instructional methods. It

requires the teacher plan carefully and displays teaching skills. It is a reflection of
learning philosophy on the whole and instructional strategies in particular. Goals
are the prior variables to be considered in deciding which instructional method
should be employed. Apart from learning outcomes, features of teachers and stu-
dents, content, and physical setting also are influential over the selection of the
instructional method. Lecture, discussion, case study, demonstration, and self-study
are some of the methods teachers can employ during teaching-learning process.
Lecture method should be selected when teaching a high-density subject to larger
groups. Applying this method for high-level goals may not produce fruitful results.
Demonstration method should be adopted to teach kinetic skills. Among the skills
that discussion method improves are democtratic awareness, critical thinking, and
respect for different ideas.
Glossary
Discussion Exchanging opinions and ideas individually or in a group

during teaching-learning process so as to attain the specified
goals of a lesson.
Dramatization It is learning method which helps students’ versatile devel-
opment with its holistic approach in cognitive, affective, and
kinetic senses.
Extrinsic Type of motivation that is created by an external stimuli such
motivation as the teacher or parents.
Instructional It is a way to enhance learning which has a narrower scope
tactic than instructional strategies.
Intrinsic Self-driven motivation.
motivation
Learning styles Individual preferences for the conditions where, when, or how
a student obtains and processes information.
Lecture It is a teaching method that teacher delivers the content sup-

ported with various instructional materials to their students in a
top-down.
Motivation The state of being willing to do something.
Praise To commend the worth of or to express approval or admiral.
Prompts and Positive evaluations by a person of another’s products, per-
Clues formances, or attributes.
Role-playing It is learning activity in which participants act out a set of
defined role behaviors or position to (or “intending to”)
acquiring desired experiences.
Self-monitoring Evaluating yourself.
Socratic A discussion technique in which collaborative, the intellectual
Seminar dialogue is facilitated with open-ended questions of teachers
about the content of the course.
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Chapter 4
Instructional Techniques
G. Feryal Gündüz
In this chapter, detailed information will be given about teaching techniques. This
chapter has four sections: Definitions; include explanations about core concepts,
classification; include techniques classifications in related literature and short
explanations of them, activities; include the definitions of each of the techniques,
and the application of them. The pedagogical benefits and limits of each of the
techniques are clarified. Suggested activities based on the explained techniques are
also given in this section. Conclusion includes the abstract of the section, glossary,
and references.
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 The Relationship Between Instructional Strategies,

Methods, and Techniques
Instruction can be defined as starting, leading, easing and implementing the learning
in the direction of a purpose (Tan and Erdoğan 2001). Carrying out an effective
instruction depends on putting the education’s components together consistently
and relevantly with each other. At the heart of realizing effective instruction, it
involves students’ characteristics, teachers’ characteristics, effective classroom
management and the qualification of the instruction process. The qualification of the
instruction process depends on planning, implementing and evaluating the
instruction effectively. The teachers who are one of the important trivets of edu-
cation have to ask themselves some important questions in this process. One of
these questions is “how can I teach my students at the highest level?”. This question
G.F. Gündüz (&)

700.yıl Osmangazi Secondary School, Halkalı, Küçükçekmece, Istanbul, Turkey
e-mail: gferyal.kucuker@gmail.com

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_4
148 G.F. Gündüz
especially refers to use teaching strategies, methods, and techniques. In literature

review, it is seen that these concepts are confused with each other. Due to this, we
will begin to this chapter with explaining the relationship between teaching strat-
egy, method, and technique.
In education, a lot of instructional strategies were developed based on learning
theories. According to Clark and Starr (1968), the strategy is a general way to
achieve the lesson’s goals. In this regard, the strategy can be defined as an approach
which provides reaching the lesson’s goals and leading to use of methods, tech-
niques, tactics and equipment (Bilen 2002). For instance, a teacher who will use
expository teaching strategy as an instructional approach can choose presentation as
a teaching method and conference, seminar, panel or forum as teaching techniques.
Clark and Starr (1968) stated that a teaching method is a learning way which puts
teaching techniques, learning content, learning equipments and resources into
service relevantly with each other to achieve the learning goals. It can also be
defined as a regular process of leading students to develop skills and habits and
providing them to be equipped with knowledge and tendency about learning (Alkan
1979). Lastly, the teaching technique is generally defined as an application form of
a teaching method (Alkan 1979).
Although the teaching strategies become different from teaching methods and
techniques certainly; it is not possible to say the same thing for the relation between
teaching methods and techniques. While some researchers and educators define a
concept as a teaching method, the same concept can be defined as a teaching
technique by some others. Some of them also define the same concept as a teaching
method and technique in which context it is used. Güneş (2014) states that although
a teaching method and technique have some similar characteristics, the two con-
cepts are different from each other completely. She clarifies common and different
characteristics of them in the following Table 4.1.
4.1.2 Instructional Techniques
In spite of being a good person and a professional in their subject area, some
teachers have difficulties in teaching effectively. One of the major causative factors
of this is teachers’ insufficient information and abilities about which teaching
techniques can be used effectively with which teaching methods and how they are
used. The teaching techniques compose of an important dimension of a teaching
method. Yıldızlar (2013) defines teaching techniques as activities that provide the
control of cognitive processes and reinforcing of the subject discussed in a lesson.
According to another definition, the processes being implemented by using all of
the mental and physical resources consciously, solicitously and actively to realize
4 Instructional Techniques 149
Table 4.1 The common and different characteristics of teaching methods and teaching techniques
Common characteristics Different characteristics
Having a purpose, principles and A teaching technique is a subcomponent of a teaching
rules method
Having a content A teaching method can’t be applied without a teaching
technique. However, a teaching technique can be used
independently
Requiring a certain (particular) There are a lot of teaching techniques in a teaching
process to be implemented method
Using the learning resources and A teaching technique can be used with different teaching
equipment methods in a similar way (question and answer technique
etc.)
Being a “way” for learning and A teaching technique is used to realize the subgoals of
teaching the teaching method
A teaching technique helps to teach method to reach its
goals
A teaching method helps instruction to reach its goals
A teaching method requires more time to be
implemented rather than a teaching technique
To use teaching techniques effectively in learning
increases the success of teaching methods
A teaching method consists of principles, processes, and
techniques; a teaching technique consists of actions,
procedures and skills
A teaching method is a way of reaching a goal; a
teaching technique is a type used in doing works and
procedures
Adapted from Güneş (2014)
an instructional activity are named as teaching techniques. A teaching technique

involves the rules, procedures, tools and skills that teachers use for carrying out
instruction effectively, making students’ learn easily and implementing the teaching
method gorgeously (Güneş 2014).
There are a lot of usage areas of teaching techniques. They can be used in
bringing the information that can’t be found in source books and school books;
enriching and deepening the subject area (content) and developing students’
learning skills (research, thinking skills, etc.). We can’t say that one technique is
better than the other. To carry out an effective and good instruction process, it
requires using the most suitable techniques with the most suitable methods. There
are also other factors that affect the use of the suitable techniques. These factors are
clarified in the following section.
150 G.F. Gündüz
4.1.3 The Factors Affecting the Selection of the Teaching

Techniques
While choosing the appropriate teaching technique, the first and the most important
question to be asked should be how we release the intended aims and how we teach
the content of the lesson most effectively and permanently. As it is understood from
the definition and the content of the teaching techniques, one of the basic factors
affecting the selection of the technique is the teaching method that is used. In other
words, the teaching technique should be suitable to teaching method. Since
choosing the effective technique depends on the teaching method used, we can say
that the factors influencing the selection of the teaching method and factors
affecting the selection of the teaching technique are closely related. For instance, if
we use lecture method in the lesson, it won’t be a suitable choice to use case study
technique with this method. Similarly, if we use discussion method, we shouldn’t
use presentation technique with this method.
Besides the factors affecting the selection of the teaching techniques depend on
the teaching methods, there have also been factors affecting the selection of
teaching techniques which are used with the same teaching method. In this context,
the factors affecting the selection of the teaching techniques can be grouped
according to the characteristics of learning goals and content, the characteristics of
teachers, the characteristics of students, the duration and the characteristics of the
physical learning environment. These factors are explained below:
The characteristics of learning goals and content: Each technique does not have
the same effect on gaining each of the learning goals. When a teacher chooses a
teaching technique, s/he should pay attention to if the technique is effective and
useful in developing students’ intended skills at the end of the planned learning
activities. The type of the goal such as cognitive, affective or psychomotor skills
affect the selection of the teaching technique (Ocak 2015; Aykaç 2014). For
instance; if we want to develop students’ problem-solving skills, the use of the
seminar technique will not be an effective choice. Similarly, if we want to develop
students’ psychomotor skills by using a tool, it will not be suitable to use discussion
technique. The goals are also related to the content of the lesson. When we want to
teach the crops growing in a geographical region, demonstration-performance
technique can’t be a good choice for this.
The characteristics of teachers: The teachers’ beliefs and approvals about
learning and teaching; their theories and assumptions about learning, their profes-
sional goals and their values are effective in their instructional designs which they
developed regarding what they teach and how they teach (Costa and Kallick 2004;
Mullin 2011; Ewijk and Werf 2012). Hence it can be said that teachers’ views
related to learning and teaching also affects their choices of teaching techniques.
For instance, according to their opinions related to learning and teaching, some
teachers are open to new ideas, to use new and different teaching techniques, to be
equipped with knowledge about these techniques and to develop themselves in
using these techniques continually. However, some teachers can prefer to use
teaching techniques which are teacher-centered rather than student-centered and
which they get used to using. In addition to teachers’ views about learning and
teaching, it can be said that their age, gender, educational background, mental state,
professional seniority and motivation are also effective in selecting the teaching
techniques (Ocak 2015; Aykaç 2014).
The characteristics of students: The students’ cognitive development levels, age,
previous knowledge of the content, interests, learning styles and motivation are
effective in the selection of the teaching techniques. Their cognitive development
level changes according to their ages and their knowledge, comprehension, anal-
ysis, syntheses and evaluation skills are developed upward as time progressed. For
instance, in a history course, telling a victory which is important in a country’s
history requires using different teaching techniques with respect to students’ age.
Using seminar technique can be an effective way when a teacher teaches this
subject to university students. While teaching the same subject to primary or sec-
ondary school students teacher can use role play technique more effectively. Even if
we use lecture method when we teach this subject in primary or secondary school,
using the question-answer technique will be more effective rather than seminar
technique. Besides students’ cognitive development level, their previous knowledge
is also effective in choosing teaching technique. Kujawa and Huske (1995) stated
that previous knowledge is different from the cognitive dimension of the readiness
and defined it as the combination of information, attitudes, and experiences related
to a new subject (cited in Şimşek 2004). For instance, it’s not a good idea making
the discussion about computer software in a class where students do not have
enough previous knowledge about software. To use discussion technique in this
situation, firstly students have to know the definition of computer software, its
history, and its types, etc.
Students’ interest, motivation and learning style also affect the selection of the
techniques. If students think that the learning goals and activities aren’t related to
their interest, abilities and their learning styles and they are so complicated and far
away from their expectations, it will cause students to take little learning respon-
sibilities on that subject and to be motivated insufficiently (Costa and Kallick 2004).
If a student has a special interest and favour about a learning content, the discus-
sion, and creative thinking techniques can be used effectively. If the most of the
students in a class have interest and high motivation in a learning content, group
teaching techniques can be used rather than individual teaching techniques. As
students’ interest to learning content can influence the selection of the teaching
technique; students’ interest in some teaching techniques can also be effective in
selecting a technique. The teacher provides students with more effective learnings
by using teaching technique that students are interested in. Depending on learning
152 G.F. Gündüz
styles, students who are physical/kinesthetic learners can learn effectively by

role-playing technique; while students who are visual learners can learn more
effectively by demonstration technique.
The duration and the characteristics of the physical learning environment: The
learning environment,—although it is not a general definition—can be defined as
structures, tools, and communities ensuring teachers and students to be equipped
with intended knowledge and skills (Wilson 2006). The structure of learning
environment, the number of students, learning the equipment and learning duration
affect the selection of the teaching techniques. As the learning activities can be
realized in the school, they can also be done out of the school. While the role
modeling and discussion techniques are more suitable for using in the school; field
trip and observation techniques are more suitable for using out of the school. When
teachers choose the suitable teaching techniques, they have to take into consider-
ation two questions: “How much time I have to realize teaching?” and “Which
learning-teaching equipment are ready for the learning environment?”. For instance,
when a teacher wants to use the demonstration technique by showing a powerpoint
(digital) presentation, the lack of a computer and projector at the classroom obstruct
using this technique in this environment. Similarly, if the instructional equipment is
not sufficient for all students to use, a teacher can use group teaching techniques
more effectively rather than individual techniques.
We should keep in mind that the number of students and the duration of the
lesson is also important factors affecting the selection of the techniques. Most of the
teachers prefer using techniques based on lecture method as question-answer and
demonstration in crowded classes rather than using discussion techniques. On the
contrary, applied learning subjects have to be taught by using performance and
demonstration techniques. In this case, using discussion techniques instead of this
technique will be unsuitable.
According to the literature, Caffarella and Daffron (2013) categorized the major
factors that instructors take into consideration when choosing teaching techniques
as learning objective, instructors, learners, context, social media, transferring of
learning, content, technique characteristics, variety, logistical constraints and time.
According to related literature and explanations above, the factors affecting the
selection of the techniques and the questions can be asked by the instructors within
the context of these factors are showed in Table 4.2.
4.2 Classifications
In literature review, there have been a lot of classifications of teaching techniques

done by educationalists depending upon different criterions. The teaching tech-
niques are mostly classified according to their implemented learning environment,
classroom size, learning skills and teaching methods used with them. While the
former three classifications are clarified in this section; the later one (classification
Table 4.2 Factors affecting the selection of the teaching techniques

Factors The questions can be asked within the factor
Learning objectives • Is the focus of the objectives acquiring cognitive, affective or
psychomotor skills?
Instructors • Are instructors capable of using the techniques, and they feel
comfortable doing so?
Learners • How many learners are involved?
• What are the characteristics of these learners?
• What are their cultural background?
• What expectations do the learners have in terms of the techniques to
be used?
• Are the participants capable of learning through these techniques?
Context • How does where the learning takes place to influence the usefulness
and appropriateness of the instructional techniques?
• Can the learning context enhance the use of the techniques chosen?
Transfer-of-learning • Do the techniques promote the transfer of learning process?
• What techniques have the greatest potential for simulating the context
in which the learning will be applied?
Content • Is the content abstract or concrete?
• What is the level of complexity and comprehensiveness of the
material?
Technique • What can realistically be done with the techniques?
characteristics • How difficult are the techniques to use?
• What kind of time is needed to use the techniques effectively?
Variety • Are there plans to use a variety of techniques that take into account
the various backgrounds and experiences of the learners and the
different ways they process information?
Logistical • Are the costs, if any, associated with the techniques chosen realistic?
constraints • Are space, equipment, and materials necessary to use the techniques
readily available?
Time • Are techniques being used that fit into the time frame allotted (for
example, is there too little or too much time available?)
Adopted from Caffarella and Daffron (2013)
according to teaching methods) is explained in the activities section in detail. The

classifications are explained below.
4.2.1 Techniques According to Learning Environment
The teaching techniques according to learning environment where they are

implemented are grouped as in-class and out-of-class teaching techniques:
The teaching techniques used at in-class activities: These techniques are used in
learning-teaching activities which are implemented in the classroom. For instance;
brainstorming, fishbone diagram, question and answer, demonstration, six thinking
hats and discussion techniques are frequently used in-class teaching techniques.
154 G.F. Gündüz
The teaching techniques used at out-of-class activities: As the learning is a

process also realized out of the school; the learning activities can be actualized in
the places named as museums, historical places, and science discovery centers.
Observation or visits to actual places provide ample opportunities to students, for
“seeing”, “hearing”, “examining”, “gathering data” and “asking questions”. Such
experiences are most conducive to learning. Concrete data on cultural, industrial,
political and geographical facts and relationships being more “tangible”, “visible”
and “describable” serve as a great motivating force for further inquiry in social
sciences (Puri 2006). Field trip, observation, project, and gallery are cited as
out-of-class teaching techniques.
4.2.2 Techniques According to Classroom Size
The teaching techniques according to classroom size can be categorized as a group

and individual teaching techniques.
Techniques used in group learning: These techniques can be defined as leading
students to learning in the direction of their interests and abilities as a group. On the
basis of group learning, there are students’ discussions about a problem or a subject,
and they try to find solutions to them. For a group learning, collaborative learning is
used in the literature as a general expression. Collaborative learning covers a broad
territory of approaches with wide variability in the amount of in-class or
out-of-class time built around group work. Collaborative activities can range from
classroom discussions interspersed with short lectures, through entire class periods,
to study on research teams that last a whole term or year. The goals and processes of
collaborative activities also vary widely. Some teachers design small group work
around specific sequential steps or tightly structured tasks. Others prefer a more
spontaneous agenda developing out of student interests or questions. In some
collaborative learning settings, the students’ task is to create a clearly delineated
product; in others, the task is not to produce a product, but rather to participate in a
process, an exercise of responding to each other’s work or engaging in analysis and
meaning-making (Smith and MacGregor 1992). Whatever the type of the collab-
orative activities, the role of the instructor in collaborative learning includes the
following responsibilities: designing the task; orienting students to the goals and
purpose of collaborative learning; making decisions about size, duration and
operation of the learning groups; assigning the task in ways that support efficient
accomplishment; assuring active, constructive participation and assessing and
evaluating learning (Barkley et al. 2014). In the related literature, it is seen that the
group teaching techniques are panel discussion, forum, brainstorming, seminar,
Philips 66, workshop, six thinking hats, think-pair-share, round robin, buzz groups,
talking chips, three-step interview, critical debate, note taking pairs, learning cell,
fishbowl, role-play, jigsaw, test taking teams, think-aloud pair, send a problem, case
study, analytic teams, group investigation, affinity grouping, group grid, team
matrix, sequence chains, word webs, dialog journals, round table, dyadic essays,
peer editing, quiz, friendly feud, team jeopardy and team games.
Techniques used in individual learning: There are individual differences among
students in one class. These individual differences are their interests, learning styles,
motivation, foreknowledge, epistemological beliefs, abilities and self-efficacy
beliefs (Kuzgun and Deryakulu 2004). Students’ individual differences affect
their learning speed, learning level, their interest and focus on learning. It can be
said that these individual differences sometimes require realizing individualized
learning. An individualized learning system is a highly flexible system of multiple
materials and procedures, in which the student is given substantial responsibility for
planning and carrying out his own organized program of studies, with the assistance
of his teachers, and in which his progress is determined solely in terms of those
plans (Baker and Goldberg 1970). Each learner has his or her own set of materials,
works at his or her own speed. Learners are expected and encouraged to focus on
their own goals, have a strict self-interest, see their success as dependent on their
own abilities, celebrate only their own success, and ignore as irrelevant the success
or failure of others (Johnson and Johnson 1999). The teacher’s role in an indi-
vidualistic learning situation is to give learners their individual set of materials,
explain that students are to work alone and check only with the teacher when they
need help, set a clear criterion for success that everyone could conceivably reach,
ask learners to work on their own, circulate among the learners and monitor their
work, intervene to teach skills or help learners to refocus on their task and give
learners time to evaluate how well they have learned (Johnson and Johnson 1999).
There are some teaching techniques, which can be used in individualized learning
effectively. Individualized teaching, programmed instruction, computer games,
research, observation, experiment, case study, discussion with teacher, mind map,
concept map, simulation, question-answer, writing a story and story telling are cited
to techniques used in individualized learning.
4.2.3 Techniques According to Learning Skills
Each of the teaching techniques is used for developing students’ knowledge, skills,
and attitudes. In the related literature, some scientists (Barkley et al. 2005; Barkley
2010) grouped teaching techniques according to learning abilities aimed to be
developed. Based on the classifications in the literature, these learning abilities are
defined as thinking, problem-solving, discussion and information organizer skills in
this book.
Discussion skills techniques: Discussion “is educative, reflective, and structured
group conversation with [and among] students” (Wilen 1991, p. 25), and is a
popular teaching method/strategy used at one time or another in most classrooms
with any subject and every age student. Arends (2004) stated that classroom dis-
cussion has three main purposes: improving student thinking/self-develop student
understanding, encouraging student engagement and involvement, and growing
156 G.F. Gündüz
communication abilities/developing thinking processes. In this method, the teacher

makes a short explanation about the discussion topic at the beginning of the lesson
and then asks a question to students about the topic. The teacher has to organize
suitable learning environment for discussion, ensure discussion to be carried out
effectively and in a planned way and provide all of the students to attend discussion
actively (Ocak 2015). When the discussion techniques are used, there has to be a
leader to manage the discussion. The leader can be a teacher or anyone else from
the students. The leader has to manage the ideas produced by students, to prevent
deviation from the aim, to lead students to talk about a primary concern, to sum-
marize the results of the discussion and to report the results (Aykaç 2014). When
the teacher decides which discussion technique is appropriate for the course subject,
he has to take into consideration the classroom size, discussion duration, students’
roles in the discussion and what is aimed to develop at the end of the discussion.
Buzz group, group discussions, talking tickets, write around, think-pair-share,
round robin, talk around, jury trial, Socratic method, the circle of voices, snow-
balling, Philips 66, chalk talk, critical debates and three-step interview can be cited
as discussion techniques.
Problem-solving skills techniques: Individuals have encountered problems all of
their life. In order to coping with these problems, while developing students’
problem-solving skills, the activities realized are not only aimed at solving existing
problems but also they are designed for generating solutions for problems that
students encountered all of their life. Problem-solving is defined as being able to
make observations and judgments about a problem, as well as, plan, implement, and
devise solutions to the problem (Moriyama et al. 2002). Ge and Land (2004)
described problem-solving abilities as being able to recognize problems, identify
solutions, justify and evaluate proposed solutions. Developing students’
problem-solving skills also develop their causal reasoning, critical and reflective
thinking (Tok 2015). According to Aykaç (2014), the first step in developing
students’ problem-solving skills is determining and identifying the problem situa-
tion and determining the supplements related to the problem. He stated the other
steps are forming a hypothesis, gathering information about the problem and ana-
lyzing them, producing solutions and testing them for selecting the best solution.
Brainstorming, fishbone diagram, problem-solving house, synectics, analogy, case
study, simulations and decision making cited as techniques that teacher can use for
developing students’ problem-solving skills.
Thinking skills techniques: Thinking is judging or coming to a decision by
comparing data about a subject and analyzing the relations between them; thinking
of or thinking about something, searching out, designing and remembering through
mind (Turkish Language Society 2016). Similarly, Beyer defined thinking “The
mental manipulation of sensory input to formulate thoughts, reason about, or judge”
(Beyer, in Costa 1991, p. 56). However, Cohen’s definition was a little bit different.
According to Cohen, thinking is “the mental derivation of mental elements
(thoughts) from perceptions and the mental manipulation/combination of these
thoughts” (Cohen 1971, p. 5). Thinking skills are basic cognitive processes or
tactics that are considered to be more or less “muscles of the mind” that can be
strengthened through use (Demir 2008). High order thinking skills are beyond
remembering and understanding the existing information; they consist of
re-organizing and using the information. According to Lewis and Smith, high order
thinking occurs when someone uses his existing or new information for finding
possible solutions to complicated problems or when they reorganized them for
realizing an objective (Doğanay 2015). There are different types of thinking such as
critical thinking, creative thinking, convergent thinking, divergent thinking,
inductive thinking, deductive thinking, decision making, problem-solving, drawing
inferences and questioning and so on. According to Fisher (2006) what the term
refers to is the human capacity to think in conscious ways to achieve certain
purposes. Such processes include remembering, questioning, forming concepts,
planning, reasoning, imagining, solving problems, making decisions and judg-
ments, translating thoughts into words and so on. In order to teach student the
thinking skills, teachers should have enough knowledge to teach them forming and
testing a hypothesis, evaluating the related subject by using critical thinking skills,
solving interpersonal problems, probability thinking, developing different points of
view and being flexible in solving problems (Underbakke et al. 1993). Eggen and
Kauchak (2001) believe that teaching for thinking requires supporting elements
provided by the teacher. First of all, teachers should establish an intellectual cli-
mate, and then they should provide students with information, begin the lesson in
an open-ended and non-threatening way, promote a spirit of cooperation rather than
competition, avoid any comparisons of performance among students, focus on
improvement and emphasize that success is evidenced by improvement and pro-
gress rather than high grades and performance compared to others. Costa (1988)
believes that in teaching students to think; the emphasis is not on how many
answers they know, but on how students behave when they don’t know. Therefore
the teachers should observe their students; how they produce knowledge, how they
act when they encounter a problem, how they decide on something and how they
defend their ideas, thoughts, and points of view. Teaching for thinking involves
employing appropriate teaching techniques promote students’ deep understanding
of the content. These techniques that teacher use for developing students’ thinking
skills include brainstorming, fishbone diagram, informal drama, formal drama, role
playing, creative drama, mime, hot seat, case study and decision making.
Graphic information organization skills techniques: The information organiza-
tion skills are used for integrating the new learnings with the existing information of
students and reorganizing the information. Weinstein and Mayer (1986) also
emphasized the importance of the organizing the information and they stated that
they are frequently used strategies. Due to these, they clarified the organization
skills in a separate heading in their most known learning strategies classification.
The organization skills include classification of the information, schematization of
the information, reorganizing the information and associating between them
(Weinstein and Mayer 1986). Teachers can use graphic organizers for developing
students’ information organization skills effectively. Graphic organizers are a visual
representation of knowledge that structures information by arranging important
aspects of a concept or topic into a pattern using labels (Bromley et al. 1999).
158 G.F. Gündüz
Graphic organizers can show different aspects of a concept and can reveal what
information is known and highlight what is still missing. Graphic organizers can
serve as study guides, providing structures that help students to summarize text or
to sort and remember key facts and ideas. They can also be used for assessment and
grading, efficiently displaying the order and completeness of an individual’s or
group’s thought processes and the strengths and weakness of their understanding
(Barkley et al. 2014). Graphic organizers can be used before, during and after
instruction. Before instruction; they can be used as an advance organizer, provides a
structured preview of what is to be learned. During instruction; students can fill out
a blank or partially completed graphic organizer while a teacher provides infor-
mation or during a pause in a lecture to show what they have learned. Small teams
of students may also work to complete a graphic organizer and solidify their
understanding of a concept. After instruction; using them enables students to
demonstrate their understanding and to state in concise terms what they have
learned (East Carolina University 2016). Affinity grouping, group grid, team
matrix, sequence chains, word webs, brainstorming webs, concept maps, mind
maps and plots such as stack plots, Venn diagrams, and the plus-minus-interesting
chart are cited as the teaching techniques that teachers can use graphic organizers in
developing students’ information organizing skills.
4.3 Activities
In this section, each of the teaching techniques explained in detail according to a

classification developed by the author. While categorizing the teaching techniques
based on the teaching methods, the classifications in the related literature were
examined. The classifications of teaching techniques done by educators and
researchers based on teaching methods and learning skills and the author’s clas-
sification are showed in Table 4.3.
As it can be seen in Table 4.3, there are some similarities and differences
between classifications. The categorization of Barkley’s (2010) based on the
learning skills named as knowledge, skills, recall and understanding, analysis and
critical thinking, synthesis and creative thinking, problem-solving and application
and performance. It can be said that this classification is generally grounded on the
Bloom’s taxonomy in this respect. Barkley and his friends also made a catego-
rization about collaborative teaching techniques. They state that they have drawn
from the existing literature and the wisdom of practice to collect techniques that
have already been both time and classroom tested. The CoLTs are organized into
six categories of general learning activities: discussion, reciprocal teaching,
problem-solving, information organizing, collaborative writing and gaming
(Barkley et al. 2005 cited in Barkley and others 2014). Analyzing the categorization
of Garcia (1989) and Sönmez (2007 cited in Sönmez 2008), both of the catego-
rizations are based on teaching methods. They determined the teaching techniques
Table 4.3 The techniques classifications according to learning skills and teaching methods
Garcia’s categorization Barkley, Major and Cross’s Sönmez’s categorization Barkley’s categorization Gündüz’s categorization
(1989) categorization (2005)— (2008) (2010)
(Collaborative learning
techniques)
Techniques used with Discussion CoLTs Techniques used with lecture Knowledge, skills, recall Techniques used with lecture
lecture method method and understanding method
Outlining Think-pair-share Representation Background knowledge Conference
4 Instructional Techniques
probe
Component Round robin Question and answer Artifacts Seminar
Sequential Buzz groups Informal instructor speech Focused reading notes Forum
Relevance Talking chips Symposium Quotes Question and answer
Transitional Three-step interview Discourse Stations Oral presentation
Techniques used with Critical Debate Techniques used with role Team Jeopardy Concept map
reporting method play method
Unit or Morrison Reciprocal teaching CoLTs Workshop Seminar Mind map
Individual and group Note taking pairs Question and Answer Analysis and critical Techniques used with
thinking dramatization method
Reading and storytelling Learning cell Brainstorming Classify Role play
Schematic Fishbowl Problem solving Frames Improvisation
Symposium Role-play Believing and doubting Mime/Pantomime
Jigsaw Techniques used with Academic controversy Simulation
discussion method
Techniques used with Test-taking teams Question and answer Splşt-room debate Puppetry
discussion method
Small group discussion Problem-solving CoLTs Big group discussions Analytics teams Forum Theatre
Socialized classroom Think-aloud pair Small group discussions Book club Hot seat
discussion problem-solving
159
(continued)
160
(1989) categorization (2005)— (2008) (2010)
techniques)
Direct instruction or Send-a-problem Debate Small group tutorials Techniques used with
classroom demonstration-performance
method
Panel discussion Case study Circle discussion Synthesis and Creative Demonstration
thinking
Recitation Structured problem-solving Opposite panel discussion Team concept maps Educational games
Interview Analytic teams Panel discussion Variations Project
Techniques used with Group investigation Techniques used with Letters Observation
demonstration method demonstration-performance
method
Teacher-directed Graphic organizer CoLTs Decision making Role play Field trip
Student-directed Affinity grouping Demonstration Poster sessions Exhibition/gallery
Teacher-student directed Group grid Performance Class book Techniques used with
problem-solving method
Invited resource speaker Team matrix Role play Webquests Brainstorming
Techniques used with Sequence chains Dramatization Problem solving Six thinking hats
investigatory method
Laboratory Word webs Experimenting What’s the problem? Six action shoes
Problem-solving Writing CoLTs Observation Think again! Fishbone diagram
Research Dialog journals Project Think-aloud-pair-problem Case study
solving
Field study Roundtable Gallery Proclamations Problem-solving house
Experimenting Dyadic essays Brainstorming Send-a-problem Send-a-problem
(continued)
G.F. Gündüz
(1989) categorization (2005)— (2008) (2010)
techniques)
Techniques used with Peer editing Case studies Workshop
activity method
Project Collaborative writing Application and Brainwriting
4 Instructional Techniques
performance
Field trip Team anthologies Contemporary issues journal Techniques used with discussion
method
Dramatization Paper seminar Hearing the subject Big group discussions techniques
Role-playing Games CoLTs Directed paraphrase Kollegium
Simulation Team scavenger hunt Insights-resources-application Class discussion
Brainstorming Quizo Jigsaw Talking ring
Debate Friendly feud Field trips Debate
Techniques used with Team jeopardy Attitudes and values Panel discussion
integrated method
Lecture-discussion Team games tournaments Autobiographical reflections Small group discussion techniques
Demonstration-lecture Dyadic interviews Fishbowl
Film-showing-discussion Circular response Buzz groups (Philips 66, Clark’s 22,
Huddle)
Reporting-discussion Ethical dilemmas Snowball
Inductive-deductive Connected communities Jigsaw
Techniques used with Stand where you stand Socratic method
traditional method
Textbook Self-awareness as learners Three-step interview
Rote learning Learning logs Chalk talk
161
(continued)
162
(1989) categorization (2005)— (2008) (2010)
techniques)
Teacher’s full directed Critical incident Circle of voices
questionnaire
Memorization Go for the goal Chalk talk
The 2 4 8 Post-test analysis Think pair share
technique
Learning and study skills Online discussion techniques
In-class portfolio Asynchronous discussion techniques
Resource scavenger hunt (blog, twitter, facebook, youtube,
etc.)
Formative quiz
Crib cards Synchronous discussion techniques
Student-generated rubrics (video conferencing, web
conferencing, instant messaging,
Triad listening
chat, etc.)
Adapted from Garcia (1989), Barkley et al. (2014), Sönmez (2008) and Barkley (2010)
G.F. Gündüz
according to teaching methods which they can be used with. Although both of them
made their classifications according to teaching methods, the teaching methods they
took into consideration in their classifications are different from each other. Both of
in two classifications, the teaching techniques are classified according to discussion
and lecture method. Nevertheless the demonstration-performance method is also
used in Sönmez’s (2007 cited in Sönmez 2008) categorization. The teaching
techniques classified according to reporting, demonstration, investigatory, activity
and integrated method are also involved in Garcia’s (1989) categorization being
different from the Sönmez’s categorization. In this book, the teaching techniques
are organized into five categories based on teaching methods: lecture, dramatiza-
tion, demonstration-performance, problem solving and discussion.
Although using the teaching techniques can vary widely according to teaching
method used and the factors affecting the selection of teaching techniques which
were mentioned before, some teaching techniques are preferred to use mostly rather
than the others. The reasons for using these techniques more commonly are the
necessity of keeping up with the developments in science and technology, the
amount of their contribution to students’ learning, their being preferred by students
and students’ interest to them. The developments in science and technology require
individuals to learn by doing and experiencing, to realize self-directed learning, to
research, to solve the complicated problems, to discuss the ideas and issues, to use
thinking skills and to use technology effectively. In this respect, it can be said that
the teaching techniques enabling students to be active in learning, to use technology
and high orders thinking skills effectively are used commonly by teachers. In this
regard, all of the teaching techniques to be involved in author’s categorization in
Table 4.3 aren’t explained in detail. Nevertheless most of them-used frequently and
commonly- explained in more detail. In the following part of this section the
definitions of techniques, the application of them, the pedagogical benefits and
limits of each of the techniques are clarified. Suggested activities based on the
explained techniques are also given.
4.3.1 Techniques Used in Lecture Method
Good and Merkel (1959) suggest lecture as a method of teaching by which the
instructor gives an oral presentation of facts or principles to learners and the class
usually being responsible for note taking, usually implies little or no class partic-
ipation by such means as questioning or discussion during the class period.
Although the lecture method being so unpopular among professional educational
advisers because of placing students in a passive rather than active role, it is one of
the most efficient methods for presenting many facts or ideas in a relatively short
time and facilitating large-class communication. Ocak (2015) express that this
method is generally used for presenting concepts, facts or principles and developing
students’ simple cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills. However, Sönmez
(1993) stated that it could also be used to develop students’ high order target
164 G.F. Gündüz
behaviors through using different learning techniques. To use this method effec-
tively, it should be well-organized, arouse students’ interest in a subject, be used
with different teaching techniques such as question-answer, discussion and be
supported with presentations, samples and audio-visual aids (Tok 2015). The basic
teaching techniques used with this method can be stated as conference, seminar,
forum, question and answer and concept map. The characteristics and application of
these techniques are explained below:
Seminar: It is a group meeting-either face-to-face or online- where a number of

students participate at least as actively as the teacher, although the teacher may be
responsible for the design of the group experience, such as choosing topics and
assigning tasks to individual students (Bates 2015). This technique consists of
planning, researching and examination in detail of using it (Bilen 2002).
In organizing a seminar, the following roles are performed: Organizer or
Instructor, President or Chairman or Convener of the seminar, Speakers of the day
and Participants. It is the responsibility of an organizer to plan and prepare the
whole programme of the seminar. He decides the topic or theme of the seminar and
assigns the different aspects of the theme to different persons who have to play the
role of speakers. The date, time and place are decided by him. Generally, he also
suggests the name of convener of the seminar. He prepares a total schedule of the
seminar (Puri 2006). The president is the person who has deep knowledge about the
theme of the seminar, issues, and problems researched in the seminar and helps
others to learn about them. He has responsibilities and duties through the seminar.
He directs the whole programme. He should know how to manage the individual
and group studies, how to lead and arouse participants’ interest into the theme and
how to encourage participants to take part in discussions and studies (Yıldızlar
2013). The speakers should be ready to defend the questions. The speakers should
have a tolerance of anti-ideas or criticism of others. The participants of the seminar
should be well acquainted with the theme. They should appreciate the performances
of the speakers. They should be able to seek clarification and put questions. They
should place their own ideas regarding the theme on the basis of their experiences
(Puri 2006).
McCartney (1995) stated that the overall goal of the seminar is to create a space
and time for students’ engagement on the idea level (the intellect, the intuitive and
the emotions), the individual level (unique perceptions), and the social level
(community). In this regard and according to related literature, the advantages of the
seminar technique can be clarified as follows (McCartney 1995; Puri 2006;
Yıldızlar 2013; Bates 2015):
• It helps students explore a diversity of perspectives.
• It develops students’ ability to seek clarification and to defend the ideas of others
effectively.
• It helps students recognize the underlying assumptions of their habitual ideas
and behaviors to develop reasoning and critical abilities of participants.
• It encourages active listening and active engagement in discussions and
presentations.
• It develops the higher cognitive abilities, analysis, synthesis and evaluation as
compared to the situations involving human interaction.
• It serves to increase students’ affective connections to the content.
• It shows students that their voices are matter and their experiences and thinking
are valued.
• It helps students to develop the feeling of tolerance to the opposite ideas of
others.
• It develops the feelings of cooperation with other colleagues and respects the
ideas and feeling of others.
• It helps students to test, expand, revise and create their individual meanings in
the context of the group.
Tip 1:
The organizer or instructor can conduct a questionnaire for evaluating the
effectiveness of the seminar to speakers and participants (students) at the end
of the seminar. The quality of the interactions, the working and nonworking
sides of the seminar and what can be done to improve the deficients can be
asked to them.
Achieving the advantages that seminars offer is by no means straight- forward,

with several inhibiting factors arising. Keys among them are participants’ short-
comings, perceptions of the purposes that seminars fulfill and the growing size of
seminar groups (Timmins et al. 2005). The limitations of using seminar technique
can be explained as follow (Yıldızlar 2013; Timmins et al. 2005; Puri 2006;
Harnish 1995):
• It is sometimes difficult to find a domain expert who leads the seminar
effectively.
• An ideal seminar discussion depends on upon rough parity of knowledge, which
is hard to attain in universities. At issue here is not only the difficulty of ensuring
166 G.F. Gündüz
that all students prepare themselves adequately for seminars but also problems
of getting students to criticize each other’s contributions. The success of tech-
nique usually depends on the participants’ motivation.
• There are only a few dominant voices talking in the seminar, and nearly
everyone else is silent.
• The seminar leader can dominate too much: setting the agenda, talking at length
and being critical of student ideas.
• Everyone can throw out ideas, and it can be impossible to keep track of them all.
• Ideas can come out so rapidly in a seminar that some students cannot keep up
and cannot concentrate.
Conference: A conference is a meeting of individuals called together to engage
in discussion with the aim of accomplishing a limited within restricted time. Most
of the conferences are organized at a national, international and regional level to
discuss the social, religious, political and educational problems. Some conferences
are organized to discuss human problems, scientific problems, technological
problems and innovations (Puri 2006). Aykaç (2014) defined the conference within
the scope of the school environment. He expressed that a conference is a technique
which enables students to gain knowledge about educational, artistic, scientific and
social issues and problems through domain experts who are invited to the school to
express their opinions. Students should make preparation about the subject and
prepare the questions before the conference. It provides the conference to be
effective. Using conference technique effectively also depends on domain experts’
abilities. The experts should lead audiences into the theme and provide them
engaging to conference actively (Ocak 2015). The audiences asking questions to
experts during the conference or at the end of the conference can provide an
interaction between audiences and experts (Aykaç 2014). Puri (2006) explained the
advantages of this technique as following:
• It develops reasoning and critical abilities of participants.
• It develops the abilities to express his feeling and observations.
• It makes sensitive toward the problems of the area.
• It develops the abilities to study in depth the facts, concepts, and problems.
• It develops analysis, synthesis, and evaluation or creativity abilities of the
participants.
• It develops the tendency to study an event or concept in broader perspective.
• It provides participants to respect and tolerate anti-ideas and criticism of others.
• It develops the feeling of cooperation and freedom of thoughts.
In the schools, the conferencing technique can be used effectively in science and
technology, social sciences, art, music, and literature. It can also be used in
counseling services of the schools to provide information about occupations, par-
enting education, sexual education, etc. This technique has limitations as well as
some advantages. Puri (2006) stated its limitations as follows:
• It is hard to predict about attendance. Advance arrangements must be made for

conference facilities and housing accommodation.
• An evaluation of the conference outcome is often difficult to determine unless
participant observer or recorders are asked to critique the section.
• Generally, the nature of the topic is broad. Hence discussion is confined to
specific issues.
• Group discussion is generally dominated by the good speakers or those who talk
too much, and the others do not have same opportunities to take part in the
discussion.
Question and Answer: It is a technique that a teacher asks some questions to

students and realizes teaching through criticizing the answers (Büyükkaragöz,
1997). A substantial body of research affirms that questions are still the most
frequently used teaching tool. However, not all questions are created equally. Some
are highly effective; others can be useless or even harmful. According to related
literature, the followings are the important points to be taken into consideration by
teachers when using the question-answer technique (Partin 2009; Ocak 2015;
Doğanay 2015; Yıldızlar 2013):
• Prepare appropriate questions to students’ cognitive, affective and psychomotor
levels.
• Ask the question to whole class firstly and wait at least five seconds after
directing a question before saying anything else. Most teachers allow their
students less than two seconds on the average to answer a question. Permitting
the student a reasonable amount of thinking time is essential. Challenge the
whole class to respond mentally. When you ask a question, pause and then
select the person to respond. Don’t always ask questions to the same students.
• Use closed-ended questions when you are seeking information, facts, or com-
mitment. In attempting to assess student mastery of specific facts, the
closed-ended question is most effective. Avoid asking yes-or-no questions in
your lessons. Don’t forget to use open-ended questions.
• Want answers from students by addressing them with their names.
168 G.F. Gündüz
• While reinforcing the students who give correct answers; encourage the students
who give wrong or missing answers. When students can’t answer the question,
the teacher can give clues or complete the missing answers.
• Difficult and challenging questions seem most effective for classes of
high-ability students. Besides, low-level cognitive questions seem to work best
when teaching basic skills. A mixture of higher-order and lower-level cognitive
questions seems to work best with mixed-ability classes. Effective teachers ask a
combination of both low and high-level cognitive questions.
• Give students an equal opportunity to respond to your questions. Researches
show that students down the middle and across the front of the classroom get
called on more frequently. Also, higher-ability students tend to get called on
more than lower ability students when they raise their hands.
Questions may also be invited from students at a various point in a lecture to
ensure they understand the issues being considered. In other words, the students
question the lecturer as well as the lecturer questioning the students (Timmins et al.
2005). Real learning is most likely when students are genuinely curious and
enthusiastically generate their questions. Most students are hesitant to ask ques-
tions. One useful technique is to have each student jot down one question about the
topic on a sheet of paper. Then you might collect them and respond to a few.
Another possibility is to have small groups generate a list of two to five questions to
submit. Rather than answering these questions, direct some of them back to the
class, to consider either in a whole-group discussion or small groups (Partin 2009).
According to related literature, the advantages question-answer technique can be
listed as follows (Aykaç 2014; Yıldızlar 2013):
• It can arouse interest in a topic and motivation to learning.
• It provides students to express their thoughts freely; to understand different
thoughts, ideas, and viewpoints.
• Students learn to respect the others students’ ideas and views.
• It develops students’ verbalization skills.
• It enables students to develop their remembering, judgment, evaluation, decision
making, creative and critical thinking skills.
• It can be used in assessing the learnings of knowledge, comprehension, appli-
cation, analysis, synthesis and evaluation levels.
• It provides for assessing and evaluate students’ success and learning activities.
• It can be used to reinforce learnings.
• It provides feedback to teachers about students’ learning levels.
Tip 2:
Open-ended questions (beginning with how, why, or what) usually allow
greater latitude in the student’s response with a variety of possible answers.
Open-ended questions are most crucial in stimulating students’ creative
abilities and developing higher-level cognitive processes such as evaluation,
hypothesis generation, analysis, and synthesis (Partin 2009).
Although the question-answer technique is one of the most used teaching

techniques and it has a lot of advantages, it can be boring when using this technique
alone in the whole of the lesson duration. Besides this, if the questions aren’t
prepared and expressed well and if they are incomprehensible, it blocks students to
think freely. It also has some limitations based on students. Students’
self-confidence can be decreased if they don’t answer the questions and most
students are hesitant to ask questions openly in front of the whole class, even if they
have some in mind (Aykaç 2014; Yıldızlar 2013).
Forum: It is a technique which a small expert group informs audiences and the
audiences ask questions to experts during or at the end of the presentation, The
audience’s comments to ideas by expressing their thoughts. As it can be used after
the panel, symposium and open forum, it can also be organized separately (Ocak
2015). It involves the properties of the panel. The differences between them are the
application principles of them. The forum is more formal than the panel. In the
forum technique, the speakers don’t discuss with each other and don’t ask questions
to each other. However, audiences can ask questions to speakers and can express
their thoughts to them from time to time (Bilen 2002).
The forum technique clarifies the incoherent points of a subject, arouses the
interest of audiences and provides them active engagement. It is also applied to
reveal different aspects of an issue and to clarify the different and controversial
points of an issue. It can also be said that the forum technique has some limitations.
The speakers’ talks can not be in accordance with the audiences’ expectations. In
addition to this, the success of this techniques is mostly based on the speech of the
speakers. If the speakers can not speak effectively, the use of the technique will be
failed most likely (Yıldızlar 2013).
Concept map: The idea of concept mapping originated from Ausubel’s studies
on meaningful learning theory emphasizing the importance of prior knowledge and
the effect of the advance organizer on learning and retention (Ausebel 1962). This
theory stressed the importance of developing new ideas and meanings with of
Ausubel’s principles, Novak (1990) introduced concept maps as a teaching tech-
nique for embodying the meaningful relations among the concepts. Novak (1990)
defined concept maps as “a representation of meaning or ideational frameworks
specific to a domain of knowledge, for a given context of meaning”. Novak (1990)
believed when creating a concept map; learners can systematically integrate prior
knowledge in memory with new concepts by organizing verbal (word description)
and nonverbal representations (graphics), and in doing so, meaningful learning
occurs. Plotnick (1997) provided an in-depth insight into the operation of a concept
map. According to him, a concept map is a graphical representation where nodes
(points or vertices) represent concepts, and links (arcs or lines) represent the rela-
tionships between concepts. The concepts, and sometimes the links, are labeled on
the concept map. The links between the concepts can be one-way, two-way, or
non-directional. The concepts and the links may be categorized, and the concept
map may show temporal or causal relationships between concepts.
A concept map can be used for a variety of different purposes. It can be used for
facilitation of meaningful learning, design of instructional materials, designing
170 G.F. Gündüz
complex structures, identification of misconceptions or alternatives conceptions,

evaluation of learning, facilitation of cooperative learning, brainstorming creative
ideas and encouragement of teachers and students to understand the constructed
nature of knowledge (Novak 1996; Plotnick 1997). Aykaç (2014) stated that con-
cept map could be used in the beginning, research, explanation and evaluation
phase of a lesson. In the beginning, phase, having students formed a concept map
by using their prior knowledge. It provides for determining students’ prior
knowledge and misconceptions. Using at the research phase, an uncompleted
concept map is given to the students and want them to complete it. It helps to
develop students’ research and examination skills. At the explanation phase, the
teacher wants students to form a concept map by using their new learnings. Besides,
teacher forms a concept map while lecturing the lesson. In the fourth phase, a
concept map can be used for evaluating students’ knowledge about to what extent
they learned the concepts and if they have difficulties in understanding them.
While construction a concept map, it begins with the selection of a topic or
domain of knowledge. When the topic or domain of knowledge has been selected,
the key concepts, principles, and propositions that relate to the selected domain of
knowledge should be identified and listed. This can be performed by brainstorming
all the words that relate to the domain of knowledge. After the list of key concepts
has been generated, they can then be listed and ranked in a hierarchical order where
the most general are listed on top, and the most specific are listed towards the
bottom. After the list of words and key concepts have been identified and ranked in
a hierarchical order, the next step is to create a preliminary concept map. The
preliminary concept map should contain the key concepts generated through the
previous brainstorming activity. Connections and relationships between the con-
cepts should be established between the concepts in a way that makes sense to the
learner generating the map (Ku 2007). The advantages of utilizing concept maps are
as follows (Williams 2004; Aykaç 2014; Tok 2015):
• It provides a visual map of the connections for the learners to develop between
concepts.
• It provides for identifying valid and invalid connections generated by the
learners.
• It provides to see the complex relations between the concepts.
• It provides a schematic summary of learning.
• It leads to deeper learning.
• It arouses interest in a topic and motivation to learning.
• It provides for organizing information.
• It helps learners to self-assess.
• It integrates assessments into the learning process.
• It enables students to develop their remembering and organizing skills.
• It develops students’ creative thinking.
Tip 3:
Since concept maps are used for different purposes, they are also utilized in a
variety of applications and with other teaching methods such as problem
solving and discussion besides lecture method.
Besides the advantages of a concept map, there are also some limitations of
using it. The limitations of concept map are explained below (Aykaç 2014;
Schwendimann 2011):
• It constrains connections between two ideas to a single relationship, which
require distinguishing and selecting between multiple possible relationships.
• Students need to learn the procedure for how to generate, interpret and revise
concept maps. It can only be effective after an adequate training phase.
• Generating a wide range of concept maps can take a long time.
• The amorphousness and arbitrariness of structure, mixture of different kinds of
ideas (for example: physical object, process, abstract construct, property, etc.)
and different types of links (for example causal, correlational, temporal,
part-whole, functional, teleological, mechanical, probabilistic, spatial, etc.) can
make interpretation and evaluation challenging.
• Teachers have to know the adequate information in preparing a concept map,
and they have to lead students with well-prepared questions.
• Due to space constraints, concept map link labels often describe the relationship
between two ideas using a minimal number of words, for example, “has”, “leads
to”, or “lowers”. In addition, generic link labels (such as “has” or “leads to”) are
less informative than a more elaborate explanation. Interpreting concept map
propositions can be difficult as expert and novices might use the same expres-
sions but with a different meaning.
• Concept maps focus on declarative understanding, while other node-link dia-
gram forms, for example, flow charts and circle diagrams, focus more on pro-
cedural knowledge.
Tip 4:
The success of role-playing depends on the teachers’s skill in:
• Selecting a significant problem,
• Presenting the problem in a manner which evokes a response form the
class,
• Assigning the role to individual who can identify with them,
• Stopping the action before the action loses its impact,
• Leading a follow-up discussion which evaluates both the feelings expe-
rienced by those taking the roles and the solutions or outcomes which they
choose (Westerville 1958).
172 G.F. Gündüz
4.3.2 Techniques Used in Dramatization Method
Dramatization has been described as ‘a synthetic art’, involving the purposive

coordination and control of the delicate organs of speech and muscles of the body
combined with a sense of rhythm, with a view to the free and intelligent expression
of emotions and ideas (Puri 2006). A dramatization is a mini play. Students receive
instructions as to the role they are to demonstrate and suggestions as to the
behaviors and techniques to include. Students will usually rehearse the dramati-
zation before presenting it to the whole class (Partin 2009).
In drama method, various activities called drama techniques or conventions are
used in the process of building performance. Based on Neelands and Goode (2000)
and the web page dramaresource.com (2016), these techniques are hot seating, role
on the wall, conscience alley, frozen frames/still images, thought-tracking, a teacher
in the role, mantle of the expert, role play, forum theater and simulations. There are
also other techniques that can be used in the process according to the objectives of
the lesson. Some of these techniques are letters, space between, conscience alley,
split screen, gossip circle, moment of photo, moment of truth, flashback, inner
voice, small group improvisation, dramatization, private property, writing in role,
role cards, hot sitting, interviews and interrogations, pantomime, telephone con-
servations, holding a meeting and whole group improvisation (Boal 2010; Öztürk
2007; Somer 1994). Basic characteristics of the most used drama techniques such as
role play, improvisation, mime/pantomime, simulation ve puppetry are explained
below.
Role play: It is a special kind of case study, in which there is an explicit situation
established with students playing specific roles, spontaneously saying and doing
what they understand their “character” would, in that situation (Nickerson 2007).
A lot of researchers and educators explain application principles of role-playing for
teachers. Here are some suggestions for using role plays effectively (Partin 2009;
Ocak 2015; Doğanay 2015; Yıldızlar 2013):
• Select the problem for role playing within the experience or observation of the
students.
• Clearly explain the purpose of the role play ahead of time.
• If the class has never done one before, it is wise to start small and give the clear
activity structure. Written roles for the players help students understand their
character. Each student receives a copy of his/her role describing specifically
what his/her “character’s” goals and intentions are, in order to behave
accordingly.
• It’s usually best to seek volunteers for the role play unless everyone is going to
be participating. The teacher will likely encounter less resistance to role plays if
everyone participates in small groups. Groups of three seem to work well.
Divide the whole class into trios, in which two in each group are players and the
third is an observer. Give specific written guidelines for the observers.
• Once trios have gone through the role-playing, try switching so that the
observers get a chance to experience the role-play and role players have the
chance to observe. Or ask the tries to talk about what they learned from doing
the exercise, among themselves at first, and then in the large group.
• At least the first time teacher uses role plays, assigns roles they can easily play.
The teacher may have to provide some prompts for initial dialogue.
• Provide a safe climate for students or they will not get into the roles.
• Rearrange the room to enable everyone to see. Giving the role players props, a
costume, or a hat sometimes adds a touch of realism and increases their moti-
vation to assume the role. Having something in their hands also seems to reduce
anxiety.
• Set the scene and get the class feeling the situation. After the situation is
described and the role is assigned, action should be started naturally and
quickly.
• Immediately after one group completes a role play, have a second group repeat
the same role play with a different twist.
• Videotape the role play. As it plays back, occasionally stop it from processing
significant points. This is especially valuable in introducing new skills. Students
might even take the video home to study their own progress.
• End the role-play as soon as the learning objective has been met. Some
instructors let role-plays go on too long so “actors” can get into their roles. This
loses track of the purpose of the activity. After the role-play ends, be sensitive to
any person who hasn’t “succeeded” in his or her role or who hasn’t succeeded in
getting what he or she wanted in playing his/her part.
• Be sure always to allow time afterward for processing the role play. Debriefing
is absolutely essential if the role play has evoked conflict or negative emotions.
Let the players, rather than the observers, be the first to critique or discuss their
own behaviors and feelings in the role-play. Solicit feedback from the observers
as well as the role-plays participants. Ask questions that explore content as well
as feelings. It is important to help students make connections between the
role-play situation and real-world events.
• If the role play went well and you would like to use it again with future classes,
make notes on any refinements you might want to make the next time.
Tip 5:
In the role play technique, students often need a short preparation period to
determine the outline of the skit or they may even like to start with a prepared
socia-drama such as “The ins and outs” or “the missing handshake” and go
on to produce their own variations, changing the action and the outcomes.
This is often called the warm-up period (Westeville 1958).
Depending on their function, role plays can be used at the beginning of a lesson
to introduce a new topic, in the middle to help teach a skill or concept, or at the
conclusion to tie together and reinforce the whole lesson. Role plays are typically
very short, seldom more than fifteen minutes. In a role-play, two or more students
174 G.F. Gündüz
improvise a specific, assigned scenario. These roles may be familiar (for example,
introducing a new student to a friend) or beyond their realm of experience (for
example, a World War II resistance fighter, a nuclear scientist, or a U.S. president).
The actors receive only a sketchy outline of the scenario. Role plays may be set in
the past, present, or future (Partin 2009). It is possible to mention many advantages
of using role-play technique. The advantages of this technique are explained below
(Doğanay 2015; Ocak 2015; Partin 2009; Nickerson 2007):
• It helps to develop communication, management development, and leadership
quality.
• It helps to improve the interpersonal relationship.
• It provides opportunities for understanding the others’ feelings, thoughts and
empathizing with different viewpoints.
• It develops students’ creativity and understanding skills.
• It arouses interest in a topic and motivation to learning.
• It provides opportunities for learning in both the affective domain, where
emotions and values are involved, as well as in the cognitive domain where
experiences are analyzed.
• It is an activity in which students don’t have to be anxious about coming up with
the single right answer.
Role playing is one of the best known and commonly used drama technique
since it has many advantages when used in education. However, there are also some
limitations of using this technique. The limitations are explained below:
• If the selection of roles isn’t suitable for students, the students can have difficulty
to understand the play.
• If the students don’t prepare for role-playing well, the success of the role play
can’t be as desired.
• Participants may be too shy and reluctant. It can be threatening to some.
• It can be boring for students who learn by watching and don’t want to engage
play.
• It can become “too much fun” and disrupt the task. Participants can get too
involved and lose objectivity.
• Participants can overact and show off. The observers may not observe well or
take notes.
• The observers may take “sides” based on their preconceptions.
Improvisation: According to Hodgson and Richards (1966) improvisation is a
spontaneous response to the unfolding of an unexpected situation. Also, Landy
(1982) defines improvisation as an unscripted, unrehearsed, spontaneous set of
actions in response to minimal directions from a leader, usually indicating state-
ments of whom one is, where one is and what one is doing there. It can be done
with a large group, small group or as an individual. It can be also used both in the
classroom and outside the classroom. The only thing that requires consideration is
students need to pay attention to their partners in order to react appropriately.
It is possible to say that there is two improvisation types. In the first one,
participants make preparation for improvisation but the results aren’t determined at
the beginning of it. This can be named as limited improvisation. In the second one,
similarly the results aren’t determined but participants begin to improvise without
preparation. In this type, This can be named as spontaneous or free improvisation
(Aslan 2007). The improvisation can be used in all stages of the dramatization.
These are the characters improvizations which is about the people and their iden-
tities; improvisations being developed with using or imagining objects; improvi-
sations being realized for animating an object, a structure or a device by using the
participants’ bodies; improvisations about completing the ends of the incomplete
poetry, tale or film; improvisations about imagine the whole of the photo, picture or
portrait which students see some part of them before, the case improvisations about
the places where we observe the people’s interaction and communications as a
school, a bazaar, etc. (San and Güleryüz 2004). In the beginning, students could be
shy to participate in the activities, but after a few sessions with the aid of the group
leader and teacher, they will become more enthusiastic, and there will be an
improvement in participation and their confidence level (Andersen 2000). The
teachers also have some other responsibilities in using improvisation technique.
They should guide the students in directions they want them to go. They have to
encourage students, not to criticize. They have to convey curiosity, enthusiasm, and
support for the smallest effort. They help students to be free in creativity, stimulate
the imagination, guide the group and build confidence (Yılmaz 2010). The
advantages of the improvisation can be listed as below (Tokdemir 2015; Yılmaz
2010):
• It prompts the learners to be active and creative participants under tension in
different situations.
• Students have a chance to think themselves in real life situations and as a result
of this, students gain confidence in coping with the unexpected.
• Students have a chance to use their imagination.
• Students focus on getting the message across rather than on repeating dialogues.
• It helps students to develop their speaking skills since they speak without
preparation.
• Students only create a scene, speak, act, react, and move without preparing.
Students can be free to act and create the character that they want to be.
• Students gain self-discipline and ability to work with other students in the
classroom. It also emphasizes student-student interaction more than
teacher-student interaction.
• It enables students to think freely, to gain a sense of responsibility and to
develop their deciding skills.
176 G.F. Gündüz
Tip 6:
To practice the improvisation technique effectively;
• Use different objects to arouse interest and motivation.
• Help students who play to be concentrated on improvization.
• Unless it’s really necessary, don’t intervene into students who play during
the improivization.
• Find solutions when the improvisation broken down as immediate as
possible.
Source: http://medienwerkstatt-online.de/
lwswissen/bilder/9390-1.jpg
Mime/Pantomime: Mime or pantomime is the first step of drama activities.

Pantomime is the use of gesture, body posture, and facial expression to commu-
nicate ideas, feelings, and relationships with little or no accompanying sounds or
mime is a non-verbal representation of an idea or story through gesture, bodily
movement, and expression. Although many performers make no distinction
between mime and pantomime, mime is a special art form, an offspring of pan-
tomime. The differences between mime and pantomime are explained in Table 4.4
(McGraw-Hill 2005).
Mime or pantomime is the first step of drama activities. Before starting the
drama activities, it needs to be developed a sense of safety and trust. Pantomime or
mime is an effective tool to be able to achieve this goal. Moreover, they sharpen
concentration and prepare everybody to the lesson. They are simple and fun
because they are safe for the student to perform in the classroom (Tokdemir 2015).
To perform an effective pantomime/mime, there are some principles to take into
consideration. The principles explained by McGraw-Hill (2005) are also be con-
sidered some advice that teachers can give to their students. These principles listed
below (McGraw-Hill 2005):
Table 4.4 The techniques classifications according to learning skills and teaching methods
Pantomime Mime
The action conveys the only action; The action conveys the theme; for example, snagging a
for example, flying a kite kite on a tree after struggling to get it soaring in the sky
might be a mime’s way of saying, “Our aspirations
often become entangled with the things of this world”
The artist works with imaginary The artist works with imaginary objects but may also
objects use part or all of the body to become an object or
express an idea
No sounds are used Non-verbal sounds, such as escaping air, a telephone
busy signal, or the screech of tires may be used
All pantomimes are based on reality Mimes go beyond reality; they are not limited to the
real world
The main goal is the exact The main goal is the expression of an idea; themes can
pantomime of a specific action often be expressed in simple terms: loneliness, young
dreams, or forgiveness
Resource McGraw-Hill (2005)
• Decide if you will begin your pantomime on stage in a neutral position head
down or looking straight ahead (upstage or downstage), arms down, hands
folded in front.
• Set your mental image in detail. Know exactly how much space you will use,
the location of the furniture, and the shape, weight, and position of every
imaginary prop you will be using.
• Visualize the appearance and emotional state of your character in minute detail.
• Imagine yourself dressed in the clothes of your character.
• Remember that in all dramatic work, the thought comes first, then your face and
head, your chest, and finally, the rest of your body.
• Keep your actions simple and clear.
• Always have a key action early in the pantomime that establishes who you are
and what you are doing.
• Practice and analyze every movement and gesture until you are satisfied that it is
the most truthful, effective, and direct means of expressing your idea or feeling.
• Plan your introduction carefully. It may be humorous or serious, but it must
arouse interest in your character and in the situation in which your character is
placed.
• Plan the ending carefully. Leave the stage in character.
Although pantomime and mime are not exactly the same concepts, when they
are used as a teaching technique, their pedagogical benefits show similarity with
each other. The advantages of these techniques can be summarized as follows
(Paulu and Lehr 2002; McCaslin 2006; Doughill 1987; McGraw-Hill 2005):
• It is an enjoyable activity for children and young learners. They enjoy making
big, bold facial expressions and bodily movements.
• It is a way to begin creative drama.
178 G.F. Gündüz
• Pantomime encourages the use of the entire body. It helps students to gain
control of their muscles.
• Students learn to express themselves through bodily action, without the addi-
tional problem of dialogue.
• Action speaks louder than words; therefore, it can be more understandable
because of the fact that it supports the comprehension of the situation and
guarantees the permanent learning.
• It builds self-confidence for the students who do not want to speak or cannot
speak fluently; in addition, this type of students can convey meaning very
successfully through body language.
Puppetry: The art of presenting an inanimate object in the form of a living
character is called as puppetry (Child Resource Center 1995). A puppet is a small
and artificial figure representing a person or animal, having a cloth body and hollow
head, designed to be fitted over and manipulated by the hands, rods, etc. (Yılmaz
2010). A puppet can be almost any inanimate object and can be made from virtually
hundreds of different materials. The most common among them are glove/hand
puppets, string puppets, rod puppets and shadow puppets (Engler and Fijan 1973).
Puppets are fascinating for children. They know that puppets are not alive, yet they
often listen to and talk with them as if they were real. The value of puppets in the
early elementary classroom can not be underestimated. They are a very versatile
resource in the young learners’ classroom. Bognar (2009) stated that puppets could
also be used in secondary school and higher education as a teaching technique.
Bognar (2009) stated that, depending on their function, puppetry can be used at
the beginning of a lecture, in the realization stage or in the evaluation stage. The
teacher can use the puppet at the beginning of the lecture to draw students’ attention
and to provoke their interest for the theme. The puppet can only show up to
stimulate curiosity about what is following. In the realization stage puppets can
have a triggering role during presentations since they come as refreshment and
relate to some other spheres of our personality. Students can animate the puppet by
asking questions or by giving a short commentary on the lesson’s topic. A shorter
dialogue can be acted out between two puppets. However, at this stage, students
have far more opportunities to use puppets. To make that possible, it is necessary to
create an atmosphere that stimulates creative game, and when that happens possi-
bilities are unlimited. Students are not only able to act out certain monologs or
dialogues, play some shorter adventures or misadventures, but they can also
independently create puppets—something where they can express special creativ-
ity. In the evaluation stage puppetry has again turned out to be an effective tool.
Doing this by having each group think up the way to use a puppet for an evaluation
of that day’s lesson (Bognar 2009).
It can be said that there are a lot of pedagogical benefits of puppetry. The
advantages of using puppet as a teaching technique in a lesson are as follows
(Bognar 2009; O’Hare 2005; Korosec 2013; Quisenberry 1972: p. 20 and
Ackerman 1994 cited in Yılmaz 2010; Reidmiller 2008):
• It increases student involvement and motivation.
• It stimulates creative expression. Serious faces accustomed to boredom in
classroom suddenly become shiny and a new situation of successful learning is
initiated.
• Every teaching practice needs some anticipated events that will come as
refreshment and significant change in teaching. A puppet is an ideal tool for this.
• It develops spontaneous verbal expression.
• It stimulates and increases imagination
• It helps students to develop their speaking skills, especially for the shy or
apprehensive student.
• It stimulates mutual cooperation and develops orientation in time and place.
• It stimulates the child’s self-value.
• It acquires self-esteem and personal content.
• It releases fears, aggression, and frustrations in an acceptable way.
• It is beneficial to the student who prefers to learn kinesthetically. Puppet
activities keep students actively engaged in hands-on activities.
• It encourages students to try out ideas and investigate on their own.
• It develops social interactive skills.
• It masters problem-solving skills.
• It helps children to learn new words, use their imagination and develop hand and
finger coordination.
180 G.F. Gündüz
4.3.3 Techniques Used in Problem-Solving Method
Problem-based learning is both a teaching method and an approach to the cur-

riculum. Learning with problem-solving method is based on the scientific method
of research. Dewey (Küçükahmet 2002 cited in Yıldızlar 2013) clarified the five
steps of general problem-solving method as follows: the identification of the
problem, formulating the hypothesis, gathering and organizing the data, evaluation,
and clarifying problem, proposing solutions and testing the solutions. A problem is
typically defined as “a situation where something is to be found or shown, and the
way to find or show it is not immediately obvious”. That is, “the situation is
unfamiliar in some sense to the individual and a clear path from the problem
conditions to the solution is not apparent” (Grouws 1996). Although problems can
generally be defined as puzzles—difficult matters that exercise the mind—the
precise definition of the problem varies widely across the academic disciplines.
There are well-defined problems with correct answers and loosely defined prob-
lems, which Donald Schön (1983) described as “confusing messes incapable of
technical solution”. These latter kinds of problems may include a huge array of
relevant variables, both known and unknown. They may require exercising judg-
ment, making trade-offs, and consider values. They may have alternative solutions
(cited in Barkley et al. 2014).
Brainstorming, brainwriting, fishbone diagram, problem-solving house, synec-
tics, analogy, case study, send-a-problem, simulations and workshop cited as
techniques that teacher can use for developing students’ problem-solving skills. The
mostly used problem-solving techniques are explained below.
Brainstorming: Brainstorming technique assists in the generation of new ideas

or solutions surrounding a given problem. Some of the many useful applications for
brainstorming include: generating solutions to a given existing problem, investi-
gating possible causes of a situation or event, developing a new innovative product
or proposing improvements to existing products.
Osborn (1953) developed an idea generation process called brainstorming and
listed four rules to be faithfully followed to maximize results of a brainstorming
session. These are; the more ideas, the better; the wilder the idea, the better;
combination and improvement are sought and criticism of ideas is not allowed. The
aim of the first rule is to create many ideas. The more ideas a group has, the greater
the probability of discovering a good one. The emphasis is on quantity, not quality.
The purpose of the second rule is to spark creativity. The teacher should encourage
wild, zany, half-baked ideas. Even if it doesn’t quite make sense now, a suggestion
might be the stimulus for a great idea. Recording it may blossom into something
worthwhile later. The third rule is to achieve high-quality ideas by building on and
improving upon other ideas. In addition to contributing ideas of their own, par-
ticipants should suggest how ideas of others can be turned into better ideas; or how
two or more ideas can be joined into still another idea (Osborn 1953 p. 300;
Rickards 1999). The fourth rule is to keep the group members focused on the task at
hand and to reduce the members’ fear of being evaluated. Criticism of ideas must be
withheld until later and record each idea without evaluation. Later the group will
evaluate its ideas, but to nurture free and open brainstorming, students must not be
worried about whether others are going to criticize their ideas. Innovation only
occurs when individuals can see with fresh eyes, stripping away the tunnel vision
that usually limits creativity. Positive evaluation is also prohibited, as those not
receiving positive comments from the group will assume their ideas are inferior
(Partin 2009; Osborn 1953; Rickards 1999).
Tip 7:
The rules of effective brainstorming (Osborn 1953):
• The more ideas the better;
• The wilder the idea the better;
• The combination and improvement are sought;
• The criticism of ideas is not allowed.
In the literature review, there are a lot of different brainstorming techniques

stated by researchers and educators. Some of these techniques are carousel brain-
storming, to encourage students to project what would likely happen if some major
change occurred, rapid brainstorming, mail call (Partin 2009); Scamper (Glenn
1997); Dacum (Romiszowski 1986), paired brainstorming, brainwriting (Crawford
et al. 2005), round robin, round table and affinity group (Barkley et al. 2014).
Although there are a lot of different brainstorming techniques, it can be said that the
fundamental steps used in applying these techniques are similar to each other.
Crawford et al. (2005) stated the steps to be taken into consideration by teachers
while using the brainstorming technique as follows:
• Introduce brainstorming to the whole class first.
• Introduce the topic or problem very clearly.
• Give students a time limit to solve the problem.
182 G.F. Gündüz
• Encourage them to share any idea, no matter how odd that is related to the
problem. Remind them not to criticize each other’s ideas in any way.
• Encourage them to build on each other’s ideas. Do not stay on any one idea for
too long.
• Write down their ideas as they offer them.
• Later, have students brainstorm individually or in pairs.
Crawford et al. (2005) stated that individuals can do brainstorming, pairs, small
groups or whole class and it should be conducted in 10 min; however according to
Osborn (1953) the duration of the brainstorming was limited with 30 min and him
believed that the ideal size of a brainstorming group should be between five and 10
persons (Osborn 1953, p. 304). He claimed that brainstorming groups, following his
set of rules, could generate more ideas that the same number of individuals working
separately.
Brainstorming is one of the best known and most often used creative
problem-solving technique since it has many advantages when used in education.
According to related literature, the advantages of this technique can be explained as
follows (Aykaç 2014; Rickards 1999; Brahm and Kleiner 1996):
• It increases students’ involvement and motivation.
• It increases students’ interests and motivation.
• It promotes spontaneity and creativity.
• It is efficient and productive. Scores of ideas and suggestions or problems and
obstacles can be listed in a few minutes.
• Students learn to respect the others’ ideas and views about a subject.
• It enables students to learn actively.
• It generates enthusiasm and eagerness to join in by its open invitation to par-
ticipate and its rapid, free-wheeling approach.
• It improves students’ conceptual knowledge.
• It develops problem-solving skills.
• It involves participants in the ownership of ideas. The participants feel a greater
kinship for their product as they assume group ownership of their ideas and
suggestions.
Besides the advantages of this technique, studies have found and described a
number of challenges that can limit the productivity of brainstorming groups. These
are production blocking, the emergence of judgements during generation, inade-
quate structure of the interaction, free riding or social loafing and social matching
(Nijstad and Stroebe 2006; Kelly and Littman 2001; Isaksen and Gaulin 2005). The
other limitations of the technique are listed below (Aykaç 2014; Al-Ghamdi 2004;
Brahm and Kleiner 1996):
• It may not be effective with large groups.
• Implementing the technique quickly can make some students’ engagement to
learning difficult.
• If the leader or teacher don’t know the technique’s using principles well, it can
be difficult to engage students in learning and to produce creative ideas.
• If students don’t have enough previous knowledge about the problem, it can be
difficult to produce ideas and solutions.
• It takes a long time.
• It is difficult to use this technique for developing students’ psychomotor skills.
The six thinking hats: The six thinking hats technique is a method created by de
Bono (1985) and uses for presenting thoughts and suggestions in a specific order
and systematizing them (Schawel and Billing 2011). Hats are known by their colors
not by their functions in six thinking hats technique but, the teacher must make sure
that students can play the role identified by each color (De Bono 1997). Features of
each color are as follows:
The white hat: White hat thinking is a way of asking for facts and figures to be
put forth in a neutral manner. It encourages the thinker to separate what is fact and
what is an interpretation (De Bono 1999 cited in Business Book Summaries 2003).
When this hat is put on, these types of questions are asked (De Bono 1999 cited in
Walker 2016):
• What kind of information do we have?
• What kind of information do we need?
• What information is missing?
• What questions do we need to ask?
• How are we going to get the information we need?
• Is it fact or believe?
The red hat: The red hat gives everyone an opportunity to express how they feel
about a situation. Feelings, emotions, and intuition are in the realm of the red hat. It
is always done on an individual basis, and always applied to a specific idea or
situation (De Bono 1999 cited in Business Book Summaries 2003). The questions
asked with this hat are below (Walker 2016):
184 G.F. Gündüz
• How do you react to this?

• What is your intuition/opinion about this?
• Gut feelings …Hunches or insights …Likes/dislikes?
• What emotions [fear, anger, hatred, suspicion, jealousy, or love] are involved
here?
The black hat: The black hat is the hat of caution. It is the most used hat of all the
six thinking hats. It is the hat of survival. Overuse of the black hat may lead to an
unhealthy cynicism where people only seem to find fault with everything (De Bono
1999 cited in Business Book Summaries 2003). This hat looks for the answers to
these questions (Walker 2016):
• What will happen if we take this action?
• What can go wrong if we proceed with this idea or implement this suggestion?
• What are the weaknesses that we need to overcome?
• How does this “fit” with our (or other’s) experience, policy, strategy, values,
ethics, and resources?
• How will people respond?
• Will it work. Be profitable. Be acceptable?
The yellow hat: The yellow hat is essential because it provides “value sensi-
tivity”. It is a waste of time to set out trying to be creative if you are not going to
recognize a good idea. There are people who love to pounce on an idea and tear it to
pieces. The yellow hat seeks value, so even unattractive ideas are given their due
recognition (De Bono 1999 cited in Business Book Summaries 2003). When this
hat is put on these types of questions are asked (Walker 2016):
• What will happen if we take this action?
• What ideas, suggestions or proposals are there for how to approach this prob-
lem? …to achieve this goal?
• What is the merit of the approach?
• What positives can you see in this idea?
• What could be done to make this work better? Faster? More economically?
• Under what conditions could this work?
• What would it take to make this proposal acceptable?
• What is your vision for how this could work?
The green hat: The green hat is the hat of energy, growth, and new ideas.
A specific time is set for everyone to make a creative effort. Everyone has to submit
one idea; it is no longer just the responsibility of one “ideas person” while everyone
sits around waiting to critique it (De Bono 1999 cited in Business Book Summaries
2003). The questions asked with this hat are below (Walker 2016):
• What are some fresh ideas or approaches?
• What are all of our alternatives here? Aren’t there some other alternatives.
Perhaps too outside the box?
• This idea won’t work in its present form, but can we shape it or adapt it so that it
might be usable?
The blue hat: The blue hat is the hat of control. It is the hat we use for thinking
about thinking. The blue hat is the agenda hat and lays out what is to be achieved.
At the end of a session, the blue hat thinker calls for a conclusion, summary or
decision and action points or next steps (De Bono 1999 cited in Business Book
Summaries 2003). This hat tries to answer these questions (Walker 2016):
• Are we getting anywhere?
• What factors should we consider?
• What sort of outcome would we regard as successful?
• What have we achieved so far?
Tip 8:
The six action shoes techniques was also found by De Bono. It can also be
used with problem solving method such as six thinking hats. The different
types and colours of the six shoes describe differing styles of action to be take.
The six style of action shoes are;
• Navy formal shoes.
• Grey sneakers.
• Brown brogues.
• Orange gumboots.
• Pink slippers.
• Purple riding boots (De Bono 1991).
The order of hats can vary according to the characteristics of the discussion.
However, when any new suggestion is evaluated it is beneficial to put on the yellow
hat before the black hat, because errors in new proposals are more easily found
when looking at disadvantages (Karadağ et al. 2009). The main benefits of the six
thinking hats method are explained as follows (Schawel and Billing 2011; Yıldızlar
2013; Karadağ et al. 2009; http://www.debonoforschools.com/asp/six_hats.asp):
• It allows students to say things without risk. Students present ideas with more
confidence.
• It leads to more creative thinking.
• It improves research and writing skills.
• It improves communication skills.
• It improves decision-making and problem-solving skills.
• It makes a person look at a problem from different perspectives and think out of
the box.
• It enables students to ask questions, to answer them quickly and to evaluate
alternatives constructively.
186 G.F. Gündüz
• It enables to listen more intently to the views of others to gain a deeper

understanding of issues.
• It allows students to make well through choices.
Tip 9:
A useful way to use fishbone diagram technique is to write all of the possible
causes of the problem down on sticky notes. Then, similar causes of the
problem can be grouped together on the diagram.
Although there are many important advantages of six thinking hats technique, it
has some limitations if it is not planned well. It can be difficult to apply in crowded
classes and this regard it takes a long time. The teacher should lead the students
well. If the teacher can’t do it, it can be difficult to control noise in class while
students are expressing their ideas. The discussions of students can be dragged out
and become meaningless (Yıldızlar 2013).
Fishbone Diagram: It was first used by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa and it is also known
as cause and effect diagrams, Ishikawa diagrams, herringbone diagrams and
Ishikawa diagrams. It can be used to identify the potential (or actual) cause(s) of a
performance problem. Fishbone diagrams provide a structure for a group’s dis-
cussion around the potential causes of the problem. This tool is most effective when
used in a team or group setting. The steps to practice this technique effectively are
as follows (Ocak 2015; Tok 2015; Özden 2005):
• Write the problem to be solved (the effect) as descriptively as possible on one
side of the workspace, then draw the “backbone of the fish.” Think about the
exact problem in detail.
• Identify the factors that may be part of the problem. These may be methods,
machines (equipment), materials, people, external forces, environment with the
problem and so on. Draw four or more branches off the large arrow to represent
main categories of potential causes.
• Brainstorm all the possible causes of the problem. As each idea is given, show
these possible causes as shorter lines coming off the “bones” of the diagram.
• When the group has come to the consensus that the diagram contains an ade-
quate amount of information, analyze the diagram. By this stage, the diagram
has to show all the possible causes of the problem. When the group runs out of
the ideas, focus attention on places on the chart where ideas are few. Depending
on the complexity and importance of the problem, investigate the most likely
causes further.
• Circle anything that seems to be a cause for the need. Prioritize the root causes
and decide to take action.
According to related literature, the advantages of this technique can be explained
as follows (Aykaç 2014; Tok 2015; Ocak 2015):
• It permits a thoughtful analysis that avoids overlooking any possible root causes
for a need.
• It is easy to implement and creates an easy‐to‐understand visual representation
of the causes, categories of causes, and the need.
• It helps students to focus on the “big picture” as to possible causes or factors
influencing the problem/need.
• Even after the need has been addressed, the fishbone diagram shows areas of
weakness that—once exposed—can be rectified before causing more sustained
difficulties.
Besides the advantages of this technique, there are also some limitations of it.
The simplicity of a fishbone diagram can be both its strength and its weakness. As a
weakness, the simplicity of the fishbone diagram may make it difficult to represent
the truly interrelated nature of problems and causes in some very complex situa-
tions. The other limitation is unless the teacher has an extremely large space on
which to draw and develop the fishbone diagram, it may be difficult to explore the
cause and effect relationships in as much detail as desired (WBI Evaluation Group
2007).
Simulation: Adams (1973) defines simulation as a controlled detailed mode
intended to reflect a situation found in the real world. It is a dramatic view of life
existing for the serious purpose of learning about real experiences. It is a method
whereby an artificial or hypothetical experience is created that engages the learner
in an activity that reflects real-life conditions but without the risk-taking conse-
quences of an actual situation (cited in Bastable 1997). Gredler (1994) categorized
simulations according to the types of tasks and nature of interactions between
participants. Tactical-decision simulation requires students to interact in resolving a
complex problem or crisis and to arrive at a logical, safe resolution. The participants
must interpret data, develop options, and implement strategies. Simulations that
require management of economic resources fall under this category. In contrast,
social process simulations encourage students to interact to address social chal-
lenges or to attain a political or social goal. Participants must interact and react to
each other in a social milieu. Such simulations often involve interviewing, nego-
tiating, cooperating, questioning, or persuading. Communication or empathy-
building simulations are of this variety (cited in Partin 2009).
188 G.F. Gündüz
Brown (2001) emphasized in his book that simulations usually involve larger
groups (of 6–20) where the entire group is working through an imaginary situation
as a social unit, the object of which is to solve some specific problem. In simula-
tions, students assume roles and make choices as though they were the person in
that role. A simulation is more complex and evolving than a role play that focuses
on a single incident. As a structured activity, the simulation provides consequences
for the choices the players make. For a simulation to succeed, students must be
convinced to act out their roles realistically. They must try to think and act like a
real-world person in that role (Partin 2009). Simulation games should allow players
to set some of their goals, using data they have collected and the framework of the
game to guide them. They should also be given the opportunity to reevaluate and
change this goal as the game proceeds (Rogers and Goodloe 1973).
Most simulation games do not end with a “winner” or “loser”. If the reason for
developing and playing a specific game is to gain empathy for other individuals, a
winner could scarcely be determined by the number of points gained (Rogers and
Goodloe 1973).
The most important learning occurs after the simulation when the participants
reflect on what happened during the game. This debriefing should encourage them
to examine the thoughts, feelings, and actions that the simulation elicited.
Generalizations of these insights for future real-world application should also be
examined. Teachers must facilitate this reflection, not leaving it to chance (Partin
2009). The debriefing emphasizes the necessity of keeping an open mind and
making tentative decisions based on the data at hand while being receptive to new
data. Values are reexamined in the light of experiences in the game and related to
reality. Open-ended questions and acceptance of all seriously given answers should
be the rule during the debriefing (Rogers and Goodloe 1973). The advantages of
this technique can be listed as follow (Rogers and Goodloe 1973; Schurr 2000):
• It can be a strong motivating force for the reluctant learner.
• It provides students with practice in decision making, but in a different, more
engaging format. Thinking skills permeate most well-designed gaming
situations.
• In developing descriptions and background data for roles or in describing a
scenario, students typically delve deeper and with enthusiasm.
• Students can learn to anticipate and deal with situations before they encounter
them in real life. Since simulations are based on real-life situations, they present
students with choices and constraints that reflect real-world problems.
• Simulation games do not focus on skills, facts and concepts are alone, more
important feeling and values are examined with a better understanding of self
and others.
• It enables students to engage in problem solving, to learn to empathize, to
develop inquiry skills and to develop their self-confidence.
Tip 10:
In case studies, students’ background knowledge about the subject should be
adequate to interpret and resolve a case. It is not appropriate for intro-
ductory level classes.
The limitations of this technique can be listed as follow (Rogers and Goodloe
1973; Schurr 2000):
• It is time-consuming compared to more highly structured, teacher directed
activities.
• For a teacher who sees his/her role as the supplier of all answers, the simulation
could be highly threatening. The teacher does not control every aspect of the
teaching/learning process in it.
• It also requires more explanation before the exercise and, when completed, a
careful exposition of what has been learned by relating students’ experiences to
the general principles involved.
• Guidelines must be developed for deciding the maturity level at which students
can play a game effectively, and the qualifications or skills teachers need to have
while conducting various types of simulation games. Poorly administered games
with immature students can be worse than no gaining at all.
Case study: This approach is a student-centered, highly interactive pedagogy
that changes the classroom process into a collective search for an analysis and
solution to a specific problem based on a “case.” (Foran 2001). This technique is
used when someone wants to examine the social relations, a problem or a case and
to propose solutions to them thereby finding out the reasons of the case without
personalizing and discussing these solutions (Bilen 2002). There are different case
formats. They can be written cases, a lead newspaper article, a movie clip, a
radio/TV news story, a picture, a mathematical word problem, a piece of art.
Whatever the format, cases illustrate issues and factors that are typical kind of the
problem under examination, reflect theoretical frameworks, underscore prevailing
disciplinary assumptions and principles, and reveal realistic complexities and ten-
sions (Golich et al. 2000). Most case studies do not have one obvious or clear
solution. The information contained in a case study might be complex (including
charts, graphs, and relevant historical background materials) or simple—a human
story that illustrates a difficult situation requiring a decision (Goodenough 1994).
Barkley et al. (2014) stated the case study as a problem-solving technique and
explained the steps to practice this technique effectively as follows:
• Form student groups and distribute identical or different cases to each team.
• Instead of a written case study, use videotape or role-play to present a problem
situation (McKeachie 1999, p. 178; cited in Barkley et al. 2014).
• Allow time for students to ask questions about the process they are to use to
clarify the problem presented in the case. Students work in groups to study the
190 G.F. Gündüz
case in depth from the protagonist’s point of view and to become familiar with
the issues and decision options. Students sort out factual data, apply analytic
tools, articulate issues, reflect on their relevant experience, draw conclusions,
and recommend actions that resolve the dilemma or solve the problem in the
case.
• McKeachie (2002, p. 200; cited in Barkley et al. 2014) suggests the following
questions to guide students in their approach to the case: What is the problem?
What might have caused the problem? What evidence can be gathered to sup-
port or discount any of the hypotheses? What conclusions can be drawn? What
recommendations can be made?
• Sometimes students prepare a written or oral statement describing their
assessment of the case, the decision options as they see them, and their rec-
ommendations for a decision.
• Students discuss the cases with the entire class as the teacher debriefs on the
experience. If the case occurred, students will want to know what happened, so
be prepared to share this with them after they have reported and to allow a few
more minutes for discussion of what actually transpired.
A case study is one of the best known and most used problems solving technique
since it has many pedagogical benefits. According to the related literature, the
advantages of this technique can be explained as follows (Golich et al. 2000; Aykaç
2014; Goodenough 1994; Foran 2001):
• It enhances students’ ability to use new concepts and information to substantiate
their arguments.
• It enables students to develop critical thinking skills, to learn through
decision-making and role-playing situations.
• It develops confidence in defining, confronting, analyzing, and solving problems
through interactive discussions.
• It develops students’ interpersonal skills and the capacity to work in a team.
• Students explore a problem by sorting out relevant facts, and they develop
logical conclusions.
• Students learn how to present their ideas with conviction, and support them with
as much care and persuasion as they can.
• Students acquire new abilities to listen to their classmates, keep an open mind,
and incorporate ideas from other students when they find them persuasive.
• It encourages students’ active participation in the process of learning.
• Students take much more responsibility for their own learning.
• It prevents students from making mistakes and endangering in real-life situa-
tions since it allows students to solve real-life problems in class.
The main problem instructors encountered in using the case study technique was
finding appropriate cases for use in the related lessons. While creating an effective
case study can be time-consuming, basing cases on actual events or experiences can
help limit the initial investment of time. Most case writers advise experimenting and
sharing cases with colleagues for comments and suggestions. Often, cases needed
revision after you’ve taught them once or twice and discovered their strengths and
weaknesses. Because the case study method is now being used in many disciplines,
relying on published cases can save preparation time (Goodenough 1994). The
other limitations of this technique are explained below (Golich et al. 2000; Aykaç
2014):
• The principal constraint in case teaching is time. It takes a lot of time.
• It may be difficult to use in large groups.
• It may be difficult to find the right case to address teacher’s pedagogical
objectives and content accuracy.
• The teacher has to make plans and preparations before using the technique.
Workshop: It is defined as assembled group of ten to twenty-five persons who

share a common interest or problem. They meet to improve their individual and
skill of a subject through intensive study, research, practice, and discussion. It is
used to seek, explore and identify the solutions to a problem (Puri 2006).
Workshops are organized for three to ten days’ duration. The period of the work-
shop may be 40 days; it depends on the nature of task assigned to the
workshop. According to Puri (2006), it is organized in three stages. The first stage is
a presentation of the theme of providing awareness. The second stage is practicing
the approach for its applicability, and the third stage is evaluating the material
prepared by the participants and follow-up programme. To do an effective work-
shop, the researchers and educators explain the application steps as follows
(Maheshwari 2012; Community Tool Box 2016; Tok 2015; Puri 2006):
• The first element of planning a workshop is to know what you’re talking about.
Every workshop must have a goal. Clarify the goal of the work.
• Knowing who will participate directly relates to the objective. Make a list of
people who needs to be there. Try to be as specific as possible, but leave a few
openings for last minute additions.
• Consider the workshop size. If the group is an ideal size for most purposes
(about 8–12) you can arrange activities that involve participants as individuals,
in small groups (2–4) and the whole group. If the group is larger than about 15,
192 G.F. Gündüz
you will probably want to split it up for many activities. If it’s smaller than 7 or
8, you might be better off having the whole group work together for most of the
workshop.
• Consider the time available. Workshops can run from as little as an hour or less
to as much as a day or even longer. It’s important that goals for the workshop
match the time available.
• Plan a break. This will speak to the attention-span issue and allow participants a
chance to get coffee, go to the bathroom, etc. without disturbing the flow of the
workshop.
• Consider your presentation. The style of presentation both your personal style
and the actual methods of presentation you employ will do much to determine
the effectiveness of your workshop.
• Create a list of main points to discuss, and then break down each larger point
into details.
• List the visual aids, if any, to be used for each point. If need technical support
provides expert help, this helps the people to determine where they need to
focus their efforts.
• Create a questionnaire to give to all participants at the end of the event, and give
them plenty of opportunities to share their opinions on how well it went. It’s the
only way to learn—and improve—for the next time.
Tip 11:
The rules of effective workshop (Maheshwari 2012):
• Getting everyone involved to workshop.
• Keeping the size of each group small.
• Determining how to record the ideas from each group.
• Spending as much time as possible in creating fun and interest in group
exercises.
• Starting the meeting with a few icebreakers to get everyone relaxed and
comfortable.
It is often used for developing students’ application skills. The main aim of the
technique is engaging students more actively in learning activities. There are a number
of situations in which a workshop would be the best choice. These are the beginning of
something new, the initial training of staff or volunteers, the in-service or ongoing
training staff or volunteers, staff development, the demonstration of a new concept, the
explanation of something to the public, the availability of a knowledgeable presenter
(Community Tool Box 2016). It is an interactive technique, and this interaction can be
between students-teacher, students-content, and students with each other. These in-
teractions can be discussions and exchange of the ideas or apply knowledge, skills and
principles about a subject by using the required equipment (Doğanay 2015).
According to the related literature, the advantages of this technique can be listed as
follows (Puri 2006; Legends 2010; Community Tool Box 2016):
• It develops the feeling of cooperation and group work.

• It develops problem-solving and creative thinking skills. In the periods of
workshops, each group is required to identify problems and possible solutions
for the given topics.
• It provides a way to create an intensive educational experience in a short amount
of time.
• It is a great way to teach hands-on skills because it offers participants a chance to
try out new methods and fail in a safe situation.
• It provides knowledge improvement. While doing workshops, participants share
ideas with other members in their group; they also learn from other groups’
presentations.
• Attending workshops are good opportunity to network, during the workshops,
all the participants meet and talk in order to get to know each other;
Besides the advantages, there are also the limitations of the workshop technique.
The workshop can not be organized for a large group so that large numbers of
person are not trained. The effectiveness of a workshop technique depends on the
follow-up programme. Generally follow-up programmes are not organized in
workshop technique (Maheshwari 2012).
4.3.4 Techniques Used in Demonstration-Performance

Method
The demonstration-performance method of teaching is based on the simple but

sound principle that we learn by “doing”. Students learn physical or mental skills by
actually performing those skills under supervision (Sola and Ojo 2007). In general,
the instruction is accomplished in four steps-explanation, demonstration, perfor-
mance, and evaluation. In explanation phase, the teacher first informs students of
the precise actions they will be expected to perform and describes the result of these
efforts. Students should also be encouraged to ask questions at any point in the
learning process. The second phase named as a demonstration, the teacher
demonstrates the actions that are necessary in order for students to complete the
activity at hand. In the performance phase, the teacher must next allot enough time
for meaningful student activity. Performance requires sufficient practice time in
order for students to learn to follow correct procedures and to reach expected
standards. The last phase named evaluation that the teacher judges student per-
formance, correctly. Assessment should be an ongoing activity and include both
observations of the performance skills that students demonstrated as well as the
products they produced (Swerdlow 2013).
The demonstration, educational field trip, project, educational game and obser-
vation cited as techniques that can be used with performance-demonstration
method. The mostly used performance-demonstration techniques are explained
below.
194 G.F. Gündüz
http://www.egitimtercihi.com/image/Okuloncesi_Egitim/o
kuloncesisinif.jpg
Demonstration technique: Demonstration is an essential step when teaching a

skill and providing an opportunity for students to see the task modeled (Partin
2009). It enables a visual presentation for examining knowledge or an idea
(Doğanay 2015). It can also be used in giving information, knowledge, and training
(Puri 2006). The steps to be taken into consideration by teachers in applying the
demonstration technique are explained below (Puri 2006; Aykaç 2014; Partin
2009):
• Adequate preparation is the key to the effective demonstration. Plan all the
activities relating to a demonstration in great detail.
• Ensure that all the equipment, illustrations, and other relevant materials are
procured in time and kept ready before the demonstration begins.
• Break down the demonstration into suitable steps so that the students can easily
understand it. Assure that all students can clearly see the demonstration.
• Choose to demonstrate to a task or skill at regular speed and then repeat the
demonstration in slow speed, stopping to discuss each step in more detail so that
all the students may grasp the details.
• Explain why you are doing each step as you proceed. You might occasionally
ask students questions at crucial points in the demonstration.
• Wherever possible, involve students in the demonstration.
• Ascertain after every step whether the students have grasped the meaning,
contents, and explanation. Repeat if they have not followed it.
• Give suitable verbal explanations for heightening the interest of the students.
• Encourage students to analyze, record and tabulate the results of their
observation.
• In most, instances it is best to keep demonstration short, probably no longer than
five minutes.
Tip 12:
If the teacher demonstrates an experiment, it can be useful that the teacher
conducting the experiment before demonstrating it to students. At the end of
the demonstration or during the demonstration, teacher can ask questions

about the experiment to control if it is understood or not.
Although this technique is often used for developing students’ psychomotor

skills, it can also be used in subjects about human affairs, social events, art edu-
cation and science education. As it can be applied with demonstration-performance
method in the class or out of the class; it can also be used with lecture and
discussion methods by making presentations or watching the film via TV, com-
puter, cd and cinevision devices (Aykaç 2014). In this context, audio-visual aids or
devices or technological media or learning devices are added devices that help the
teacher to clarify, establish, co-relate and coordinate accurate concepts, interpre-
tations, and appreciations and enable him to make learning more concrete, effective,
interesting, inspirational, meaningful and vivid (Puri 2006). The advantages of this
technique are explained below (Saban 2002; Aykaç 2014; Doğanay 2015):
• It provides learning by seeing and observing.
• It helps to make learning permanent.
• It increases students’ interests and motivation.
• It provides active learning.
• It helps in achieving psychomotor objectives. Any simple or complex skill
becomes easy to understand.
• It is also used in teaching ideas, principles or facts which are difficult to
understand verbally or by using concepts.
Although the demonstration technique has many advantages, it can be difficult to
apply it in some situations. With large numbers of students, for example, the time,
space and resources required to enable all of them to engage in hands-on activities
may not be available. Besides this, some students who can’t learn by observing may
not learn effectively and dislike using the demonstration technique.
196 G.F. Gündüz
Educational Field Trip: Beiersdorfer and Davis define a field trip as part of a
day, a day long, or a weekend long excursion; it can be a simple guided tour of an
area of interest, or it may include the conducting of an active research-oriented field
project (cited in Higgins et al. 2012). In the educational field trips, the main aim is
not only recreation and pleasure but also gain additional knowledge through direct
experiences. Aggarwal (2008) clears that educational field trips aim at enriching,
vitalizing and complementing content areas of the curriculum by means of
first-hand observation and direct experience outside the classroom. Such activities
are particularly suitable for primary and secondary education (Hofstein and
Rosenfeld 1996), particularly in science subjects and have also proved useful,
although are by no means limited to (Follo 1994), the teaching of social and natural
science disciplines at a tertiary level (Scarce 1997; cited in Higgins et al. 2012).
Another type of the educational field trips named as virtual field trips (VFTs) have
become popular as a means of learning and teaching during the last decade. They
are generally presented on the computer by means of the Internet or on CD-ROM
and generally take the form of a set of hot-linked web pages or a purpose-specific
computer aided learning package generated in Authorware or a similar package
(Qin and Hubble 2002). Virtual field trips allow students to visit remote places that
would normally be impossible to visit. Online tours avoid the hassle of arranging
chaperones and transportation, and they can be completed during normal class
hours (Partin 2009).
Well planned, organized field trips can be one of the most valuable ways of
helping students apply their textbook and classroom learning to the greater world
(Partin 2009). When planning and organizing a successful field trip, three important
stages should be included: the pre-trip stage of a field trip involves two major
components: administration and instruction. The second stage of a successful field
trip is the trip itself. It also has two components: the role of the student and the role
of the teacher. The third and final stage of a successful field trip is the post-trip stage
which also consists of two components: debriefing and culminating activity (Shakil
et al. 2011). According to Partin (2009) the steps to be taken into consideration by
teachers while organizing field trips are as follows:
• Any class trip should have a meaningful purpose that is directly related to the
subject being taught and is explicitly communicated to the students. It is also
essential to communicate that purpose to any off-site presenters and any parents
or others serving as chaperones.
• Clarify your school’s procedures and requirements before you begin planning a
field trip. Will parental permission be required? If so, is there a special form you
must use? When and where must the permission forms be filed? Will chaperones
be required? How many? How will transportation be provided? Always notify
your principal in writing.
• If chaperones are accompanying you on the trip, be sure to communicate your
expectations of the role they should take. Are they only to monitor student
behaviors? Which behaviors are unacceptable? How should they handle rowdy
students?
• Strive to make the field trip an active learning experience. The more hands-on
the experience, the better. If it is a guided tour (for example, a factory or
battlefield), provide students (either individually or in cooperative groups)
specific tasks to accomplish during the visit.
• As much as possible, the field trip should be integrated into a sequence of
planned class activities. Before the trip, prepare the students with background
information about the field trip’s topic. The day after the visit, allow class time
for reflection and discussion of the experience.
• Try to arrange for parents to meet with you fifteen minutes before the group is to
leave so that you can share any last-minute details and coordinate efforts.
• Adequately prepare your students before the day of the trip. Clarify your
expectations for appropriate behavior and any learning assignments associated
with the trip. Are there special dress requirements? Will seats be assigned on the
bus? What should students do if they get separated from the group?
• If possible, give your planned trip a dry run. How long will it take to get there?
Try to meet any guides or presenters who will be leading your group. Will
eating arrangements need to be made en route or on-site? Make note of details,
such as locations of bathrooms, parking, and so on. Is the site fully accessible
for any students with disabilities? Determine precisely where and when you are
to arrive with your group. How will any admission fees be handled?
• Count noses before you leave the school and again when you meet to return
home.
• It is probably wise to take along a first-aid kit, tape, safety pins, needle and
thread, tissues, and coins or a cell phone for emergency phone calls. On a long
bus ride, carry a couple of bags for students who experience motion sickness.
Tip 13:
In educational field trips, it can be good to take along a digital camera to
take photos or videos. You can prepare a powerpoint presentation or a
school/class magazine, publish on your school Web site, or use in bulletin
board displays for motivating the students for the next trip.
Myers and Jones (2009) describe that educational field trips should be designed
around specific educational objectives. If a field trip not planned well in advance
will end in confusion and will be a waste of time and money. So field trip should be
planned as a cooperative activity involving full pupil participation under the tea-
cher’s supervision. When a field trip is planned well, it contributes to learning. In
the related literature, the advantages of field trip explained as follows (Shakil et al.
2011; Malawi Institute of Education 2004; Higgins et al. 2012):
• It allows students to have a real-world and first-hand experiences. It allows for
actual tactile experiences; students can see it, manipulate it or participate in it
physically.
198 G.F. Gündüz
• It provides an opportunity for the students to visiting a new place, meeting new
people and seeing and understanding the things.
• It is a way to bring the students closer together, it is very helpful for physical
fitness of students, and it is also a source of entertainment.
• It enables the teacher to make learning more concrete, effective, interesting,
inspirational, meaningful and vivid.
• It enables teachers to utilize other learning strategies such as cooperative
learning.
• It gives students the plenty of opportunities to make observations.
• It provides entertainment for students; learning and fun make a great
combination.
• It helps students to improve their cognitive and inquiry skills.
• It is also very helpful in developing the aesthetic sense and spiritual satisfaction
in the students.
• It is a great way to create a students interest in a subject. The things students see
and experience on field trips can increase their motivation for learning.
• It provides pupils with a variety of learning styles and thus helps them to learn
more effectively
The main disadvantages of field trips identified in the literature arise from the
methodological and logistical issues concerning the preparation, performance and
follow-up to the field trip (Higgins et al. 2012). The other limitations of this
technique are explained below (Malawi Institute of Education 2004; Higgins et al.
2012):
• It can be time-consuming to undertake a field trip.
• It requires a lot of arrangements and organisation.
• It requires parental consent sometimes before children can be taken out.
• Visits may be costly with regard to transportation and provision of meals.
• The school administration’s lack of support can make difficult organize a field
trip.
Tip 14:
Teacher should encourages student to use different learning resources during
their project. These resources can be field visits, interviews with adults or
experts, the internet, newspaper articles, books, lectures of invited teachers,
information furnished by firms, videos, and so on.
Project: It is an activity that is directly planned, controlled, executed and

evaluated by students in order to accomplish a specific goal (Garcia 1989). It
involves assigning a particular work to student or group of students to work on and
complete at his/her/their spare time and report back to the teacher as when
demanded (Sola and Ojo 2007). According to Kilpatrick, a project is a whole-
hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment.
In order to organize the project technique well, it is very important to know the
types of it. Kilpatrick has classified the project method in four types. The con-
struction project is used when learners have to construct some things related to
social life, e.g., creating a community model, making a toy, preparing an album,
putting up an aquarium, etc. The second types are artistic (enjoyment) project which
is generally allowed in the aesthetic fields of life, e.g., in music, drawing, painting
art and culture. The other type is problem-solving project which is given to solve
problems related to any life situation or related to any subject, e.g., presenting
riddles, class competitive review to prepare for an examination, answering jigsaw
puzzles on terms learned, etc. The last one is learning project which provides
students with opportunities to gain knowledge and to develop in them learning
skills, e.g., conducting a quiz bee on general information, tutorial session of the
mathematics club, criticizing a movie film (cited in Garcia 1989). Satbekova (2009;
cited in Zhylkybay et al. 2014) also classified the project types according to some
criteria. According to him, the types of project are grouped into the activity type as
researching, role-play, and applied, mono project, inter-subject; on the
subject-content character as mono project, inter-subject; on the relation ways as
direct relation; communication technology; on the compatibility character as direct,
indirect; on the linking character as regional, at the educational establishment, and
international; on the number of participants as individual, pair, group and at the
time of fulfillment as short time, mid time, long time. The project types are also
grouped as exploration, assessment, examination projects, presentation, mobilizing,
creative and expressive, experimental problem-solving, and conflict treatment
(Szallassy 2008). Whatever the project type is, the steps to be taken into consid-
eration in applying project technique are explained as follows (Aykaç 2014;
Szallassy 2008; Teach, Learn and Quality Project 2012; Partin 2009):
• At the beginning of a project, the teacher should build interest in the topic
through encouraging the students to share relevant personal stories of experience.
200 G.F. Gündüz
• As the students represent their current understanding of the topic; the teacher
assesses the students’ vocabulary, their individual interests, misconceptions or
gaps in current knowledge, and helps them formulate questions which they can
investigate.
• Students ought to collect information on the topic or problem in as many ways
and from as many sources as possible.
• As students learn more about the topic, they use many forms of representation to
illustrate what they have learned and to share new knowledge with their classmates.
• After students have collected information on a general topic, they are ready to
choose a precise target or task related to the topic. This is followed by the
distribution of the tasks to be accomplished, the schedule and the definition of
the key events. In this phase individual ideas can be developed, for original
thoughts and unique solutions are welcome.
• The teacher should help students when they encounter a problem and help them
to supply the required tools and devices for the project.
• The final phase of the work includes the assessment by teachers of what the
students have learned through the project.
Students should experience success during the project; we ought to appreciate
originality, the precision of the execution, the good decisions. The success of the
students increases their self-confidence, which is indispensable to the serious work
outside the community. Due to its advantages in learning, the project technique is one
of the most widely used techniques in education. Its advantages can be listed as
follows (Aykaç 2014; Teach, Learn and Quality Project 2012; Zhylkybay et al. 2014):
• It develops students’ self-study activities. Students are provided with various
opportunities by which they can satisfy their interests and desires.
• It develops the student’s organizational and research skills such as problem
solving, decision making, investigative skills, and reflection.
• It allows creative and critical thinking and emphasizes the ability to work well
with others.
• Students get the ample chances in which they can develop coordination among
their body and mind. Through this method, the teacher can lead a well-balanced
development of the students.
• It helps in promoting social interaction and co-operation among the students, as
they have to work in a group and have to interact with various persons for
gathering information.
• As students gain knowledge directly through their own efforts, thus, they acquire
permanent kind of information, which is retained by them for a long period.
Tip 15:
In educational games technique, many different types of instructional games
can be used according to students’ levels, their interests etc. Besides, different
gaming formats can be adapted to instructional games. For instance, games
based on television shows, board games, card games, computer games, video
games, crossword puzzles, and question and answer quizzes can be used
effectively in teaching-learning process.
Besides these advantages, this technique has some limitations as regards some
situations. In some project, large numbers of financial resources are required for
proper execution of a project. Besides this, applying this technique in a short time
can be difficult since it takes a lot of time to plan and execute a single project. Also,
it is not possible to design different projects for different topics, and it is also not
possible to cover all the topics or content in a single project. When using project
technique, students have to have previous knowledge about the scientific method of
research. If they haven’t got enough knowledge about it, they can’t research the
necessary information about their project topic effectively (Aykaç 2014).
Educational Games: Play-way approach to teaching is based on the philo-
sophical thought of Caldwell Cook. According to him, “good work is more often
the result of spontaneous effort and free interest rather than of compulsion and
forced application.” This means that teaching should characterize the elements of
“spontaneous effort” and “free interest”. Since these two characteristics are inherent
in play, this method of teaching is called play way (Puri 2006). However, the game
is a bit different from a play. According to Dempsey et al. (2002), a game is a set of
activities involving one or more players. It has goals, constraints, payoffs, and
consequences. It has rules, goals, problem-solving and competition, even if that
competition is with oneself. Garvey (1990) differentiates between play and games
in that games have become institutionalized; they have rules that can be expressed,
a clear begin and end time, and a typical sequence of moves.
Source:https://egitseloyun2011.files.word
press.com/2011/04/sudokube.jpg
A variety of gaming formats has been used as teaching techniques. The 2006
Horizon Report identified four types of games: simulations, virtual environments,
social and cooperative play, and alternative reality games (The New Media
202 G.F. Gündüz
Consortium and Educause Learning Initiative 2006). Simulations are scenarios that
replicate real life experiences in a guided and safe learning environment. Virtual
environments are online experiences located in virtual worlds, such as Second Life.
Social and cooperative games are games that involve competitive and cooperative
interaction with other players; examples include television-based games and board
games (Akl et al. 2008). An alternative reality game involves some type of gaming
element, off and online interactions, collaboration with problem-solving and online
discussions (Bellocchi 2012). Not all games are instructional games. An instruc-
tional game is specially designed or modified to meet instructional objectives. An
instructional game meets these objectives by including rules, constraints, and
activities that closely replicate the constraints of the real-world knowledge and
skills that are being taught. An instructional game must be incorporated into an
instructional program in a manner that ensures that learners understand the
instructional objectives of the game and receive detailed feedback about their
performance and how their game performance supported the instructional objec-
tives of the course (Hays 2010). According to Partin (2009) for the game to have
impact and reach the educational target, it can be good for the teachers to take into
consideration the following principles:
• It is best to avoid games that end with only one winner. Though the winner feels
good, the negative emotions that the losers experience make it an unpleasant
experience for most students.
• As with all learning activities, explain the purpose of the game or simulation.
There may be some emotional insights you expect to explore and may not want
to describe overtly ahead of time.
• Some form of scoring system should be included in the game’s structure. To
score well, one must be required to use the academic skills rather than luck.
• Ask the following questions in considering a game for use in your class:
• Is it fun?
• Is it challenging for your students?
• What is the purpose of the game?
• How will this game further my learning objectives?
• What skills does this game develop?
• Is this game age appropriate?
• Are skills, rather than luck, required to win?
• Are the rules relatively simple?
• Do they need modification?
• Does the game require team rather than individual competition?
• Will the game reward inappropriate behavior?
• How are scores determined and recorded?
• Consider redesigning an existing game to fit your classroom needs.
• One kind of game students love is the television quiz show. Adapt the format of
Jeopardy!, Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, Hollywood Squares, or other pop-
ular television programs to entice students into review, reinforcement, and
assessment of your classroom content. Such activities add variety, energy, and
enthusiasm to your curriculum.
• Read the group energy level. When the enthusiasm for the game begins to wane,
end the game and proceed to the debriefing phase.
In using the educational game, it is based on the principle that learning takes
place through doing and in an environment of freedom. It is based on the principle
that the method should be suited to the needs and interests of the students. Mubaslat
(2012) also emphasized that an educational game must be more than just a fun and
should give students a chance to learn, practice, or review specific language
material. According to researchers and educators, the advantages of using educa-
tional game are listed below (Noemi and Maximo 2014; Rodkroh et al. 2013;
Mubaslat 2012; Puri 2006; Morris 2009; Couse and Chen 2010):
• When students are having fun playing educational games in the classroom, their
motivation to complete the homework associated with the game is increased
substantially. The students willingly undertake to do a piece of work.
• It provides a great incentive to original creative work.
• It provides opportunities for the sublimation of various instincts of children. It
assures maximum freedom for the child with the result that he develops origi-
nality, the power of reasoning, imagination and insights.
• It helps in sublimating the emotions of students.
• It provides suitable outlets which help’ in overcoming shyness, moodiness,
timidity and sensitiveness.
• It provides opportunities to the students to learn to cooperate and to take the
lead.
• It encourages students to interact and communicate.
• It decreases students’ stress.
• It gives students the opportunity for real communication.
• Students often relate with characters and stories within educational games cre-
ating interest, engagement, and learning. By having this unique experience,
students increase their ability to retain the subject matter better.
• It provides an opportunity for experiential learning which can help students to
understand a concept in a different and fuller way than just by using the intellect.
204 G.F. Gündüz
Observation: Observation is monitoring and examining the indications or

conditions of objects, cases or facts within a plan through eyes or visual tools step
by step (Binbaşıoğlu 1983 cited in Yıldızlar 2013). The observation technique is
usually named as field trips since the students are often taken to the museum,
factory, library, forest, lakeside, etc. to observe. Besides this, the observations can
be done in classes. A bird, a model, a film, a painting, etc. are brought to class to
examine and to note observation results (Doğanay 2015). Students should be
equipped with knowledge and skills about the observation fact and how they are
using the observation technique. When this technique is used, the educational gains
should be in applying level at least (Aykaç 2014). According to Büyükkaragöz
(1997), the types of observation are grouped on the application form such as
observation during lesson, preparatory observation, and supplementary observation;
on the application place such as out of school and in-school activities; on classroom
size such as group, individual and whole class; on application period such as
periodical, continuous and discontinuous. Doğanay (2015) explained the applica-
tion steps of the observation technique as follows:
• Observation should have an educational purpose and it is planned well and in
detail. It can be useful that teachers do a previous research about the observation
and also make an observation before having students to do it.
• Students should know the important stages of the observation during the
observation.
• The observation plan should contain the observation date, observation duration,
observation place, the goal of the observation and what will be observed during
the observation. Otherwise, it can be an ordinary observation and time wasting.
• At the end of the observation, an assessment should be done by teachers about
what the students have learned and observed through the observation. In this
assessment stage, the notes were taken during the observation, the materials
collected by students, the photos and films taken and the audios recorded should
be evaluated in detail.
As we can see in all the techniques, there are some advantages and limitation of
using the observation technique, too. The researchers and educators explain the
advantages of this technique as follow (Doğanay 2015; Yıldızlar 2013; Aykaç

2014):
• It allows students to have first-hand experiences.
• It motivates students to learn since it is an enjoyable activity.
• It provides opportunities to the student to learn through experiences.
• It makes students gain the scientific research skills.
• It provides learning by using a lot of sense organs.
Besides advantages of observation, there are some limitations of it. The appli-
cation of this technique can take a long time, and it can cost much if the observation
is made on a field trip. The field trips done out of the school also lays legal duties on
teachers. However, in the observations made in class, the teacher can have difficulty
in classroom management. In addition to these, it can be difficult to make an
effective observation if students have not enough prior knowledge about objects and
facts being observed and if they don’t know how to make an observation. Lastly, if
it isn’t planned well and the educational purpose of the observation isn’t determined
in detail, it can be time wasting (Yıldızlar 2013).
4.3.5 Techniques Used in Discussion Method
A discussion is a method used for directing students to think about a subject or a

question, explaining the incoherent points of the subject and reinforcing the
information being learned (Aykaç 2014). Class discussion is a useful strategy for
stimulating critical thinking and encouraging students to reexamine their attitudes.
For a discussion to be effective, students must possess some general information
about the topic under consideration, unless you are using the discussion as an
advance organizer to introduce a new topic (Partin 2009). In literature, there are
many different classifications about discussion method. While Wilen (1990) and
Ments (1990) classified discussion methods as reflective discussion and guided
discussion; Hyman and Whithford (1990) classified them as questioning-oriented,
problem-solving-oriented, explaining-oriented, estimation and decision-making
oriented. Besides, Oğuzkan (1970) grouped discussion methods as specific group
discussions and general group discussions. Depending on the different classifica-
tions of discussion methods, the discussion techniques used with different discus-
sion methods are also varied. In this book, the discussion techniques which can be
used with different discussion methods are classified as small group discussion
techniques, large group discussion techniques, and online discussion techniques.
206 G.F. Gündüz
4.3.5.1 Small Group Discussion Techniques
Although a large body of research concludes that discussions are beneficial for
learning, some classroom environments make meaningful discussions difficult, and
sometimes students are hesitant to participate in class. Nicol and Boyle (2003) point
to the difficulties professors face when they attempt to use ‘‘methods centered on
dialogue and discussion’’ as class size increases. One way to overcome this limi-
tation is to create small groups to generate cooperative team learning (see, e.g.,
Occhipinti 2003; cited in Pollock et al. 2011). Small group discussion techniques
are used when the classroom size is big enough to be divided into small groups. It
can be defined as an instructional practice in which a small group of students
discusses a subject (Ocak 2015). EPPI Review Group for Science (2004) defined
the characteristics of the small-group discussions as follows:
• They involve groups of two to six students.
• They have a specific stimulus (for example, a newspaper article, video clip,
prepared curriculum materials).
• They involve a substantive discussion task of at least two minutes.
• They have a specific purpose (for example, individual sense-making, leading to
an oral presentation or a written product).
Small group discussions can take place in any sized class, even in large lecture
halls or Massive Online Open Courses (MOOCs). Typically, small groups range
from two to four students in size but can be as large as eight, and discussions can
vary from under five minutes to an entire class meeting. Group size and discussion
duration change depending on the goals for the activity and the time available
(Barkley et al. 2014; Pollock et al. 2011). According to Brown and Atkins (2002)
and Kelly and Stafford (1993), seating arrangements are an important and effective
component of successful small group work.
The seating arrangement ‘A’ showed in Fig. 4.1, is likely to be tutor dominated
with most interactions tutor the first two rows and least from the front and back
corners (Brown and Atkins 2002). Direct communication between group members
is far less likely to occur (Kelly and Stafford 1993). The seating arrangement ‘B’
showed in Fig. 4.2, increases the probability of subgroups interacting and each
subgroup interacting with the tutor but not necessarily with other subgroups.
Fig. 4.1 Seating

arrangement “A”
Fig. 4.2 Seating

arrangement “B”
Fig. 4.3 Seating

arrangement “C”
Fig. 4.4 Seating

arrangement “D”
The seating arrangement ‘C’ showed in Fig. 4.3, increases the probability of
students talking to each other as well as the tutor (Brown and Atkins 2002). To
encourage participation and communicate with everyone else, with no seats having
special status (Kelly and Stafford 1993). It is increased further if the tutor varies the
seating pattern each session (Brown and Atkins 2002). When students are arranged
in a semi-circle (the seating arrangement D showed in Fig. 4.4) it also promotes talk
among group members. The ways in which students are positioned in relation to
each other also has an impact on how the group functions. For example, if there is a
large distance between the participants, or they cannot see each other’s faces, or if
the seats are uncomfortably cluttered and close together, it will be much more
difficult for them to communicate with each other (Kelly and Stafford 1993).
208 G.F. Gündüz
In related literature, it can be seen that researchers and educators stated many
advantages of using small group discussion. Some of these advantages are related to
the skills that students are equipped with after using small group discussion, and
some of them are over the whole-class discussion. These advantages are listed
below (Schwartz 2016; Surgenor 2010; Pollock et al. 2011; Barkley et al. 2014):
• It develops students’ interpersonal skills.
• It develops students’ listening skills.
• It develops students’ verbal communication skills. In small groups, facilitators
talk less, and students talk more than in lectures.
• It develops students’ analytical skills.
• It encourages student reflection.
• It improves students’ problem-solving abilities.
• Small groups, as opposed to large classes, are more easily student-centered.
• Compared to whole-class discussions, small group discussions were more
conducive to critical thinking and higher-order learning.
• Compared to whole-class discussions, small group discussions fostered more
participation and an equal participation for students of different backgrounds.
• Compared to whole-class discussions, small group discussions generated higher
student reviews regarding engagement.
• The quality of communication is higher in smaller face-to-face groups compared
to larger ones.
• The small group is a more personal situation; it provides opportunities for
interaction between tutor or lecturer and students and among students. Such
interaction can foster active learning and learning at a high conceptual level, and
can help students to achieve a sense of independence and responsibility for their
own learning.
Tip 16:
According to Aronson and Goody (1980) jigsaw is a well established method
for encouraging group sharing and learning of specific content. This tech-
nique can be used as an instructional activity across several days and is best
to use when there is a large amount of content to teach (cited in Marhamah
and Mulyadi 2013).
Quoting McInnis Zhang (cited in Schwartz 2016) summarizes the principles of

effective small group teaching. These are clearing learning goals, active participa-
tion of students, providing an accepting, non-threatening group climate, encour-
aging cooperative rather than competitive process, providing equal distribution of
leadership functions, enjoyable group experience evaluating of discussion and
learning the process, enabling students to attend regularly and students coming
prepared. One way of doing effective small group discussion is enriching students’
engagement in learning by using different small group discussion techniques. In the
related literature, small group discussion techniques are jigsaw, buzz groups
(Philips 66, Clark’s 22, Huddle), fishbowl, think-pair-share, snowball, three step
interview, talk around circle of voices, chalk talk, and socratic method. The basic
characteristics and the usage of the commonly used techniques are explained below:
Jigsaw: It is a cooperative learning technique that requires everyone’s cooper-
ative effort to produce the final product. Just as in a jigsaw puzzle, each piece—each
student’s part—is essential for the production and full understanding of the final
product (Mengduo and Xiaoling 2010). The jigsaw technique, which was intro-
duced by Aranson et al. (1978) to improve peer cooperation and create team sol-
idarity among students through the division of tasks (Sharan 1980), involves each
student in a group to assume learning responsibility (cited in Şengül and Katrancı
2014). According to Mengduo and Xiaoling (2010), the jigsaw classroom reduces
students’ reluctance and anxiety to participate in the classroom activities while
increasing self-esteem and self-confidence. When using the jigsaw technique in the
classroom, some steps should be followed by teachers. These steps are explained
below (The Muskingum Area Technical College Newsletter, September 14, 1994;
cited in Marhamah and Mulyadi 2013).
• Define the group project on which the class will be working.
• Randomly break the class into groups of 4–5 students each, depending on the
size of the class, and assign a number (1 to 4–5) to students in each group.
• Assign each student/number a topic in which he/she will become an expert.
• The topics could be related facets of a general content theme.
• Rearrange the students into expert groups based on their assigned numbers and
topics.
• Provide the experts with the materials and resources necessary to learn about
their topics.
• The experts should be given the opportunity to obtain knowledge through
reading, research, and discussion.
• Reassemble the original groups.
• Experts then teach what they have learned to the rest of the group.
• Take turns until all experts have presented their new material.
• Groups present results to the entire class or they may participate in some
assessment activity.
Philips 66: This technique is also known as a type of buzz groups. Buzz groups
are formed by dividing large groups into small discussion groups of 2–15 people
who meet simultaneously for a specified time to discuss a specific question,
problem or issue (Brewer 1997). The Philips 66 technique have taken its name from
discussing a topic during six minutes by a group of six students (Doğanay 2015). It
has been used for the evaluation of the contents learned in the guided studies,
allowing to investigate about the general information level acquired by the students
on these topics. Also, using this technique is possible to see if the students have
understood the explanation, serving as a review of the main ideas of each one of the
studied network protocols (Ors and Capella 2009). It allows student’s ideas to be
expressed comfortably and stimulates students to take responsibility to understand
210 G.F. Gündüz
the issue and to find solutions. On the other hand, few minutes for each phase given
encourage students to think quickly (Doğanay 2015). In related literature, the
application steps of the Philips 66 technique are explained as follows (Doğanay
2015; Ors and Capella 2009):
• The class is broken into groups of 6 students each, depending on the students’
interests, desires or randomly.
• The rules of groups are determined.
• Each group chooses a coordinator. The coordinator functions are to control the
work time and the total participation of the members.
• Each group chooses a secretary. The secretary functions are to write the con-
clusions with the others members help and to read them to the other groups.
• The teacher states a question about the homework, the reading, or any other
pertinent subject or an upcoming event.
• Later on, the problem to treat is defined, once exposed a minute for individual
reflection it is left. Next, all and each one of the group members should expose
their proposals. The six students have six minutes to discuss/clarify the topic.
• Three minutes are given to summarize the conclusions, and finally, each group
proceeds to its reading.
• To finish the activity, the teachers outlines a general summary in the blackboard
highlighting the important points.
Tip 17:
In the fishbowl technique, any person can enter into the group by sitting in
the “empty chair”. The purpose of sitting in the “empty chair” is to identify
those things that are not being addressed within the fishbowl that are critical
to the full discussion.
Source:https://media.licdn.com/mpr/mpr/p/7/005/
0b0/05f/2550cee.jpg
Fishbowl: A fishbowl consists of a small group that discusses an issue while

seated in the center of the classroom, with the rest of the class seated in a larger
circle around the fishbowl. This technique is most effective for topics in which
students have a lot of interest, and some disagreement exists (Partin 2009).
Fishbowl activities force students to listen actively to the experiences and per-
spectives of a specific group of them. While the students in the “fishbowl” are
thinking through and talking about their ideas, the other students are mentally
comparing their ideas to what they hear in the fishbowl. It also provides the
interaction between students by using question-answer reciprocally. It helps stu-
dents think about their own ideas, strive to put them together in a coherent way, and
compare their thinking with that of ideas of other students (Aykaç 2014). Although
there are different application types of this technique in related literature, all of them
are based on observing/listening to the student or a group of students who are in the
fishbowl. When using the fishbowl technique, the steps to be taken into consider-
ation are explained below (Sanchez 2010):
• A circle of chairs (6–14) is placed in the middle of the room. It is the inner,
small circle and named as the “fishbowl”.
• The inner circle surrounded by all other chairs to form concentric circles. It is
the large outer circle.
• Two additional chairs are included in the center circle (fishbowl)—an “empty
chair” and a facilitator chair.
• A recorder and a facilitator are identified. The facilitator’s role is to convene the
fishbowl, to establish the roles and rules of engagement, to lead and manage the
conversation through a series of questions directed at deepening insight and
building new strategies and approaches and to summarize the work of the group
and close the process.
• The facilitator invites students to self-select into the fishbowl by inviting those
people to the center who feel that they have significant insights regarding the
selected conversation topic. These people from the inside fishbowl.
• All other people surrounding the inner fishbowl will have an opportunity to
contribute by using the “empty chair”.
• The facilitator leads the conversation through a series of areas of focus by asking
directed questions. The objective is to keep the energy flowing in the fishbowl
and the group as a whole.
• It is also essential that the facilitator and recorder pre-arrange the areas to be
charted and that the recorder visually captures key responses by category. They
can enlist a couple of students to assist with the task if necessary.
When using the technique, different applications can be practiced. One option is
to have the fishbowl participants and observers reverse roles and continue the
discussion. Another option is to break the class into several smaller discussion
groups to examine a controversial topic. Each group then selects a representative to
participate in the fishbowl and express his or her group’s concerns on the issue.
After fifteen or twenty minutes of discussion, the representatives might return to
212 G.F. Gündüz
their groups for feedback and new “ammunition” to share once they rejoin the
fishbowl (Partin 2009).
Think-pair-share: It is a technique designed to provide students to think a given
topic by enabling them to formulate individual ideas and share these ideas with
another student (Usman 2015). According to Lyman (1987), there are many
advantages to using Think-Pair-Share technique. It is quick and does not take much
preparation time. It makes classroom discussions more productive, as students have
already had an opportunity to think about their ideas before sharing with the whole
class. Students have the opportunity to learn higher-level thinking skills from their
peers and gain self-confidence when reporting ideas to the whole class and the
“pair” step ensures that no student is left out of the discussion.
It consists of three stages. The first stage is “think” stage. In this stage, each
student thinks about given task. They will be given time to jot down their own ideas
or response before discussing it with their pair. Then, the response should be
submitted to the supervisor/teacher before continue working with their pair on the
second stage. The second one is “Pair” stage. In this stage, the learners need to form
pairs. The supervisor/teacher need to cue students to share their response with their
partner. Each pair of students will then discuss their ideas about the task, and their
previous ideas. According to their discussion, each pair will conclude and produce
the final answer. Then they need to move to the next stage. In the “Share” stage, the
learners pair to share their results with the rest of the class. Here, the large dis-
cussion will happen, where each pair will facilitate class discussion in order to find
similarities or differences towards the response or opinions from various pairs
(Optiz and Bownman 2008; Tigbe and Lyman 1988; cited in Tint and Nyunt 2015).
4.3.5.2 Large Group Discussion Techniques
Surgenor (2010) stated that there is no magical number that defines a group as a
small group or a big group. A lecturer used to take 400 in a lecture would define 50
as a small group. In a discussion, where participation is assessed some students may
not speak up in a group that begins to get bigger than 10 participants and also tutors
would find it hard to assess participation by individual students in groups with
numbers greater than this. Depending on this explanation made by Surgenor (2010)
and on the related literature, the big group can be defined as a group which consists
of more than ten participants/students. Two opposite tendencies exist with regard to
the number of people in a group. One of these tendencies is the larger the group, the
greater is the pool of talent and experience available for solving problems or sharing
the effort. On the other hand, as the size increases, fewer members have the chance
to participate, and indeed the differences in relative participation increase to the
point where one or two members begin to dominate. It thus becomes more likely
that reticent members will fail to contribute, though they may well enjoy the relative
anonymity a large group affords them (Oxford Brookes University 2011). In small
groups of three or four people is quite manageable in large classes in virtually any
setting, and it doesn’t need to take a lot of time if the reason for and task of the
group are well-conceived, and the instructions are well-communicated (Tait 2016).
Although comparing with small group discussions, it is difficult to interact a large
number of people meaningfully within a limited time (during the lesson duration),
the large group discussions techniques can be used more effectively than the small
ones in some situations and conditions. For instance, the aims of the lesson, the
skills students wanted to be equipped with, the content of the subject and the
knowledge and education level of the students can be effective in deciding on the
appropriate discussion technique: small or large group discussion techniques. Tait
(2016) makes suggestions to handle the complexities of interaction in large groups
as follows:
• Have a couple of people who can assist you. These can be other faculty
members, event organizers, colleagues, or even participants if necessary. The
larger the class, the more assistance you need.
• Give clear instruction is vital for large groups in particular. Consider including
these types of information in your instructions; topic, purpose of exercise (ex-
cept in the few instances when you don’t want this announced up front), task(s)
to be accomplished, amount of time to be used, reinforce the goal of everyone
contributing and what to do if they finish the task early, etc.
• Properly design and use audio-visuals. Lettering on any visual aids needs to be
large enough to be read in the most distant part of the room. Check the sound
and lighting in the room—make sure you and an assistant know how to run the
controls. Request a lavaliere microphone, etc.
• Set up the room for optimal participation. If you’re not sure how many people
will be attending, and you don’t want participants sparsely scattered around the
room or clustered at the back, have enough seats for the highest number
anticipated but put “Reserved” signs on the tables at the back of the room.
• Plan how to reconvene on time. If you’re conducting a session that has a break
in it, ask organizers how participants will be informed that it’s time to return to
class. Other techniques for getting people back from a break include: Have some
kind of reward for being back on time, such as cartoons showing at the exact
time they’re supposed to be in their seats; synchronize watches, and don’t just
say how long the break is, also say the exact time the break will end; underline
the time to be back with your voice and write it large on the board or a chart.
• Wrap up debriefing activities and discussions. Have a plan in mind for what to
do if you feel there are more ideas/questions than can be handled during the
session. For instance: Let the learners know that you are collecting and will
compile and distribute lists from groups; offer to answer questions following the
presentation; have a chart near the entrance to the room where ideas and
questions can be written to be addressed in later sessions; etc.
• Hone your facilitation skills. When you plan activities and discussions, analyze
how you think they will turn out and consider what you will do if the actual
results differ from your expectations. Use not only your words but also your
nonverbal behaviors to facilitate interaction. It also can be very effective to ask
214 G.F. Gündüz
the class to think about a question or issue for a minute or two and jot down their
ideas about it before you ask for their responses.
Although lecturing is often seen as the main method for enabling large groups to
learn effectively, large group discussions techniques can provide more active
engagement of students to learning activity if they are used accurately. The most
commonly used large group discussion techniques named as talking ring, debate,
collegium and panel discussion are explained below:
Talking ring: When using this technique, the students sit in a semi-circle in the
classroom (Ocak 2015). In this technique, students put themselves into someone
else’s place and think like them. In other words, this technique is aimed the
empathetic thinking. Drama, film, biography or tale present to students. Then,
students try to empathize with that person/people found in these cases (Sönmez
2008). Doğanay (2015) stated the application procedure of this technique to
teachers as follows:
• Write the application rules of the technique on the blackboard.
• Take students’ opinions after presenting a drama, film, biography, tale or con-
cept, principle or a word related to the subject.
• A student who hold an object such as a pencil, ball, handkerchief or eraser
expresses their thoughts.
• If a student doesn’t want to talk then respect to him/her, but if a student is shy
and can’t express his/her thought even if he/she has some in mind, then
encourage him/her to talk.
• When the answers of students are completed, express your ideas and summarize
the subject.
Debate: It is defined as a verbal action or a form of formal argument on a topic
or issue about which two groups or teams of people do not agree (Duansamosorn
2001; cited in Somjai and Jansem 2015). This technique can be especially used in
science and technology education, life sciences and social studies effectively. In
debate technique, it is aimed that students will be able to produce creative and
original ideas, to convince others of their ideas, to support their ideas with samples
and to defend an idea rather than deciding a matter of debate as wrong or right
(Aykaç 2014). Debate increases motivation has the position opposite to enhance
research skills, promotes critical thinking, and develop communication proficiency.
Debates expose the class to a focused, in-depth, multiple-perspective analysis of
issues (Barkley et al. 2014). It encourages students to learn course content better,
since they are engaged in the course content actively, broadly, deeply and per-
sonally. It also trains them to assess the data they get on a daily basis. In addition,
debate provides a valuable opportunity promoting positive self-acceptance, which
means students’ to develop learners’ speaking ability (Zare and Othman 2013). In
the learning process debate also has limitations. It can only be used for specific
subjects consisting of arguments, agreements, and disagreements. It takes a long
time to prepare. Students should prepare their arguments to make it easier for them
to attack the opponent’s opinion. It requires the students to be controlled in
defending their argument. Many students can’t control their emotion when they
defend their argument (Malley and Pierce 2010; cited in Somjai and Jansem 2015).
Barkley et al. (2014) proposes the procedure of conducting a critical debate. It is
explained below:
• Propose the motion and ask students to identify which side of the proposition
they most support. They can indicate a preference by raising their hands or by
writing their names and choice on a sign-up sheet or piece of paper.
• Explain to students that they will argue the side that is contrary to their own
beliefs, stressing the benefits of arguing against their personal views (e.g., it
helps them to clarify their own ideas and to deepen their understanding of the
issue).
• Divide students into four to six member teams, with half the teams assigned to
one side of the argument and the other half assigned to the opposing argument.
Try to get as many students as possible arguing for the side they disagree with,
realizing that especially with complex issues students will likely not divide
evenly. A large group of students who don’t know or who gravitate toward a
middle position will provide a fair amount of flexibility during group formation.
• Explain ground rules and give students time to assign roles and organize how
they will prepare for and conduct the debate.
• Give students time to prepare their arguments (e.g., fifteen to thirty minutes).
• Pair teams are representing opposing sides.
• Announce and allow time to present arguments (e.g., five minutes each side, ten
minutes total).
• Give teams time to prepare rebuttals (e.g., ten minutes). Announce and allow
time to present rebuttals (e.g., five minutes each side, ten minutes total).
• Hold a whole-class discussion to summarize the important issues and to give
students the opportunity to discuss the experience of arguing opinions they do
not hold.
Panel Discussion: It is defined as a technique in which a small group discusses

an issue in front of the audiences in an informal way (Helvacıoğlu 1994 cited in
Yıldızlar 2013). The aim of the panel discussion is presenting scientific knowledge
216 G.F. Gündüz
and comprehensive information about an issue to audiences rather than defending

or confuting an idea (İşman and Eskicumalı 2001).
A panel consists of four types of persons. It means four roles are played in
organizing a panel discussion. These are; instructor, moderator, panelist and
audience. In the panel discussion, most important role is of instructor. It is the
responsibility of the instructor, how, where and when panel discussion will be
organized. He prepares the schedule of panel discussion (Puri 2006). In the dis-
cussion, the moderator has to do the significant job. The moderator describes the
matter of debate to participants. He has to keep the discussion on the theme and
encourage the interaction among the members. He asks the pre-determined ques-
tions to panelist and wants them to express their opinions. The other panelists can
also express their opinions after this panelist. At the end of the panelists’ speeches,
the moderator synthesises the different panelists’ opinions and presents them to
audiences. If there is enough time, he asks for audiences if they have any more
questions to panelists. At the end of the panel, the moderator summarizes the
discussion, emphasizes the key aspects and presents his point of view. He expresses
thanks to panelists and audience (Ocak 2015). There are four to ten panelists in the
discussion. The members of the panel sit in a semi-circle before the audience. The
moderator sits in the middle of the panelists. The panelists should know the matter
of the debate and make preparations before the panel. After the panel discussion,
audiences are allowed to put the question and seek clarification. They can present
their point of view and their experiences regarding the theme or problem. The
panelists attempt to answer the question. The panelists can be called from out of the
class or can be chosen from the class. If the panelists are chosen from the class, the
volunteer students should be chosen firstly. A president should be selected before
beginning to the panel. The questions are prepared by the panel. Two or three
panelists are sufficient. The other students in the classroom listen to the students
who are panelists, take notes and prepare questions to panelists. In-class applica-
tions, the students who are audiences engages to the discussion and express their
opinions on the condition of taking a little time. Panelists should present their
subject in 5–8 min and come up with a solution at the end of their speech (Ocak
2015).
Collegium: In the collegium technique, there are two-panel groups. The first
panel consists of source people who are the experts on the subject; the second one
consists of students who are also the audiences. Each panel group involves three or
four people. The students in the second-panel group should be interested in the
subject and make preliminary to the panel (Büyükkaragöz 1997).
When using the collegium technique, the steps to be taken into consideration are
explained below (Taşdemir 2010):
• Each of the panel members takes their position in front of the audiences.
• The panel group who represents the audiences presents the matter of the debate
and asks questions to another panel group which consists of the experts of the
subject.
• The source people express their opinions about the subject by answering the
questions.
• The moderator or leader of the panel encourages students to ask questions to
experts and to make a contribution to the panel. The audiences ask questions to
the both of the panel groups.
• At the end of the collegium, the leader summarizes the debate and expresses
thanks to panelists and audience.
4.3.5.3 Online Discussions
With today’s technologies, there are ways that students can discuss information
without having to face-to-face by using online discussion. According to Bates
(2015), there are some successful strategies and design principles to be taken into
consideration for developing a meaningful online discussion. These principles are
listed below:
• use appropriate technology (for example, software that allows for threaded
discussions);
• clear guidelines on student online behaviour, such as written codes of conduct
for participating in discussions, and ensuring that they are enforced;
• student orientation and preparation, including technology orientation and
explaining the purpose of discussion;
• clear goals for the discussions that are understood by the students, such as: ‘to
explore gender and class issues in selected novels’ or ‘to compare and evaluate
alternative methods of coding’;
• choice of appropriate topics, that complement and expand issues in the study
materials, and are relevant to answering assessment questions;
• set an appropriate ‘tone’ or requirements for discussion (for example, respectful
disagreement, evidence-based arguments);
• define clearly learner roles and expectations, such as ‘you should log in at least
once a week to each discussion topic and make at least one substantive con-
tribution to each topic each week’;
• monitor the participation of individual learners, and responding accordingly, by
providing the appropriate scaffolding or support, such as comments that help
students develop their thinking around the topics, referring them back to study
materials if necessary, or explaining issues when students seem to be confused
or misinformed;
• regular, ongoing instructor ‘presence’, such as monitoring the discussions to
prevent them getting off topic or too personal, and providing encouragement for
those that are making real contributions to the discussion, heading off those that
are trying to hog or dominate the discussions, and tracking those not partici-
pating, and helping them to participate;
• ensure strong articulation between discussion topics and assessment.
218 G.F. Gündüz
McNamara and Brown (2008) state using online discussions are promoting
collaborative learning and reflection. This is because students have time to consider
carefully their own and other student’s responses leading to deeper discussion and
also because the results of the discussion are available for revisiting and recon-
sidering in a way that cannot happen with more transient verbal conversation. It can
also directly support the development of a range of high-level intellectual skills,
such as critical thinking, analytical thinking, synthesis, and evaluation (Bates 2015).
The other mentioned benefit is that online discussions are student-centered and
minimises the role of the teacher (Bump 1990; Chun 1994; Sullivan and Pratt 1996;
Warschauer et al. 1996; cited in McLoughlin and Mynard). Therefore, it can
provide a non-intimidating environment where learners feel able to give opinions,
offer suggestions, and ask questions (AlvarezTorres 2001; cited in McLoughlin and
Mynard 2009). Bates (2015) also stated some limitations of online collaborative
learning and online discussions. According to him, it does not scale easily,
requiring highly knowledgeable and skilled instructors, and a limited number of
learners.
According to some researchers and educators, the tools used in online discus-
sions can also be named as the teaching techniques being used with online dis-
cussions. When selecting the tools for using online, the teacher has to decide
whether an activity works best synchronously or asynchronously. In the following
part, the asynchronous and synchronous online discussions and the teaching tech-
niques used with them are explained below shortly.
Source:http://www.teknofikir.com.tr/teknofikir_
blog /blog_img/8248db0aff78.jpeg
Asynchronous discussions: Asynchronous communication means that the

various people in the conversation do not have to be online at the same time. Two
components in the literature emerged as being particularly important for a suc-
cessful asynchronous discussion: the role of the instructor and achieving
deeper/higher learning. Instructors needed to find new ways to express emotion, or
passion for the subject matter when communicating ideas to the learners. The
instructor should spend his/her time preparing materials and the carefully thought
out discussion questions and topics that relate to learning objectives. The ultimate
goal of spending the time to develop an asynchronous discussion forum, and
manage it in the appropriate manner, is to create an online learning environment

that will achieve high levels of learning. Knowledge construction only occurs
because of careful planning: clear, well-defined, well-crafted questions and dis-
cussion topics. Without such planning and subsequent guidance, only lower levels
of cognitive engagement will occur (Andresen 2009). According to Berry (2008)
the best practices in using asynchronous discussions are listed below:
• Group size should be limited to between four and nine students.
• Assessment or grading of asynchronous discussion postings and replies is an
essential component.
• Instructors need to be judicious about how they interact and avoid dominating
the classroom.
• Rubrics should be used to evaluate asynchronous discussions.
• Faculty members and teachers need training and guidance on how to effectively
use asynchronous discussions.
Asynchronous teaching techniques are email, wikis, blogs, RSS feeds and other
social networking tools. E-mail provides one-to-one communication between student
and teacher. It can be possible to attach a file to e-mail (Altun 2005). Social networking
tools have become a popular way for educators to communicate with their students.
Social networking programs that are often incorporated include Facebook, Twitter,
Flickr, Youtube, Blogs, Wikis, Youstream, and more. Facebook was originally used by
college students but has expanded to include people of all ages who use it to connect
with friends and family. Instructors use Facebook to get to know and communicate
with their students, and students use it to know classmates better, communicate with
those in their group projects, and share details about project experiences. Twitter is
becoming more popular in education as students and instructors post tweets, messages
of 140 characters or less. They consider it a useful tool to communicate about
assignments, course changes, and new resources to investigate (Jeschofnig and
Jeschofnig 2011). Blogs are personal online journals that are regularly updated, often
daily. They typically offer information on a specific topic. The range of topics is vast,
with someone writing a blog on virtually any conceivable subject (Partin 2009).
A “wiki” is a place that allows you to build a definition or a series of explanations. It
can be thought a dictionary or an encyclopedia that everyone can add text (Altun 2005).
Synchronous Discussions: Synchronous communication means that the par-
ticipants are online at the same time. Hannum (2001) categorized the advantages of
the synchronous discussions into three groups: logistical, instructional and eco-
nomical. The greatest logistical advantage of synchronous discussions is flexible,
distribute delivery that allows tutors and students to participate from any geo-
graphical location at any time. The economic advantage is that synchronous dis-
cussions can eliminate the costs related to travel and time away from home. The
most distinctive instructional advantage is the ability of the learners to interact with
the tutor and each others using a variety of rich multimedia resources that could
effectively scaffold learning (cited in Bowler 2009).
220 G.F. Gündüz
>
Source:http://www.advancedetiquette.com/wp-
content/uploads/2013/04/VideoConf
Synchronous discussions teaching techniques are video conferencing, web

conferencing, instant messaging, chat and more (Burdick 2011; Hrastinski 2008).
Web-conferencing (i.e., Wimba™) or voice over Internet protocols (i.e., Skype ™)
includes video and audio technologies that allow participants to see and hear the
instructor as he or she delivers instruction live. In Wimba™ web-conferencing,
multiple participants can view and listen at the same time. Wimba™ and Skype™
also include synchronous text chat as an additional media for participants to
communicate with each other. A student types a message to the instructor or
another student and the recipient receives and reads the message instantaneously
(Jeschofnig and Jeschofnig 2011). Besides Skype, for text messages, one can use
IM (Instant Messaging) tools like Windows Live Messenger, Tencent QQ, Yahoo!
Messenger, Blauk, and AIM (AOL Instant Messenger). Chat rooms allow students
to communicate with their friends and teachers and share information via text. The
text message can be sent to general of the participants or a specific person in the
group (Hofmann 2004).
4.4 Conclusion
The qualification of the instruction process depends on planning, implementing and

evaluating the instruction effectively. The teachers who are one of the important
trivets of education have to ask themselves some important questions in this pro-
cess. One of these questions is “how can I teach my students at the highest level?”.
This question especially refers to use teaching strategies, methods, and techniques.
In this chapter, it is tried to give detailed information about teaching techniques.
The teaching technique is defined as an application form of a teaching method
(Alkan 1979). While choosing the appropriate teaching technique, the first and the
most important question to be asked should be how we release the intended aims
and how we teach the content of the lesson most effectively and permanently. It can
be said that there are a lot of factors affecting the selection of the suitable teaching
technique. One of the basic factors affecting the selection of the technique is the
teaching method that is used. Besides the factors affecting the selection of the
teaching techniques depends on the teaching methods, also there has been factors
affecting the selection of teaching techniques which are used with the same teaching
method. In this context, the factors affecting the selection of the teaching techniques
can be grouped according to the characteristics of learning goals and content, the
characteristics of teachers, the characteristics of students, the duration and the
characteristics of the physical learning environment.
In the literature, there have been a lot of classifications of teaching techniques
done by pedagogues depending upon different criterions. The teaching techniques
are mostly classified according to their implemented learning environment, class-
room size, learning skills and teaching methods used with them. The teaching
techniques according to a learning environment where they are implemented; are
grouped as in-class and out-of-class teaching techniques and according to class-
room size can be categorized as a group and individual teaching techniques. The
teaching techniques can also be classified according to learning abilities. Based on
the classifications in the literature, these learning abilities are defined as thinking,
problem-solving, discussion and information organizer skills in this book. In the
present study, the new classification formed by the author. While categorizing the
teaching techniques based on the teaching methods, the classifications in the related
literature were examined. Although some of the examined classifications were
made according to teaching methods, the teaching methods they took into con-
sideration in their classifications are different from each other. The teaching
methods used to classify teaching techniques in this present study have some
similarities with the classifications done by educators and researchers before, also it
has some differences from them. According to classification developed in this
present study, the teaching techniques are organized into five categories based on
teaching methods: lecture, dramatization, demonstration-performance, problem
solving and discussion. In the activities section of the chapter, the teaching tech-
niques are explained in detail according to this classification. The definitions of
techniques, the application of them, the pedagogical benefits and limits of each of
the techniques are clarified. Suggested activities based on the explained techniques
are also given.
Consequently, we can’t say that one teaching technique is better than the other.
When using a teaching technique, the teachers take into consideration the factors
affecting the selection of teaching techniques. Teachers should be open to new
ideas, to use new and different teaching techniques, to be equipped with knowledge
about these techniques and to develop themselves in using these techniques con-
tinually. Besides, it can be said that some teaching techniques are preferred to use
mostly rather than the others. The developments in science and technology require
individuals to learn by doing and experiencing, to realize self-directed learning, to
research, to solve the complicated problems, to discuss the ideas and issues, to use
thinking skills and to use technology effectively. In this respect, it can be said that
222 G.F. Gündüz
the teaching techniques enabling students to be active in learning, to use technology

and high orders thinking skills effectively are used commonly by teachers.
Glossary
Asynchronous Asynchronous communication means that the various

discussions people in the conversation do not have to be online at the
same time.
Brainstorming It is a creative problem solving technique available to assist
in the generation of new ideas or solutions surrounding a
given problem.
Case study It is a student centered, highly interactive pedagogy that
changes the classroom process into a collective search for
an analysis and/or solution to a specific problem based on a
“case” (Foran 2001).
Conference It is a meeting of individuals called together to engage in
discussion with the aim of accomplishing a limited within
restricted time (Puri 2006).
Debate It is defined as verbal action or a form of formal argument
on a topic or issue about which two groups or teams of
people do not agree (Duansamosorn 2001 cited in Somjai
and Jansem 2015).
Demonstration It is a technique used when teaching a skill or examining a
knowledge or an idea and providing an opportunity for
students to see the task modeled through a visual presen-
tation (Partin 2009; Doğanay 2015).
Educational field It is as “part of a day, a day long, or a weekend long
trip excursion; it can be a simple guided tour to an area of
interest, or it may include the conducting of an active
research oriented (inquiry type) field project” (Beiersdorfer
and Davis; cited in Higgins et al. 2012).
Educational game It is specially designed or modified to meet instructional
objectives. An educational game meets these objectives by
including rules, constraints, and activities that closely
replicate the constraints of the real-world knowledge and
skills that are being taught (Hays 2010).
Fishbone diagram It can be used to identify the potential (or actual) cause(s)
for a performance problem. Fishbone diagrams provide a
structure for a group’s discussion around the potential

causes of the problem.
Fishbowl A fishbowl consists of a small group that discusses an issue
while seated in the center of the classroom, with the rest of
the class seated in a larger circle around the fishbowl (Partin
2009).
Forum It is a technique which a small expert group inform audi-
ences and the audiences ask questions to experts during or
at the end of the presentation, The audiences comments to
ideas by expressing their thoughts (Ocak 2015).
Improvization It is an unscripted, unrehearsed, spontaneous set of actions
in response to minimal directions from a leader, usually
indicating statements of whom one is, where one is and
what one is doing there (Landy 1982).
Instructional It is as an approach which provides reaching the lesson’s
strategy goals and leading to use of methods, techniques, tactics and
equipments (Bilen 2002).
Jigsaw It is a cooperative learning technique that requires every-
one’s cooperative effort to produce the final product. Just as
in a jigsaw puzzle, each piece—each student’s part—is
essential for the production and full understanding of the
final product (Mengduo and Xiaoling 2010).
Mime It is a non-verbal representation of an idea or story through
gesture, bodily movement and expression (Doughill 1987).
Observation It is monitoring and examining the indications or conditions
of objects, cases or facts within a plan through eyes or
visual tools step by step (Binbaşıoğlu 1983 cited in
Yıldızlar 2013).
Panel Discussion It is defined as a technique in which a small group discuss
an issue in front of the audiences in an informal way
(Helvacıoğlu 1994 cited in Yıldızlar 2013).
Pantomime It is the use of gesture, body posture, and facial expression
to communicate ideas, feelings, and relationships with little
or no accompanying sounds or speech (Cottrell 1987).
Philips 66 This technique is also known as a type of buzz groups. The
Philips 66 technique have taken its name from discussing a
topic during six minutes by a group of six students
(Doğanay 2015).
224 G.F. Gündüz
Project It is an activity that is directly planned, controlled, executed

and evaluated by students in order to accomplish a specific
goal (Garcia 1989).
Puppetry The art of presenting an inanimate object in the form of a
living character is the art of puppetry (Child Resource
Center 1995).
Question and It is a technique that teacher ask some questions to students
Answer and realize teaching through criticising the answers
(Büyükkaragöz 1997).
Role play It is a special kind of case study, in which there is an
explicit situation established with students playing specific
roles, spontaneously saying and doing what they under-
stand their “character” would, in that situation (Nickerson
2007).
Seminar It involves generating a situation for group to have guided
interaction among themselves on a theme which is gener-
ally presented to the group by one or more members (Puri
2006).
Simulation It is a technique whereby an artificial or hypothetical
experience is created that engages the learner in an activity
that reflects real-life conditions but without the risk-taking
consequences of an actual situation (Bastable 1997).
Synchronous Synchronous communication means that the participants
Discussions are online at the same time.
Talking ring When using this technique, the students sit in a semi-circle
in the classroom (Ocak 2015).
Teaching method It is a learning way which puts teaching techniques,
learning content, learning equipments and resources into
service relevantly with each other to achieve the learning
goals (Clark and Starr 1968).
Teaching It is generally defined as an application form of a teaching
technique method (Alkan 1979).
The six practicing It is a practical, useful framework for creative thinking and
shoes making decisions. The different types and colours of the six
shoes describe differing styles of action to be take (De Bono
1991).
The six thinking It is based on using six different thinking aspects which are
hats objectivity, organization, subjective feelings, creativity,
positive and negative sides (Schawel and Billing 2011).
Think-pair-share It is a technique designed to provide students to think a

given topic by enabling them to formulate individual ideas
and share these ideas with another student (Usman 2015).
Workshop It is defined as assembled group who share a common
interest or problem; meet together to improve their indi-
vidual and skill of a subject through intensive study,
research, practice and discussion (Puri 2006).
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Chapter 5
Instructional Tactics
Demet Sever
Teaching is an art which is expressed in various ways by different educators. At the

beginning of the profession, teachers mostly prefer to use teaching strategies,
methods, techniques, and tactics which take part in the literature with a proof of
effectiveness. As the time passes by, they become more experienced and have their
own specific strategies and tactics, which they use to make instruction effective.
Before sharing detailed information about instructional tactics it is better to make
a distinction between instructional strategies and instructional tactics. “Strategies
are broader in scope. A variety of tactics can be used to implement a single strategy.
Presenting an example is a tactic, whereas using an inductive approach by pre-
senting examples followed by generality which governs them is a strategy” (Leshin
et al. 1992, p. 2).
In this chapter, detailed information will be provided about instructional tactics
within three sections: planning phase, presentation phase, and evaluation phase.
5.1 Planning Phase
Individuals have their own learning styles and strategies that vary across each
subject area. Therefore, as a teacher we should use a combination of instructional
methods according to learning characteristics of students, and complexity of subject
matter. This is one of the main ideas behind an effective instruction. However,
deciding on what to teach and how to teach is not that easy. Effective instruction
requires planning. This means that effective teachers should make decisions before
providing the instruction. Even experienced teachers spend time for planning lesson
D. Sever (&)
e-mail: dpala@anadolu.edu.tr

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_5
234 D. Sever
they have been taught several times. In this regard, there are four factors teachers
should take into consideration in planning a lesson:
1. Needs and the characteristics of the learner(s).
2. The nature of the subject matter.
3. Competencies of the teacher(s).
4. Characteristics of the learning environment.
Planning is not only something that facilitates the teacher’s instruction but also a
factor affecting learning in a positive way. By taking these factors into considera-
tion, teachers can plan appropriate lessons, which best match with the students,
subject matter, individual teaching skills, and learning environment.
5.1.1 Decide What to Teach
Deciding on what to teach seems very easy at first glance. The curriculum already
indicates what to teach. However, the curriculum content and objectives are too
broad for students to personalize them. Therefore, some tactics can be used in order
to make objectives more visible and functional for both students and teacher.
Tactic one: Inform Students about Learning Objectives
Tip 1: Provide advance organizers that draw a framework for the new
learning unit and establish a link between unknown and already known one.
Tip 2: While informing students about learning outcomes divide them into
achievable activity steps.
How does our brain know what to focus on? Dubelle (1986) stated that students
learn more, in less time, when they are informed about the objectives of the lesson
(Burden and Byrd 1999). It is a commonly accepted fact that students learn better
when they are aware of instructional goals. Moreover, they are more likely to attend
to the course and got more satisfaction and enjoyment from an activity that has a
specific goal. Since students make an effort to achieve, they have the right to know
what the lesson is for. Otherwise, students are not motivated to learn when they are
engaged in pointless activities (Good and Brophy 2003). If they got previous
knowledge about the forthcoming activities, they would have the chance to decide on
the usefulness of the topic and to learn the subject matter more effectively. Learning
and performance are fostered in the best way if the learners are engaged in learning
practices focusing on a specific instructional objective (Ambrose 2010). Therefore, at
the beginning of the lesson, the teacher(s) should clearly state the instructional
objectives which are translated and broken down into more specific learning
objectives indicating what is to be achieved. Then, s/he should establish a relation-
ship among course objectives, students’ prior knowledge, and with other disciplines.
5 Instructional Tactics 235
Tactic two: Personalize the Objectives
Tip 3: Let students construct their own learning goals.

Tip 4: To get family support make them aware of learning objectives.
Objectives give direction to learning only if they are narrowed down and
expanded enough by considering students’ characteristics and experiences.
Objectives might constrain students if they are too specific or students might get
lost in them if they are too general (Marzano et al. 2001). Some students in the
classroom may also think that “less is more”, whereas some others want to have a
deeper understanding of the subject. In respect to this variety among students, the
teacher has a critical role. S/he should state the objectives at a fairly general level;
then, allow students bring flexibility in further defining their own interests within
the topic. By this way, students will be able to construct their specific personal
learning objectives and handle them willingly.
A teacher can identify students’ learning goals via a “learning goals sheet” as
shown in Fig. 5.1.
This “learning goals sheet” helps the teacher determine students’ interests and
their prior knowledge related to the topic. By means of these findings, teachers will
be able to plan more effective teaching-learning processes and easily narrow down
the subject.
Tactic three: Relate Objectives to Daily Life
Tip 5: After giving some cues about use of the objectives supply some
example and non-example situations so that student could understand better.
The question of “what we are learning for?” has been the most common question
among students. Learners need to know the benefits and gains of the learning unit.
My Learning Goals
Learning goal(s) for this unit
Things that I know related to these goals
I also want to know about …
I want to know more about …
Fig. 5.1 Learning goals sheet

236 D. Sever
It does not need to be of immediate practical use, but it has to have a number of
gains such as aesthetic, artistic, intellectual or social gains (Glasser 1993). For
example, photosynthesis is a process used by living creatures which have chloro-
plast to produce energy. It is an ongoing process independent of human beings. It
has a vital importance for human beings in that “Photosynthesis maintains atmo-
spheric oxygen levels and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the
energy necessary for life on Earth” (Bryant and Frigaard 2006). It is safe to say that
as a human being, we all owe our lives to living creatures doing photosynthesis. If a
teacher points out the importance and value of learning such a subject matter,
students’ readiness within affective factors such as their anxiety, motivation, etc.
will increase in a considerable way. In addition, meaningful learning will be
facilitated, as the students need to integrate and organize information to understand
concepts rather than memorize them (Good and Brophy 2003). By all means,
learners will be willing to spend their time efficiently and make an effort for getting
meaningful and convenient information. In this respect, Ayers (2001) indicated that
“I believe that learning is powerful when information is integrated into experiences
and larger personal contexts. Discreet bits and pieces of information, random and
disconnected, are not strong building blocks toward knowledge.” Thus, to make a
meaningful, enthusiastic and everlasting learning environment, the teacher should
explain the use of the learning unit in daily or professional life.
Relating objectives to daily life have an infinite variety of formats. There may be
a statement that includes sample area of use for the learning unit and on the other
hand, there may be a visual stimulus such as a poster, equipment, a short docu-
mentary or sometimes a puzzle describing the area of use for the subject matter
(Allen 2002). Analogies and examples retrieved from students’ daily lives may also
be used to make a new material(s) more comprehensible and meaningful (Ambrose
et al. 2010).
Tactic four: Activate Prior Knowledge
If I had to reduce all of the educational psychology to just one principle, I would say this:
The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows.
Ascertain this and teach him accordingly. (Ausubel 1968, p. vi)
Tip 6: Let every student share their own experiences whether it is directly
related with the learning unit or not. By this way, students could realize
distinctive dimensions of it.
Tip 7: Check skills and knowledge those are needed for current content and
retaught if necessary.
Tip 8: Use mnemonics (key words, rhyming words, peg words, mental pic-
tures, etc.) to cue prior knowledge.
Ausubel (1968) gives great importance to prior knowledge for effective learning.
Since learning is a cumulative process, meaningful learning occurs when students
integrate new information into already existing knowledge. Ausubel (1968) is not
alone in emphasizing the central role of prior knowledge in the learning process. In
the relevant literature, it is seen that different scholars have argued the importance
of prior knowledge in learning (Alexander et al. 1994; Baldwin et al. 1985; Gurlitt
and Renkl 2008; Phye 1997; Tobias 1994). Before choosing the specific content,
instructional methods and techniques for a learning unit, it will be useful to find out
what students already know about the content (Burden and Byrd 1999).
While relating objectives to students’ prior knowledge, the teacher should take
into consideration how much relevant knowledge the students have available.
Relevance of prior knowledge to the new task will influence the effectiveness of
learning. That is, students’ prior knowledge does not always foster the learning
process; in some cases, it hinders learning (Ambrose et al. 2010). In the relevant
literature, it was pointed out “learners often do not activate relevant prior knowl-
edge spontaneously, have difficulties organizing related ‘pieces’ of information, and
hardly plan or engage in metacognitive monitoring of what they already know and
do not know (Gurlitt and Renkl 2008, p. 408).” As a result, students with lower
levels of knowledge may need additional support or a different instructional tech-
nique compared to the students with higher levels of knowledge. Thus, while
selecting prior knowledge activation technique, it is better to consider students’
initial level of knowledge.
There is a variety of ways for activating prior knowledge. Asking questions are
one way to allow students to recall prior knowledge required for the new content
(Pressley et al. 1992). Concept mapping is another way that requires learners to
perform specific activities, such as filling in nodes and labelling links. In this way,
learners not only remember prior knowledge but also see the connection among
basic concepts of learning units (Gurlitt and Renkl 2010). Mobilization and per-
spective taking are other two well-known techniques. In mobilization, learners are
required to recall everything they know about learning unit (Machiels-Bongaerts
et al. 1995) whereas in perspective taking; learners are asked to read a text from the
perspective assigned to them (Pichert and Anderson 1977). Wetzels et al. (2011)
found out that mobilization was a more effective technique for activating knowl-
edge when students had lower domain knowledge, and perspective taking was a
more effective technique when students had higher knowledge.
5.1.2 Decide How to Teach
The best way to decide how to teach is to teach (Algozzine et al. 1997)
After teaching many years, teachers find out the ways of effective teaching.
Teaching is an eminently practical activity, best learned in the exercise of it (Ayers
2001). Experienced teachers know how to teach in terms of instructional objectives,
238 D. Sever
students’ characteristics, and opportunities. As a result, they are able to make plans
that are more likely to motivate students to learn. Novice teachers, however, are
more likely to have a trial-and-error approach to find out the best ways to teach until
they develop knowledge and experience that will help them predict students’
responses about previously planned teaching activities.
Tactic one: Consider Objectives
Set of goals defined in curriculum reflects the content of the instruction. In this
regard, before deciding on how to teach the content, it is necessary to consider both
the scope and requirements of the objectives. “Does the objective belong to cog-
nitive, affective or psychomotor domains?” and “how extensively is the topic
covered?” Answers to these two questions will provide clues for decisions on how
to teach. For example, if objectives cover behavioral change(s) in affective or
psychomotor domains, using didactic instructional methods will not be meaningful.
Therefore, while selecting instructional strategies, methods, and techniques, course
objectives are one of the most important elements to take into consideration.
According to Hyman and Rosoff (1984), what is being taught has a significant
influence on deciding how to teach.
Tactic two: Identify Students’ Learning Styles
Tip 9: Provide learning activities that require effort from both sides of the
brain.
Tip 10: Since not all learning environment would care about learning styles
of the students, sometimes it is better to use a different approach than what
the student prefers.
Learning styles are individual preferences depending on the conditions of where,

when or how a student obtains and processes information (Heacox 2002). Educators
and researchers carried out a number of research studies to find out the role of the
learning styles in teaching and learning processes. Findings of those studies to a
large extent showed that students’ learning styles cannot be a sole basis for
designing instruction but are important building blocks in the design of effective
learning (Doyle and Rutherford 1984; Dunn and Dunn 1979; Ford and Chen 2001).
Guven (2004) stated that if a teacher is aware of students’ learning styles, s/he could
apply appropriate teaching methods and techniques for them. Learning styles
instruction does not mean teaching students course objectives at different levels by
considering their learning styles. That will be unreasonable with full of students in
the classroom during the lesson. On the other hand, when the instruction is planned
and supplemented with students’ characteristics, students became increasingly
motivated and achieved better academically (Dunn and Dunn 1979; Kazu 2009).
Learning styles have cognitive, affective, and psychological aspects changing
from one learner to another. Then, how can a teacher establish an effective
teaching-learning process at all? It is better to use a variety of instructional
approaches all together to address students’ learning styles and instructional pref-
erences as much as possible. Nevertheless, students’ learning styles should be
identified. A learning style identification inventory (as shown in Fig. 5.2) or just an
open-ended questionnaire may be used to get substantive clues about students’
learning styles.
Tactic three: Choose Instructional Methods and Materials
Tip 11: Use hands-on activities that directly involve students and let them
learn based on the experiences and the environment they are exposed to.
Once the instructional objectives, their scope, and depth of focus are specified,
choosing instructional methods and materials will almost be midway. When the
teacher becomes aware of students’ characteristics, the way will be completed.
Undoubtedly, there are some other variables to consider such as budgetary con-
straints, school philosophy, time, past practices of both teachers and students, etc.
There are various teaching methods based on the understanding of different
instructional approaches ranging from teacher-centered and more explicit methods
to student-centered and less explicit ones. While deciding on a particular teaching
method in a lesson, evaluate advantages and disadvantages of different methods
taking objectives of the lesson and learning characteristics of the students into
consideration. For instance, the skill-training process is unimaginable without
student-centered teaching methods. In other words, if objectives of the lesson
require students to acquire a psychomotor skill, it is necessary to place a
student-centered teaching method which enables all students to use this skill in the
instruction process. An effective teacher uses a variety of teaching methods and
techniques in a single lesson to fulfill requirements of the course objectives and to
meet students’ needs (Burden and Byrd 1999; Stronge et al. 2004).
Instructional materials are an indivisible part of effective learning. Namely,
instructional materials enhance, facilitate and make teaching/learning easy, lively
Learning Styles
I learn better when the teacher ...
I understand better when I ...
My learning is interrupted when my friend …
My learning is interrupted when my teacher …
I learn better when the class …
Fig. 5.2 Learning styles identification inventory-sample questions

240 D. Sever
and concrete. Instructional methods will be incomplete without including materials.

In this regard, research studies revealed that students who were taught by using
instructional materials regardless of gender, academic achievement is significantly
better than the students who were taught without these materials (Adebule and
Ayoola 2016; Awolaju 2016; Nwike and Catherine 2013). As an effective teacher,
it is a good policy to use as many teaching materials as possible, which are available
at school, or to individualize them to make teaching and to learn more real, pur-
poseful and meaningful.
Considering the variety of materials, infinite variety of learners and objectives,
choosing instructional materials can be very irresolute. Teague et al. (1982, pp. 19–
21) pointed out that the following principles be applied in choosing and using
instructional materials:
1. Instructional media should follow, not dictate learning objectives.
2. Instructors must be thoroughly familiar with the content of all media used in
instruction.
3. The instructional media must be appropriate to the teaching formats being used.
4. The instructor should select only instructional media which is consistent with
student capabilities and learning styles.
5. Instructional media should be chosen objectively rather than on the basis of the
one’s personal preference bias.
6. Instructional media should be chosen on the basis of their contribution to
learning outcomes rather than on the basis of availability or ease of use.
7. Instructors should recognize that the physical conditions surrounding the uti-
lization of instructional media affect the results obtained.
8. Instructional materials produced locally by instructors usually make a significant
contribution to learning.
9. No one medium is best for all purposes.
Learning is a process (not a product) which leads change in learners’ knowledge
occurring as a result of their experiences (Mayer 2002). We expect a change in
behaviors of learners during teaching-learning process in accordance with course
objectives via instructional methods and materials, which take learners’ attention.
Namely, it is necessary to know specifically what must be learned and what the
learning characteristics of the target group are in order to plan an effective learning
environment for the whole class.
5.2 Presentation Phase
It seems that planning stage has finished. What to teach and how to teach is already
known. Is that enough for providing an effective instruction? While presenting the
content of the lesson, you must also consider other components to make your
instruction effective.
As a teacher, you may be enthusiastic enough for your presentation, but do you
think that your students are enthusiastic as well? You are already an expert of the
task of the day, but do your students know what to do with it? At the beginning of
the presentation, you should capture your students’ attention and convince them to
manage a new task.
Another important dimension in the presentation phase is motivation. Some of
the educators believe that attention is the most important factor in learning while
some others believe that it is motivation having the most crucial role. They are both
equally important in order to start and maintain an effective learning process. The
teachers are aware of the fact that students learn better when they are motivated. As
a result, an effective teacher should know how to motivate students in order to
achieve instructional objectives.
5.2.1 Get and Maintain Students’ Attention
Attention is essential for learning even simple perceptual tasks. A lesson should not
start until the teacher gets all of the students’ attention and focus. Therefore, the
teacher should be ready to get and maintain the attention of all students despite the
potential obstacles. How could a teacher gain all students’ attention? What should a
teacher do to maintain student attention?
Jones and Jones (1998) designed an approach to secure the students’ attention
and reduce distractions which might occur at the beginning of the lesson as shown
below (Burden and Byrd 1999):
Select “cue” for getting students’ attention. Students sometimes need a con-
sistent cue to pay attention. These cues may be verbal cues such as “Let’s begin …,
are you ready to begin…?” or they may include nonverbal cues such as closing the
door, knocking the board. Doing nothing is another common nonverbal cue. This
tactic is especially useful when most of the students are dealing with something
irrelevant to task in the course and are making too much noise (Moore 2000). The
teacher just stands still and silent, waits for a while, the students soon get the
message.
Do not begin until everyone pays attention to the lesson. Before starting the
lesson, be sure that all students focus on you and what you are saying. If you start a
lesson without getting all students’ attention, you may lose time to explain and
repeat what you have said before. Moreover, this attitude may create a false
impression among students in that they will think that it is all right to talk while
others are talking.
Remove distraction. Some students have more sensitivity to things which get
their interest rather than learning materials. Noises coming from outside, materials
placed on the teacher’s table or too much light can distract students’ attention. In
such cases, the teacher should take appropriate actions.
242 D. Sever
According to Anderson (1984), attention consists of three phases which are

sequential in nature: alertness, selectivity, and concentration. In alertness phase,
teachers first need to establish a general level of arousal on their students. Secondly,
teachers need to direct students’ attention to specific materials relevant to learning
objectives. Lastly, during teaching-learning process, the teacher should encourage
students to put forth the mental effort to keep students on-task and help them reach
required learning outcomes. There is a link between the first two phases. Namely,
the pause between alertness and selectivity phases should be brief and long enough
for the students to focus on another stimulus. If the pause is too long, some students
will lose their attention towards the teacher (Good and Brophy 2003).
Some tactics to alert students at the beginning of the lesson have been presented
above. Hopefully, they are ready to listen to you. What shall we say or do to make
this situation long lasting? Here are some tactics to maintain students’ attention.
Tactic one: Ask Questions
Tip 12: Some students are inherently think and respond slowly than others.
Therefore, it is important to use wait time effectively.
Questions should not be higher-order ones so as not to make students give up at

the beginning of the lesson. The questions should be clear, purposeful, brief,
attractive and supply clues of the objectives of the lesson. Besides, the teacher
should give sufficient time to students to allow them to think about and respond to
questions. For instance, in a biology course, while covering carbon cycle, the
teacher may ask “what if insects become extinct on Earth?” After students are
provided with some opinions, the teacher should first appreciate students’ contri-
bution; then, s/he may carry on by saying: “Let’s see what will happen…” By
asking questions which have an impact on students’ way of thinking, teacher
attracts their attention and the lesson proceeds more easily and effectively (Harmin
1994). Also, questions can help to draw students’ attention from distractors, and to
motivate them to think about and participate in the lesson.
Tactic two: Use Instructional Materials
Show something interesting, new, unusual, vocal, colorful, and animated for
students. Namely, use something powerful that appeal to multiple senses. Let
students see, hear, feel smell or even taste. Different kinds of stimuli are more
powerful than common verbal stimulus. Transfer your experiment at the beginning
of the lesson and carry out the process in front of students. As the students watch,
say “Now keep what you saw in your mind, at the end of the lesson, we will be able
to figure out why it happened so.” Undoubtedly, such unexpected actions will
attract students’ attention and arouse curiosity toward the content of the lesson. In
other times, show students an impressive presentation that is prepared via presen-
tation software tools. At the end of the presentation, indicate that “At the end of the
lesson, you will be able to prepare a presentation like this one.”
Tactic three: Vary Presentation Format

In parallel to the aforementioned views, effective teachers avoid using the same
instructional materials and methods constantly. When the teacher prefers using the
same instructional techniques and designs learning approximately with the same
processes, the students will become unwilling to learn and will feed up with doing
same activities. It doesn’t mean that the teachers should throw out every routine in
their teaching processes. Instructional routines allow students to feel safe by not
only supporting their learning but also helping teacher manage behaviors of the
students (Beck and Kosnik 2014). Another the key point is that reminding students
about relevant prior knowledge with a game is not an appropriate point. Start lesson
with a myth about the course content or telling a joke, a riddle for students to solve.
These little differences provide both teacher and students with a shift from tradi-
tional and ordinary verbal or written modes to novel lessons and make lesson fun
(Algozzine et al. 1997).
Another point to be emphasized is the attention span. In average, adults can
focus on a specific task up to maximum fifteen minutes whereas this duration is
eight to ten minutes among the teenagers (Allen 2002). Allen (2002) asks “How
long can you pay attention when someone is presenting?” The answer to the
question varies from one person to another depending on a number of factors.
However, it is a fact that continuous use of direct instruction will be intolerable and
results in the loss of attention. Actually, when the teacher insists on using the same
instructional methods or techniques, not only in the case of direct instruction but
also in some other cases, students get fed up with meeting the requirements of the
instructional process. In order to get the students’ attention, the teacher tells a story
or shares daily news related to the task or asks the student to do the same, reviews
what has been taught with a thirty-seconds game or skips to another instructional
technique.
Tactic four: Keep students’ active
Tip 13: Detailed planning is required in order to prevent students to find a

gap to distract.
Keeping students active is another way to get and maintain students’ attention by
changing instructional approaches. When the teacher provides an activity, which
requires either individual or group work with simple and clear steps, students will
not have the chance to disrupt the lesson. In order to have all students benefit from
this activity, guidance of a teacher is necessary.
If you think that students do not pay adequate attention to teaching-learning
processes, the following questions may help you find out the underlying reasons
(Lavoie 2007, s. 354): “Do my introduction to the lesson and initial minutes of my
244 D. Sever
class capture the student’s attention? Is each child sufficiently challenged and
involved throughout the lesson to sustain their attention and focus? Are my
materials attractive and appealing? Do my curriculum and materials have suffi-
cient interest and relevance to the students?”
5.2.2 Motivating Students
In general, motivation is defined as a state of being willing to do something. With

regard to motivation, Lumsden (1994) focused on motivation within the aspect of
education and described motivation as students’ desire to participate in the learning
process. According to Lumsden (1994), students get motivated intrinsically and
attend learning process for its own sake and for enjoyment or extrinsically in order
to get the reward offered by the teacher or by their parents.
Teachers have key roles in facilitating students’ motivation in the learning
process (Lavoie 2007; Russell 2004). As an external factor, they start with extrinsic
motivation, but in the long term, the goal should be fostering students’ intrinsic
motivation. “Extrinsic incentives and competition are more effective for stimulating
intensity of effort than for including thoughtfulness or quality of performance”
(Brophy 1987, p. 44). Accordingly, intrinsically motivated students have higher
academic achievement than extrinsically motivated ones. Consequently, since
extrinsic motivation strategies have the potential of decreasing existing intrinsic
motivation and hindering meaningful and effective learning, teachers should be
careful while using extrinsic motivation strategies (Lumsden 1994). In addition to
these points, the teacher should keep in mind that non-traditional students have a
higher level of intrinsic motivation than traditional students have (Afzal et al. 2010;
Bye 2007; Daniels 2010; Dean and Dagostino 2007). Key tactics to improve stu-
dents’ motivation are presented below:
Tactic one: Consider Student’s Interest and Proficiency
Tip 14: Try to learn students’ interests simply by asking questions or through
a questionnaire.
Tip15: Arouse epistemic curiosity through a surprise, conflict or uncertainty.
Students expect from their teachers more than just memorization of their names.
They need to know that the teacher cares about them and their success. In order to
provide favorable circumstances for all students to achieve, Hidi and Baird (1988)
offer the following motivational principles that enhance students’ interests: char-
acter identification, novelty, life theme, and activity level (Good and Brophy 2003).
Students get motivated when they experience something new and out of routine.
Novelty can be provided by using a variety of events, demonstrations, amazing
facts, fantasy, or games (Palmer 2007). The teacher should establish a link between
instructional objectives and students’ lives, providing meaningful aspects to
learning. “Meaning is one of the most important propellants of learning” (Hunter
1982, p. 51). Keeping students active in learning environment via role-playing,
problem-solving, playing educational games and experimenting will also motivate
them. Such activities are part of non-traditional learning processes in which stu-
dents become intrinsically motivated.
Students need to know what is expected of them to keep motivated to study.
Otherwise, it may be frustrating for students to attend a process without knowing
what will happen at the end. Therefore, teachers should define objectives at the
beginning of the lesson to get the attention of the students and to motivate them. At
the same time, in order to achieve instructional objectives, tasks should be chal-
lenging but achievable. In order to arouse students’ curiosity and motivate them,
tasks should involve a moderate amount of discrepancy or incongruity (Lepper
1988). In supplying effective guidance during teaching-learning process, do not
hesitate to challenge your students with attainable goals. Students will work to
achieve these goals and so long as they see that they can achieve, they will become
more motivated to overcome the difficulties.
Tactic two: Provide Opportunities for Success
Tip 16: Adjust the difficulty of activities according to students.

Tip 17: Adapt assignments to match motivational needs of the students.
Students, sometimes even the best ones, become anxious and demotivated when
they have a fear of failure and lack of self-confidence. All students at least once try
to get a chance to play to their strengths and feel involved and valued. Namely, they
want to achieve what is required and transcend themselves. Therefore, teachers
should provide students with opportunities for success by taking their capabilities
and proficiency levels into consideration. In a heterogeneous class, there are both
high and low achievement level students. What the teachers should do is to prepare
appropriate questions and activities for both types of students. For instance, if there
is a student lacking confidence in his/her ability to succeed, a teacher may provide
this low-confident student with an instructional activity in which s/he experiences a
high level of success (Ames 1990). However, providing successful outcomes at
once does not change students’ perception towards their failures. In order to per-
suade the students that s/he has the ability to reverse, the teacher should guide the
instructional activities by defining tasks in terms of specific, short-term goals and
provide clues to reach them. Ames (1990, p. 411) pointed out that “motivation is
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important because it contributes to achievement, but it is also important itself as an

outcome”. Afzal et al. (2010) found out that positive and mutually causal rela-
tionship between student’s motivation and academic performance. Additionally,
they (Afzal et al. 2010, p. 84) stated that “this relationship is reciprocal, meaning
students who are more motivated perform better and students who perform better
become more motivated”.
Tactic three: Give Responsibility to Students
Tip 18: Family support can be asked.
Assigning classroom jobs to students, sharing responsibilities with them, offer-

ing them choices, letting them decide on the issues related to the teaching-learning
processes are effective ways of creating a sense of motivation among the students.
Most students think that responsibility in the classroom is usually controlled and
carried out by the teachers, and they perceive them as a privilege rather than as a
burden. In spite of the fact that it is not a commonly employed tactic by teachers, it
is known that this tactic enhances students’ intrinsic motivation (Deci 1991;
Dörnyei 1994). When the teacher asks a student to do something, s/he feels
important and valued. In addition, giving responsibilities to students keep them
busy and it is sometimes used as a precaution for misbehaviours. To use this tactic
effectively, the teacher should be careful about the difficulty level of the task
assigned to students. It should not be drudgery for them or like pulling out a tooth.
Tactic four: Be Enthusiastic
Tip 19: Try to see the learning unit in terms of students’ point of view.
Tip 20: Sometimes act like that you are one of the student in the class.
Teachers are the leading actors of the classes with many eyes on them. Thus,
every single step, action, word or look has different meanings for each student.
These verbal and non-verbal stimuli have the potential to motivate or demotivate
students. One of the best ways to help your students get motivated is to show your
enthusiasm during the teaching-learning processes. As a teacher, when you are
excited about teaching, then students will be much more excited about learning. In
parallel to the aforementioned, Patrick (2000) focused on the effects of the teachers’
enthusiasm on students’ intrinsic motivation and its crucial importance to it. They
found out that students, who achieved in the lesson, had enthusiastic teachers and
got more intrinsically motivated. In addition, Palmer (2007) stated that when a
teacher presents a topic more enthusiastically, students are more inclined to believe
that the topic has a value for them. Enthusiasm can be conveyed through facial
expressions, body language, stating preferences, describing personal experiences or

amazing facts, showing relevant artifacts, using humour and planning the lesson
more carefully (Palmer 2007). For example, at the very beginning of the lesson the
teacher says “I am very happy because we will cover one of my favourite topics
today.” or after assigning a project or group activity “I am very excited, I cannot
wait to see the results of your project/activity”. Such comments will improve stu-
dents’ motivation and arouse their willingness to learn.
Tactic five: Be Immediate
Tip 21: Provide remedial communication for students who had a history of
failure.
Tip 22: Pay more attention on motivation of discouraged students.
Teacher’s behaviours have a crucial influence on the students’ motivation.

Specifically, teachers acting immediately are likely to improve students’ motivation
by means of establishing closeness with students (Dobransky and Frymier 2004;
motivation McCroskey and Richmond 1992). Immediacy is defined as the per-
ception of closeness during the communication process. In a learning environment,
teacher’s smile, gesture, eye contact refers to non-verbal immediacy.
Verbal-immediacy consists of teachers’ humour, encouragement, and empathy.
Besides improving the students’ motivation (Frymier and Houser 2000; Velez and
Cano 2008), research studies show that both non-verbal and verbal immediacy
behaviours of teacher have positive affect on students’ other behaviours. For
example, teacher immediacy is the most powerful predictor of students’ reported
willingness to comply with teacher requests (Burroughs 2007; KearneySorenson
1988). In addition, students tend to resist non-immediate teacher than the immediate
teacher (Kearney et al. 1988). Therefore, as a teacher, it is better to evaluate our
verbal and nonverbal communication methods because there are proven facts
related to the benefits of immediacy behaviours of teachers in learning
environments.
Tactic six: Praise Students
Tip 23: Consider students’ characteristics before deciding how to deliver

praise.
Brophy (1981) defined praise as “to commend the worth of or to express

approval or admiral.” Many educators believe that praise has a driving force on
students’ motivation whereas some others think that praise harms students’ intrinsic
motivation (Henderlong and Lepper 2002). Actually, this argument depends on the
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quality of the praise. O’Leary and O’Leary (1977) indicate that an effective praise
should contain following qualities: contingency, specificity, and
sincerity/variety/credibility (Brophy 1981). The praise should be contingent on
student behaviour so that the student could identify the praised behaviour. It should
also specifically focus on prominent aspects of a students’ performance. For
instance, the teacher can provide feedback on the students’ work such as “good job”
or “great”, but they are not specific. Instead of using these expressions, beginning a
statement with a phrase like “I like the way you…” may be a way to make your
praise effective. The praise should give the message to students that the teacher
monitors their performance individually. Effectiveness of praise not only depends
on these conceptual variables but also on the characteristics of students, such as
their age and gender (Henderlong and Lepper 2002).
While ineffective praise hinders students’ natural curiosity and their desire to
learn by focusing them on extrinsic rewards (Brophy 1981), it is evident that
effective praise enhances their motivation and self-esteem (Tapp and Lively 2009).
Tactic seven: Use Rewards Effectively
Tip 24: You need to show consistency in behaviour that you reward.
Tip 25: Aim to develop intrinsic motivation rather than short-term success.
Everyone likes getting rewards. It does not need to be something unusual. For
example, after a desirable behaviour, drawing a star on students’ hands makes
preschool students unexpectedly motivated.
There is an on-going debate over the use rewards about whether it is a good idea
or not. Some educators believe that they are helpful to enhance motivation whereas
some others defend that they just have effects on extrinsic motivation and control on
immediate classroom behaviour (Hilden and Jones 2011; Daniels 2010). Also,
Swanson (1995, p. 46) pointed out that “rewards don’t necessarily create a
long-term predisposition to learn. They only encourage students in the short term.”
In that case, should we use it or not? We will use rewards by taking some key points
into consideration. Brophy (1981, p. 43) emphasized that “teacher should offer and
deliver rewards in ways that call attention to developing knowledge and skills rather
than in ways that encourage students to focus just on the rewards.” Besides,
choosing personalized rewards, attributing rewards to group performance might
change students’ perceptions towards the rewards.
Tactic eight: Integrate Technology into Instruction
Tip 26: Mind students’ technological opportunities while planning an

activity.
Inevitably, technology has become a very important aspect of our lives as it has
revolutionized the way people communicate and learn. Technology is an integrated
part of their lives for most teenagers. They spend most of their spare time using
technology. Don’t you think that combining learning with technology motivates
them? Supplying internet-based learning activities, designing discussion platforms
by using social networking sites and assigning homework on the internet will
increase students’ motivation. In some cases, some students in your class may not
be interested in technology. This is something related to individual differences. In a
heterogeneous class, technology may not be solely enough to motivate all of the
students. Teachers need to know how to use technology in accordance with other
instructional methods and techniques (Granito and Chernobilsky 2012). In addition,
students’ prior knowledge about computer technology may have an influence on
their performances (Glasgow and Hicks 2003).
To sum up, intrinsic motivation is an ingenious motivational tendency, and it
appears to be permanent for lifelong (Metsala 1996; Ryan and Deci 2000).
Intrinsically motivated students do not need an external stimulus to perform the
activities assigned to them since they already have the instinctive impulse, they
perform to satisfy their innate psychological needs (Ryan and Deci 2000). On the
other hand, extrinsically motivated students need an external stimulus from
someone they value, as they are not inherently gifted.
After a while, extrinsically motivated students need another goal to attain when
the effect of the stimulus disappears. Namely, as Metsala (1996) states “extrinsic
motivations do not regenerate themselves.”
During the teaching-learning processes in the class, you can design learning
activities both for intrinsically and extrinsically motivated students, but at the end of
the school time, they need to be able to generate their own motivation. Proposed
design principles by Lepper (1988) for promoting various sources of intrinsic
motivation in instructional activities may change the habits of extrinsically moti-
vated students (Fig. 5.3).
5.2.3 Guiding Students’ Studies
Guiding students’ studies is a part of delivering instruction. Students need to be

monitored when they learn something new. Teachers use a variety of ways, such as
providing feedback, prompts, and clues while monitoring the students’ progress.
Using these instructional skills help students keep studying with correct steps, be
aware of their progress, have opportunities to succeed and keep motivated.
Tactic one: Provide Feedback
When students are trying to learn a new topic and dealing with a task unfamiliar
to them, they need to be provided with information about whether they are on the
right way or not? Namely, they need feedback. “Feedback is conceptualized as
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Control Promote student's sense of control over the activity

Minimize extrinsic constraints on activity
If the activity is of initial intrinsic interest, avoid use of
superfluous extrinsic contingencies, use minimal
sufficient external pressure
Decrease extrinsic If the activity is of little initial intrinsic interest, use
constraints over time extrinsic contingencies as required, then gradually
withdraw them
Minimize salience of extrinsic constraints
Whenever possible, embed extrinsic constraints in the
activity itself
Challenge Provide student with a continuously challenging activity
Provide goals of uncertain attainment, and feedback
regarding accomplishments
Present goals of intermediate difficulty to student
Provide multiple goals or multiple levels of goals, to
ensure that the activity provides goals appropriate for
students at different levels of accomplishment
Curiosity Provoke student's curiosity
Highlight areas of inconsistency, incompleteness,
inelegance in student's knowledge
Employ activity involving domains, actors, problems of
inherent interest to student
Contextualization Highlight functionality of activity
Present activity in a naturalistic context of use
Present activity in a functional simulation or fantasy
context
Fig. 5.3 Proposed design principles for promoting various sources of intrinsic motivation in
instructional activities. Source Lepper (1988)
information provided by an agent (e.g., teacher, peer, book, parent, self, experience)
regarding aspects of one’s performance or understanding” (Hattie and Timperley
2007, p. 81). An effective feedback not only evaluates the existing learning
activities of the students but also gives constructive clues for the progress. Saying
“you did wrong…” means that the student is doing something wrong, and this piece
of a clue is not sufficient. An effective teacher should simplify the learning task,
identify why the students did wrong and give prompts for the correct answer. In
addition, when the teacher realizes that the students make a mistake, it is inap-
propriate simply to provide the correct answer (Burden and Byrd 1999). According
to Hattie and Timperly (2007), feedback should answer the following questions:
“Where am I going?, How am I going?, and Where to next?”
Tip 27: Give specific, on time, and goal-directed feedbacks.

Tip 28: Diversify your feedback
An effective feedback has to be specific, on time, and goal-directed. Feedback

should be specific to enough to give a complete message about the students’
products. For example, “Well done or great job” does not consist of a complete
message about the activity and does not inform the students about what s/he did
right. Likewise, saying “No, that’s not right or not quite there yet” does not provide
the students with an understanding about what s/he did wrong and does not supply a
clue about how to do better or find the right way. Time of the feedback is another
important dimension to discuss. Students are impatient when they complete and
take active roles in an activity to hear about their performances. In this respect, to
provide effective feedback, the teacher should give it on time rather than imme-
diately (Glasgow and Hicks 2003; Wiggins 2012). If the feedback is provided after
days or weeks, it loses its impact on students. Undoubtedly, giving feedback on
time may be quite difficult if it is on the written products or huge projects of the
students. Even so, the teacher should try her best to provide effective feedback on
time, namely, when the effects are still fresh in students’ minds (Wiggins 2012).
Additionally, feedback should be goal-directed and focus on the required task and
performance, rather than on the student or any part of the students’ self-concept
(DeNisi and Kluger 2000). In this regard, it is stated that “goal-directed practice
coupled with targeted feedback enhances the quality of students’ learning”
(Ambrose et al. 2010, p. 5).
In conclusion, in spite of the fact that the benefits of feedback are evident, the
teachers should be careful about the amount of feedback they use. Extensively used
feedback reduces the students’ need for self-assessment whereas providing limited
feedback may cause difficulties among students in engage in the cognitive processes
(Kelley and McLaughlin 2012).
Tactic two: Provide Prompts and Clues
Tip 29: Offer a variety of prompts.

Tip 30: Be sure type and content of the prompt or clue is explicit for the
students
Every student sometimes needs additional information in order to find out the
right way to instructional goals. When the students get stuck, the teacher should
provide systematic support by using verbal, visual, physical prompts and cues
during the teaching-learning processes.
Prompting questions, one of the most common ways of verbal prompting, aims
to help students answer questions and to correct an initial response (Burden and
Byrd 1999). A prompting question in an elementary mathematics course is shown
below:
Teacher: “What is a formula for calculating the area of a rectangle, Daphne?”
Daphne: “I don’t remember”
Teacher: “Well, what is a formula for the square?”
Daphne: “a times a.”
Teacher: “Why did you multiply a with a.”
Daphne: “They are the edges of the square.”
Teacher: “Ok! Think about the edges of the rectangle then.”
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Daphne: “Yeah, I found it is a times b.”

Teacher: “You have understood the rationale for it, well done.”
A schedule of the daily activities, the instructions at the beginning of an activity
and the materials hanged on the walls in the classroom are examples of visual
prompts. Physical prompts can be exemplified as the use of body language. For
example, when a teacher asks a preschool student about his/her bedtime routines,
the teacher can provide physical prompts by pretending to brush his teeth or to wash
his face.
There are points to take into consideration in dealing with cues or prompts. Be
sure that the type and content of the prompt or clue are explicit for the students. If
the students have difficulty in understanding the clue, they will easily give up and
accept their failure. Use prompts and clues when they are necessary. Otherwise,
students in your class will strictly depend on the prompts. Namely, they never
challenge themselves for finding out the expected answers since the teacher always
makes things easier for them.
5.2.4 Classroom Management
Effective teaching and learning cannot take place if classroom management is not
applied sufficiently. Therefore, it is safe to say that one of the most important roles
of the teachers in the classroom is being a classroom manager. First, the teachers
should set the classroom rules apparently so that the students can see the expec-
tations explicitly and behave quintessentially. Secondly, the teacher should create
an intimate, non-threatening, friendly and democratic learning environment in
which students feel free to state their opinions on all aspect of the lesson and with
respect to each other. In an effectively managed classroom, students have engaged
more actively in learning activities which lead to less disruptive behaviors, to more
beneficial instructional time, and to more improvement in students’ academic
achievement. Let’s see what a teacher should do for an effective classroom
management.
Tactic one: Set Classroom Rules
Tip 31: Give praise to students who care about classroom rules.
Tip 32: Give a very clear message that rules are important.
Students, just like adults, prefer to know their capabilities and be in an envi-
ronment that is structured and predictable (Pedota 2007). In identifying the char-
acteristics of effective teachers in terms of classroom management, Everston and
Emmer (1992) give special importance on the introduction of rules. Stating rules are
the starting point for classroom management, and there are some useful tips in
providing classroom rules as shown below:
1. The establishment of as few rules as possible, generally four or five;

2. Rules that are stated positively that is, in terms of to “Do” rather than “Don’t
Do”;
3. Rules that are defined as observable behavior;
4. Clear statements of the positive consequences for following the rules and
consequences for rule violation;
5. Rules that are developed with student input;
6. Rules that are posted so that all can see; and
7. Periodic review of the rules and consequences (that include examples and
non-examples) with the students.
Following a number of proper example rules are given: “keep sitting on your
seats when the school bell rings; turn off your mobile phone before starting the
lesson, raise your hands to speak and ask for permission etc.” (as cited in, Shores
et al. 1993, p. 96).
In the relevant literature, it is pointed out that providing only the rules have little
control over the students. If the teachers combine rules with praise, they will be
more functional. In addition, Kauchak and Eggen (2003) indicated that first two
weeks of the school term is a critical period for classroom management. Namely, a
teacher should give high priority to class rules rather than to the instructional
activities. Once the students get the message that “these rules are very important,
and we must obey them”, rest of the term will carry on trouble-free.
Tactic two: Create an Effective Learning Environment
Tip 33: Ask students preferences about learning environment.

Tip 34: Let students to internalize the classroom environment.
Students learn more and feel motivated in a class which is clean, safe, and
designed by considering their individual differences. There are four key points to
take into consideration in arranging a good classroom (as cited in Burden and Byrd
1999, p. 179):
1. Keep high traffic areas free of congestion. High traffic areas should be keep
away from each other, have plenty of space, and be easily accessible.
2. Be sure students are easily seen by the teacher. It is important that teachers
clearly see students to identify when a student needs assistance or to prevent
task avoidance or disruption.
3. Keep frequently used teaching materials and student supplies readily accessible.
By having easy access and efficient storage of these materials, activities are
more likely to begin and end promptly, and time that is spent on getting ready
and cleaning up will be minimized.
4. Be certain students can easily see instructional presentations and displays. The
seating arrangement should allow all students to see the chalkboard or overhead
254 D. Sever
projector screen without moving their chairs, turning their desks around, or
craning their necks.
These are the physical aspects of an effective classroom environment. There are
some more related to emotional aspects. For example, let students internalize the
classroom environment. Ask them to bring their favorite objects to the class from
their desks. Make them a part of the decoration of the class and encourage students
to take responsibility for its maintenance. Establishing a classroom culture, in which
students are required to respect each other, is also an important part of classroom
management. In addition, emphasize the importance of empathy. Guide students to
put themselves in someone’s shoes, then, they will learn thinking twice before
doing something.
The teachers should be careful about their way of communication with the
students. In order to help students, feel free about their learning activities, the
teacher should create a secure environment. When the students feel safe both
physically and emotionally, a productive learning environment, in which the stu-
dents can learn as much as possible, can be constructed (Kauchak and Eggen 2003).
Pedota (2007, p. 165) provided a list to build a trustworthy, mutually respectful
environment, and strict rules for students:
1. Develop a philosophy of “we” rather than “I” and use a personal approach in
working with your students.
2. Class rules should be reasonable, fair, equitable, and used in a consistent
manner.
3. Your actions, words, and deeds should model the behavior that you expect from
your students.
4. Remember self-esteem is as important for adolescences as it is for you—avoid
sarcasm or actions that belittle an individual in front of classmates.
5. Be proactive. Move around the room and keep your eyes moving.
6. Before you speak, get everyone’s attention and say what you mean and mean
what you say.
7. Keep parents informed. Parent involvement will support your role as a teacher.
8. Always give students hope—make them feel that they can accomplish
anything.
9. Treat your students as you would like to be treated.
10. Be yourself. Do not be an imitation of someone else. Success will follow if you
allow your own personality to show.
5.3 Evaluation Phase
Evaluation phase involves information-gathering and decision-making processes.

The teachers collect data—take measurements-about students’ academic achieve-
ment via a variety of ways such as paper-pencil tests, student’s participation,
homework, and portfolios. Then by comparing achievement level with expected

one, they make a decision about students’ performance. These measurement results
indicate not only the students’ achievement level but also give feedback about the
effectiveness of instructional methods and materials. That is why evaluation is a key
component of instruction. The output of evaluation phase supplies necessary and
valuable inputs for effective planning.
5.3.1 Monitoring Students’ Understanding
The aims of the monitoring students’ understanding are to check whether the stu-
dents understand classroom instruction, keep on with the teacher and other students
or not and to identify whether they have any misconceptions or not. Effective
teachers’ repertoires should include a wide spectrum of monitoring techniques.
Tactic one: Use Socratic Seminar
Socratic seminars aim to provide a deeper understanding of the task. In this
process, the teachers should prepare materials such as a slideshow, written text, film
clip including core concepts, values and main idea of the content being studied.
These materials should be at the appropriate level for students. After having all
students be familiar with the material, explain the rules of the procedure. Before
starting the lesson, the classroom should be arranged so that every student can see
each other while speaking. Finally, the teacher asks open-ended questions which
reflect genuine curiosity and have no “right answer”. Then, a student without
raising hand starts sharing his ideas by addressing other students’ opinions with
their names. The teacher is a facilitator of the process with key questions prepared
beforehand. During this process, the teacher should listen to the students carefully,
take notes about the dialogues on who participates and how. Afterwards, the teacher
can use these notes as a feedback to the students’ performance and not compre-
hended parts of the content. Here are some example questions, which can be
effectively used in Socratic seminars:
– What is the main idea or underlying value of the film?
– Imagine that you are the director of this film. What might be the name of the
film?
– Who has a different perspective?
– Which points of the text make you surprised?
– Which part of the text makes you realize something new?
256 D. Sever
Tactic two: Use Hand Signals

This easy tactic provides an immediate response about students’ understanding.
In this tactic, the teacher just asks students whether they understand or not. If
student’s thumb is up it indicates “I understand”, if thumb is directed to sideway it
indicates “I have some questions in my mind” and if the thumb is down it means “I
do not yet understand”. The teachers should ask all students to participate in this
tactic so that they can check whole students’ understanding at once within a short
time.
Tactic three: Teach Students Self-monitoring
Tip 35: Provide students a checklist or rating scale that consist all critical
step of desired learning outcome.
Self-monitoring consists of self-assessment and self-recording of the learners

(Harris et al. 2005). The teachers should encourage students to evaluate their own
performances. Reid (1993) stated that “self-monitoring is particularly efficacious
when the targeted behaviors or the desired outcomes of the intervention are valu-
able to the student” (as cited in Harris et al. 2005, p. 146). Self-monitoring offers
several advantages. Self-monitoring makes the student an active part of the
instruction process, with responsibility for measuring and evaluating his or her
behaviors. In addition, to accurately self-evaluate their behaviors, the students must
give more importance to identify teacher’s behavioral expectations. Self-monitoring
also provides economical use of time and effort. Finally, and most importantly, it
facilitates trust and fosters the relationship between teachers and students.
In the process of a self-monitoring teacher can simplify students’ work by
providing them checklist or rating scale prepared according to key steps of learning
objectives. Students can simply monitor their own progress by putting a check mark
on given steps.
In addition to asking students to evaluate their own performances, a teacher can
make them analyze their classmates’ work and give feedback (Ambrose et al.
2010). Evaluating someone else’s study will let student notice various aspects of the
content.
Tactic four: Give Effective Homework
Tip 36: Assign a mixture of mandatory and voluntary homework to students.

Tip 37: An effective homework should remind students about previously
covered topics, address topics at the day of the homework, and make think
about topics soon to be covered.
Homework is usually a contentious issue for students, parents, and teachers.

There has been an ongoing debate over the effectiveness of homework among
researchers, administrators, teachers, parents, and students for years. The results of
a number of research studies show that homework is ineffective depending upon
some variables such as, socioeconomic status of student’s family, amount of
homework, relatedness of student’s learning abilities whereas some others defend
the effectiveness of homework by stating that effective homework improves stu-
dents’ academic achievement, provide opportunities for positive parent involve-
ment, teach self-regulation. Since there are evident findings of the benefits of
homework, it is better asking “how can a teacher establish an effective homework”
rather than asking “Does homework improve learning or not?
In order to increase the effectiveness of homework, a teacher should determine
what makes homework effective. In this respect, Vatterott (2010) stated five fun-
damental characteristics of the best homework: purpose, efficiency, ownership,
competence, and aesthetic appeal. A teacher should clearly state the purpose of
homework so that the students can understand its meaning and contributions to his
academic achievement. “When teachers design homework to meet specific purposes
and goals, more students complete their homework and benefit from the results”
(Epstein and Van Voorhis 2001, p. 191). Under the concept of efficiency, home-
work should not take an inordinate amount of time and should push students to
think both critically and creatively. Cooper et al. (2006) found out that students who
spend too much time to complete their homework perform worse than students who
spend less time. Also, students need to believe that homework is beneficial and does
not require nonacademic skills. For example, in a science course, instead of drawing
water cycle poster, the student can write a composition about water saving. This
kind of homework makes students use their thinking skills and make the connection
between other disciplines (in this case literature). The third hallmark of effective
homework is ownership. When the students assigned with a homework connected
to his daily life or proper to their learning characteristics, they learn more and are
more motivated. For instance, a teacher can ask student make a family tree by
searching as deep as possible while covering family members. It establishes
ownership. In another case, the teacher may ask the student to create his or her own
homework assignments (Harmin 1994). In order to improve students’ reading skills
teacher can ask students to read a book that they are interested. Competence is
another characteristic of effective homework. A homework should not be too easy
can lead to boredom and too difficult lead to frustration; it should be somewhere in
the middle. “Homework that students can’t do without help is not good homework;
students are discouraged when they are unable to complete homework on their
own” (Vatterott 2010, p. 13). Lastly, a homework should have aesthetic appeal.
Pages of reports or an endless list of definitions are not inviting both for teachers
and students. Thus, style, material, and the way of using them while doing
homework are important. For example, a student can write papers of findings of a
research, but instead of written document if he or she prefers to show those findings
on graphics it will be more attractive and stimulating.
258 D. Sever
Designing homework assignments that empower students to use their creativity

and to relate learning in school to learning anywhere in the world enhances
effectiveness and adds relevance to classroom lessons.
5.4 Conclusion
Making the teaching-learning processes effective and entertaining depends largely

on the teacher. By means of instructional tactics, learning can occur more effec-
tively, permanently and voluntarily. Various tactics have been proposed in the
relevant literature. The teachers can select them according to their instructional
abilities and the students’ characteristics. Objectives of the lesson, learning envi-
ronment, and instructional materials are other factors affecting the choice and usage
of instructional tactics. However, it is safe to say that effective use of instructional
tactics mostly depends on individualizing them. Since every student has their own
characteristics affecting their learning styles, teachers should make changes in the
use of these tactics. Instructional tactics abolish the monotony of learning the
environment and endear learning to students that lead students to learning to learn.
Glossary
Extrinsic Type of motivation that is created by an external stimuli such

motivation as the teacher or parents.
Instructional It is a way to enhance learning which has a narrower scope
tactic than instructional strategies.
Intrinsic Self-driven motivation.
motivation
Learning styles Individual preferences for the conditions where, when, or how
a student obtains and processes information.
Motivation The state of being willing to do something.
Praise To commend the worth of or to express approval or admiral.
Prompts and Positive evaluations by a person of another’s products, per-
Clues formances, or attributes.
Self-monitoring Evaluating yourself.
Socratic A discussion technique in which collaborative, the intellectual
Seminar dialogue is facilitated with open-ended questions of teachers
about the content of the course.
References
Adebule, S. O., & Ayoola, O. O. (2016). Impact of instructional materials on students’ academic
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Chapter 6
Planning for Instruction
Celal Akdeniz
In this chapter, some information is shared with the planning, implementation and
evaluation processes. And then, Tag of activity (introducing the activity) and
instruction design (contains the stages of instruction process) sections are
explained.
! Important Note: detailed information about the factors affecting instructional
process is given in Chap. 14. Please apply there to get comprehensive explanations
about them.
Gagné (1965) presented eight types of learning, in a strict hierarchical relation-
ship: Signal learning, stimulus-response learning, chaining, verbal association,
multiple discrimination, concept learning, principle learning, and problem-solving.
So, what will we teach then? If we follow the constructivist, information-processing,
and the other related instructional approaches, we aim to teach the cognitive skills
and information.
The proposition of this study: The ultimate goal of instruction process is to train
the students that “producing the knowledge”.
If so, we need to make clear the main concept, the knowledge.
Epistemologically, knowledge is a final product. We call the units of data that
produced or obtained in several ways, as “raw data”; and we also qualify the regular
data volumes presented in an organized structure as an “information”.
According to the epistemology, knowledge is “an expertise and skills” that
individuals need them during the training or experience. Knowledge can also be, an
individual’s practical and theoretical understanding or an awareness of familiarity
gained by experiencing a fact or situation. Finally, we can say that the knowledge is
C. Akdeniz (&)
Curriculum & Instruction, Education Faculty, S. Demirel University,
East Campus (Doğu Yerleşkesi), Room: 354, Isparta, Turkey

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_6
264 C. Akdeniz
a meaning part that changing people’ perception about outer world, produced in the
mind by sensing, processing, evaluation and judging.
According to epistemology, one cannot be being an “informed person” through
reading or memorize a lot of information, until creating an original knowledge. To
accept one as “qualified in a subject”, he/she must be able to express the subject in
his/her sentences, even if they are most basic.
As seen, information is processed data, and it is produced by someone. But the
knowledge is creating by you. To make it more clear let’s have a look at this
sample;
Writings in a book, in an article, in a magazine, or etc.
is “knowledge” for “the author”, the author is a provider
is “information” for “the reader”, the reader is a receiver
Writings in a book are “knowledge” for the author. Because all of the context
(ideas, thoughts, graphs, charts, diagrams, comparisons, etc.) is written into the
book through some experiences, like by reading, by researching, by experiment or
any other one. So, the author writes the content based on his/her experiences.
Writings in a book are “information” for the reader. Because s/he is a receiver,
s/he just receives the author’s message. Until he/she creates his/her original
knowledge …
In the instruction process, we teach six kinds of information: daily, technical,
religious, artistic, scientific and philosophical. Daily information; is a product in the
course of people’s daily life. It is subjective, intuitive; in other words, it is learned
by understanding and is not certain, systematic, and consistent. Religious infor-
mation, based on scripture. It includes ethics, faith, worship formats, and it does not
accept criticism and doubt. Art information is based on the creative imagination. It’s
subjective, intuitive, and it prefers comprehension and understanding rather than
imitation. It aims the beautiful reach purposes. Technical information tries to
transform the natural objects into the useful tools through taking advantages of
scientific information. It aims to benefit the people and to facilitate of human life. It
provides practical benefits. With technical information, is intended to dominance
over nature. Scientific information is based on facts. It investigates the cause and
effect relationships between phenomena. Scientific information is general, objec-
tive, precise, accumulative and advancing. Scientific information is repeatable,
universal, selective and critical. It based on the mind, and it ensures to predict.
Philosophical information is caused by human curiosity and wonder. It has sys-
tematic, generalized and merged information. It is subjective, and its results are not
precise. It is a product of creative thinking. It aims to find the right. And it also has
critical and skeptical attitude towards itself and to the other sciences.
In the instruction process, curriculum developers and decision makers use each
kind of information. Which kind of information that they will use, is depends on the
society’s trend. In this chapter, we follow scientific one.
Gagné and Briggs (1974) describe the instruction as a set of events which
students become involved. Here, in the topic of determination of the content and
6 Planning for Instruction 265
arrangement of the activities Gagné’s (1965) views are taken into account. In the
“Instructional events” model, Gagné emphasizes the points to be considered at the
beginning, in the middle and at the end of the instructional process. He explains the
nature of the model as follow:
The events of instruction are designed to make it possible for the learner to proceed from
“where he is” at the beginning of a lesson to the achievement of the capability identified as
the lesson’s objective. In some instances, these events occur as a natural result of the
learner’s interaction with the particular materials of the lessons; as, for example, when the
beginning reader comes to recognize an unfamiliar printed word as something familiar in
his oral vocabulary, and thus receives feedback (a significant kind of instructional event).
Mostly, however, the events of instruction must be deliberately arranged by a lesson
designer or teacher as events which are initiated externally to the learner. (Gagné and
Briggs 1974, s123)
Gagné lists the instructional events as follows:

1. Gaining attention
2. Informing the learner of the objective
3. Stimulating recalls of prerequisite learnings
4. Presenting the stimulus material
5. Providing “learning guidance.”
6. Eliciting the performance
7. Providing feedback about performance correctness
8. Assessing the performance
9. Enhancing retention and transfer
Various kinds of events are employed to gain the learner’s attention (Gaining
attention). This event actually connected with instructional skills and we call it “art
of teaching”. Some teachers use verbal pointers, some of them use non-verbal ones,
some of them exhibit physical stimulus and some present demonstrations,
audio-visual organizers, and so on. At the beginning of instruction giving the
objectives of the lesson to the learners, make them ready to learn and directs their
selective perception (Informing the learner of the objective). If the learner is
informed at the beginning of lecture about “what they will learn”, he/she will
comprehend important stimulus and send them short-term and long-term memories.
On the side, informing the objective awakens curiosity and motivation of learners
and can also help them to gather their stimulus on the materials.
To learn faster and easier, the students’ prior knowledge must be associated with
the new ones to be learned (Stimulating recall of prerequisite learnings). The
information, processed in short-term memory, must be associated with preliminary
information to be encoded in any meaningful way. Before presenting new infor-
mation, reminding the learners’ preliminary information, helps to encode the new
information meaningful and in an organized manner. Following the preparation
phase, stimuli associated with the desired acquisition, achievement, and attainment
is presented to the instruction environment (Presenting the stimulus material). The
stimulants that presented with a variety of instructional methods, techniques, and
materials; are selected by learners, are compared and organized with the preliminary
266 C. Akdeniz
information, and then to be transferred to long-term memory. The characteristics of

stimulus presentation include continuity of the stimulus with the student’s response;
reinforcement of correct student responses and repetition.
Guidance and orientation activities are organized sufficiently in order to ensure
the learners succeed, help them to code the information correctly, and to achieve the
objectives of the instruction process (Providing learning guidance). Uncovering the
learners’ acquisition levels, gives a contribution to be convinced of the success of
the instruction process to the both learners and instructors (Eliciting the perfor-
mance). At this point, with asking oral questions to the students, and making mini
quizzes, and requesting them about the learning topics, like “show me” and “do it”
can be elicited their learning performances.
Learners should receive information (feedback) about the accuracy of their
behaviors. (Providing feedback). This also reinforces their correct behaviors and
increases their motivation, and also gives a contribution to correct wrong behaviors.
Moreover, giving on-time feedback eliminates the false learning and repeating
mistakes. To uncovering the succeed of the instruction process, determining the
learners’ acquisition levels, assessment should be performed in formal and
non-formal ways (Assessing performance). At this point, observing students’
behaviors, exams, monitoring tests, etc. will be useful to gain an idea.
To ensure the retention of newly learned information and to organize them in the
long-term memory, knowledge (processed information) needs to be repeated at
regular intervals (Enhancing retention and transfer).
To ensure the permanence of new learnings is associated to use them in new
situations. For this reason, to strengthening the knowledge, to compensate and
expose learning deficiencies, new problem situations should be given that they can
apply what they have learned. In this way, students will create original and practical
solutions to the real life issues, and these situations will contribute them new
opportunities to improve their cognitive strategies.
! Important Note: detailed information about Gagné’s Model, is given in
Chap. 1. Please apply there to get comprehensive theoretical explanations and
implementation suggestions..
6.1 Preparing the Activity
Instruction process generally includes planning, implementation (execution), and

evaluation phases. Planning activities are made to determine the target group and
conditions before starting the process. Implementation activities contain all
instructional actions to ensure the active participation of students and teachers.
Evaluation phase contains mainly one comparison; whether the instructional
process is reached the goal or not, and one determination; students’ acquisition
levels.
Instruction process is mostly executed with planned course and lectures. For this
reason, it is a necessity to make course content qualitative and applicable. Course
and lecture plans have a vital potential to direct the process. A lecture contains
different phases with different duration and order: introduction, improving, con-
clusion and evaluation (sometimes with assessments).
In the input stage of the course contains some activities in order of attention,
motivating, revision and transition into the lesson. Firstly, the teacher uses some
instructional materials to draw the attention of students to the planned topic,
attainment, achievement. During this process, teacher takes into account pupils’
traits. After this first impact, the teacher tries to motivate students. For this purpose,
making discussion or giving samples can be useful. Revision activities ensure to the
pupils some information about instructional aims of the course and learning out-
comes. Transition activities try to make a link between preliminary information and
new ones. In this phase, through giving examples, asking questions or inform the
students directly about the course subjects, teacher toggles the development stage.
The input stage is expected to cover approximately 10 % of the course process.
Development stage contains main instructional activities that connected with
acquisitions, attainments, and achievements. During the development stage, activ-
ities are carried out taking into account the students’ characteristics, and features of
the topics. In this stage, instructional strategies, methods, and techniques are
diversified according to selected teaching model. And also, instructional tactics
could be the decisive effect on the instruction process. In the development stage,
teachers try to improve acquisition, achievement, attainment levels through sum-
marise, repetitions, comparisons, and generalizations. Pupils participation is
essential in this process. The development stage is expected to cover approximately
60 % of the course process.
The final stage of the course includes an overall summary, final reinforcements,
last explanations, re-motivation and closure events. In this stage, teachers try to find
unlearned parts of the content and fix them. Teachers also try ensuring the per-
manence of knowledge. As mentioned before, for instruction process information
and knowledge are different each other, and they have different content properties.
At the end of this stage, teachers make cause and effect relationships, and close goes
the evaluation stage. The final stage is expected to cover approximately 10 % of the
course process.
During the evaluation stage, the effectiveness of teaching is tested. In this stage,
teachers try to learn their instructional success. The main questions are “what is the
acquisition, achievement, attainment level of this instruction and how much of them
were acquired correctly, how much of them were reflected in the pupils’ behaviors.
Testing the achievement can doable in various ways. They are illustrated in the
evaluation phase. Testing activities determine based on the instructional models,
strategies, methods, and techniques applied in the process. The evaluation stage is
expected to cover approximately 10 % of the course process.
All the activity planning processes aim effective instruction. Some qualifications
are required to reach instructional objectives and to carry out the instruction process
efficiently and effectively. According to Saskatchewan Education (1991) effective
instruction is guided by general pedagogical approaches and specific instructional
268 C. Akdeniz
practices. The approaches and instructional practices espoused in their study are
based upon the following beliefs about what constitutes effective instruction:
1. Effective instruction is eclectic. Professional teaching practice is not con-
strained by a belief that there is one best way. Teachers should be invited to
extend their range of instructional approaches in a secure, risk-taking
environment.
2. Effective instruction is tied directly to the success of the learning experience.
Effective instruction occurs when the teacher links sound curriculum develop-
ment and excellent instructional practice in a successful learning experience.
Reciprocal, positive relationships between teacher and learner are also necessary
for instruction to be truly effective. This means the student must be viewed as an
active participant in the teaching-learning process.
3. Effective instruction is empowered professional practice in action. Instructional
judgement must be encouraged and nurtured in classroom professionals so that
they acquire the flexibility needed to adapt instructional practice to meet a wide
variety of student needs.
4. Effective instruction integrates the components of the Core Curriculum. When
making instructional decisions, teachers should consider the content, perspec-
tives, and processes specified in the curriculum for a Required Area of Study or
a Locally Determined Option, and the appropriate Common Essential Learnings.
Teachers also need to make decisions regarding the adaptation of instruction to
meet individual student learning needs.
5. Effective instruction is generative and dynamic. Ever changing variables
affect instructional decision-making. Educators are encouraged to extend their
range of instructional approaches based on a foundation of research, a wide
range of practical and theoretical knowledge, and a regard for students as active
participants in the learning process.
6. Effective instruction recognizes there is an art as well as a science to teaching.
Effective instruction results from a blend of the art and the science of teaching.
The science of instruction, which has predominated in the past, needs to achieve
a balance of the artistry involved in the successful teaching act.
7. Effective instruction acknowledges a comprehensive understanding of the
instructional cycle. Teachers begin the instructional cycle by assessing indi-
vidual student learning needs, interests, and strengths through observation and
consultation with the student. They then determine the instructional approaches
required, deliver instruction in a manner appropriate to the students’ learning
abilities and styles, and evaluate student growth and understanding. The cycle
concludes with teacher self-reflection and further teacher–student consultation.
8. Effective instruction finds the best expression when educators collaborate to
develop, implement, and refine their professional practices.
Instructional practice can be improved through sustained and systematic atten-

tion to professional development. Teachers can improve their own instructional
practices by participating in professional development programs or working
with peers and supervisors. These programs must include elements of the
individual reflection that this document encourages.
The second part of this book has seven chapters that contains instructional
activity samples in five teaching fields. This book’s draft is used in all of those
activity samples. Let’s explore the draft.
The draft has two main parts: tag of activity and instructional design. The tag of
activity provides some useful information on these issues: the focus of instruction,
type of instruction, selected model/approach, selected methods, techniques, pre-
requisite information, the participation of pupils, the participation of parents, key-
words, and mini scenario. Instruction design part contains; the purpose of activity,
objectives, materials and the stage of the lesson. In the stage of the lesson part;
attention, inform the target, using preliminary information, presentation of content,
further activities, assessment, semantic network, and learning outcomes.
6.2 Tag of Activity
TA. 1. Focus on teaching; this section tells the center of instruction.

Student-centered instruction (in some sources; learner-oriented, student-directed,
student-focused) takes the students to the center of instruction and them more
active. This kind of instruction gives learning responsibility to the students. Some
research findings say that student-centered instruction allows the students in
developing positive attitudes. The other center is a teacher. Teacher-centered (in
some sources; teacher-oriented, instructor-oriented, teacher-focused, teacher-
directed, instructor-directed) gives the teachers the responsibility of the instruc-
tion. As the formulated before (Chap. 2); instruction = learning + teaching. It
means teachers must take each of two responsibilities (learning and teaching)
during the instruction process. This kind of instruction provides the teachers
advantages and disadvantages at the same time. Content-centered instruction
focuses on and meets the requirements of the content. The course’s organization
cannot be changed to meet the needs of either the instructor or the students. In fact,
someone completely separate from the instructor, for example, a discipline com-
mittee, often carries out the decision-making process. For further information,
please read the previous chapters and other sources.
TA. 2. Type of teaching; this section shows the education process will be carried
out according to which content areas: disciplinary or interdisciplinary. In the dis-
ciplinary instruction (vertical approach) process, we can see that preliminary
information (related to discipline) is used and priority—recency relationships
between the concepts is established. But, if you want to use a conceptual
270 C. Akdeniz
relationship for more than one discipline (semantic network), it means, you will
make interdisciplinary instruction.
To interdisciplinary instruction (horizontal approach), teachers establish links
among the topics, themes, and concepts.
The interdisciplinary approach synthesizes more than one discipline and creates
teams of teachers and students that enrich the overall educational experience. In this
way, students tend to discover relationships, structures, and concepts in a systematic
way through to go beyond the discipline and taking into account the different
aspects of the world. For example; we will handle health issues and our aim is
enable the students to realize how the foods’ nutritional values affect their school
and sports life performance, and how it contributes to their physical, affective
(attitudes, values, emotions, and so on), social and mental states. Then students will
develop the skills to prepare menus, do the shopping which has high nutritional
value and chooses health foods as well as food preparation.
Type of teaching also seeks the content’s organization, like multifaceted, inte-
grated, relevant, feasible, clearly framed topics to the students and teachers.
Disciplinary instruction is challenging, and it is especially important that the topics be
meaningful and engaging to students and teachers. Also, topics should be develop-
mentally appropriate for students. Jacobs recommends that the development of
interdisciplinary units must involve: Selecting a focus or thematic topic, generating
ideas or connections between related topics, establishing guiding questions for the
scope and sequence of the unit, designing activities to fulfill the goals of the unit.
TA. 3. Selected Approach/method; this section shows the selected teaching model
and appropriate instructional methods and techniques. In the second part of this book,
instructional activities generally created based on Gagné’s “Nine Events Model”, but
some of them contains two or more models. We called this works as a “multiple type
models”. The selected model determines the instruction’s way, like; direct instruction,
indirect instruction, collaborative/cooperative instruction, project-based instruction,
inquiry-examination based instruction, experimental instruction, individualized
instruction, memorization, concept attainment instruction, or etc.
Selected model determines the instructional strategies and methods and tech-
niques. If you chose behavioral models of teaching, then you will select the direct
instruction or mastery learning, and then you will choose presentation strategies and
then lecture method, presentation method, demonstration method, and etc. In
another scenario; If you chose cognitive models of teaching, it means, you will
choose the Gagné’s nine event model, or concept attainment model, or synectics-
teaching creative thinking, etc. After this, you may choose the problem-solving
method, or drama method, or self-study method, and you will choose one of the
related techniques like; small group, large group or online discussion techniques.
TA. 4. Types of learning; refer to kinds of learning, like; concepts, semantic
networks, abstractions, reflections or events, phenomenon, rules, principles, con-
ditions, structure, etc.
The kind of instruction varies according to the type of learning. For example; if
our objective is teaching the possessive suffixes, then we teach the students the
structures of possessive suffixes firstly, and then students writes essay paragraphs
contains possessive suffixes; if we want to teach the students the elements, then we
will show them the periodic tables, and then we will ask them the metals, gases,
natural or artificial elements.
TA. 5. Prerequisite knowledge; in this section, we are looking for answers of two
questions: Is it necessary any precondition for carrying out the activities? And What
do we need at the begin?
According to the “knowledge-processing model” and “constructivism”, pre-
liminary information has a vital role in the instruction model. According to these
models, if you learn something new, the information you previously learned may
helpful to positive transfer, and to reduce the learning time. And to create meaning
(like in Piaget’s model and other constructivist models), you need a starting point,
like prior learning and preliminary information.
TA. 6. Students’ participation; in this section, we will briefly explain how and in
what circumstances the students participate in the instruction process.
TA. 7. Parents’ participation; in this section, we will briefly explain how and in
what circumstances the parents participate in the instruction process.
TA. 8. Keywords; contains emphasized concepts that placed in the instruction
plan draft. To be crowded the number of keywords benefits to summarize events at
a glance. Each activity samples includes 15–25 concepts.
TA. 9. Mini scenario; if it possible, to help the introduction phase of the
instruction process, the subject of the activity is dramatized. For this, authors
constructed mini-dialogues (like a question and answer stories) contains gaining
attention, motivating, informing the learners about the objective.
6.3 Instructional Design
Instruction design section contains the purpose of the instruction, objectives,

materials and stages of the instruction process (lesson).
Purpose: this section is about the purpose of the activity
Objective: this section includes instructional objectives
Materials: this section includes the instructional materials to be used in carried
out the activities.
For effective instruction, some useful tips can be followed. In this sub-section
some useful tips were granted below:
• In the planning phase of instruction, take into account the students’ interest
• Encourage, provoke and motivate the students to seek and value alternative
modes of investigation
• Encourage, provoke and motivate the students to think reflective, critical and
creative manner
• Encourage, provoke and motivate the students to find/explore/create funda-
mental or unpredictable and sometimes crazy inventions and to present them in
some scientific argumentations
272 C. Akdeniz
• Consider the students’ preliminary information on related topics

• Encourage and motivate the students to make two ways communications.
• Connect the lecture topics with other content disciplines and real life
• Depends on the situation; be a facilitator, be a mentor, be a coach, be a friend, be
a rival, be a secretive, be an open-minded, be a stable and steady, be a
changeable
• Give the students enough time to express themselves or their thoughts
• Make a positive climate in class to respect
• Be patient with students and if possible love them all.
In addition to these tips, in the practical part of this book (Part Two), each
activity samples have provided to the readers some implementation tips.
Stages of the lesson: this sub-section includes content summary and outline,
describing the stages of the activity, the order of the instructional materials,
determining the assessment/evaluation criteria, determining the semantic networks,
further activities, and learning outcomes.
Content summary and outline; includes the scope of education and contains a list
of topics to be teaching.
Stages of the activity; gives a sequence of activities which to use in the practice
part of the instruction process. Sample sequence can as follow: Gaining attention
(Approx. 1–5 min.)
1. Informing the learner of the objective (Approx. 1–3 min)
2. Using Preliminary Information (Approx. 5–10 min)
3. Presenting the stimulus material and Providing learning guidance (Approx. 10–
20 min)
4. Eliciting the performance (Approx. 10–20 min)
5. Providing feedback (Approx. 5–10 min)
6. Assessing the performance and Enhancing retention and transfer
Instructional materials; includes the purpose of the materials to be utilized in the
teaching process.
Determining evaluation criteria; includes classroom guessing questions
(appraisals), planned test cases (assessments) and final decisions (evaluation). The
evaluation process can be examining within three sections; during the course, between
themes and evaluation of the discipline (math, language, music, social, science, etc.).
Describing semantic networks; sets out the relationship between the concepts of
the related themes in the instruction process that will be discussed and the concepts
of the related disciplines.
Further activities; includes an activity list to strengthening and improving the
instructional subjects taught. For example; homework, performance tasks, the
activities carried out with parents, inquiry, research, project, reporting, etc. shown
as an example in this regard.
Learning outcomes; are behaviors that indicate the students’ learning. Outcomes,
such as may be associated with gains in the relevant discipline, or may be some
behaviors determined by the teachers in accordance with students’ characteristics.
6.4 Evaluation
Evaluation of the instructional activities contains three types of decisions: appraisal,

assessment, and final evaluation. The relationship between these three concepts
presented in Table 6.1.
Appraisal refers to predictions made in the instruction process. Appraisals doable
during a lesson, or in any part of the discussion, or in any time on a lecture or
anytime in a question-answer activity or any other instructional activity.
Table 6.1 The relationship among appraisal, assessment, and evaluation

Features Kind of evaluation
Appraisal Assessment Evaluation
Time At the During the instruction In the beginning,
beginning and process during, at the end of
during the instruction process
instruction
process
Aim To motivate To find out the To make a decision
the students achievement level about the instruction
To mobilize To arrange, regulate and process, teachers’
the students modify the curriculum effectiveness,
plans students’ success,
To use
appropriate of
preliminary To determine the
curriculum, etc.
information academic success
To uncover the
prior learning
Sorts of – – Descriptive,
formative,
summative
Affecting factors Teacher Teaching fields, teacher Teacher
competences, competences, curriculum, competences,
pupils’ traits pupil traits, personality, educational policies,
parents’ contributions, educational
instructional environment administration
and physical facilities,
national or international
standards, etc.
Methods/techniques Instructional Tests, compositions, Some statistical
tactics, essays, oral and paper processes
questions, and examinations, projects,
other attractive inquiry reports, in-class
actions or outdoor education
performances, portfolios,
rubrics, laboratory
experiments, and etc.
274 C. Akdeniz
Assessments may vary by selected instructional models, strategies, methods, and

techniques. And also they vary depending on the other determining factors that
described Chap. 14: teaching fields, teacher competences, curriculum, pupil traits,
personality, parents’ contributions, instructional environment and physical facili-
ties, national or international standards, and others.
Assessment may vary according to the teaching fields. For example; in positive
disciplines like math, physic, chemistry, biology, etc., teachers may use tests, paper
examinations, projects, portfolios, inquiry reports, problem-solving studies, labo-
ratory experiments and etc. But in negative sciences like language, literature, fine
arts, teachers may use oral and paper examinations, essays, compositions, in-class
performances, drawing or painting, and other techniques. In some applied sciences
laboratory experiments, field trips, field research can use as an assessment
technique.
Assessment may vary according to the teacher competences. For example; a
qualified teacher knows and uses the different assessment techniques. And s/he can
associate the techniques with his/her profession. Otherwise, he/she use the same
assessment methods and techniques in every condition.
Assessment may vary according to the curriculum. For example; if the cur-
riculum is full of many acquisitions, attainments and achievements, teachers cannot
find extra time to make different instruction and consequently they will not vary the
assessment process. Let me clear this; in Turkey, elementary and secondary school
curriculums have lots of acquisitions, attainments, achievements to teach.
Sometimes, teachers cannot be able to teach all of these objectives, in fact, they
don’t. To fulfill their duties, for example, they are teaching math topics in music or
visual arts or physical education lessons. But in contrary, in Finland, elementary
and secondary curriculums have almost about one-third acquisition of the cur-
riculums of Turkish system. Finnish teachers have enough time to conduct in-class
activities and outdoor education activities. Thus, in the context of curriculum,
Finnish teachers can vary the assessment techniques, like outdoor performances,
group activities, projects instead of paper examinations.
As described so far, the assessment may vary according to the pupils’ traits,
parents’ contributions, instructional environments and school’s physical
possibilities.
Evaluation is the sum of the whole decision processes. In the evaluation phase,
teachers use the findings of assessments. Inherently, the concept of evaluation refers
to the decision. To make a decision you need some objective and subjective
arguments. In the instruction process, teachers’ decisions mostly be based on the
objective arguments. For this, teachers should use the results of assessments. For
example; you have to make a decision about one student: he will pass the next grade
or fail. To make an objective decision, you examine the results of his assessment
scores, like; examinations or laboratory studies, etc. You collect the scores and get
arithmetic mean, and then you ask the other teachers. And finally, you make a
decision about the student.
6.5 Conclusion
Instruction process needs dedicated attention. Everyone can tell or teach some
things to the other persons. In the context of education, everyone can be called as an
educator. But in the context of the instruction and the instruction process, just some
persons can be called as a teacher who applies the instructional programs, the
curriculum.
A curriculum contains almost every stage of the instruction process: planning,
teaching, learning, assessment, and evaluation. To do a good planning, instructors
should take into account of many factors. Like; epistemology, educational policies,
teaching fields, their teaching competences, curriculum, pupil traits, personality,
parents contributions, instructional environment and physical facilities, nature of
instruction, national or international standards, and educational administration, etc.
In the instruction process teachers (in some sources, also called as instructors or
educators) have to take into account of the teaching models and instructional
strategies, instructional methods, instructional techniques, and their instructional
tactics. There is a hidden hierarchy among these practices, as it shown like this;
psychological theories > learning theories > teaching models > instructional
strategies > instructional methods > instructional techniques. Because of the
curriculum and the nature of their teaching fields, teachers should choose the in-
structional activities carefully.
Glossary
Crossdisciplinary Viewing one curricular subject from the stand-

point of another.
Curriculum Courses are constituting an area of specialization
in the secondary educational institution (Canady
and Retting 1996).
Curriculum integration and are also terms used to describe teaching methods
thematic teaching that include interdisciplinary studies (Jacobs
1989).
Epistemology Branch of philosophy concerned with the nature
of knowledge or how we come to know things
Evaluation The formal reporting about a system, practice,
individual, or group and a performance grade
within the report (Danielson and McGreal 2000).
Evaluation is a decision made about a student at
some temporal point based on data accumulated
during assessments. As Sherman (1999) stated,
276 C. Akdeniz
based on the information received from assess-

ment tools such as rating scales or rubrics, “The
teacher’s judgments are translated from assess-
ment to evaluation, from a measurement to a letter
grade” (Bazan 2007).
Cognitivism Philosophical orientation based on the belief that
people actively construct their knowledge of the
world through experience and interaction rather
than through behavioral conditioning
Assessment Assessment is the process of gathering data on
student learning or the measurement of
pre-determined criteria (Sherman 1999).
Adaptation An equilibrium between the action of the organ-
ism on the environment (Piaget 1972).
Activity is a practical study, implemented as a part of the
process that served concrete objectives (Simsek
2011).
Feedback Providing the learner with answers to exercises
and other information about progress in learning
(Morrison et al. 2001).
Explanation Activities (Lecture, review of previous materials,
demonstration, board work, video clips, and
reading assignments) currently observed in a tra-
ditional setting (Canady and Retting 1996).
Learner-Centered Learner-centered also known as student-centered
Instruction activities are based on the interests, needs, and
desires of the students. Students are given more
control of how and what they learn (Knowles
1973).
Knowledge A type (or domain) of learning outcome that
focuses on the ability to recall and state-specific
information (Reiser and Dick 1996).
Lecture One of several direct instruction approaches,
which consists of delivering information verbally
Multidisciplinary The combination of several content areas that are
concerned with one problem, but without inten-
tional integration (Jacobs and Borland 1986).
Prerequisite skills The skills, knowledge, and attitudes students mus

possess to be ready for (capable of understanding)
instruction on related skills, knowledge, or atti-
tudes (Reiser and Dick 1996).
Teacher-Centered A process whereby the teacher controls and
Instruction directs how and what students learn (Knowles
1973).
Teacher-Directed Ormrod described a teacher-directed instruction
Instruction as instruction “in which the instructor directly
presents the material to be learned—for instance,
through lectures, explanations, textbooks, and
educational videos” (p. 241). As all instruction
centers on students, Ormrod suggested that
teacher-directed replace the misnomer
teacher-centered properly to describe instruction
where teachers’ direct student learning and
activities.
References
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school band (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Cleveland, OH: Case Western Reserve
University.
Danielson, C., & McGreal, T. L. (2000). Teacher evaluation to enhance professional practice.
Alexandria, V A: Association o f Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Gagné, R. M. (1965). The conditions of learning (1st ed.). London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Gagné, R. M., & Briggs, L. J. (1974). The principles of instructional design (1st ed.). New York,
NY: Holt.
Jacobs, H. (1989). Interdisciplinary curriculum: Design and implementation. Alexandria, VA:
Jacobs, H. H., & Borland, J. H. (1986). The interdisciplinary concept model: Design and
implementation. Winter: Gifted Child Quarterly.
Knowles, M. S. (1973). The adult learner: A neglected species. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company.
McNergney, R. F., & McNergney, J. M. (2009). Education: the practice and profession of
teaching. N.J. : Pearson/Merrill.
Morrison, G., Ross, S., & Kemp, J. (2001). Designing effective instruction (3rd ed.). New York:
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Piaget, J. (1972). The epistemology of interdisciplinary relationships. Paris: Organization for
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Simsek, A. (2011). Ogretim Tasarımı [Instructional design]. Ankara: Nobel.
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Part I
Summary
The instruction process with the theoretical aspects was addressed in this part. The
first part of the book containing the theoretical basis of the instructional process,
theoretical aspects are discussed in the hierarchy:
teaching models > instructional strategies > instructional methods > instruc-
tional techniques > instructional tactics.
In the first chapter, teaching models were classified with learning theories and
introduced widely. The second chapter introduced the instructional strategies in
some categories and associated them with teaching models. The third chapter
introduced the six instruction methods and gave application examples related to
these methods. The fourth chapter grouped the techniques associating with the
instructional methods and discussed in a detailed manner. The fifth chapter deals
with the instructional tactics with a new perspective. It introduced the tactics in
three phases: planning, presenting and evaluation. And many of practical tips
presented to the readers. In the last chapter of this part, an instructional plan draft
was presented for the activity samples that presented in second part of this book.
In the following part, ready to use activity samples will present.
Part II
Activity Samples
Introduction
Examples of instruction activities developed by the authors in this section have
been developed basically according to the Gangé’s “The Events of Instruction”
model. In addition to Gagné’s model, it contains some sections such as “Semantic
Networks”, examining the relationships between the concepts contained in the
282 Part II: Activity Samples
activity samples; “Learning outcomes”, where the acquisitions/attainments/

achievements of the activity, and tips on the activities, including some key points
to the practitioners.
Besides, in the “Tag of Activity” section, detailed information about the activity
is given for those who want to enrich their instructional activities and to develop
new activities related to their fields.
According to particular subjects, in some activity samples, authors used different
instructional models instead of Gagné’s model. And in some activity samples,
authors had adopted mixed-type practices bringing together two or more different
instructional models. Here, authors don’t aim to develop an ambitious approach to
the instructional process, but they want to bring a suggestion to the diversification
of instruction.
One of the aims of science is to lead us to the target in the most accurate, the
most useful, and the most effective ways. Therefore, we need to be open to the new
perspectives that do not contradict with the nature of instruction and learning. This
study, in a way, is the result of these perspectives.
Activity samples presented in this part are not lesson plans. Also, they are not
one hour or block indoor lesson draft. Aims of these activities are to offer a frame
plan to reach targeted acquisitions, achievements, attainments. Practitioner will
decide on implementing the activity in how much time, in which environment, and
with which participants.
Chapter 7
English Language Teaching
Hilal Bozoğlan and Derya Yılmaz
This chapter includes activity samples for teaching English as a foreign language.
The design of the activities was based on the guiding principles in curriculum
development and foreign language teaching approaches and methods. The chapter
consists of the presentation of the field, activity samples, and a conclusion part.
7.1 Presentation of the Field
7.1.1 Teaching English as a Foreign Language
The history of foreign language education dates back to the ancient times. Actually,
the need to learn foreign languages has been present since the beginning of the
human history. However, the origins of modern language education initiated with
the teaching of Latin in the 17th century. Latin, the dominant language of educa-
tion, commerce, religion, and government in much of the Western world for cen-
turies, was replaced by French, Italian, and English by the end of the 16th century.
The study of modern languages, on the other hand, was included in the curriculum
of European schools in the 18th century (Richards and Rodgers 2001).
The field of English language teaching has witnessed tremendous changes
especially in the twentieth century. Increasing globalization and the use of common
H. Bozoğlan (&)
e-mail: hilalhome42@gmail.com
D. Yılmaz
Institute of Educational Sciences, Süleyman Demirel University,
e-mail: deryayilmaz32@gmail.com

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_7
284 H. Bozoğlan and D. Yılmaz
languages in various domains such as trade, tourism, international relations, tech-

nology, media, and science created a huge need for working people who speak
various languages (Larsen-Freeman 2011). Accordingly, several countries around
the world have framed their education policies with an aim to teach at least one
foreign language at the primary and secondary school levels.
Throughout the history of language teaching, the prevalent method appeared in
parallel with the leading concern and the language teaching philosophy in the era.
During the classical period between 1750 and 1880, the main concern of linguists
was to teach classical languages, and the Classical or Grammar-Translation Method
was prominent in the field. During the reform period between 1880 and 1920 core
concern was to teach the spoken language. The Natural Method, the Berlitz
Method, and the Direct Method were popular during the reform period. The sci-
entific period between 1920 and 1970 witnessed the outburst of the scientific basis
for teaching foreign languages, and the dominant approach was Audiolingual
Method (Howatt and Smith 2014). After the 1970s, several methods in language
teaching appeared such as Suggestopedia, Silent Way, Total Physical Response,
Community Language Learning, Communicative Language Teaching and
Eclecticism (Richards and Rodgers 2001).
Apart from the approaches and methods specific to foreign language education
contexts, minimally guided approaches in the domain of education including dis-
covery learning (Anthony 1973; Bruner 1961); problem-based learning (PBL;
Barrows and Tamblyn 1980; Schmidt 1983), inquiry learning (Papert 1980;
Rutherford 1964), experiential learning(Boud et al. 1985; Kolb and Fry 1975), and
constructivist learning (Jonassen 1991; Steffe and Gale 1995) have also been
transferred to foreign language education contexts. This chapter provides activity
samples and exemplifies the stages of the teaching process in Total Physical
Response, Communicative Language Teaching, Inquiry-Based Learning, Problem
Based Learning and Project Based Learning that can be used in teaching English as
a foreign language to primary level students.
7.1.2 Suggestions to Parents
There are a few things parents can do help their children learn English as a foreign
language effectively. First, they need to underline that learning English as a foreign
language is important. So that, the students will be motivated both extrinsically and
intrinsically. Next, parents can help students prepare for the school day in several
ways. Initially, they need to ensure that the students are well-prepared for the
English class in general. In this context, parents can set a specific time and place for
English homework at home. Practice is an important part of foreign language
learning. Second, they need to have resources available such as pens, paper, and
dictionaries. Third, they need to be motivating and willing to answer questions
about homework when necessary. Additionally, parents can ask their children about
their English lessons at home and listen to their concerns. Finally, ensuring that the
7 English Language Teaching 285
children have had a sufficient breakfast and a good nights’ sleep is also important
for a successful learning day. Apart from helping the students prepare for the school
day, parents can also support their English language learning process through
effective communication with the English teacher. Teachers know their students the
best, and sometimes they can offer valuable resources for parents to help their
children at home. Furthermore, parents are role models for their children, and if
they can model learning English, there will be more opportunities for the students to
practice listening and speaking skills at home. Parents can also encourage their
children to watch movies with subtitles in English, read authentic materials written
in English and speak to others in English. Online social environments and some
computers games can also help children develop their English language skills.
However, parents need to ensure that their children are in a safe online
environment.
7.2 Activity Samples
Activity One: Total Physical Response.

Activity Two: Communicative Language Teaching.
Activity Three: Inquiry-based language learning.
Activity Four: Problem-based Language Learning.
Activity Five: Project-based Language Learning.
7.2.1 Activity One: Total Physical Response
Total Physical Response has been developed by James Asher, a professor of psy-
chology at San Jose State University, California. It is closely related to
Comprehension Approach (Larsen-Freeman and Anderson 2011), which gives
priority to listening. With a focus on listening, Total Physical Response
(TPR) hypothesizes that language learning starts with comprehension and pro-
duction follows next. According to Asher, learners need first to initialize the
structure of the target language. Thus, similar to a baby who spends some time
listening to the people around before speaking, learners stay silent for a certain
period of time in TPR.
Total Physical Response builds on the coordination of speech and action, and the
target language is taught through motor physical activity. In line with the trace
theory of memory which suggests that tracing a memory connection more often and
more intensely leads to stronger memory associations, TPR combines motor
activity with verbal recalls (Richards and Rodgers 2001).
Tag of Activity
Focus of Teaching: Student-centered teaching.
Method of Teaching: Indirect method.
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary; Language learning, Physical Education,
Geography, History, Communication.
Approach/Method: Total Physical Response.
Types of Learning: Imperatives in the English language.
Prerequisite knowledge: Students are expected to have information about basic
verbs.
Students’ participation: TPR proposes that learners should enjoy the experience of
learning a new language. Thus, reducing the stress level of the learners is con-
sidered to be significant in order to take students a level beyond their present
proficiency level in the target language. In this context, the learners are expected to
participate in the lesson only they are ready to speak.
Parents’ participation: Parents are required to help the students practice the English
language at home. Helping students learn new vocabulary and some grammatical
structures through games and songs could be a good idea.
Keywords: Total Physical Response, imperatives, simple verbs, gestures, actions,
realia, traffic rules, commands, role-plays, songs.
Mini Scenario:
Teacher: Now, please look at me. I am pointing to my eyes.
Teacher (to student A): Please point to your eyes. Now, close your eyes. Now, open
your eyes.
Teacher (to student A): Thank you.
Instruction Design
Purpose: This lesson aims at teaching imperatives in the English language.
Objectives: Students will be able to use simple verbs and imperatives effectively.
Materials: The TPR teacher decides what to teach and selects supporting materials
(Richards and Rodgers 2001). Teacher’s voice, gestures, and actions could be
sufficient for the early stages in a TPR lesson. However, in the following stages of
the learning process, materials and realia become more important. In the present
activity sample, selected materials are: Camera, tape-recorder, sentence strips, and
pictures of traffic rules.

Attention: The teacher attracts the attention of the students with the help of pictures
demonstrating traffic rules such as “no parking”.
Inform the target: The teacher informs the students that they will learn imperatives
throughout the lesson.
Using preliminary information: The students revise the verbs taught in the last
lesson through a pantomime game. The teacher pantomimes the verbs taught pre-
viously and the students try to guess the verb.
Presentation of Content
1. Presentation: The instructor writes a series of commands which students can act
out. Students demonstrate an understanding of each command. When the tea-
cher first presents the commands, she/he performs the actions together with the
students in order to make sure that the meaning is clear to the students. In the
second phase, the teacher only directs and observes the students after giving the
command. Providing the students with a variety of commands is important in
order to prevent the students from memorizing the commands. Students are not
expected to memorize the target structures but understand and use the structures
in different combinations. New commands should be introduced only when the
students have mastered the previous ones. The teacher can understand whether
the students have mastered the presented structures or not through observing
them.
Tip 1: TPR tries to mimic first language acquisition processes by requiring asking
learners to respond to commands, which in turn require physical movements.
Tip 2: TPR activities are great fun for students, and even grownups enjoy TPR once
they become less self-conscious.
Tip 3: TPR activities are great especially for kinesthetic learners who need more
action or hands-on activities.
2. Practice: The instructor asks students to demonstrate their mastery of the
commands by stopping the tape after each command and asking each student to
act out a command or two. Using a camera to record student action will also
increase the motivation of the students. Students can take the pictures of their
classmates demonstrating each command. Additionally, the student can work in
pairs and commands take turns reading and acting out the command sequence
written on sentence strips. A sample command sequence for going out for
shopping can be organized in the following way:
Stand up from your chair.
Take your shopping bag.
Go to the door.
Open the door.
Pick up your shoes.
Put them in front of you.
Pull up your socks.
Put your shoes on.
Go outside.
Close the door behind you.
Lock the door.
Put the keys in your pocket.

Walk to the supermarket.
……
3. Production: Students can role-play and make a video of a series of commands

and dialogues in different situations given by the teacher. They can share their
videos on Facebook, and comment on each other’s’ videos.
Tip 4: Simple verbs and sample sentences with imperatives can be exemplified
through songs.
Further activities: Songs can also be useful in TPR. Especially with young learners
using songs in the classroom can be a great activity when combined with movement
or miming (Widodo 2005). Songs will add fun to the learning process. The students
can learn imperatives while incorporating the body movements with the song.
Giving feedback: The teacher should be tolerant of student errors at the beginning
of the learning process. Errors are considered to be a natural part of the learning
process. When students become proficient in the target language, the teacher starts
working on the fine details of the language. Perfection should not be an expectation
of the teacher. Only major errors should be corrected. Giving feedback to learners
in TPR is expected to be similar to the way parents give feedback to their children.
The parents also tolerate mistakes at the beginning, but when the child gets older
parents tolerate fewer errors. Too much correction and interruption should be
avoided at the early stages of language learning similarly.
Assessment: Formal evaluation consists of asking the individual students to perform

the given commands. Observing the students throughout the learning process will
help the teacher evaluate the learners and understand whether they have mastered
the target structures or not.
Semantic networks: Grammar is taught inductively in TPR. A sentence-based

syllabus is employed in TPR classes. Grammatical and lexical items are emphasized
over other items in the target language. However, the primary focus is on meaning
instead of the structural forms. According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), a course
that is designed around Total Physical Response principles is not expected to follow
a TPR syllabus exclusively.
Outcomes:
• Students will be able to recognize and use simple verbs fluently.
• Students will be able to make sentences with imperatives effectively.
7.2.2 Activity Two: Communicative Language Teaching
Though several approaches and methods have been suggested for language
teaching till 1970s, learners had difficulty in communicating in the target language
outside the classroom. Halliday (1973) argued that learning a new language meant
much more than learning the linguistic structure of that language. Wilkins (1976)
also noted that in order to master a new language learner should be able to perform
linguistic functions such as promising, inviting or refusing. As an answer to these
questions, Communicative Language Teaching appeared in the early 1980s. The
essential aims of Communicative Language Teaching can be listed as” to make
communicative competence the goal of language teaching” and “to develop pro-
cedures for the teaching of four language skills that acknowledge the interdepen-
dence of language and communication (Richards and Rodgers 2001, p. 155) A
sample activity design based on Communicative Language Teaching is presented
below.
Tag of Activity
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary; social sciences, language teaching.
Approach/Method: Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).
Types of Learning: Concepts related to countries and nationalities.
Prerequisite knowledge: The notion of countries and nationalities in mother tongue.
Students’ participation: The role of the students in CLT can be defined as “com-
municators”, while the role of the teacher in CLT is described as “facilitator” of
communication. CLT is not a teacher-centered approach. The students take
responsibility for their own learning. Thus, CLT requires active participation on the
part of the students in the class.
Parents’ participation: Parents are required to help the students practice the English
language at home. Creating opportunities for students to practice speaking English
will help them develop their listening and speaking skills in English.
Keywords: Communicative language teaching, countries and nationalities, learner
autonomy, speaking skills, flags, continents, memory game.
Mini scenario:
Instructor: Where are you from?
Learner A: I’m from Japan.
Learner D: I’m from England?
Instructor: Where is Learner A from?
Learner B: She/he is from Japan.
Instructor: Well done!
Instruction Design
Purpose: This lesson aims at teaching countries and nationalities in the English
language. CLL proposes that true communication should be purposeful and that
learning how to communicate in the target language will increase learners’ moti-
vation for learning the target language.
Objectives: Students will be able to develop their speaking skills, recognize per-
sonal information about other people such as where they are from and what their
nationality is, ask and answer questions about others’ countries and nationalities
and identify flags of different countries.
Materials: The materials for the suggested activity can be listed as a laptop, pro-
jector, flags, continents picture. Use of authentic materials is crucial in CLL. It is
necessary to provide the students with enough opportunity to learn how to use
language as it is actually used. Thus, authentic texts such as copies of columns from
newspapers or magazines are frequently used in CLL.

1. Presentation: The teacher comes to the class with flags of different countries and
greets the students by saying “Hello” in different languages which were pre-
sented in the previous years. The teacher asks the learners to make guesses about
the topic of the day by saying “What are we going to learn today?” The teacher
shows students a video from morpakampus.com in which four children from
different countries are introducing themselves by saying their names, countries,
and nationalities. She lets the students watch the video twice if necessary and
mimes the video herself by using the flags she has brought to the classroom.
2. Practice: The teacher distributes the flags to the students and asks them to intro-
duce themselves to their classmates as in the video. Before the lesson, she sticks a
name, the name of the country and the nationality in English on the flag so that the
students use that information as they introduce themselves to their classmates. The
teacher collects the flags from the students after they introduce themselves. She
asks students to listen to their friends carefully as they will be playing a memory
game afterwards. As students introduce themselves by saying their names,
countries, and nationalities; the teacher takes notes to use in the memory game.
Tip 1: Be careful about time management.

Tip 2: Before moving to the practice stage, be sure that learners know well what
they are expected to do.
3. Production: The teacher projects the continents from a website onto the board
so that the students can also see seven continents in the world, and starts the
memory game. She introduces a student by giving information about her name,
country, and nationality.
e.g.
“She is …”
“She is from …”
“She is …”
The students are encouraged to come to the stage and find the correct flag. The
teacher takes the flag from the student if the answer is correct and sticks it on the
continent where that country is. The teacher gives tiny presents to the student to
increase their motivation. Showing sample video and miming help the students
discover what is expected from them.
Further activities: The students can work in groups and ask each other where they are
from and what their nationalities are in accordance with the flags the teacher has given
them in order to improve their speaking skills. Working in small groups is useful in
CLL, and helps to maximize the time given to each student for communication. The
most frequently used interaction type in CLL is student-student interaction.
Giving feedback: The teacher needs to be tolerant of learners’ errors as these show
that learners are developing their communicative competence. The teacher doesn’t
focus on accuracy but fluency so she gives immediate feedback to students’ errors
in pronunciation and intonation. Errors are regarded as the natural components of
the learning process in CLL. Even the students who have limited knowledge of the
linguistic forms can be good communicators. Teachers are advised not to correct
errors during fluency-based activities. Instead, errors are expected to be corrected
mostly during accuracy-based activities.
Assessment: Throughout the lesson, the teacher observes the students and takes
some notes about learners’ accomplishments and failures and gives necessary
feedback to the learners. Both formal and informal evaluation can be employed in
CLL. Integrative tests, which require the students to use their communicative
abilities through real communicative functions are useful in CLL.
Semantic networks: In this lesson, grammar is taught inductively. The focus is not
on accuracy but fluency and meaning. The teacher emphasizes all four skills
(reading, writing, listening, and speaking) from the beginning. CLL suggests that in
parallel with the negotiation taking place between the speaker and the listener in
oral communication, there is also negotiation taking place between the reader and
the writer in written communication, as well. The target language is considered to
be a means of communication, not a subject to be studied. Thus, the target language
is used to explain the activities or to assign homework.
Outcomes:
• Students will be able to recognize the countries and nationalities in the English
language.
• Students will be able to introduce themselves and give information about
country and nationality.
• Students will be able to understand brief information about other people’s
countries and nationalities.
7.2.3 Activity Three: Inquiry-Based language learning
Inquiry-based learning is an extended teaching and learning approach which is

based on different interpretations of problem-based learning originally applied in
medical education (Barrows and Tamblyn 1980). In inquiry-based learning, student
contribution and active participation in the learning process is significant (Evenson
and Hmelo 2000; Ladyshewsky and Edwards 1999). It is an accepted fact that in
language learning students’ active participation is crucial. Since inquiry-based
learning favours student autonomy in learning, it is feasible to apply inquiry-based
learning method in language classes. Studies in the literature also show that using
inquiry-based learning in language classes enhances language learning. However,
there might be some challenges in the process of inquiry-based learning like stu-
dents’ expectations about language learning, lack of autonomy, assessment and
administrative problems (Ghahremani-Ghajar et al. 2012). Though there are studies
on the usage of inquiry-based learning in language classes, its usage needs to be
popularized in ELT field.
Tag of Activity
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary; language teaching, sciences.
Approach/Method: Inquiry-based Learning.
Types of Learning: Concepts related to doing experiments.
Prerequisite knowledge: Steps to do an experiment
Students’ participation: Actively do the experiment in the classroom and inquire
the vocabulary items related to it.
Parents’ participation: Parents are required to help the students prepare a poster
about doing experiments.
Keywords: Inquiry-based learning, doing experiment, density, rainbow in a tube,
doing research, doing presentation, group work, sugar solutions, guessing the
reason.
Mini Scenario:
Teacher: Good morning
Students: Good morning
Teacher: I have brought lots of materials for you. Here they are. (The teacher says
their names in English loudly as she puts them on the table.) Let’s start doing the
experiment. (She does the experiment as explained in the presentation stage below.)
Okay. Why do you think sugar solutions stay on top of each other? (She elicits the
answer from different students.)
Learner A: Because density is different.
Instruction Design
Purpose: This lesson aims at teaching how to do an experiment in the English
language.
Objectives: Students will be able to give and respond to simple instructions and
make simple inquiries.
Materials: goggle, lab coat, glasses, mini test tube, syringe, food dye, sugar, water,
steps to do different experiments.

Presentation: The teacher comes to the class with a goggle on top of her head
wearing a lab coat so that the student will have some idea about the subject of the
lesson which is doing experiments. The teacher also brings the necessary materials
to do an experiment related to density called “rainbow in a tube”. She starts putting
the materials on the table by saying their names in English.
4 glasses
Mini test tube
Syringe
Some food dye in 4 different colours
10 tablespoons sugar
60 ml water 4
She puts four glasses in a row and starts adding sugar to the glasses. To the 1st
glass, she adds 1 tablespoon; to the 2nd glass, she adds 2 tablespoons; to the 3rd
glass, she adds 3 tablespoons; and finally to the 4th glass, she adds 4 tablespoons.
Then, she adds 60 ml of water to each glass to dissolve sugar and create a
sugar-water solution. She stirs the water-sugar solution by emphasizing the word
stirring. Then; into glass number 1, she adds some red food dye; into glass number
2, she adds some yellow food dye; into glass number 3, she adds some green food
dye; and into glass number 4, she adds some blue food dye. She takes the mini test
tube again emphasizing the name. From glass number 4, she takes some blue sugar
solution to the mini test tube by using the syringe and does this 3–4 times. She
washes out the syringe with clean water to take some green sugar solution from
glass number 3 and adds it to the mini test tube carefully. She draws students’
attention to the fact that the green solution stays on the top of the blue sugar
solution. This is because it has a different density to the blue sugar solution. She
repeats the same for glasses number 2 and 1. At the end, she expects the students to
understand the reason why sugar solutions stay on top of each other and explain it
in English by using the newly learnt vocabulary items.
Practice: The teacher forms groups of four and distributes the necessary materials
and steps to do an experiment to each group. The teacher gives some time to the
groups so that they can do search about the steps and get ready to do the experiment
in front of their classmates. The groups are expected to come to the board and do
the assigned experiment by explaining it in English in accordance with the steps.
Tip 1: It is important to make sure that the group members share the burden equally.
Tip 2: The students should have enough time to search about the steps.
Production: The teacher asks the student search about an experiment and prepares
a poster in which they present the steps of an experiment by using the visuals,
charts, diagrams, etc. The students are expected to present theirs in the class to their
classmates.
The students are expected to give and respond to simple instructions by making
simple inquiries. In order to uncover the desired behaviour, the teacher provides as
much input and time as possible to the learners.
Further activities: The students can also do more experiments at home by
explaining the steps in English and video record it with the help of their parents so
that the other students can also watch it in the classroom.
Giving feedback: Since teacher functions as the facilitator of the lesson, she gives
feedback or direct explanations when students fail in making inquiries as she
observes the students in practice and production phase of the lesson.
Assessment: The teacher tries to assess learners’ development of information-
processing skills and conceptual understanding. As learners work in groups and pre-
sent their posters, the teacher assesses the learners’ understanding by observing.
Semantic networks: Grammar is taught inductively, and the students are expected
to make simple inquiries about doing experiments as they watch the teacher do the
experiment. In practice and production phases, the students actively use the phrases
and structures they have learned by making inquiries.
Outcomes: Students will be able to understand and give simple instructions related
to doing experiments.
7.2.4 Activity Four: Problem-Based Language Learning
Problem-based learning is an alternative pedagogical approach originally developed

for students of medicine in the 1970s by Barrows through which students learn
collaboratively to find solutions to real-life problems (Barrows 1986). In the liter-
ature, it is seen that problem-based learning can also be applied in other fields than
medicine (Duffy and Cunningham 1997). In problem-based learning, ill-structured
problems are used to lead the learning process (Kosel 2002). Ill-structured problems
do not have one correct answer in contrast to the multiple choice, true-false
questions (Spiro et al. 1991). When it comes to ELT, the usage of problem-based
learning is not as common as it needs to be. When applied to language classes,

problem-based learning fosters motivation and collaboration among students
(Bosuwan and Woodrow 2009). Since ELT students need meaningful and real life
activities to value what they learn, the usage of problem-based learning in language
classes needs to be popularized. In the following part, a sample activity design is
presented in the context of problem-based language learning.
Tag of Activity
Focus of Teaching: Student-centered teaching
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary, language teaching, pedagogy.
Approach/Method: Problem Based Learning.
Types of Learning: Case Studies.
Prerequisite knowledge: As prospective English teachers, the students need to have
gotten pedagogical training.
Students’ participation: Actively deal with the case students.
Parents’ participation: Prospective language teachers might need to ask help from
their students’ parents as they solve the problems in the cases presented.
Keywords: Problem-based learning, case study, prospective language teachers,
methodology, pedagogy, critical thinking skills.
Mini Scenario:
Learner A: We were responsible for case 2 as a group.
Instructor: Read it aloud please so that your friends have an idea about your case.
(One of the group members reads it aloud)
Instructor: Yes. What would you teach? Which method/approach would you use?
Learner B: I would teach animals, and I would use Total Physical Response because
young learners like to be active as they are learning in the classroom.
Learner C: I would teach colours and I would prefer using the eclectic method.
Following only one method throughout the lesson might be boring for the young
learners.
Learner D: I would teach fruits, and I would use Communicative Language
Teaching because I personally believe the importance of developing speaking skills
at early stages of language learning.
Instructor: Do you have anything to add? (The instructor directs this question to the
rest of the class.)
Instructor: Thank you for your contribution and comments.
Instruction Design
Purpose: This lesson aims at providing the prospective language teachers with real
life problems by presenting them some problematic cases to be solved.
Objectives: Students will be able to develop their critical thinking skills as they deal
with the real life problems by working on the cases.
Materials: Cases, power point presentation, laptop, and projector.

1. Presentation: The instructor comes to class and greets the students. Due to the
fact that students should know what Problem-based learning (PBL) is to benefit,
the instructor first explains what PBL is brief via power point presentation.
2. Practice: Having explained the PBL briefly, the instructor asks the students to
form groups of 4–5. In groups, it is important that student groups consist of
students from different language proficiency levels to guarantee that students
communicate in English. The instructor distributes the cases to the groups and
asks them to discuss them in English by giving support to their answers.
Case 1
Imagine that you have started working as an English language teacher at a primary
school. Although you are very motivated and willing to teach English to kids, they
hate English lessons and do not want to come to school when they have English
classes? What would you do to solve this problem? How would you react to this
situation? Specify your solutions by stating your reasons to do so.
Case 2
Imagine that you are going to apply for a position as an English language teacher in
a primary school. You are expected to do a micro-teaching on any subject. What
would you teach? Which method/approach would you choose? Specify your
solutions by stating your reasons to do so.
Case 3
Imagine that you are working at a high school as an English language teacher. At
the beginning of the term, as English language teachers working at the same school,
you are planning the term together. Do you need to make a decision about giving
homework to students? Would you favour giving homework? Why/Why not?
Explain your decision by stating the reasons.
Case 4
Imagine that you are teaching English to the 8th grades at a secondary school.
Although you are aiming to develop their reading, speaking, writing, and reading
skills, the students do not seem willing to do so. They only want to solve test in
English as they will take a central exam in English as in other courses. How would
you react to this situation? What would you do? Explain your solutions by stating
your reasons to do so.
Case 5
Imagine that you are working as an English teacher at a high school. A student of
yours seems determined to sleep during your lessons by saying that she is ill.
Whenever you try to wake her up, she reacts fiercely. You talk to other teachers at
school and they suggest ignoring that student, but this doesn’t sound like great idea
to you. What would you do? How would you solve this problem? Explain your
solutions by stating the reasons to do so.
Tip 1: Walk around the class as students work in a group to check whether each
student contributes to the group discussion.
3. Production: In this part of the lesson, each student is expected to provide his/her
solution to the problems by giving detailed explanations by referring to their
pedagogical and theoretical knowledge about the field.
The instructor provides the students with cases related to their field and asks
them to discuss the problematic cases to find solutions by referring to their theo-
retical knowledge.
Further activities: The instructor can provide follow-up activities like
form-focused instruction, pronunciation, pragmatic issue, theoretical knowledge
about the field based on her observations.
Giving feedback: The instructor may provide feedback on student participation in
the activity and language used during activity.
Assessment: The instructor assesses students’ participation and success in the
activity based on her observations during group discussions and individual
presentations.
Semantic networks: By working on the problematic cases, prospective language
teachers have a chance to develop their critical thinking skills indirectly. Working
on the cases will give them a chance both to practice their speaking skills and apply
their theoretical knowledge to real life cases.
Outcomes: Students will be able to provide solutions to the problematic cases by
referring to their theoretical and pedagogical knowledge.
7.2.5 Activity Five: Project-Based Language Learning
Project-based learning is an open learning process in which learners’ needs and

interests have great influence on the progress of the education (Frey 1986; Kriwas
2007). The applications of project-based learning bases on the idea that learners
deal with a subject in accordance with their needs and interests in a deeper sense
(Demirhan 2002). Using project-based learning in a classroom environment has
many advantages like prompting learner autonomy, developing positive attitudes
toward learning (Stoller 2006, p. 27). Although there are very limited number of
studies on the usage of project-based learning in ELT in different levels, findings
suggest that applying project based learning in language classes helps the learners
improve language skills since it allows the learners to use the language in a rela-
tively natural environment and more authentic activities (Haines 1989). In addition
to this, applying project based learning in language classes gives the opportunity to
integrate language skills naturally (Stoller 2006, p. 33). It seems reasonable to
popularize the usage of project-based learning in language classes. The following

section suggests an activity sample designed in the context of project-based lan-
guage learning.
Tag of Activity
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary; social sciences, language teaching.
Approach/Method: Project Based Learning.
Types of Learning: Concepts related to natural disasters.
Prerequisite knowledge: The notion of natural disasters.
Students’ participation: Actively deal with the subject in and out of the classroom.
Parents’ participation: Parents are required to support the students as they carry out
their project.
Keywords: Project-based learning, natural disasters, pair work, newspaper extracts,
writing a short story, poster presentation, victims of natural disasters.
Mini scenario: Pair work
Learner A: It occurred in Japan, right?
Learner B: Yes, and It happened in 2007.
Learner A: Yes, you are right. There were 300 dead people.
Learner B: It is too sad. People were terrified. How would you feel if you were
there?
Learner A: I would be scared.
Instructor: Okay. Time is up. Who is coming to the board from you?
Learner A: Me. (She explains the news about the natural disaster occurred in Japan
briefly.)
Instructor: Thank you so much.
Instruction Design
Purpose: This lesson aims at teaching natural disasters in the English language.
Objectives: Students will be able to develop their critical thinking and presentation
skills as they deal with the Subject-Natural Disasters- by doing a project about it.
Materials: Newspaper extracts.

1. Presentation: The teacher comes to class with news collected via different media
about natural disasters occurred in the last two decades in different parts of the
world. She distributes the news to the students and asks them to discuss the
following questions in pairs?
Where did it occur?

When did it happen?
What happened after it?

Were there any dead people? If so, how many?
How did people feel after it?
How would you feel and what would you do?
Having studied in pairs, one student from each pair comes to the board and gives
brief information about the news they discussed to the other students. At the end of
the lesson, the teacher asks the students to do some research on the net to find news
about natural disasters occurred all over the world in the last two decades and send
it via e-mail to her in a three day period. If the teacher finds the news appropriate to
present in the class, she asks the student to prepare a poster about the news and
present it in the lesson. If not, she asks the student to go on searching to find
different natural disaster news.
As students prepare their posters, they are required to
• Plan their time
• Search for the news about natural disasters occurred all around the world on the
web
• Do research using books and magazines
• Enrich it with pictures, drawings, photos, etc.
• Give a reference.
Throughout the week, the students are required to prepare their poster to present
in the following lesson.
2. Practice: The students come to the board one by one and present their poster to
their classmates by giving brief information about the news. As students present
their posters, the other students are expected to listen and free to ask questions
about it.
Tip 1: Encourage the students to discuss the news in English in pairs.
3. Production: As a project, the teacher asks the students to write a short story in
accordance with the following guideline.
Task: Writing a short story

Topic: Natural Disasters
Duration: 2 weeks.
Imagine that you are a victim of the natural disaster you prepared the poster
about and wrote a short story.
In your short story, write about:
• Where did it happen?
• When did it happen?
• Who was there with you?
• Were you alone?

• How did you feel?
• What was strange/interesting?
Tell the story step by step.
Use photos or illustrations.
Find a title to your short story.
Feel free to ask any question to me as you work on your project.
Submit your short story by …/…/… at the latest.
(The guideline for writing a short story was adapted from Ertopcu et al. 2015).
Having collected the short stories from the students, the teacher gives feedback
to the students and asks them to rewrite it by doing the necessary corrections in a
one week period. To publicize the students’ short stories, the teacher leaves a copy
of them to the school library and asks the other students in the school to read and
enjoy it.
With this lesson, the teacher aims at developing learners’ research, creativity,
thinking and writing skills. Writing a short story by using the collected information
on the net with the help of their imagination is a good way to foster learners’
writing skills.
Further activities: To publicize the students’ short stories, the teacher leaves a copy
of them to the school library and asks the other students in the school to read and
enjoy it.
Giving feedback: The teacher needs to function as a facilitator and a guide to the
students throughout the project. Giving immediate feedback to the students’
questions as they work on their project is crucial so that the students can go on
writing and finish their short story.
Assessment: Assessment in this lesson is twofold: Research notes and the outcome.
Semantic networks: In this lesson, grammar is taught inductively via the news about
natural disasters. The focus is not on accuracy but fluency and meaning.
Outcomes:
• Understanding things that happened in the past
• Exchanging information about past events
• Writing a short story about a real natural disaster.
7.3 Conclusion
Since the early 20th century, foreign language teaching experts and researchers
have been seeking the most effective approach and method. Various approaches and
methods have been put forward since the 1900s. Some approaches and methods are
considered to be better or more effective than others, but still, they all have some
limitations and strengths. An overview of methods used in language teaching and

learning suggest that there is not one single best method for every learner in all
contexts, and no single teaching method is inherently superior to the others. Thus, it
is not possible to apply the same methodology to all learners with different
objectives, environments and learning needs. Teachers are advised to attain an
eclectic approach and design their lessons and choose their materials in accordance
with the needs of the learners, objectives of the lesson and the conditions present in
the learning environment. One size doesn’t fit all!
Glossary
Assessment (to To have an opinion on learners’ ability, achievement,

assess) proficiency or progress
Audio-visual aids Teaching aids such as audio, video, overhead projection,
posters, pictures and graphics
Authentic text Written or spoken texts which a native speaker might
read or listen to such as extracts from newspapers, radio,
the internet, etc.
Brainstorm To quickly think of ideas about a topic and write them
down
Communicative A classroom activity which requires learners to talk or
activity write to other learners
Communicative An approach to language teaching which is based on the
approach principle that learning a language efficiently involves real
written and spoken communication
Focus on form Paying attention to the parts of language rather than
meaning
Grammar A way of teaching in which learners study grammar and
Translation method translate words and texts into their own language or the
target language
Handout, worksheet A piece of paper with exercises, activities or tasks on it
Ice-breaker An introductory speaking activity which is used by the
teacher to help learners get to know each other
Learner-centered An approach which requires learners to take active part
in the lesson
Learning style The style in which an individual learner generally prefers
to learn something
Mime To tell something using only body movements, without

the words
Mother tongue The first language that you learn when you were born
Peer feedback Feedback given to a learner by other learners in the class
Portfolio A collection of work that is gathered to see what he/she
has done during the learning process
Problem-solving An activity which requires learners to work in pairs or
activity groups to find a solution to a problem
Project work An activity which requires learners to work on an
extended task or tasks related to a particular topic
Realia Real objects such as clothes, menus, which are brought
into the classroom for educational purposes
Silent period The time when learners who have just begun to learn
another language prefer to listen (or read) before
speaking or writing in the new language
Stress Pronouncing part of a word or a sentence louder and
longer than the other parts
Supplementary The books and other materials which are used by the
material teacher to supplement the course book
Task An activity that learners are required to complete
Teacher-centered An approach which requires the teacher to lead activities
in the classroom
Visual aid A picture, a diagram or anything which are used to
illustrate form or meaning
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Chapter 8
Language of Turkish: Advanced Levels
Necmi Aytan
The Turkish language is a treasure of glory. Its pearls are

brighter than stars, and its gardens of rose shine like the sun.
(Ali Şir Nevâi)
In this chapter, examples of advanced theoretical expression of Turkish as a foreign

language and the activities in this level are presented. In developing advanced
language activities, the theoretical framework and the stages of the TTFL process
were taken into account. This theoretical framework and stages were detailed in the
activities. This chapter involves the subsections of “Introducing the Advanced
Level Domains”, “Advanced Level Activity Examples”, and “Summary”.
8.1 Presentation of the field
In this chapter, approaches and methods used in teaching Turkish as a foreign

language are presented. Advanced level language teaching can be presented by
many approaches including verbal, visual, thematic, natural, structural, scientific,
auditory, cognitive and communicative. These approaches can be used in language
teaching by using the methods of lecture, question-answer, discussion, case studies,
cooperative learning, oral presentation, drama and brainstorming. This section
concludes with activities and summary.
N. Aytan (&)
Doğu Yerleşkesi, Education Faculty, Süleyman Demirel University,
Room 252, Isparta, Turkey
e-mail: necmiaytan@gmail.com

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_8
306 N. Aytan
8.1.1 Briefing
The scope of the advanced language teaching is not similar to beginner and
intermediate level. As it is presumed in an advanced level that the learners have
dominance in many parts of the language, it means that various features of the
language have been covered. Someone with advanced language proficiency in the
process of learning Turkish can comprehend a long and challenging text and can
even get implicit meanings. Without having to look up for word for a long time,
these learners can naturally and fluently express themselves. They can also use the
language flexibly and effectively in social, occupational, and academic life.
Additionally, they can explain themselves in complex issues in a clear and sys-
tematic manner, and they can show control on editing, articulation and discourse
coherence means (Bülbül 2015). Therefore, it can be suggested that there is no
methods and approaches limit in advanced level language teaching. An excerpt
from a work of art, a newspaper or travel writing, and the other similar texts are
presented with a pre-selected method and approach. This study shortly introduces
the methods and approaches that can be used in advanced level language teaching.
It is boldly underlined that advanced level teaching is possible to develop with one
or all of the reading, listening, speaking, and writing skills. Then, activities taken
from a sample product were prepared based on advanced level teaching require-
ments. These activities are composed of six stages involving questions related to
reading the text, summarizing the text, grammar, finding the correct meaning,
placing the verbs in the correct blank, and looking up the dictionary.
8.1.2 Approaches to Teaching Turkish as a Foreign

Language
In this section, some of the approaches used in the advanced language teaching are
discussed.
Verbal Approach: Oral exercises and pronunciation activities are significant in
verbal approach. Richards and Rodgers (2014) claimed that understanding speech
and speaking the language at the same level on the basis of language in language
learning process could only be explained by the verbal approach. Specifically,
Bloomfield (1942, quoted by Rost 2001) expressed that the American linguists
transformed verbal approach into the auditory-visual method.
Visual Approach: This approach defends that language teaching shall be con-
ducted by senses, and it suggests that language acquisition should involve visual
materials and practices. Activities are carried out through visual instruments.
Students are addressed by their visual memory and mind.
Thematic Approach: Tochon et al. (2011) claim that thematic approach is
important in grabbing students’ attention, helping them gain basic knowledge of the
target language, and addressing the themes that are about the use of Turkish
8 Language of Turkish: Advanced Levels 307
language in daily life. A variety of audio-visual material must be prepared or chosen

when selecting the themes, and they shall be used throughout the classes. The
themes must be categorized depending on intermediate and advanced level learners’
needs and expectations, and each theme must cover a lesson activity based on the
pre-selected themes. Knowing what, where, when, how, and by who to use in the
classes is one of the bases of thematic language teaching. According to Gunes
(2009), themes in thematic approach enable learners to expand and organize the
knowledge and skills, structuring in mind, and transferring to everyday life.
Natural Approach: This approach is defined as communication without mother
tongue. Trainers who teach their mother tongue as a foreign language do not use
another language in the teaching procedure. This approach supports forming simple
sentences, teaching the language in a natural way without going deep into the
grammar topics, and face-to-face communication (Krashen and Terrel 1983).
Additionally, this approach has three stages of understanding the inputs, low
emotional state, and the significance of communication. In these stages, learners are
required to learn the language in a more natural environment by focusing more on
the message rather than the unnecessary details, being in a less anxious sur-
rounding, and addressing a specific purpose. According to Demiral (2010), natural
approach is defined as “communicating with learners from the very beginning in the
mother tongue of trainer, uttering sentences through continuous speech, and real-
izing all these stages with a series of simple sentences in such a connected way that
can be found in an advanced test but with no explicit grammar explanations”.
Structuralist and Scientific Approach: This approach emphasizes the existence
of a layout in the language itself and requires learners to consider this language
structure while learning. Combining the previous knowledge with scientism in the
target language and comprehending the language layout are the main basis of this
approach.
Audio Lingual Approach: In this approach, the structure of the language and
words are taught by means of dialogue techniques. Repetition of subjects and
themes is quite common (Demircan 2013). A big number of grammar exercises are
used to teach grammar. Simple structures and sentences that can be understood by
learners are used. According to Hengirmen (2006), the difficulties of the language
must be taught by simple and easy structures in the hierarchical order of language,
which can be realized by various exercises and activities. Instead of a usual
classroom, this approach requires a language lab that has the necessary audio
equipment.
Cognitive Approach: According to Memis and Erdem (2013), cognitive methods
in language teaching is consisted of the integration of new and old knowledge in a
semantic way. The emphasis of this approach is located on learning the language
cognitively and semantically without memorizing (Dogan 2012).
Communicative Approach: Unlike cognitive approach, this approach attaches
importance to focusing not only on grammar and abstract concepts, but also on
personality, age, gender, and special conditions in applications related to language
teaching that is effective in improving the communicative aspect of the language.
According to Harmer (2007), because of the fact that the communicative dimension
308 N. Aytan
of language is related to the cultural aspect, the responsibility of learning is left to

the student. By using the communication aspect of language, students can organize
their academic achievement based on their needs. In this process, they also asso-
ciate their culture and the target language’s culture and realize the learning by
considering time, place, and the other various factors.
8.1.3 Methods of Teaching Turkish as a Foreign Language
Before continuing with some methods in teaching Turkish, it is important to ana-

lyze the language proficiency level of an advanced learner. There is a criterion for
advanced language level in the context of “Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages”. A proficient user at C1 level can understand a wide
range of demanding, longer texts, and recognize implicit meaning, can express
him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for
expressions. They can use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic
and professional purposes, can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on
complex subjects, showing controlled use of organizational patterns, connectors,
and cohesive devices. Additionally, a proficient user with C2 level can understand
with ease virtually everything heard or read, can summarize information from
different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a
coherent presentation. Also, they can express him/herself spontaneously, very flu-
ently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more complex
situations (OBM 2001). Having an advanced language proficiency is only possible
through the implementation of some of the approaches and methods. Methods are
also composed of approximately eight to ten different types. This study evaluates
seven of these methods.
Lecture: This is one of the most commonly used foreign language teaching
method adopted by trainers and teachers. In this method, the teacher is at the
forefront behaving like an actor. If the teacher can grab the attention of learners
while teaching a new topic, the lessons are more fruitful and effective. If known to
unknown, simple to complex, and concrete to abstract methods are adopted, it could
be easier for teachers to benefit from lecturing method (Köksal and Varisoglu
2012).
Question-Answer: Using this method in language teaching in the classroom
context can accelerate the flow of information to the learners. As this method is
realized in an interactive way, students can reinforce what they have learnt, and
they feel more motivated to learn. This method is effective in terms of improving
students’ language skills and empathy.
Discussion: The purpose of this method is to discuss and debate all aspects of a
topic that is related to the subject or theme of teaching instruction. While using this
method which mostly develops learners’ speaking and listening skills, it is
significant to pay attention to learner level and the activities must attract learner
focus and attention. As the interaction is bilateral here, gestures and facial
expressions of people have an important part. As a result of this method, learners
are expected to improve their expression, thinking skills and self-confidence.
Case Study: This is a method that improves students’ speaking and writing skills.
It is also learner-centered, and it contributes to their higher level thinking skills by
preparing them for life. According to Jones (1982), a case study is a teaching
method that involves a structured learning environment which is quite similar to the
real life. Demirel (2010) stated that this method is suitable for intermediate and
advanced level learners and students.
Cooperative Learning: Students are divided into small groups, and they interact
with one another in this method. What is more significant in this method is that
learners shall be in cooperation and lead to the result altogether (Açıkgöz 1992).
This method can be used with all learner groups from different ages. Responsibility
is shared among the group members, and they feel secure against each other.
Cooperative learning is one of the most efficient methods that can help enable
learners to keep their motivation level high in learning a foreign language.
Verbal Expression (Forum, Dialogue, Debate, etc.): This method involves a
number of different methods such as a forum, dialogue, conference, speech, sym-
posium, and debate. Generally, in verbal expression methods, there are narrator and
listeners and the communication between them is based on dual conversation. In
this sort of communication, question-answer sessions and the expressions of par-
ticipants and listeners is important the development and teaching of the target
language. The narrator in verbal expression method appeals to a wide audience
based on communication diversity, and they can deliver academic presentations and
speech. Language teaching could be diversified in methods by the organization of
scientific, artistic etc. activities thanks to language trainers in the framework of
verbal expression.
Drama: Drama in language teaching is the realization of an imaginary world by
the learners through gestures, facial expressions, and body language within the
framework of a theme or activity determined regarding the language teaching
procedure. According to Kara (2009), it is the demonstration of an event or
occasion without being committed to text. This method is also regarded as the
language learning by doing and experiencing, and it contributes to learners’ social
life, problem-solving skills, being active and creative, and language improvement.
Demirel (2010) underlines that drama in language teaching is divided into two as
natural and formal. It can be clearly suggested that natural drama is effective in
helping learners speak fluently and express themselves more comfortably, while
formal drama is useful for memorizing the selected play and developing the lan-
guage skills in the context of playing the drama activity in a context. Drama method
prepares learners for life through scenarios, and it positively improves students’
listening skills, self-confidence, creativity, and the use of information.
310 N. Aytan
8.1.4 Advanced Text Case and Activity
Various approaches in the advanced language teaching and learning methods are
used in the form of language learners to develop their skills. Factors such as age,
opportunities, culture and education affect language learning in different ways. This
also has an impact on underdevelopment of basic language skills. However, these
skills are in connection with each other. Activities and practices developed in the
context of language teaching can help the improvement of these skills. The first of
these skills is listening.
Listening to the Text: Listening skills are performed by ear and brain
relationship. According to Aksan (1998), listening skill is the transmission of
sounds heard or understood during the life to the brain and the meaning attached to
those sounds. In addition to the purpose of listening practices suitable for learner
level in language teaching and developing their listening skills, it is necessary to
practice verbal expression in an appropriate way to the learner level. By developing
listening skills, educational attainments for students such as comprehension and
interpretation of visual and auditory publications, noting down the listening pieces,
interpreting the speech and express orally, and establishing dialogue are provided.
Speaking about the Text: Unlike the other skills, speaking skill is the oral
expression of individual emotion, opinions, and wishes. Speaking skill is not
independent of other skills. This skill has a special place in language teaching.
Proper speech and correct pronunciation of the target language is essential for
mastering the language and learning it accurately. Speaking skill is the development
of individual attainments through family and the environment accompanied by
specific programs and according to the desired purpose (Yıldız 2010). Thanks to
this skill, language learners can comprehend the sound structure, grammar, body
language, and verbal expressions—especially for the advanced learner—(open
session, rhetoric, etc.) of the target language speakers.
Reading the Text: According to Akyol (2013), reading is an exchange of views
that take place between reader and writer. The readers can reveal new meanings by
combining the text presented and the preliminary information. The semantic rela-
tions of previous knowledge and reading skills in the language teaching process
become possible only through reading the sources from the target language. Graber
(2009) claims that it is necessary to use reading resources from the target language
in the language teaching methods. Keskin and Okur (ve Okur 2013) underline that
the improvement of reading skills in foreign language teaching shall not be ignored
in the acquisition and development of these skills. When language learners do not
have adequate sentence knowledge, vocabulary and background knowledge of the
target language, reading instruction cannot go beyond solely reading a text. Target
audience’s skills play a significant role in comprehending the implicit meaning and
understanding correctly.
Writing Related to the Text: The first acquired language skill is listening. The
writing skill comes after other skills (Coşkun 2013). In general, writing skills
among the four basic language skills in foreign language teaching has mostly been
neglected. Language teachers avoid in-class writing exercises and instead they
sometimes assign homework (Bagci and Basar 2013). More time shall be allocated
to writing exercises in the target language teaching, and the writing activities must
be diversified. Learners must be enabled to write down what they hear, observes,
dream, and think in different compositions, which can only be possible by writing
exercises.
8.1.5 Suggestions to parents
Any program developed by student parents regarding the language development

can help learners improve themselves as they help them in an extracurricular way.
At this point, parents can support learners and organize reinforcement activities. To
further improve Turkish skills of students, they must be enabled to communication
with Turkish speaking relatives, friends or the other people face-to-face or through
online platforms. Meetings with Turkish speakers can also be organized. Parents
can allow the students to visit Turkey to improve their Turkish level. For those who
live in Turkey, they can also experience the language firsthand by means of
domestic trip activities and the other organizations. Learners can further develop
their language level by watching plays, and going to theaters or cinema, and they
can also participate in local and cultural organizations.
Parents can provide their children with artistic activities such as poems, music,
and sketch found in Turkish website and electronic books. Documentaries about
Turkey can be watched together, and a language awareness can be created through
Turkish films and TV series. Participation in activities such as Hacivat-Karagöz
shadow play, public storytelling, and low comedy, and supporting learners in
meeting the other language learners in different platforms can increase their practice
and spoken language levels. Conferences, panels, and conversation can accelerate
the learning procedure of Turkish language.
Consequently, parents can help students meet their peers who speak the lan-
guage fluently at different platforms and give them a chance to practice the lan-
guage face-to-face. By establishing connections through social media, parents can
provide the opportunity of meeting with language tutors or counsels who can speak
both languages fluently. Also, they could raise their children in an environment
where mainly Turkish is spoken or through the help of providing academic support
thanks to educators who can speak the target language comfortably.
Activity One: Do I understand better if I see?

Activity Two: If the Scene is Mine, Then Let Me Talk.
Activity Three: Show me all you got!
312 N. Aytan
Activity Four: Tell Me So That I Can Learn!

Activity Five: Consult someone who knows!
8.2.1 Activity One: Do I Understand Better if I See?
This activity was designed by visual instructional model. In this model, what is
presented and taught are addressed to the people’s emotions. The target language is
taught to learners through behaviors, gestures, and mimics. The courses are enri-
ched by visual items, and the teaching instruction is realized by oral
communication.
Tag of Activity
Focus of Teaching: Learner-centered instruction
Type of Teaching: Narrative, thematic, anecdotal and mnemonic instruction.
Visual elements, dialogues, question-answer, and oral communication are used
together.
Approach/Method: Audio—Visual Model
Types of Learning: This activity teaches an understanding main idea, obtaining
specific information, detailed understanding, and reasoning skills.
Prerequisite knowledge: Pre-activity preparation; Audio-visual information and
text information.
Students’ participation: In-class text reading activity is done to provide students’
participation. The text is projected to the board, and the written handouts will be
distributed to the students. A few volunteers can read the text aloud. Additionally,
the other prepared activities can be used, and the lessons are supported by verbal
communication, visual materials, and dialogue. Throughout the activities, lectures,
written questions about the text, summarizing and writing are conducted.
Parents’ participation: Student parents are like out-of-school supporters of the
learning procedure. They can motive them to learn and engage in some rein-
forcement activities. To further improve Turkish skills of students, they must be
enabled to communicate face-to-face or online with their Turkish-speaking rela-
tives, friends, and the other people. Some meetings can be organized Turkish
speaking participants. They can also use websites and electronic books in Turkish.
Practical recommendations to parents: Students can be given the opportunity to
visit Turkey and participate in some domestic trips and the other activities to
experience the language.
Keywords: Visuality, target language, gestures, facial expressions, advanced
level, text, meaning, topic, stories, novels, poems, newspaper articles, Turkish
resources, visual materials, grammar, summarizing, character, memory, dialogue,
question-answer, inference, reasoning, brainstorming, slides, photographs, oral
communication, Turkish web-site, note papers, composition, activity.
Mini-scenario: In this activity, teacher tells students to the following:
Teacher: Dear students, what would you do if the author who we talk about in this
class come to visit us?
Feeling surprised, students ask different questions:
Öğrenci A: Hocam bu yazar yaşıyor mu?
Öğrenci D: Türkiyeli mi, değil mi?
Öğrenci B: Bize ne anlatacak?
Öğrenci H: Nasıl giyinmiş acaba?
After these answers are taken, the teacher explains that this was a fiction just like
in the stories and that the author will not visit the classroom. However, the teacher
tells them to visit the author’s “Bu Yol (This Road)” story and asks some relevant
questions.
• Aranızda yazar olmayı düşünen var mı?
• Yarın görevi nedir?
• Siz hiç roman, hikâye veya başka türde bir yazı yazdınız mı?
Instruction Design: Audial-Visual Model

Purpose: Students learn the topic and meaning in the chosen text and conducts
activities based on the text.
Objectives: Activity, teaches to understand the text completely, to summarize, to
deduce from the text and grammar rules stated in the activity to the students.
Materials: Projector, visuals related to the topic and activity sheets.
Attention: Teacher brings the book related to the text that teacher makes the stu-
dents read to activate their preliminary information. The teacher tells an anecdote
related to the author. Students wonder about the author. Teacher addresses some
questions to the students:
• Is there anyone who thinks to be an author?
• If you were an author, what kind of book would you write?
• Is there anyone who writes an artistic writing?
• After teacher receives the answers to these questions from the students, he/she
presents some visuals related to the author’s life via projector.
• Question-answer related to the author’s time, his writings and type of text
activities are done in the class.
Tip 1: What do you think of surfing the internet to learn the period of the narrator
that you read!
Inform the target: Guys, we are going to try to study on a reading of an artistic
writing and activities prepared within the frame of the text. Thus, we are going to
learn to summarize a text, gap-filling and how to analyze a text in teaching the
language.
314 N. Aytan
Using preliminary information: Teacher can make small activities like below to
activate students’ preliminary information.
• Teacher makes students brainstorm related to the books that students have read.
• Teacher makes students exchange opinions on the events in the stories.
• Teacher asks students that they need to write a text by showing the text that
he/she studies in the class.
• Students are requested to write their answers down to small note papers.
• Teacher asks students to remember and to say writing processes by using their
preliminary information with reference to the text.
• The texts that students have written are shared in the class and comments are
made by students.
• The teacher explains to students to recognize each texts’ having some common
sides.
Presentation of Content: Teacher shows the chosen text to students via projector
within the frame of the things told in the class. Students remember some infor-
mation related to reading a text and writing processes. Then, the practices below are
done by the students with reference to the text.
Tip 2: Hey teacher! May you share your memories with us before passing to the
sample text?
Örnek Metin:
…
On beş seneden beridir ki bu yolda her ay bir iki seyahat yaparım. Bu uzun şeridin iki
yanında ve onun döne döne değişen ufkunda tanımadığım hiç bir şey yoktur. Yattığım
yerden gözüme ilişen sivri bir kaya parçası, yalnız aydınlık havada ürperen tepesini
gördüğüm bir ağaç, ne bileyim hatta daha alelade bir işaretle bütün ufku kendi kendime
canlandıracak kadar bu yolların aşinasıyım, fakat yıllar var ki bu küçük yol parçasını, yol
bile diyemeyeceğimiz bu dövülmüş kırmızı toprak genişliğini daima yeni, yepyeni bir şey
gibi seyrettim. Onu her defasında görür görmez ürperdim, onda saadetlerin, hasretlerin,
beklenilen şeylerin bütün güzelliğini ve şiirini duydum…
***
…
İzmit’ten sonra uzun bir müddet yine böyle sürdü, sonra yağmur biraz diner gibi oldu, gök
yükseldi; bulutların arasından çamur rengindeki dünyaya, başka renkler, iki gün süren bu
kötü havanın unutturduğu sıcak kuvvetler girdi. Ve tren yavaşladı. O zaman ben, bu küçük
yolun üzerinde iki günden beri ilk defa küçük bir güneş parçasını, küçük ve aydınlık bir halı
gibi serilmiş buldum. Islak söğüt dallarına sevinçle yayılan ve sonra orada, yerde sıcak ve
aydınlık bir müjde gibi biriken güneş… Ve aynı zamanda, bütün içimi altüst eden acayip
akisli uğultu… O anda içimden geçenleri nasıl anlatmalı? Bu aylarca toprağın karanlığında
kaybolan bir göğün birdenbire küçük bir filizle mavi havaya ve aydınlığa kavuşması gibi
bir şeydi. İşte o zamandan beri bu yol, birçoğu, binlercesi gibi birkaç, yüz metre sonra
küçük bir Anadolu köyünün inzivasında kaybolacağına hiç şüphe olmayan bu küçük ve
sade yol benim için mahiyetini değiştirdi. Saadetin, ruh muvazenesinin bir nevi sembolü,
kapısında güneşin divan durduğu bir iklimin başlangıç noktası oldu ve müthiş bir arzu ile
her şeyi, bütün üzüntü ve kederlerimi, bütün sevgi ve zenginliklerimi burada bırakıp inmek,
bu küçük yolda yürüyüp gitmek istedim…
Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar/ Bir Yol (Hikâye)
Kaynak: http://www.siirakademisi.com/index.php?/site/oyku_goster/14
• The practices with regard to the chosen text below are done in the class by
distributing the activity sheets.
Tip 3: Before practices by matching students, it wouldn’t be bad that students try to
tell each other!
İleri düzey uygulama 1: “Bu Yol” hikâyesiyle ilgili soruları cevaplayınız.

Soru 1: Adam yolda kaç yıldır seyahat ediyormuş?
Soru 2: Adam bu yolları iyi biliyor mu?
Soru 3: Adam nereye, ne ile gitmiş?
Soru 4: Adamın arzusu nedir acaba?
İleri düzey uygulama 2: “Bu Yol” hikâyesini aşağıdaki boşluğa özetleyerek yazınız
(8-10 Cümle)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
İleri düzey uygulama 3: Aşağıdaki dil bilgisi sorularını yapınız

1. İzmit’__ sonra uzun bir müddet yine böyle sür__.
(A) –ten, -dü (B) -de, -tü (C) -in, -de (D) -den, -dı
2. O an__ içimden geçenleri nasıl anlat____?
(A) -a, -sın (B) -dan, -dı (C) -ı, -mış (D) -da, -malı
3. Onu her defasın__ görür görmez ürper___.
(A) –a, -tim (B) -dan, -miş (C) -da, -dim (D) –lar, -sin
İleri düzey uygulama 4: Doğru anlamı eşleştiriniz
1. Müddet Mutluluk
2. Aşina Dünyayla ilişkisini kesme
3. Ürpermek Bildik, tanıdık
4. İnziva Süre
5. Saadet Korkmak
316 N. Aytan
İleri düzey uygulama 5: Hangi Fiil Gelecek?

(istedim, oldu, değiştirmek, seyrettim, duydum)
1. Onda saadetlerin, hasretlerin, beklenilen şeylerin bütün güzelliğini ve şiirini
________.
2. Burada bırakıp inmek, bu küçük yolda yürüyüp gitmek ________.
3. Yağmur biraz diner gibi ________.
4. Bu küçük ve sade yol benim için mahiyetini _________.
5. Bu dövülmüş kırmızı toprak genişliğini daima yeni, yepyeni bir şey gibi
_______.
• It is asked from each student to evaluate each other’s thing what they have done
by matching a friend after advanced practices. Guidance is made to students in
the meantime.
• After the activities are completed, it is requested from the students to write their
opinions related to language learning process.
Tip 4: Students’ keep a diary that they can write in Turkish would be a beneficial
practice for the students regarding developing writing skills during the learning
process.
Further Activities:
• It is asked from the students to write a half- page composition stating their
opinions about a book that they have liked.
• It is asked from students to prepare a presentation related to a book and an
author that they have read.
Assessment:
• It is asked from the students to write differences and similarities between book
and story.
• It is asked from the students to introduce two types of literature in a half-page.
Semantic networks: In this activity, story among types of text and the relation of
the activities done concerning the chosen text have been examined. In this context,
catching students’ attention to the author and the other types has been tried. It has
been benefited from the audial and visual method for the topics taught in teaching
language to be more permanent. Taking students’ language level further has been
aimed with language activities such as visual language tools, activities, and class-
room discussions. It has been tried to motivate the students with the help of
practices of visual, audial, reading, interpretation, summarizing, language rules,
discussion, and writing.
Learning outcomes: The behaviours that we will expect from the students when
activity is applied:
It is aimed to gain some skills like

• To be able to understand the difference between story and the other types of text,
to have information about author
• To develop writing skill on the basis of artistical texts
• To be able to summarize what s/he reads
• To reinforce his/her information by using visual and audial elements
• To be able to apply grammar rules.
Activity One Answer Keys

Etkinlik 1: “Bu Yol” hikâyesiyle ilgili soruları cevaplayınız
Cevap 1: On beş seneden beridir bu yolda her ay bir iki seyahat yapıyormuş.
Cevap 2: Bütün ufku kendi kendime canlandıracak kadar bu yolların aşinasıyım.
Cevap 3: İzmit şehrine trenle gitmiş.
Cevap 4: Müthiş bir arzu ile her şeyi, bütün üzüntü ve kederlerini, bütün sevgi ve
zenginliklerini burada bırakıp inmek, bu küçük yolda yürüyüp gitmek istemiş.
Etkinlik 3: Dil bilgisini yapınız
1. A 2. D 3. C
Etkinlik 4: Doğru anlamı eşleştiriniz
1. Süre 2. Bildik, tanıdık 3. Korkmak 4. Dünyayla ilişkisini kesme 5. Mutluluk
Etkinlik 5: Hangi Fiil Gelecek
1. duydum 2. istedim 3. oldu 4. değiştirmek 5. seyrettim
8.2.2 Activity Two: If the Scene is Mine, Then Let Me Talk
This activity has been prepared with an instructional design based on

Physical-Emotional-Cultural teaching model. In Physical-Emotional-Cultural
teaching model, the important thing is that teacher should do practices that are
able to draw students’ attention. The target language is tried to comprehend with the
help of humor, creativity, artistic expression, physical activity, music, empathy, and
interaction. The content of the lesson is enriched with these practices, and the
process of practice is brought about.
Tag of Activity
Method of Teaching: In this method, (1) Physical: Scene games, dialogues,
debates (2) Emotional: Humor, poetry, song, (3) Cultural: Proverb and idioms,
using convenient ones from the cultural adaptation elements.
Type of Teaching: Artistic and creative, physical activity-based, interactional
teaching. In this teaching, dialogues, games, poetry, song, proverb and idioms have
been used all together.
318 N. Aytan
Approach/Method: Physical-Emotional-Cultural Model

Types of Learning: Skills like developing artistic skills, acquisition of cultural
knowledge, using sensuality and empathy ability are going to be taught.
Prerequisite knowledge: preparation before activity, Physical-Emotional-Cultural
knowledge, and activities suited for this content.
Students’ participation: In order to provide students’ participation, the meaning
of 10 proverb and idioms that teacher choose are interpreted. Teacher makes stu-
dents listen mp3 formatted the song “Dilli Düdük’’ by the pop singer Tarkan.
Teacher asks students to write proverbs and idioms in this song. Classroom
motivation and participation are provided with jokes and tongue twisters because
jokes and tongue twisters address the advanced level. Teacher talks about current
and past games and wants students to write an informative essay related to games.
Participation is provided by applying advanced level activities prepared within the
frame of Physical-Emotional-Cultural method.
Parents’ participation: Parents are like an out-of-school helper of the education
process. They can support the students and do reinforcement activities with stu-
dents. They provide an opportunity for students to go to cinema and theater played
in Turkish to develop students’ Turkish skills more. They can send their children to
local and cultural organizations. They provide an opportunity for the children to
reach artistic activities like poetry, music, and a play published in Turkish websites
and electronic books.
Practical recommendations to parents: Parents can make students watch doc-
umentaries related to Turkey for the sake of improving Turkish. They can create
language awareness with Turkish TV series and movies.
Keywords: Culture, the target language, gestures, facial expressions, advanced,
game, song, humor, poetry, dialogue, debate, proverbs, idioms, Turkish website,
emotions, sociability, events, music, e-books, cinema, mp3, famous, applause,
singer, actress, grammar, artists, imitation, folk songs, theater, clip brainstorming,
projection, Hacivat-Karagoz, traders, bankrupt, money, beggar, poor, charity,
wealth, gold, spendthrift, goose thief customers, the Turkish film etc.
Mini-scenario: In this activity, teacher says to students:
Öğretmen: Arkadaşlar, elimdeki mp3 oynatıcıda bir şarkıcı size şarkı söyleyecek.
Sadece sizin için geldi, hatta sesini gönderdi!
Öğrenciler gülmeye başladılar. Bir öğrenci:
Öğrenci A: Hocam ben de sesimi kaydetsem arkadaşlara dinletsem ünlü olur
muyum?
deyince herkes kahkaha attı ve bir alkış koptu?
Öğretmen: Bak daha şimdiden alkış almaya bile başladın!
After all answers, the teacher spoke on the lyric of the song that they listen, and
students exchanged their ideas with one another. Teacher asked students:
• Aranızda şarkıcı olmayı düşünen var mı?
• Sizce şarkılar dil öğrenirken kolaylık sağlar mı?
• Siz hiç şarkı sözü yazdınız mı?
Instruction Design
Purpose: Teacher does classroom physical-emotional-cultural method practices and
the activities depending on the topic.
Objectives: Activity improves students’ acting skills, strengths students’ artistic
skills, teaches to make intercultural connections, and grammar rules stated in the
activities.
Materials: Tape recorder, actor costume, visuals related to topic and activity
sheets.
Attention: Teacher brings the song and tape recorder to give a fillip to students’
preliminary information. Teacher gives information about the artist. Students
wonder about the artist. Teacher asks some questions to students:
• Şarkıcı olmayı düşünen var mı?
• Siz bir sanatçı olsaydınız ne tür şarkılar yazardınız?
• İçinizde şarkı bilen var mı?
After teacher listens to students’ answer, the teacher invites a voluntary student
in front of the class and wants him/her to perform his/her favorite artist’ imitation.
Tip 1: Students can be asked to find proverbs and idioms in Turkish songs or folk
songs!
Inform the target: My friends, we are going to make an impersonation of work
that we choose within the scope of art and cultural activities. Thus, we are going to
learn how a music work is staged in the way of theater.
Using preliminary information: Teacher can do small activities below in order to
give a fillip to students’ preliminary information.
• Teacher makes students do brainstorming related to the song and folk songs etc.
that they listen.
• Teacher take comments from the students by making them watch a song or folk
song clip.
• Teacher wants students to write a text based on an audio track that they listen
and watch.
• Teacher wants students to write the name of song and folk song that they
remember form the past by using their preliminary information with reference to
the audio track.
• The texts that the students prepared are shared in the class and students interpret
them.
• Teacher makes some explanations about each audio track’ having some com-
mon sides in order to make students recognize them.
Presentation of Content: Teacher shows the chosen text to students via projector
within the frame of the things told in the class. Students remember some infor-
mation related to reading a text and writing processes. Then, the practices below are
done by the students with reference to the text.
320 N. Aytan
Tip 2: You can imagine your own situation and put it into dialogue form. Do you
think wouldn’t it be good?
Örnek Metin:
Hacivat tüccarın biriyle ortak olur. Birlikte mal alıp satmaya başlarlar. İlk zamanlar işler iyi
gider, sonradan bozulur. Bir sabah erkenden tüccar çıkagelir ve Hacivat’a iflas ettiklerini,
elde avuçta bir şey kalmadığını söyler. Hacivat parasız ve çaresiz kalır, evine ekmek
götüremez olur. İşarar bulamaz, dilencilik yapmaya başlar: “Fakire bir sadaka, fakire bir
sadaka!” diyerek dolanır durur. Karagöz Hacivat’ı dilenirken görünce beyninden vurulmuşa
döner. Kendini çabucak toparlar ve Hacivat’ın yanına gider.
Karagöz: Hacivat’ım, bu ne hal böyle?
Hacivat: Halim haraptır, Karagözüm. Tüccarın biriyle ortaklık kurdum, koca serveti har
vurup harman savurdum.
Karagöz: Koca servet mi? Bu işe ne yatırdın sen onu söyle.
Hacivat: Bin beş yüz altın. Gitti, gitti, bin beş yüz altınım.
Karagöz: Ne! Senin o kadar altının var mıydı, Hacivat?
Hacivat: Olmaz olur mu Karagözüm? Babamdan kalan servet pek çoktu.
Karagöz: Hazıra dağlar dayanmaz derler. “
Hacivat: Dayandı.
Karagöz: Mirasyedinin mirası biter derler.
Hacivat: Bitmedi.
Karagöz daha sonra Hacivat’tan tüccarın adını öğrenir. Tüccara giderek, ortak aradığını,
evini ve bahçesini ortaya koyarak iş yapmak istediğini söyler ama gelir gider defterini
kendisinin tutması gerektiğini bildirir. Tüccar, Hacivat’tan sonra yolunacak kaz olarak
gördüğü Karagöz’e elindeki bin beş yüz altını verir. Karagöz ertesi gün Hacivat’a bin beş
yüz altını verir ve bir daha hiç kimseyle ortak olmamasını söyler. Daha ertesi gün
Karagöz’ün evine gelen tüccar yanındaki adamı göstererek, evi ve bahçeyi satın almak
isteyen bir müşteri buldum, der. Ayrıca ortaklık gereği verdiği altınların bundan sonra
kendisinde duracağını söyler. Bunun üzerine Karagöz altınları gece evine giren hırsızların
götürdüğünü, ortaklık kalmadığı için, evini ve bahçesini satmaktan vazgeçtiğini söyler.
Tüccar durumu kabullenmek istemez. Karagöz sesini yükseltir, tüccara diklenir. Tüccar,
Karagöz’ün karşısında tutunamaz. Müşteri kaçar gider. Çaresiz kalan tüccar yol kenarına
oturup ava giderken avlandım der ve hüngür hüngür ağlamaya başlar.
Serdar Yıldırım, Dilenci Hacivat
Source: http://www.ogretmenlersitesi.com/forum/index.php?topic=2276
The following practices relating to the text selected in the classroom are done by
distributing activity sheets.
Tip 3: A puppet show wouldn’t be bad for students before the practices!
İleri düzey uygulama 1: “Dilenci Hacivat” metniyle ilgili soruları cevaplayınız.
Soru 1: Tüccar Hacivat’ı nasıl görüyor?
Soru 2: Hacivat’ın servetinin kaynağı nedir?
Soru 3: Karagöz tüccarın parası için ne söylemiştir?
Soru 4: Tüccarın son durumu hakkında ne söylenebilir?
İleri düzey uygulama 2: “Dilenci Hacivat” hikâyesini aşağıdaki boşluğa özetleyerek

yazınız (8–10 Cümle)
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
İleri düzey uygulama 3: Aşağıdaki dil bilgisi sorularını yapınız
1. Hacivat tüccarın biriyle ortak ol__.

(A) -ur (B) –du (C) -ar (D) -malı
2. Hazır_ dağlar dayan___ der__?
(A) –lar, -dı, -di (B) -da, -dı, -miş (C) -ı, -mış, -di (D) -a, -maz, -ler
3. Mirasyedinin miras_ biter der__.
(A) -a, -dim (B) -dan, -miş (C) -ı, -ler (D) -lar, -di
İleri düzey uygulama 4: Doğru anlamı eşleştiriniz

Beyninden vurulmuşa Hesapsızca, düşüncesizce harcamak; malını, parasını, ölçüsüzce bol
dönmek bol harcayıp tüketmek
Har vurup harman Hayatının başkasına acı çektirmek esasına dayandıran kimse, gün
savurmak gelir kendisi acı çeker. Çıkarını başkasına zarar vermekte arayan
kimse, o zarara kendisi de uğrar
Ava giderken Kolay kandırabilir durumdaki kişi
avlanmak
Yolunacak kaz olarak Beklenmedik bir olay karşısında şaşkınlığa düşmek
görmek
İleri düzey uygulama 5: Hangi Fiil Gelecek?

1. Karagöz daha sonra Hacivat’tan tüccarın adını ________.
2. Karagöz Hacivat’ı dilenirken görünce beyninden vurulmuşa ________.
3. Birlikte mal alıp satmaya ________.
4. Babamdan kalan servet pek ______.
After advanced level practices, each student is asked for matching one of his/her
friends and evaluating each other’s work. Guidance is made to students in the
meantime.
After activities are completed, students are wanted to write their opinions related
to language learning process.
Tip 4: Students’ researching about Turkish culture and taking notes during learning
process would be beneficial practice in terms of students’ developing writing skills.
322 N. Aytan
Further activities:
• Students are asked to write a half-page composition including their opinions
related Turkish movie that they like.
• Students are wanted to make a presentation related to the movie that they watch.
Assessment:
• Students are asked to write differences and similarities between public story-
teller and light comedy.
• Students are asked to introduce two kinds of music that students choose based
on the culture in half-page.
Semantic networks: In this activity, the relation of the activities has been dis-
cussed with reference to the text chosen among vision-based types. In this context,
students’ attention has been tried to draw to the author and the other types. The
physical-emotional-cultural method has been benefited from being permanent of the
topics taught in language teaching. Improving students’ language level has been
aimed with language activities like visual language tools and classroom discussions.
Students have been tried to be motivated with Physical-Emotional-Cultural method
and writing practices in these activities.
Learning outcomes: The behaviors that we expect from the students when the
• Gaining skills such as students’ being able to understand differences between
visual-based types and cultural elements, having knowledge about proverbs and
idioms
• Improving their writing skills based on artistic texts
• Being able to summarize the things that they watch
• Reinforcing their knowledge by using Physical-Emotional-Cultural factors
• Being able to apply grammar rules are aimed.
Activity Two Answer Keys

Etkinlik 1: “Dilenci Hacivat” metniyle ilgili soruları cevaplayınız.
Cevap 1: Yolunacak kaz olarak görüyor.
Cevap 2: Babasından kalma bir servettir.
Cevap 3: Gece evine giren hırsızların götürdüğünü söylemiştir.
Cevap 4: Elindekileri kaybeden tüccar, hüngür hüngür ağlamıştır.
Etkinlik 3: Dil bilgisini yapınız

1. A 2. D 3. C
Etkinlik 4: Doğru anlamı eşleştiriniz

1. 4 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3
Etkinlik 5: Hangi Fiil Gelecek

1. öğrenir 2. döner 3. başlarlar 4. çoktu
8.2.3 Activity Three: Show me all you got!
This activity has been prepared with teaching design based on Drama teaching
model. In the Drama teaching model, the important thing is that teacher should do
practices that can draw students’ attention. The target language is tried to be taught
with improving language skills, increasing students’ vocabulary, being able to use
language types in different social roles, being able to take a critical looking to event
and situations and being able to produce solutions. The content of the lessons is
enriched with these practices, and the process of practices are brought about.
Tag of Activity
Method of Teaching: Drama. In this method, using appropriate ones of drama
contents like dialogues, dialogues, games and improvisation, role play, staging
story, puppets, pantomime in the teaching process.
Type of Teaching: Teaching types like oral and visual-based interactional
teaching. In this teaching, dialogues, games, and improvisation, role play, staging
story, puppets, pantomime have been used all together.
Approach/Method: Drama
Types of Learning: Skills like using unearthing individual’s talents, improving
artistic skills, having the cultural knowledge, sensuality and social adaptation ability
are going to be taught.
Prerequisite knowledge: Preparation and attention are getting, preparation of
environment, casting and staging the play and appropriate activities for the content.
Students’ participation: in order to provide student’s participation, firstly, stu-
dents’ making an unprepared speech is provided. A play that teacher choose is
staged in the classroom or suitable place for the purpose of improving speaking and
listening skills. A pantomime is played within the frame of a pre-prepared fiction.
Students interpret this pantomime show. Students are asked to write a play about an
event, a memory that students experience. Participation is provided by applying
advanced level practices within the frame of drama method.
324 N. Aytan
Parents’ participation: Parents, out-of-school helper of the teaching process,

will help students to comprehend the target language with the help of every pro-
gram related to language improvement that parents make. Parents can take their
children to the visual-based, events related to the target language like play, show,
theater etc.
Practical recommendations to parents: Parents can make students watch Turkish
traditional theater types like Hacivat-Karagöz, shadow-show, public storyteller,
light comedy.
Keywords: Drama, target language, dialogue, games, improvisation,
role-playing, stories, stage, puppets, pantomime, knowledge, sensuality, social
cohesion, skills, attention, events, speeches, classes, events, memories, writing,
advanced level, parents, students, school, utility, program, show, theater, gesture,
mime, actor, costume, art, film, Imitation, culture, brainstorming, letters, mother,
background music, noun, verb, object, poetry, composition, etc.
Mini-scenario: When the teacher enters the classroom, he/she never speaks.
While students are blankly looking, the teacher is trying to say something with hand
gestures. The teacher wants the students to write each word that teacher tells with
gestures and facial expressions. Everybody starts to write down. The teacher tells
again, and this goes on a little bit more. Then, teacher loudly asks students which
words they have written. In this way, they have made a small and silent lesson
related to the language without speaking.
Instruction Design
Purpose: Teacher does practices related to classroom drama and activities
depending on the topic.
Objectives: Activity improves students’ acting, reinforcing artistic side, making
intercultural connections and grammar rules stated in the activities.
Materials: Actor groups, costumes, visuals related to the topic and activity sheets.

Attention: Teacher prepared a slide show related to drama and its types in order to
give a fillip to students’ preliminary information. Teacher gives information about
how to teach language with visual-based types. Students ask questions related to
these types. Teacher also asks some questions:
• Hiç ünlü bir oyuncu gören ya da onunla konuşan oldu mu?
• Siz bir oyuncu olsaydınız ne tür filmlerde oynardınız?
• İçinizde daha önce gösteri, oyun ya da pandomim gibi türlerde görev alan var
mı?
After teacher takes some answers from the students, the teacher invites some
voluntary students in front of the class and make them play a drama.
Tip 1: If there are some students who have imitation talent, the opportunity of
self-expression can be given to them.
Inform the target: My friends, we are going to make an impersonation of work

that we choose within the frame of art and culture activities. Thus, we are going to
learn how a pantomime is staged.
Using preliminary information: Teacher can do following small activities to give
a fillip to students’ preliminary information.
• Students do brainstorming related to the theme of performable pantomime
• The one who has watched a pantomime show before is asked to write what
he/she understand.
• The teacher asked voluntary students to tell a past event that they remember by
making pantomime concerning a play that they watched and also by using their
preliminary information.
• Teacher makes some explanations about visual-based types’ having some
common sides to make students recognize them.
Presentation of Content: Teacher shows a chosen pantomime show to students
via projector within the frame of the things told in the class. Students remember
some information related to visual-based types and their process. Then, the prac-
tices below are done by the students concerning what they watch.
Tip 2: You can tell a movie, a proverb or any expression to your friends at home or
anywhere by using pantomime.
İleri düzey uygulama 1: Seçilen ortamda gösteri sergilenir.
Annenin Mektubu
Öğrenciler birbirlerini görecek şekilde oturtulur. Aralarından bir gönüllü seçilir. Gönüllü
öğrencinin eline yazılı bir kağıt verilir. Kağıtta yazılanları arkadaşlarına jest ve mimikleri
kullanarak anlatması istenir. Örneğin mektupta ağlayan bir anneyi anlatırken anlatıcının
gözlerinin altını silmeye çalıştığını, özlemini ve sevdiklerini kucaklamak isteyenin ellerini
kavuşturarak bunu gösterdiğini, babasının hasta olduğunu anlatmak için vücut diliyle hasta
hareketleri yapması ve öksürmesi vs.. Bu pandomim gösterisi bitince:
Tip 3: Using a background music wouldn’t be bad during the practices!
İleri düzey uygulama 2: “Annenin Mektubu” pandomimiyle ilgili sözlü görüşler

alınır.
İleri düzey uygulama 3: “Annenin Mektubu” pandomimiyle ilgili öğrencilerin

anladıklarını yazmaları istenir.
.......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
326 N. Aytan
İleri düzey uygulama 4: Seçilen ortamda uygulama yapılır.

Üç Sözcük Oyunu
Küçük not kağıtları öğrencilere verilir. Akıllarına gelen bir fiili yazmaları istenir. Öğrenciler
kağıtları katlayarak önceden hazırlanmış birinci kavanoza atarlar. Aynı işlem kağıtlara bir
nesnenin isminin yazılmasıyla tekrarlanır ve ikinci kavanoza kağıtlar atılır. Daha sonra
öğrencilerden bir yer ismi yazmaları istenir ve aynı şekilde kağıtları üçüncü kavanoza
atmaları söylenir. Bu işlemlerden sonra gönüllü öğrenciler seçilir. Sırayla onlara üç
kavanozdan birer kağıt seçmeleri istenir. Her öğrenci bunu tekrarlar. Daha sonra kağıtları
seçen öğrencilerden seçtikleri kelimeleri kullanarak bir şiir yazmaları istenir. Yazılan şiirler
sınıfta okunur.
Örneğin: Çiçek, kuzu, gelmek sözcüklerinden oluşan bir şiir.
Bahar geldi, böcek geldi
Ağaçlara bembeyaz çiçek geldi
Yabancı elde kaldım anne
Koyunlar kuzular ailecek geldi
İleri düzey uygulama 5: “Üç Sözcük” uygulamasıyla ilgili sözlü görüşler alınır.
İleri düzey uygulama 6: “Üç Sözcük” uygulamasıyla ilgili öğrencilerin anladıklarını

yazmaları istenir.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
• After advance level practices, each student is asked for matching one of his/her
friends and evaluating each other’s work. Guidance is made to students in the
meantime.
• After activities are completed, students are wanted to write their opinions related
to language learning process.
Tip 4: Students’ reading theater authors’ Turkish plays improves their language
skills during the learning process.
Further activities:
• Students are asked to write a half-page composition including their opinions
related to a theater book that they like.
• Students are wanted to make a presentation related to the book and its author
that they read.
Assessment:
• Students are asked to write differences and similarities between prose and
playbook.
• Students are asked to introduce two kinds of show that students choose in
half-page.
Semantic networks: In this activity, the relation of the activities has been dis-
cussed with reference to pantomime chosen among vision-based types. In this
context, students’ attention has been tried to draw with the given sample texts.
Drama method has been benefited for being permanent of the topics taught in
language teaching. Improving students’ language level has been aimed with lan-
guage activities like drama practices, activities, and classroom discussions. Students
have been tried to be motivated with showing, role-playing, reading, interpreting,
summarizing and writing practices in these activities.
Learning outcomes: The behaviors that we expect from the students when the
• Gaining skills such as students’ being able to understand differences between
visual-based types, having knowledge about the types.
• Improving their speaking and writing skills based on drama texts
• Being able to summarize the things that they see
• Reinforcing their knowledge by using body language, visual and audial factors
• Students’ being able to understand what they see and hear being able to put
them on paper are aimed.
8.2.4 Activity Four: Tell Me So That I Can Learn!
This activity was prepared with the teaching design which grounds on
Suggestopedia teaching method. In suggestopedia teaching method, the important
thing is that the teacher applies activities which direct the students. Developing
students’ cognitive power while teaching the target language is the purpose of this
activity. The teacher wants all the students to get rid of all extracurricular effects
and negativities. The teacher prepares a basis for language learning by appealing to
their subconscious. The students respect and trust the teacher, and they feel relax for
comprehending and learning the language. This situation motivates the students in
learning the target language.
Tag of Activity
Method of Teaching: Suggestopedia. In this teaching method, dialogues have an
important role. Grammar rules are taught with repetitions during these dialogues
with the suggestion of teacher and with poeticizing the grammar rules. The trans-
lation in the mother tongue is allowed, and the students are asked to make
328 N. Aytan
summaries. In addition to inculcating the students, the teaching is done with the
activities like catechize, repetition and translation. In the process of teaching, the
language learning is conducted by using the activities which are both relaxing and
funny like songs, dance, drama, painting and games on the ground that fine arts
reach the subconscious more easily.
Type of Teaching: Using the appropriate ones of methods and techniques like
suggestion, catechize, repetition, translation, song, dance, drama, painting, and
game in the teaching process.
Approach/Method: Suggestopedia
Types of Learning: In this activity, the skills like students’ noticing cognitive,
affective and critical skills, developing art skills and the skills of using the language
in a fast and gracious way will be taught.
Prerequisite knowledge: Teacher’s coming to the class and introduce
herself/himself as a guidance and suggesting that the lesson will be an attention-
grabbing lesson, everyone’s selecting a nickname, teacher’s delivering the dia-
logues in which the learning will conduct to the students. Preparing the classroom
with comfortable chairs and soft light by selecting a Turkish classical music or
another music and bringing the activities that are suitable for context.
Students’ participation: The interest of students is tried to be made active with
the activities like suggestopedia, catechize, repetition and translation to provide
student participation. The lesson will be rescued from being monotonous, and the
students will be motivated for the target language by precluding negative attitudes
for the lesson with the activities like dreaming, music and painting in the lesson.
The participation in the lessons is provided by applying advanced activities pre-
pared in the frame of Suggestopedia.
Parents’ participation: On the ground that the parents are the helpers of teaching
process outside of the school, every program that they will make about language
development will be useful for students to comprehend the target language. The
parents can make their daughters or sons to practice the language by getting them
meet with the peers or educators that speak the target language in the places that
they live.
Practical suggestions for parents: Parents can develop their daughters’ or sons’
language skills by taking them to the organized conferences, panel, and conver-
sation about target language in order to improve Turkish.
Keywords: Suggestopedia, teaching, model, teacher, student, lesson, target lan-
guage, conscious, subconscious, motivation, dialogue, translation, summary, cate-
chize, repetition, activity, song, dance, drama, painting, game, cognitive, affective,
critical, guide, Turkish music, dream, active, parent, family, program, conference,
panel, conversation, scenario, grammar, discussion, nickname, addressing etc.
Mini-scenario: The teacher greets the students when he/she comes to the class.
While the students look amazedly,
Öğretmen: Kendinizi yormaya ve öğrenmeye çalışmanıza gerek yok. Çünkü
öğrenme doğal ve kendiliğinden olacak.
Öğrenciler: Hocam bu nasıl olacak?
Öğretmen: Şimdi herkes gözlerini kapatsın. Hayal kurun ve istediğiniz bir yerde
gezinti yapın.
Öğrenciler söylenenleri yaparlar. Sonra herkes gözlerini açar ve öğretmen
“Türkçeye hoş geldiniz” der. Her öğrenci bir takma ad seçer ve yeni kişilikleriyle
Türkçe öğrenmeye başlarlar.
Instruction Design
Purpose: It applies the activities about Suggestopedia and related activities.
Objectives: In addition to contributing students in terms of speaking and lis-
tening skills, the activity makes the students find the correct statement by listening
with Suggestopedia even if they make a mistake, and it improves their language
skills, it also strengthens the artistic side of the teacher who is a guide with the
activities inside the classroom.
Materials: Classroom environment, light, musical titles, painting, drama and
dialogue texts, visuals about the subject and activity papers.
Attention: The teacher motivates the students with mini scenarios in the classroom
to trigger their prior knowledge. The teacher makes the students dream and makes
them orm dialogues. He/she makes them speak upon a topic even if they make a
mistake. The teacher directs some questions to students:
• Nasıl bir hayal kurmayı seversiniz?
• Kişilik olarak hangi takma adı almak isterdiniz?
• Konuşma yaparken veya dil öğrenirken ortam nasıl olmalı?
• Hangi tarz müzik dinlersiniz.
Tip 1: The students can be asked to bring an authentic music title about their own
cultures to the classroom.
Inform the target: Friends, in this lesson, we will cover the lesson upon
Turkish-English dialogues, and we will write grammar explanations to the parts
where the dialogues are missing. We will speak about the picture that I reflect on
the board. Thanks to that, the students’ skills of listening and speaking will develop.
Using preliminary information: The teacher can do the following mini activities
to trigger students’ prior knowledge.
1. A discussion about the theme of dialogue that will be given to students.
2. A picture that is chosen in the context of the lesson is reflected on the board, and
the students are asked to write comments.
3. The teacher gives a nickname to all students and wants students to form a
fictional character, job, and biography.
4. The teacher starts the process of the lesson by addressing students with their
nicknames.
Presentation of Content: The teacher has a mini introduction conversation with
the students. He/she talks about the roles and the jobs that they have chosen. After
that, the teacher reads the chosen text to the student in a classroom where a Turkish
330 N. Aytan
classical music that reassures and relieves the students plays. The lesson ends with
this activity. As homework, the students are asked to repeat the chosen text day and
night.
Tip 2: You can tell a Turkish poem that you want with dialogues in the classroom,
at home or in a circle of friends.
İleri düzey uygulama 1: “Türkçenin Doğru Kullanımı” adlı makale ile ilgili
öğretmen genel bir bilgi verir ve metni sınıfta okur. Daha sonra metni öğrenciler bir
kere sessiz okurlar. Öğrencilerin rahatlamaları için Türk klasik müziklerinden Neva
Kâr, Buhurîzade Mustafa Efendi (Itrî) arka fonda çalınır.
Türkçenin Doğru Kullanımı
Dil ekmek gibi, su gibi günlük yaşamımızın içindedir ve soluduğumuz hava gibi bizi sarar;
bundan dolayı onun varlığını hemen hemen hissetmeyiz. Gerçekten dil, üzerinde
yaşadığımız toprak gibi ürünlerini sessizce bize sunar ve bizler bu sonsuz bahçenin mey-
velerini sadece toplarız. Aslında dile, insanlığın en büyük buluşu olduğu için daha fazla ilgi
göstermemiz gerektiği kanısındayız. Çünkü insanlarla, düşüncelerle, nesnelerle aramızdaki
en önemli iletken dildir. İnsanları, düşünceleri, nesneleri, dilin aracılığıyla kavrarız. Dil
aracılığıyla kendimizi ifade ederiz. İşte dilin önemi burada ortaya çıkıyor. Türkçemizi niçin
doğru kullanmalıyız, sorusunun cevabı da buradadır. Dili doğru kullandığımızda o iyi bir
iletkendir; yanlış kullandığımızda ise kötü bir iletkendir.
Biz dili ne kadar iyi tanıyor, dili ne kadar iyi kullanıyorsak iletişimimiz o kadar iyi olacaktır.
Dil bizi başkalarına, başkalarını ve başka nesneleri bize yansıtan bir aynadır. Dili doğru
kullanmak, doğru anlamak bu aynayı mükemmelleştirmek demektir. Kullandığımız çağdaş
araçlardaki göstergelerin, ekranların, ibrelerin bir an için bozuk olduğunu düşünün. Bu bir
felakettir. Fakat bir toplum için ondan daha büyük bir felaket vardır ki o da insanlar arasında,
bir iş bölümü içinde görev alan kişiler arasında, fikir ve görüş alışverişinde bulunanlar arasında
dil aynasının görevini tam yapamamasıdır. Düşüncelerimizin anlaşılmasını istiyorsak, bunun
en kestirme yolu dile hâkim olmaktır. Dil üzerinde düşünür ve dili bir düşünce odağı gibi kabul
ederseniz dilin düşünce yaşamımızı zenginleştireceğini göreceksiniz. Dil düşüncenin evidir;
binlerce yıllık insan zekâsı sözcüklerde, deyimlerde, ifade kalıplarında gizlidir.
İnsanlık tarafından bilgilerimizi depolamak için kullanılan ilk araç dil olmuştur. Bugün aynı
işi daha sistemli yapması için bilgisayarı yarattık. Buna rağmen günümüz için şunu
söyleyebiliriz: Dile yüklenmiş bilgi, bilgisayarlarımıza yüklenmiş bilgiden fazladır. Dil,
bilgisayarlardan fazla olarak bilgilerin sadece yüklendiği yer değildir, aynı zamanda bil-
ginin üretim alanıdır. Kısaca üzerinde durulması gereken konu, dilin düşüncelerimizi
yansıtan bir araç olduğu gibi düşüncelerimizi geliştiren bir alan olduğudur. Basit bir örnek
verelim: Bir insanın bildiği sözcük sayısıyla, düşünce zenginliği doğru orantılıdır.
Bildiğimiz sözcük sayısı ne kadar fazlaysa düşünce alanımız da o kadar geniştir. İlk bakışta
bu düşünce pek doğru görünmese de olgular incelendiğinde doğruluğu ortaya çıkmaktadır.
Rönesans dönemi bilgin ve ressamları bakış açısı (perspektif) kavramını yaratmasalardı,
gözümüzle görmemize rağmen önümüzde uzayan ağaçlı yolun bir bakış açısı yarattığını
göremeyecek ve ilk çağların insanları gibi ağaçları resmimizde aynı boyda çizecektik.
Rönesans bilgin ve ressamlarının gözlemini bize ulaştıran şey “bakış açısı” sözüdür.
Dil üzerinde derin bir düşünce geliştirmeden doğru düşünmemiz olanaklı değildir. İnsanlar,
nesneler vasıtasıyla değil sözcükler aracılığıyla düşünür. Bundan dolayı düşüncenin iki
aracının olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. Bunlardan birincisi dil, diğeri mantıktır. Bilimlerin
sunduğu bütün bilgiler bize sadece iki kaynaktan gelir. Dil üzerinde düşünmek ve doğayı
incelemekten. İşin ilgi çekici yanı doğadan gelen bilgilerin de dil kalıbına döküldükten
sonra bize ulaşıyor olmasıdır. Anlaşılmak, mesleğimizde başarı elde etmek, yaratıcı olmak,
yaradılışımızdan getirdiğimiz ve sadece kendimize ait olan yeteneklerimizi yurdumuzun ve
insanlığın hizmetine sunmak istiyorsak işe dilimize ilgi göstermekle başlayabiliriz.
Ömer Erenoğlu ve Selma Otçu
Source: Erenoğlu, S. Ö., and ve Otçu, S. (2007).

Tip 3: The fact that you listen to music that you want may relieve you during the
activity.
İleri düzey uygulama 2: “Türkçenin Doğru Kullanımı” makalesiyle ile ilgili sözlü
görüşler alınır.
İleri düzey uygulama 3: “Türkçenin Doğru Kullanımı” makalesinde öğrencilerden

dil ile ilgili görüşlerin özetlenmesi istenir.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
İleri düzey uygulama 4: “Türkçenin Doğru Kullanımı” makalesinde öğretmen

öğrencilerle birlikte üç tamlama, üç fiilimsi, üç kip, beş sözcük türü bularak
öğrencilerin dilbilgisi bilgilerini pekiştirir.
Tamlama:
• ……………………………………………………………………………
• ……………………………………………………………………………
• ……………………………………………………………………………
Filimsi
• ……………………………………………………………………………
• ……………………………………………………………………………
• ……………………………………………………………………………
Kip
• ……………………………………………………………………………
• ……………………………………………………………………………
• ……………………………………………………………………………
332 N. Aytan
Sözcük Türü (İsim, sıfat, zamir, edat vs.)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………
2. ……………………………………………………………………………
3. ……………………………………………………………………………
4. ……………………………………………………………………………
5. ……………………………………………………………………………
İleri düzey uygulama 5: Öğretmen öğrencilerden “Türkçenin Doğru Kullanımı”

makalesinde geçen dil ile ilgili dört tane benzetme cümlesi yazmalarını ister.
• ……………………………………………………………………………
• ……………………………………………………………………………
• ……………………………………………………………………………
• ……………………………………………………………………………
İleri düzey uygulama 6: “Türkçenin Doğru Kullanımı” makalesinden yola çıkarak

Türkçe ve kendi anadilinizi zorluk-kolaylık veya başka açılardan karşılaştıran bir
kompozisyon yazınız.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• Every student is asked to evaluate each other’s work by matching with a friend
after advanced activities. The teacher guides the students during this activity.
• The students are asked to write their opinions about the language learning
process when the activities are completed.
Tip 4: Could you take notes the important parts while you are reading a story,
poem, article or another fiction?
Further activities: The students are asked to write a half-page long composition
that states their opinions about an article that they like.
Assessment:
• The students are asked to write the similarities and differences between the
article and essay
• The students are asked to introduce two articles that they will choose.
Semantic networks: In this activity, the relation of the activities that are based on
Suggestopedia method is approached. In this frame, the attention of the students is
tried to be drawn with an example article given. Suggestopedia is used to make the
subjects that are covered in language learning more permanent. It is aimed that the
language level of the students should be carried to further levels with the language
activities like article practice, the other activities and discussions in the classroom.
The students are tried to be motivated with the activities like reading and listening,
stating an opinion, summarizing, applying grammar, interpreting and writing
compositions.
Learning outcomes: The behaviours that we will expect from students when the
activity is done:
• Decreasing the tension and anxiety of the students while learning the language.
• Student’s feeling free and relax
• Developing artistic skills with the activities like reading fictions and writing.
• Gaining language teaching objectives like learning the meaning and structure of
the language gradually is aimed.
8.2.5 Activity Five: Consult someone who knows!
This activity is prepared with a teaching design that is based on Community

Language Learning. In community language learning, the important thing is
dividing the student into learning groups and doing language activities with the help
of counselor students and with the teacher. It is aimed that the students should talk
about among each other while the target language is taught. The teacher transfers
the things that he/she takes from the counselor-student to the language. This situ-
ation motivates the students in learning the target language.
Tag of Activity
Focus of Teaching: Learner-centered instruction.
Type of Teaching: Conversations among each other in a group has an important
role in this teaching method. The grammar rules are written on the board, and the
students write them on their notebooks to prevent the fact that the students do not
express themselves well because of anxiety and fear of making mistakes while
learning a second language. In addition to transferring the target language with the
help of counselor-student, the teaching is done by using tape recorders and in-class
activities.
Approach/Method: Community Language Learning. Using the suitable ones of
the methods and techniques like a tape recorder, in-class dialogue, and discussions,
counselor student, classroom environment in teaching a process in this method.
Types of Learning: In this activity, the skills like discussion talent, listening
skills, noticing not to be afraid of making mistakes and not feeling anxious will be
taught.
Prerequisite Knowledge: The teacher comes to the class and organizes the sitting
arrangement in a circle shape and chooses a counselor-student for each group with
334 N. Aytan
the aim of decreasing the anxieties of students in language learning. After that,
he/she starts the lesson by using the tape recorders.
Students’ participation: To provide students participation in the lesson in
community language learning, the attentions of the students are tried to be drawn
with the activities like computer support, catechizing, listening to the record and
discussions. The pronunciations that have been recorded in the lesson listen later
and the teacher corrects the mistakes if there are some, thanks to that, the students
got motivated to the target language. The participation to the lesson is provided by
applying the advanced activities prepared in the frame of community language
learning.
Parents’ participation: On the ground that the parents are the helpers of teaching
process outside of the school, every programme that they will make about language
development will be useful for students to comprehend the target language. The
parents can make their daughters or sons to practice the language by getting them
meet with the peers or educators who speak the target language in the places that
they live. Parents can help their daughters or sons in finding a language helper or
counsellor who knows both languages well by forming relations with social media.
Practical recommendations to parents: For the purpose of improving Turkish,
the parents can develop their children’s language skills by providing them
one-to-one academic help by finding a circle of friend who knows the both lan-
guages or a trainee or a tutor who knows the target language.
Keywords: Community language learning, model, teacher, student, lesson, target
language, discussion, records, dialogue, expression, summary, catechize, repetition,
activity, listening to records, grammar, discussion, fear, anxiety, native langue,
record, board, notebook, pronunciation, association, computer, support etc.
Mini-scenario: The teacher greets the students when she/he comes to the
classroom. While the students are looking in an amazed way, the teacher sits down
at an empty desk. After that, the teacher says:
– Today, one of us will be a teacher.
The students look to each other. A student:
– Teacher, how will this happen?
The teacher invites some students to the board by calling out a student that
he/she has chosen in advance. To the student who comes to board:
– Tell us something and let me express it to the one who may not understand.
The students tell a topic and the lesson goes on. By doing so, the teacher
decreases the fears and anxieties of the students. The teacher thanks the student and
starts the lesson.
Instruction Design
Purpose: It applies the activities about Community Language Learning and related
activities.
Objectives: In addition to contributing students in terms of speaking and lis-

tening skills, it helps students in terms of behaving freely, getting rid of anxiety,
insecurity, and fear of making a mistake, improving the self-confidence and com-
municating in the shape of groups. In addition to these, activities and this method
provide the fact that the students work compatibly with each other, and the students
take roles in the language learning actively by teacher’s involving them the process
of teaching.
Materials: Classroom environment, the arrangement of tables, tape recorder,
grouping and the activity paper which are related to the topic.
Attention: The teacher motivates the students with mini scenarios in the classroom
to trigger their prior knowledge. The teacher makes the students listen to the dia-
logues recorded in the lesson from the tape recorders and make the students from
dialogues. The teacher makes the students speak even if they make mistakes.
He/she expresses the topics that cannot be understood by guiding the class
himself/herself by having a conversation with the group upon a counsellor student.
He/she directs some questions to the students:
• Where do you think you are incompetent while you are listening to the recorded
speech?
• Do you get excited when you pronounce a word?
• How is the group arrangement in the class, do you have other suggestions?
• What can you say about your speaking style and pronunciation?
Tip 1: The student can be asked to present a short speech about language features of
their own accent and local language.
Inform the target: Friends, in this lesson, I and chosen friend will be counsellors.
You will transmit the things that you want to say to the chosen friend of yours.
I will transfer it by the way of him/her. We will cover the lesson upon Turkish
dialogues, and we will write grammar explanations to the parts where the dialogues
are missing. Thanks to that, the listening and speaking skills of students will
develop.
Using preliminary information: The teacher can do the following mini activities
to trigger students’ prior knowledge.
1. A discussion is made by dividing the students into pairs.
2. The students are asked to write comments about a topic that has been chosen in
the frame of lesson
3. The teacher can form groups and he/she can give a topic to them and can want
them to discuss it.
4. At the end of the discussion, the teacher transfers the discussion that has been
made integrated with the lesson to the whole class and starts the process of the
lesson.
336 N. Aytan
Presentation of Content: The teacher has a mini introduction conversation with

the students. They talk about the topics that the students choose. After that, the
teacher reads the chosen text to the students in the classroom. The activities are
done on this text. The lesson ends with this activity. As homework, the students are
asked for discussion texts with different topics and repeat the words day and night.
Tip 2: You can tell a Turkish text that you want with dialogues in the classroom, at
home or in a circle of friends.
İleri düzey uygulama 1: “Simyacı” adlı roman metniyle ilgili öğretmen genel bir
bilgi verir ve metni grup danışmanı sınıfta okur. Öğretmen metindeki bazı
kavramları tahtaya yazar ve onun üzerine bir tartışma başlatır. Danışman öğrencinin
de yardımıyla ileri düzey anlamlar da sınıf içinde metinden hareketle anlatılır.
Simyacı
Delikanlı geceyi burada geçirmeye karar verdi. Bütün koyunlarını yıkık kapıdan içeri soktu.
Koyunların, geceleyin kaçmalarına engel olacak şekilde, kapıya birkaç tahta koydu. Bu
bölgede kurt falan yoktu, ama bir keresinde bir kaçak koyunu bulmak için, ertesi gün bütün
gün dolaşmak zorunda kalmıştı.
Yamçısını yere yayıp üzerine uzandı, okuyup bitirdiği kitabı da yastık olarak başının altına
koydu. Uykuya dalmadan önce, artık daha kalın kitaplar okuması gerektiğini düşündü:
Okunmaları daha uzun sürer, geceleyin de daha rahat yastık olurlardı.
Uyandığında ortalık hâlâ karanlıktı. Yukarıya baktı, yarı yarıya yıkılmış çatının arasından
parıldayan yıldızları gördü. -Biraz daha uyusaydım, - diye düşündü Bir hafta önceki düşü
tekrar görmüş, gene sonunu getiremeden uyanmıştı.
Sonra değneğini eline alıp hâlâ uyumakta olan koyunları uyandırmaya başladı. Hayvanların
çoğunun tıpkı kendisi gibi uykudan hemen sıyrılıp uyandıklarını fark etti. Sanki gizemli bir
güç, iki yıldır, yiyecek ve su peşinde kendisiyle birlikte bütün ülkeyi dolaşıp duran
koyunların yaşamına bağlamıştı yaşamını. “Bana öylesine alıştılar ki saat düzenimi biliy-
orlar.” dedi kendi kendine alçak sesle.
“Tersi de olabilir.” diye düşündü: Hayvanların saat düzenine belki de kendisi alışmıştı.
Gene de, uyanması geciken, koyunlar da vardı. Adlarını söyleyerek sopasıyla birer birer
hepsini uyandırdı.
Söylediklerini koyunların anlayabildiğine her zaman inanmıştı. Bundan dolayı, kendisini
etkileyen kitapların bazı bölümlerini kimi zaman onlara okur; kimi zaman da kırlarda
dolaşan bir çobanın yalnızlığından ya da yaşama sevincinden söz ederdi onlara; kimi zaman
da uğramayı alışkanlık haline getirdiği kentlerde gördüğü son yenilikleri anlatırdı.
Paulo Coelho/Simyacı
Tip 3: Sometimes, talking to a book when you are alone both increases your
language reservoir and makes you relax!
İleri düzey uygulama 2: “Simyacı” romanı ile ilgili sözlü görüşler alınır ve başka
kitaplarla içerik olarak bağlantısı sorulur.
İleri düzey uygulama 3: “Simyacı” metninden hareketle çoban- koyun ve kitap

ilişkisinin yorumlanarak yazılması istenir.
.............................................. ...........
.............................................. ...........
.............................................. ...........
İleri düzey uygulama 4: “Simyacı” metninden hareketle öğretmen öğrencilerle

birlikte aşağıdaki kavramlar ve çağrışımları hakkında fikir alışverişinde bulunur ve
dilbilgisi açısından bu kavramlar incelenir.
İleri düzey uygulama 5: Aşağıdaki kavramları ve çağrışımlarını yazınız?

Kitap ve çağrıştırdığı kavramlar:
........................... ..............................
........................... ..............................
Çoban ve çağrıştırdığı kavramlar:
........................... ..............................
........................... ..............................
Hayvan ve çağrıştırdığı kavramlar:
........................... ..............................
........................... ..............................
Zaman ve çağrıştırdığı kavramlar:
........................... ..............................
........................... ..............................
İleri düzey uygulama 6: “Simyacı” metninden hareketle aşağıdaki dilbilgisi

kavramlarıyla ilgili beşer örnek yazınız?
Sıfat Tamlaması:
1. ___________________
2. ___________________
3. ___________________
4. ___________________
5. ___________________
338 N. Aytan
Birleşik Zamanlı Kip:

1. ___________________
2. ___________________
3. ___________________
4. ___________________
5. ___________________
Türemiş Sözcük:
1. ___________________
2. ___________________
3. ___________________
4. ___________________
5. ___________________
• After advanced activities, every group evaluates the each other’s work with the
company of a counsellor. During this, the teacher guides the students (coun-
sellor and counselee).
• When the activities are completed, the students are asked to write their opinions
about language learning process.
Tip 4: A text analysis about story, poem, article or another fiction can be done.
Further activities: The students are asked to come to the board and speak about a
topic that they like.
Assessment: The students are asked to discuss a chosen topic in front of the class
with two people that they will choose.
Semantic networks: In this activity, the relation of the activities that are based on
Community Language Learning method is approached. In this frame, the attention
of the students is tried to be drawn with an example novel text given. In-class
groups and counsellors are used to make the subjects that are covered in language
learning more permanent. It is aimed that the language level of the students should
be carried to further levels with the language activities like text practice, the other
activities and discussions in the classroom. The students are tried to be motivated
with the activities like discussion, reading and listening, stating an opinion, sum-
marizing, applying grammar, interpreting, writing and expressing themselves.
Learning outcomes: The behaviors that we will expect from students when the
activity is done:
• Decreasing the timidity of students and encouraging them while learning the
language.
• Student’s feeling relax by taking himself/herself away from anxiety, tension,
and fear of making mistake
• Developing artistic and linguistic skills with the activities like reading and
writing fictions.
• Gaining language teaching objectives like learning the meaning and structure of
the language gradually is aimed.
Activity Five Answer Keys

Etkinlik 6:
Sıfat Tamlaması:
(1) yıkık kapı (2) birkaç tahta (3) parlayan yıldız (4) gizemli bir güç (5) kimi
zaman
Birleşik Zamanlı Kip:
(1) inanmıştı (2) anlatırdı (3) kalmıştı (4) ederdi (5) bağlamıştı
Türemiş Sözcük:
(1) delikanlı (2) ortalık (3) gizemli (4) yenilik (5) bölüm
Note: Bu cevaplar örnektir. Metin içinde burada verilmeyen başka örnekler de
vardır.
8.3 Conclusion
In the frame of teaching Turkish to foreigners, there are different methods that can
be used according to the levels. These methods are applied to some disciplines and
activities in their own frames. Five teaching methods have been chosen in this study
for the advanced language teaching. These methods are presented in the study with
different texts and activities in their own frames.
In the activities about the chosen methods for advanced language teaching like
Audio-Visual Model, Physical-Emotional-Cultural Model, Drama Model,
Suggestopedia Model and Community Language Learning Model, some context
like type and method of teaching, preliminary preparations and necessary materials
for activities, providing student participation, suggestions for parents, keywords and
mini scenario have been presented. After that, information about targets and mini
activities before practice are the parts that are expressed in details in the study. At
the stage of practice, the texts are chosen according to the model and the situations
of the students and the activities related to text which are based on models are
ranked. In the process of every model and activity, there are some statements about
the things that needs to be done and some suggestions. The activities that are based
on texts and in-class activities include answering and discussing the questions about
a text which has been read or listened, doing the writing and grammar activities and
after that, reinforcing the practices and activities with the improvements and
activities out of the class.
340 N. Aytan
These language learning activities done and applied for the advanced language
teaching will provide the fact that:
• The students can comprehend and differentiate the differences between fictions;
they gain information about authors
• awareness about artistic text will develop
• The students can summarize what they have read, listened and watched
• The skills of visuality, audiality, acting, acculturation, sensuality and semantic
can develop
• The students can improve the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing
and they can understand the target language better
• The students can learn the structure and the rules of target language also the
semantics related to the target language
• The students can notice the historical and cultural accumulation about the target
language, and they can learn the traditional structure of the target language
• The students can comprehend the hidden meanings of the target language with
proverbs and idioms, body language, gestures and mimes and they can get the
acquisitions.
Five models have been used in this study which is related to advanced language
teaching. Researchers and language educators can develop different activities and
practices about target language by using different models and they can provide
awareness.
Glossary
Aşina Bildik, tanıdık

Bağdaşıklık Sözcükleri dil bilgisi kurallarına göre kullanma
Dizge Bir bütün oluşturacak biçimde birbirine bağlı ögelerin bütünü
Düdük çinden hava veya buhar geçirildiğinde keskin ses çıkaran ve işaret
vermek için kullanılan araç
Empati Kişinin kendisini başka bir bilincin yerine koyarak söz konusu
bilincin duygularını, isteklerini ve düşüncelerini, denemeksizin
anlayabilmesi becerisi
Hiyerarşi Makam sırası, basamak, derece düzeni, aşama sırası
İnziva Toplum hayatından kaçıp tek başına yaşama
Mahiyet Nitelik, vasıf, öz, asıl, esas
Meddah Taklitler yaparak, hoş hikâyeler anlatarak halkı eğlendiren
sanatçı. Türlü yansımalarla tatlı öyküler anlatan halk sanatçısı. Bir
tür halk seyir eğlencesi. Meddah adı verilen sanatçı yüksekçe bir
yerde oturarak bir olay, bir öykü anlatır. Bu çoğu zaman gülünçlü
de olur. Değişik kişilerin şivelerini, ayrı seslerle benzeterek
konuşturur; olayı yürütür. Elinde mendil vardır.
Muvazene Denge
Müddet Süre
Müjde Sevindirici haber
Ortaoyunu Geleneksel Türk doğaçlama halk tiyatrosu. Ortada oynanır. Baş
kişileri, aynı zamanda oyunun düzenleyicisi olan Pişekâr ile
oyunun baş güldürücü tipi Kavuklu’dur. Dekor olarak bir para-
vana, bir de önünde alçak bir hasır iskemlesi bulunan peyke
vardır. bk. dükkân, yeni dünya
Örtük Örtülü, kapalı
Tekerleme Masallara başlarken söylenilen yarı anlamlı yarı anlamsız sözler
Telaffuz Söyleyiş
Tematik Bir tema etrafında oluşan
Tüccar Ticaret yapan, ticaretle uğraşan kimse, tacir
Tümce Cümle, söylem
Yamçı Bir yüzü uzun tüylü, kalın yünden dokunarak yapılmış yağmurluk
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Chapter 9
Language of Turkish: Middle Levels
Ferdi Bülbül
If I had to reduce all of the educational psychology to just one

principle, I would say this: the most important single factor
influencing learning is what the learner already knows.
Ascertain this and teach him accordingly.
David Ausubel
In this section, theoretical explanations of intermediate level (B1 and B2) in Turkish
language teaching as a foreign language and the activity suggestions for this level
are discussed. In designing the activities for intermediate level, EU’s Common
Reference Guide for Languages was considered. These conceptual frame and steps
are detailed through the activities. This section consists of “Introduction to
Intermediate Level Field”, “Activity Examples for Intermediate Level”, “Abstract”,
“Glossary”, “References” and “Bibliography”.
In this section, the approaches and methods used in teaching the Turkish language
as a foreign language are presented. Intermediate level of language teaching can be
offered through many different approaches. Those are Cognitive Model, Multiple
Intelligences Language Learning and Teaching Theory, Balanced Reading and
Writing Approach, Critical Reading/Writing, Creative Writing, Drama,
Constructivism, Social Interaction, Cooperative Learning, Peer Solidarity, Concept
Mapping Technique. This section involves activities, abstract, glossary, references,
and bibliography.
F. Bülbül (&)
Artvin Coruh University, City Campus 08000, Artvin, Turkey
e-mail: ferdibulbul@artvin.edu.tr

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_9
346 F. Bülbül
9.1.1 Briefing
Intermediate level covers the transition period between the elementary level and
advanced level, and constitutes a very important foundation for the advanced level
that is defined as autonomy-mastership. Unless the education offered is suitable for
the content and language learning objectives of the intermediate level, it is obvious
that important problems would be experienced in advanced level. According to
EU’s Common Reference Guide for Languages, B1 level corresponds to the level
of Threshold for an individual visiting a foreign country. It is described with two
characteristics. First one is the ability to continue the mutual interaction and to gain
what is desired under different circumstances. The second characteristic is the
ability to deal with daily life problems successfully. B2 level corresponds with the
level between B1 (Threshold level) and A2 (the level of not disconnecting from the
communication—Waystage). It aims to clarify the characteristics of Advanced
Level or Independent User (Vantage). In this study, the approaches and methods
that can be used in intermediate level language teaching are introduced shortly. In
activities, many visuals, especially the concept map, were utilized. So, it was aimed
to make learning more permanent.
9.1.2 Approaches to Teaching Turkish

as a Foreign Language
In this section, some approaches used in advanced level language teaching are
discussed.
Cognitive Model: The thoughts of Chomsky about linguistics and those of
Ausubel about learning theories have constituted the foundation of Cognitive
Approach. In the year 1965 in his work titled Aspects of Theory of Syntax,
Chomsky has defined the language learning as a creative process rather than a habit
and conditioning event. Learning occurs based on a cognitive activity rather than
extrapersonal events. The main view constituting the foundation of Cognitive
Learning Theory is this view. According to Ausubel (1968), the characteristics of
Cognitive Learning are the storage of previously learnt information, the old
knowledge’ gaining new meanings while learning new ones, and the establishment
of a connection between old and new knowledge.
Multiple Intelligences Language Learning and Teaching Theory: Multiple-
intelligence foreign language teaching method accepts that each student has many
intelligences and each of those intelligences develops and acts in unique way. For
instance; the recipe is read before cooking by using verbal intelligence, the amounts
are calculated by using mathematical-logical intelligence, satisfaction is defined by
using social intelligence, and appealing to the taste buds is described by using inner
intelligence. The multiple-intelligence in foreign language teaching is defined as a
9 Language of Turkish: Middle Levels 347
humanitarian approach, and follows the most pleasant process in teaching. This
approach considers no student as incapable of learning. Every student has the same
learning capacity but different learning ways.
Constructivist Approach: According to the constructivist theory, learning is a
process emerging in the mind of the individual. Since the constructivist learning
approach is based on the restructuration of information by the learner, Bruner
defines the learning as an active process and recommends carrying out the edu-
cation with active participation of the student. In this process, the student selects
and transforms the required ones among the actual knowledge and newly acquired
ones, and then reconstructs the knowledge by making decisions.
Drama: The drama techniques used in language classrooms can include all of the
four fundamental skills. Among these four fundamental language skills, it can be
thought to improve the speaking skill at most. Besides the speaking skill, drama
plays an important role in the education of articulation skill. All of the components
of communication (articulation, intonation, accurate using, etc.) can be improved
via drama techniques.
Balanced Reading and Writing Approach: Batzle (1994, s. 17) defines the
balanced reading-writing approach as a frame language teaching approach con-
sisting of oral reading, collective reading, guided reading, and independent reading
besides interactive reading, model writing, guided writing and independent writing.
Considering the definitions, it is seen that the balance of educational support
constitutes the core of approach.
In every activity in this study, also the parents received some suggestions. Since the
intermediate level is a level in the language, where it is decided to continue or give
up, we believe that also the parents should be involved in the process. Below, there
are the suggestions that were prepared in parallel with the activities in this study:
For 1st Activity: Parents of the students may organize reading hours in a home in
order to improve the reading comprehension skill of the student; every individual
may be responsible for telling what he/she understood, ask questions, and/or
summarize the book. The students may be asked to tell the content of the TV series
or movie that they have watched.
For 2nd Activity: Student parents may visit the doctor to allow the student to
have knowledge about the diseases. If they live in Turkey, then they may visit a
Turkish physician. Various departments and also the patients in the hospital may be
observed. They may talk about the previous diseases of parents, the characteristics
of those diseases and potential treatment options.
For 3rd Activity: Student parents may talk to students about the advertisement
and product relations by watching the TV ads. They may visit malls or markets to
review the products they see on TV or different sources. Moreover, to allow the
student to have knowledge about the purchasing, they may visit the market,
348 F. Bülbül
greengrocery, grocery, bakery or stationery together. If they live in Turkey, the

student may work with a tradesman or in a mall for a day.
For 4th Activity: Parents may talk to their children about happiness and
unhappiness. The reflection of their experiences on this matter would contribute the
emotional development of their children.
For 5th Activity: Parents may watch and interpret a
brotherhood/friendship-themed movie with their children. For instance: Stand by
me. While watching the movie, they may help their children via question-answer
technique by pausing the movie.
Activity One: I learn meaningfully

Activity Two: I utilize all of my intelligence domains
Activity Three: I don’t receive meanings from the outer world but I give them to the
outer world
Activity Four: I learn through experience via drama
Activity Five: I learn by reading and writing in guidance of my teacher.
9.2.1 Activity One: I Learn Meaningfully
The thoughts of Chomsky about linguistics and those of Ausubel about learning
theories have constituted the foundation of Cognitive Approach. In the year 1965 in
his work titled Aspects of Theory of Syntax, Chomsky has defined the language
learning as a creative process rather than a habit and conditioning event. Learning
occurs based on a cognitive activity rather than extrapersonal events. The main
view constituting the foundation of Cognitive Learning Theory is this view.
According to Ausubel (1968), the characteristics of Cognitive Learning are the
storage of previously learnt information, the old knowledge’ gaining new meanings
while learning new ones, and the establishment of a connection between old and
new knowledge. Meaningful learning can be achieved via the integration of newly
learnt knowledge and previously learnt ones (Günday 2015a, b: 31, 33). In this
study, the activities that are suitable for Cognitive Learning Method are involved.
In this activity, a teaching design based on the cognitive method was prepared.
In the cognitive method, the new information is learnt in relation with previous ones
and realized by deeply thinking. The students participate in the process as teachers,
and the teaching is based on practice, realization, and competency. The courses are
enriched via the visual components and mind maps, and the information is made
permanent.
Tag of Activity
Focus of Teaching: Learner-oriented instruction
Selected Model: Cognitive Model
Teaching Tip: Semantic, thematic, narrative and mind-assisting learning. In this
education, the visual components, dialogue, question-answer, and verbal commu-
nication are used together.
Selected Method and/or Technic: Cognitive Method. In this method; Visual
Tools: The use of computer, projection, mind maps, images, and caricatures in
education process.
Learning Tips: In this activity, the skills such as estimating, asking question,
summarizing, and finding/understanding the main idea will be thought.
Students’ Participation: Projection strategy will be used for estimating the stu-
dent’s participation. Before realizing the reading, the text-related images will be
shown by the projector and the estimations of students regarding the content of text
will be drawn on the board as spider map. And then, the text will be presented on
the board, and the students will follow the text while the teacher reads it. After a
part of the text is read, the students will be asked the question “What is going to
happen according to your opinion?” After the text is completely read, then the
wrong estimations of the students will be erased. Then, other activities will be put
into practice, and the course will be supported by verbal communication, visual
materials, and dialogues. While practicing the activities, the direct expression,
questions about the text, summarization and writing activities will be performed.
Parents’ Participation: Parents of the students may organize reading hours in a
home to improve the reading comprehension skill of the student; every individual
may be responsible for telling what he/she understood, ask questions, and sum-
marize the book. The students may be asked to tell the content of the TV series or
movie that they have watched.
Keywords: Visuality, target language, meaningful learning, estimating, creating
question, summarization, mimic, jest, intermediate level (B2), Text Tips, narrating
texts, informative texts, meaning, topic, story, novel, Turkish sources, grammar,
character, mind, dialogue, question-answer, inference, reasoning, brainstorm, slide,
caricature, photo, verbal communication, assessment sheets, activity.
Prerequisite knowledge: Pre-activity preparation and Text knowledge.
Mini Scenario: Etkinlik öncesi öğretmen metinle ilgili görselleri hazırlar ve
sınıfa getirir. Metne geçilmeden önce tahmin etme stratejisi kullanılır ve öğretmen
görselleri projeksiyon yardımıyla tahtaya yansıtır. Sonra öğrencilere:
Teacher Sizce bu metin ne hakkında olabilir?” sorusunu yöneltir
Students Hayvan sevgisi, annelik, şefkat, doğa sevgisi vb
Öğretmen, öğrencilerden gelen cevapları örümcek ağı kavram haritası (spider
map) şeklinde tahtaya çizer. Ardından metin okunmaya başlar. Metni öğretmen de
okuyabilir öğrenciler de. Bu esnada öğretmen birden:
350 F. Bülbül
Teacher Arkadaşlar! Sizce bundan sonra ne olacak?

Student A Köpek tavuğa ve civcivlere saldıracak
Student B Tavuk, köpeğe saldıracak
Student D Köpek hiçbir şey yapmayacak
The students are asked to create questions after or during reading the text. It may
be in written or verbal. The prepared questions are asked to other students, and their
answers are requested.
Teacher Evet arkadaşlar, metni okuduk ve metin ile ilgili düşüncelerimizi ortaya
koyduk. Sizce metinle ilgili hazırlanan en güzel soru hangisi?
Student A Anne tavuk, köpeği görünce ne yaptı?
Student E Yazar, neden yardım edemedi?
Student H Siz olsanız ne yapardınız?
Daha sonra metnin özetlenmesi istenir. Söz konusu metin hikâye edici bir
metindir. Öğretmen bilgilendirici metinleri de tanımlar ve farklı metin türlerinin
nasıl özetleneceğini anlatır ve son olarak derste öğrenilenlerin pekiştirilmesi için
öğrencilere bir ödev metni verilir.
Instruction Design
Purpose: The student learns the topic and meaning of the selected text and performs
the text-related activities.
Objectives: Activity teaches the students to understand the text completely, to
estimate, to create a question, to summarize and the grammar rules specified in the
activity.
Materials: Projector, related images, and assessment sheets.
Attention: To draw attention or to evoke the preliminary information, the teacher
presents the text-related images (photos, paintings, caricature) on the board. After
the images are watched, some questions are asked to students:
• About what is this text according to your opinion?
• Considering these images, what may be the common characteristics of humans
and animals?
• Do you know the text Tips?
After the answers of students, then the teacher presents following text on the
board.
Tip 1: The images should be shown thoroughly and slowly for three times at most.
Tip 2: The responses of students should immediately be drawn as spider map. Even
the most absurd ones should be added to the map.
Inform the target: Friends, we will learn to estimate, ask questions, to use
summarization techniques, and the text Tips. So, we will understand different texts
better.
Teaching Strategies: Teacher acts as model via thinking aloud for teaching the
strategies, and allows the students to see/learn how to use the mentioned strategies.
Presentation of Content: After teaching how to use the strategies, then the
teacher presents the images of new text, draws the estimations in spider map form,
and then starts to read the text. After the text is read, then the true estimations stay
on board, and wrong ones are erased. Then, the students are asked to prepare
questions about the text and ask it to whichever student they want. After the
question-answer part, they are asked to summarize the text.
Tip 3: All of the students should be granted the right to estimate, prepare question,
and summarize, and every student should have right to speak because these
activities will allow the teacher to determine to what extent the students could
understand the text.
Sample Text:
ANA YÜREGİ
Bir ilkbahar günü evimin penceresinin önünde oturuyordum. Karşıki arsa yemyeşildi.
Burada yavrularıyla birlikte koyunlar, keçiler otluyordu. 8–10 civcivi olan bir tavuk da
“gut, gut, gut!…” diye sesler çıkararak yavrularını gezdiriyordu.
Orada, bu mutlu annenin durumuna göz diken iri bir köpek belirdi. Aç köpek, hain ve vahşi
bakışlarıyla, yavaş yavaş civcivlere yaklaşmaya başladı. Tavuk, tehlikeyi hemen anladı.
Birkaç defa “gut, gut!” diye seslenerek yavrularını etrafında topladı.
Şimdi köpekle tavuk, birbirine saldırmaya hazır durumda, hareketsiz duruyorlardı. Köpeğin
gözleri ateş gibi parlıyordu. Tavuğun ibiği ise kıpkırmızı olmuştu. O bildiğimiz korkak
tavuk, korkunç bir hal aldı. Kendisinden yüz defa güçlü bir düşmana karşı koymak için
hazırdı.
Tavuğun bu halinden üzüntü duydum, pencere önünde titremeye başladım. Yardıma
koşacaktım ama epeyce uzakta olduğu için ben gidinceye kadar köpek yapacağını yapa-
bilirdi. Nitekim öyle de oldu. Köpek birden atıldı, civcivlerden birini yakaladı. Bir de ne
göreyim! Tavuk iki kanat vuruşuyla köpeğin başına sıçramasın mı? Tavuk çırpınıyor,
bağırıyor, gagasını köpeğin kafasına çivi gibi batırıyordu.
Bu savaş birkaç dakika bile sürmedi. Nihayet köpek ağzındaki civcivi bırakmak zorunda
kaldı ve kaçtı. Civciv, düştüğü yerde artık kımıldamıyordu. Ama fedakâr tavuk, insanı
şaşırtan o büyük cesaretiyle öteki yavrularını kurtarmıştı.
Hüseyin Rahmi Gürpınar
Source: Demiray, K., Özdemir, E., Oğuzkan, T. & Öz, M. F. (1995). İlkokul 4
Türkçe Ders Kitabı, Ankara: İlke Yayıncılık ve Özgün Matbaacılık. s.: 77–78.
The activities in “Practices of Activity 1” in a section of the text-related
appendix are performed on the assessment sheets distributed to the students by a
teacher (Fig. 9.1).
Tip 4: If the students have difficulty in writing the “Student Diary” during the
course, then they are told that they might bring this homework 1 or 2 days later.
The important point here is, for the students, to be able to express their own
opinions easily and bring the Student Diary on time. By utilizing the student diary,
352 F. Bülbül
Fig. 9.1 Ana Yüreği Metninin Balık Kılçığı Kavram Haritası
the teacher becomes able to determine the strengths and weaknesses of teaching
method (Fig. 9.2).
Further activities:
• Students are given two different texts and then asked to give information about
their Tips.
• They are asked to prepare question about and summarize one of these texts.
Assessment:
• The students are asked to write the differences between informative and nar-
rative texts.
• The students asked to make a story of one of their experiences.
Semantic networks: In this study, the narrative and informative texts were
introduced, and the use of estimating, question preparing and summarizing
strategies was thought. In order to ensure the stability of knowledge, various mind
maps were utilized, the teacher acts as a model by thinking aloud, and then asked
his/her students to perform the strategies.
Outcomes: The expected behaviors of students after the activity are;
• To be able to understand the difference between various text Tips
• To be able to make use of estimation, questioning, and summarizing strategies
besides the reading comprehension
• To be able to make sense of mind maps or to draw his/her mind map
Practices of Activity One
Uygulama 1: Ana Yüreği hikâyesiyle ilgili aşağıdaki soruları cevaplayınız.
1. Okuduğunuz metnin kahramanları kimlerdir?
2. Okuduğunuz metindeki olay veya olaylar nerede geçmektedir?
3. Tavuk, civcivlerin tehlikede olduğunu nasıl anlıyor?
4. Yazar neden üzülüp titremeye başlıyor?
Fig. 9.2 Ana Yüreği

Metninin Zincirleme Kavram
Haritası
5. Yazar neden yardıma gidemiyor?

6. Köpek, civcivi ağzına aldığında tavuk ne yapıyor?
7. Okuduğunuz metnin konusu nedir, metinde ne anlatılıyor?
8. Okuduğunuz metnin ana fikri nedir, yazar bize ne anlatmak istemiş?
Uygulama 2: “Ana Yüreği” hikâyesini aşağıdaki boşluğa özetleyiniz (8–10 Cümle)

…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………….……………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
354 F. Bülbül
Uygulama 3: Aşağıdaki dil bilgisi sorularını cevaplayınız.

1. “Ana Yüreği” metninde genel olarak kullanılan birleşik zaman hangisidir?
(a) Şimdiki Zamanın Hikâyesi, (b) Geçmiş Zamanın Rivâyeti
(c) Geçmiş Zamanın Hikâyesi, (d) Gelecek Zamanın Şartı
2. “Ana Yüreği” metninde geçen “Karşıki arsa yemyeşildi” cümlesindeki
yemyeşildi bir pekiştirme sıfatıdır. Aşağıdakilerden hangisinde pekiştirme sıfatı
vardır?
(a) sarı balon, (b) kahverengi pantolon
(c) masmavi deniz, (d) pembe ayakkabı
“Aç köpek, hain ve vahşi bakışlarıyla, yavaş yavaş civcivlere yaklaşmaya
başladı.” cümlesindeki “yaklaşmaya” kelimesi bir fiilimsidir.
3. Aşağıdaki cümlelerin hangisinde benzer bir fiilimsi vardır.
(a) Evimin penceresinin önünde oturuyordum.
(b) Tavuk, tehlikeyi hemen anladı.
(c) Tavuğun bu halinden üzüntü duydum.
(d) Pencere önünde titremeye başladım.
4. “Ana Yüreği” metninde geçen aşağıdaki kelimelerden hangisi edat değildir?
(a) ve, (b) için, (c) gibi, (d) mı?
5. “Ana Yüreği” metninde geçen aşağıdaki kelimelerden hangisi soyut anlamlıdır?
(a) ev, (b) civciv, (c) üzüntü, (d) köpek
Uygulama 4: Kelimeleri zıt anlamlılarıyla eşleştiriniz.
1. yavaş a. bitirmek
2. düşman b. barış
3. başlamak c. hızlı
4. savaş d. zayıf
5. güçlü e. dost
Uygulama 5: Hangi fiil gelecek?
(parlıyordu, sürmedi, anladı, duydum, oturuyordum,)
1. Bir ilkbahar günü evimin penceresinin önünde …………………
2. Tavuk, tehlikeyi hemen …………………
3. Köpeğin gözleri ateş gibi …………………
4. Tavuğun bu halinden üzüntü …………………
5. Bu savaş birkaç dakika bile …………………
• After the activities, the students give their answer sheet to their classmates.
Teacher represents every answer separately, and every student assesses the sheet
of his/her classmate.
• After the activities, the teacher gives a sheet titled “Student Diary”. The students
give their opinions about the course and teaching method.
9.2.2 Activity Two: I Utilize All of My Intelligence Domains
Multiple-intelligence foreign language teaching method accepts that each student

has many intelligences and each of those intelligences develops and acts in a unique
way. For instance; the recipe is read before cooking by using verbal intelligence, the
amounts are calculated by using mathematical-logical intelligence, satisfaction is
defined by using social intelligence, and appealing to the taste buds is described by
using inner intelligence. The multiple-intelligence in foreign language teaching is
defined as a humanitarian approach, and follows the most pleasant process in
teaching. This approach considers no student as incapable of learning. Every
student has the same learning capacity but different learning ways. For this reason,
rather than monotype intelligence, the information must be taught to every intel-
ligence type by trying different intelligence and learning methods. For this reason,
multiple-intelligence method diversifies the teaching medium and focuses on what
the students can learn rather than what students could learn (Doğan 2012: 329,
331). In this section, activities were prepared for all the intelligence domains.
In this activity, a teaching design based on multiple intelligence language
teaching approach was prepared. According to the multiple intelligence theory,
when s/he found the way of learning, by which he/she learns easily, then he/she can
be easily thought about anything that he/she had difficulties in learning. The
important point in education is to explore every child’s style of learning and to
provide the education in this parallel. Each of the students differs from others
regarding intelligence structure and learning method. Some of them learn only by
listening, some of them learn by participating in the learning process, and some
other by researching or analyzing.
Tag of Activity
Teaching type: Teaching designed for using all the domains of intelligence. In
this method, visual-auditory components, dialogue, question-answer, and verbal
communication were utilized together.
Selected model: Multiple Intelligences Language Learning and Teaching Theory
Selected method and technique: Multiple Intelligences Language Learning and
Teaching Theory. In this method, auditory-visual components: PC, TV, movies, etc.
Visual components: PC, projector, mind maps, images, photos, caricatures;
Auditory components: CD-player, MP3-player, cassette player, radio, etc. The
appropriate ones of components were used in teaching process.
Learning types: In this activity, it will be thought to gain certain knowledge, how
to act under certain conditions, to express his/her opinions on a topic, and to tell the
events in correct order.
Prerequisite knowledge: Pre-activity preparation, visual-auditory tools, and text
info
Students’ participation: In order to ensure the student participation, the
intra-class text reading, speaking of the images, and listening-learning activities will
be performed. The text regarding the topic will be shown from the projector, and
356 F. Bülbül
also given in hard copies to the students. A couple of volunteers can read the text
and dialogues aloud. And then, the activities prepared based on the duration will be
put into practice, and the course will also be reinforced with verbal communication,
visual materials, and dialogues. While performing the activities, the direct
expression, text-related written and verbal questions, summarization, and writing
activities will be performed.
Parents’ participation: Student parents may visit the doctor to allow the student
to have knowledge about the diseases. If they live in Turkey, then they may visit a
Turkish physician. Various departments and also the patients in the hospital may be
observed. They may talk about the previous diseases of parents, the characteristics
of those diseases and potential treatment options.
Keywords: Visuality, target language, Multiple Intelligences Language Learning
and Teaching Theory, estimation, question-answer, summarization, jest, mimic,
intermediate level (B1), diseases, verbal-linguistic intelligence,
logical-mathematical intelligence, visual-spatial intelligence, musical-rhythmical
intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal-social intelligence,
intrapersonal-inward intelligence, naturalist intelligence, assessment sheets,
activity.
Mini Scenario: Öğretmen sınıfa bir doktor önlüğü ve stetoskop ile girer.
Hastalıklar ve hastane hakkında hazırlanmış bir film seyrettirir. Öğrencilere hasta
olduklarında ne yaptıkları sorulur.
Teacher Evet arkadaşlar! Hasta olmak çok kötü. Siz en son ne zaman hasta
oldunuz?
Student A Geçen ay hasta oldum
Teacher Hangi hastalık?
Student A Eeee… (Elleriyle boğazını gösteriyor)
Teacher Boğazın mı şişti? Acıdı mı?
Student A Evet hocam
Teacher Sanırım üşüttün. Yani belki soğuk bir şeyler içtin, su olabilir, kola
olabilir
Student A Evet, sanırım
Teacher Geçmiş olsun!
Student B Ne hocam?
Teacher Geçmiş olsun. Evet, biz bir insan hasta olduğu zaman, hasta olunca,
hasta olduktan sonra ona “Geçmiş olsun” diyoruz. Bu, güzel bir
cümledir. İngilizcedeki “Get well soon” gibi. Bakın pronunciation
(telaffuz) da benziyor: Get well soon-Geçmiş olsuuun
Students Gülüşmeler ☺
Ardından öğretmen hasta olmamak için neler yapılması gerektiğiyle ilgili
öğrenci görüşleri alır.
Teacher Peki arkadaşlar, hasta olmamak için nelere dikkat etmeliyiz, ne
yapmalıyız, ne yapmak lazım, ne yapmak gerek. Kim konuşmak
istiyor?
Student C Spor yapmalıyız

Student D Sağlıklı yemeliyiz
Teacher Arkadaşlar, biz buna “Sağlıklı beslenmeliyiz” veya “Dengeli beslen-
meliyiz” diyoruz
Student Not alıyorlar
Teacher Ben beslenmeme çok dikkat ediyorum, güneşe çıkıyorum. Hem ne
demişler, güneş girmeyen eve doktor girer
Students Nasıl hocam?
Teacher Evet, Türkçede böyle bir proverb var. Proverb ne demek?
Student E Atasözü
Teacher Harikasın dostum! Evet, arkadaşlar! Türkçede böyle bir atasözü var:
“Güneş girmeyen eve doktor girer.” Bu ne demek, anlıyor musunuz?
Student F Güneş gelmezse doctor gelir ☺
Teacher Mükemmelsin kardeşim! Kesinlikle doğru cevap
Then, the images related to the diseases, which are frequently seen in daily life,
are presented on the board. Listening practice is performed about the disease names.
The disease names of the images are written on the board, and then pronunciation
practice is performed.
After the word study, the Listening-Understanding part is initiated. Here, after
answering the true-false questions related to the text, then the
listening-understanding activities were done. The characters in this activity talk
about the diseases, and the teacher asks his/her students to match the characters and
diseases named.
In writing part, the participants focus on the sentences of Physician and Patient.
So, the students would know the words that they need to use when they are sick. In
Watching-Understanding part, a video about the disease, applying to the hospital
and treatment of a patient boy is presented. In Game-Entertainment part, there is a
puzzle containing disease names with letters in different orders. The contests “Who
will complete in shortest time?” is initiated. Then the course ends after the project
homework.
Instruction Design
Purpose: The topic and the meaning of selected text are learnt, the text-related
activities are done.
Objectives: Activity teaches the students to understand the text completely, to
estimate, to prepare questions, to summarize and also the grammar rules specified in
activity.
Materials: Computer, projector, CD-player, related images and assessment
sheets.
Attention: In order to draw the attention and initiate the preliminary knowledge of
students, the teacher enters into the class by wearing doctor coat and stethoscope,
and then present the images related to the diseases on the board (photos, pictures,
caricatures). After the visuals, teacher asks certain questions:
358 F. Bülbül
• What is this text about according to your opinion?

• What do you do when you are patient?
• What can be done in order to prevent diseases?
• How a relationship is there between technology and diseases?
After the answers of students, then the teacher presents the related words and
images on the board. The words, which are given to students in hard copies, are
listened, and the disease image is written below the appropriate visual.
Tip 1: The words should listen for three times at most. The first listening may be
continuous and the second one may be interrupted after every word for providing
the students with a chance of writing. It can be listened for the 3rd time to check the
written words.
Inform the target: Friends, we will be informed of the diseases. What are the
Turkish names of the diseases? What should/shouldn’t we do when we are patient?
Where should we go to? Which words and sentences should we use? We will find
the answers to these questions.
Presentation of Content: From the perspective that there are students in the
classroom from different intelligence types, the teacher should create rich learning
environments. For this reason, s/he starts to present the activities s/he prepared for
each of intelligence types.
Sample Text:
ASLI ACİL SERVİSTE
Aslı, dün gece aniden hastalandı. Onun ateşi çıktı. Hüseyin Bey, çok telaşlandı. Hemen eşi
Gülten Hanım’a telefon açtı. Gülten Hanım, evde değildi. Çünkü o, dün gece hastanede
nöbetçiydi.
Hüseyin Bey: Gülten Hanım! Aslı çok hasta. Ateşi var.
Gülten Hanım: Ateşini ölçtün mü?
Hüseyin Bey: Evet, ölçtüm. 39 derece.
Gülten Hanım: dolapta ateş düşürücü ilaç var. Bir ölçek ateş düşürücü ilaç ver ve hemen
hastaneye getir. Sizi acil serviste bekliyorum.
Hüseyin Bey, Aslı’ya bir ölçek ateş düşürücü ilaç verdi. Daha sonra onu hastaneye götürdü.
Onlar hastaneye geldiklerinde saat gece birdi. Hemen acil servise, Gülten Hanım’ın yanına
gittiler.
Gülten Hanım, aslıyı muayene etti. Ateşini ölçtü. Aslı’nın ateşi yine çok yüksekti. Bu
yüzden hemşire, Aslı’ya iğne yaptı. Bir süre sonra tekrar ateşini ölçtüler. Aslı’nın ateşi
şimdi 36,5 dereceydi. Gülten Hanım, reçeteye ateş düşürücü bir şurup ve antibiyotik yazdı.
Hüseyin Bey, reçeteyi alıp nöbetçi eczaneye gitti. Eşi Gülten Hanım’ın yazdığı ilaçları aldı.
Onlar eve geldiklerinde gece saat iki buçuktu. Aslı, bu ilaçları kullandı. Bugün okula
gitmedi. Evde dinleniyor. Şimdi o daha iyi.
Source: Lâle Türkçe Ders Kitabı 3, İstanbul: Dilset Yayınları. s.: 41.
After the text is read, the concept map in Fig. 9.1 is reflected on the board. This
mind-mapping activity aims to provide the students with the skill of describing a
specific event. In the map, there are sections of “text name, event, problem, solu-
tion, persons and their characteristics”. So, the students will be given the skill of
putting an event on the paper at the desired level (Fig. 9.3).
Further activities:
• Presentation of students regarding the results of their researches on diseases
(next week),
• Classifying the contagious and lethal diseases and informing the classroom,
• Caricatures about the diseases,
Fig. 9.3 Aslı Acil Serviste Metninin Kavram Haritası

360 F. Bülbül
• Researching the music types used in treating the disease, samples of those music
types, if any,
• Presenting various diseases on bodies by children,
• The students are asked to prepare the presentation in groups of two or three.
Assessment: The students are asked to write about one of their previous diseases
by providing the time and location information and by adding their emotions. To
allow the activity to reach desired level, the practices in Practices of Activity Two
are performed.
• The time period required for completing the practices is approximately one
week.
• After the activities, the studies of students are assessed and then announced.
• After the activities, the teacher gives “Student Diary” sheet to the students.
Students write their opinions about the course and teaching method.
Semantic networks: During the activities, the information about the diseases was
provided, and momentary, effective and efficient solutions were created for the
problems that are experienced in daily life. In order to ensure the retention of
knowledge, the activities were performed for different intelligence types, and mind
maps, music, and videos were utilized.
Outcomes: The expected behaviors of students after the activity are:
• Having knowledge about the diseases,
• Having knowledge about what to do before and during disease,
• Having knowledge about what to do when patient,
Practices of Activity Two
Uygulama 1: (verbal-linguistic intelligence) Aslı Acil Serviste meniyle ilgili
aşağıdaki soruları cevaplayınız.
3. Aslı ne zaman hastalandı?
4. Aslı’nın nesi var?
5. Aslı’nın ateşi kaç derece?
6. Hüseyin Bey kimi aradı?
7. Gülten Hanım ne iş yapıyor?
8. Doktor reçeteye hangi ilaçları yazdı?
9. Hemşire Aslı’ya ne yaptı?
Uygulama 2: (logical-mathematical intelligence) Aşağıdaki olayları metne göre
sıralayınız.
• Hüseyin Bey’in eczaneden ilaçları alması
• Aslı’nın ateşinin çıkması
• Hüseyin Bey’in Aslı’ya ateş düşürücü ilaç vermesi
• Hüseyin Bey’in Aslı’yı hastaneye götürmesi
• Gülten Hanım’ın Aslı’yı muayene etmesi

• Hüseyin Bey’in Gülten Hanım’a telefon açması
• Hemşirenin Aslı’ya iğne yapması
• Hüseyin Bey’in acil servise gitmesi
Uygulama 3: (visual-spatial intelligence) Öğretmen öğrencilere sigaranın
zararlarıyla ilgili bir video seyrettirir ve bununla ilgili bir resim çizmelerini ister.
Uygulama 4: (musical-rhythmical intelligence) Öğretmen öğrencilerden herhangi
bir hastalıkla ilgili bir şiir yazmalarını ister. Daha sonra gönüllü bir öğrencinin bu
şiiri ritimli bir şekilde söylemesini ister. Veya enstrüman çalabilen bir öğrenciden
şiir için beste yapması istenir.
Uygulama 5: (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence) Bir öğrenci tahtaya kalkar ve ken-
disinin belirlediği bir hastalık çeşidini hareketlerle anlatarak diğer öğrencilerin
bulmasını sağlar.
Uygulama 6: (interpersonal-social intelligence) Sınıf iki gruba ayrılır ve “teknolo-
jinin sağlığa etkileri”ni tartışır. Bir grup olumlu etkilerini diğer grup olumsuz
etkilerini savunur.
Uygulama 7: (intrapersonal-inward intelligence) Öğretmen “Alzheimer (Alzaymır)”
hastalığını anlatır ve öğrencilerden “En sevdiğiniz insan Alzheimer hastası olsaydı
neler hissederdiniz” konulu bir kompozisyon yazmalarını ister.
Uygulama 8: (naturalist intelligence) Öğretmen öğrencilerden bir veteriner
polikliniğini ziyaret etmelerini ve hasta gelen hayvanları inceleyerek gözlemlerini
yazmalarını ister.
9.2.3 Activity Three: I Don’t Receive Meanings

from the Outer World, but I Give Them
to the Outer World
During the late 20th century, the representatives of constructivist approach coming
to the forefront as a result of the reflection of findings of the brain-related studies to
the education were the specialists such as Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner (Güneş
2013). According to the constructivist theory, learning is a process emerging in the
mind of the individual (Akpınar 2010). Since the constructivist learning approach is
based on the restructuration of information by the learner, Bruner defines the
learning as an active process and recommends carrying out the education with the
active participation of the student. In this process, the student selects and transforms
the required ones among the actual knowledge and newly acquired ones, and then
reconstructs the knowledge by making decisions (Adıgüzel 2009). The construc-
tivist theory is the learning theory, which is based on the “learning of the learner”
and asserting that information is constructed by the individual, and on which the
education programs of this age are based (Sahin et al. 2013). Akpınar (2010) has
stated that learning in constructivism is the process of constructing the meaning by
362 F. Bülbül
correlating the older knowledge and experience with new knowledge, and also
emphasized that they construct the elements to be learnt by correlating them with
previously learnt elements in their minds (Bülbül 2015).
In this activity, the teaching model based on the constructivist learning approach
and 5E model was designed. According to the constructivist approach, the learning
is an internal process that occurs within the individual’s mind (Akpınar 2010)
Bruner, since the constructivist learning approach is based on the reconstruction of
knowledge by the learner, defines the learning as an active process and recommends
the teaching to be performed with the active participation of the learner. In this
process, the student selects the required ones among present knowledge and
newly-acquired knowledge, transforms them and then re-constructs the knowledge
by making decisions (Adıgüzel 2009). The constructivist theory is a learning theory
based on the “learning of learner”, asserting that the knowledge is constructed by
the individual and underlying the education programs of recent era (Sahin et al.
2013). Akpınar (2010), by expressing that the learning in constructive approach is
the process of structuring the meaning by establishing the relation between the new
knowledge and old one, has emphasized that the people configure the
things-to-learn with previous knowledge by linking in their minds (Bülbül 2015).
Tag of Activity
Teaching type: Teaching for giving the ability of scientific thinking and
problem-solving, to establish a cause-effect relationship and to learn how to
self-renew, to acquire social awareness and communication skills, to create logic,
knowledge, and technology, to be a manager-entrepreneur person, and to develop
social skills. In this teaching, the visual-auditory components, dialogue,
question-answer, and verbal communication were utilized together.
Selected method and technique: critical reading/writing, creative writing.
Learning types: In this activity, it will be thought to acquire certain knowledge,
how to act in certain situation, to express opinions about a topic, to plan and
organize an event, to make group works, to acquire knowledge by researching, and
to establish life-long-usable knowledge by solving the complexity of daily life
problems.
Prerequisite knowledge: Pre-activity preparation, visual-auditory tools, and text
info.
Students’ participation: To ensure the student participation, the studies of
intra-class text reading, speaking on images, and listening-understanding will be
carried out. The related text will be presented from the projector, and the hard
copies will be given to students. A couple of volunteers may read the text and
dialogues aloud. Then, the time-dependent activities will be put into practice, and
the course will be reinforced with verbal communication, visual materials, and
dialogues. While performing the activities, the direct expression, text-related
written and verbal questions, summarization, and writing studies will be performed.
Parents’ participation: Student parents may talk to students about the adver-
tisement and product relations by watching the TV ads. They may visit malls or
markets to review the products they see on TV or different sources. Moreover, to

allow the student to have knowledge about the purchasing, they may visit the
market, greengrocery, grocery, bakery or stationery together. If they live in Turkey,
the student may work with a tradesman or in a mall for a day.
Keywords: Visuality, target language, constructive learning approach, 5E Model,
estimation, question-answer, summarization, jest, mimic, intermediate level (B2),
shopping, group study, research, daily life, problem, problem-solving, assessment
sheets, activity.
Mini Scenario: Öğretmen sınıfa iki yeni spor ayakkabısı ile girer. Bunlardan biri
ünlü (X) diğeri ise ünlü olmayan (Y) bir ayakkabı firmasına aittir. Öğretmen bu iki
ayakkabıyı kutusundan çıkarır ve masanın üstüne koyarak öğrencilere sorular
sormaya başlar.
Teacher Evet arkadaşlar! Bu iki ayakkabıdan hangisinin size ait olmasını
isterdiniz?
Student A Ben X markasını isterdim hocam
Student B Ben de
Student C Ben de
Student D Ben de hocam
Teacher Neden herkes X’i istiyor?
Student E Hocam ben Y’yi istiyorum
Teacher Evet, neden X’i tercih ediyorsunuz?
Student A Hocam çünkü onun markası X
Teacher Evet, X. Ama neden tercih ediyorsunuz, dedim
Student B Hocam çünkü daha kaliteli
Student C Daha rahat
Student E Ama daha pahalı
Teacher Hımm. Peki siz bir şey alırken neye veya nelere dikkat edersiniz?
Student F Hocam iyi mi kötü mü, ona bakarım
Teacher Nasıl yani?
Student F Yani ünlü mü, herkes biliyor mu, reklâma dikkat ederim
Teacher Peki arkadaşlar, reklâma baktıktan sonra hemen o ürünü, eşyayı,
yiyeceği veya içeceği alır mısınız?
Student G Hocam, iyi marka ise hemen alırım
Student H Fiyat da önemli. Bazen pahalı ama kötü oluyor
Teacher Sen böyle bir şey yaşadın galiba
Student H Evet, hocam. Ben A marka bir ayakkabı aldım ama ayaklarım çok
acıdı. 3–4 ay kullandım ama hiç güzel olmadı
Teacher Sonra ne oldu?
Student H Sonra ayakkabıyı çaldılar hocam
Teacher Evet, o ünlü bir marka olduğu için çaldılar sanırım
364 F. Bülbül
Student H Evet hocam

Teacher Arkadaşlar, bazı ürünler çok ünlü ama güzel değil, bazı ürünler ünlü
değil ama güzel. O halde önemli olan bizim beğenmemiz. Böyle
söyleyebilir miyiz?
Student I Olabilir hocam
Then, the advertisement videos of the well-known companies are shown on the
board. Then the customer complaints regarding those products are presented, and
then those complaints are discussed. Who and why complained the about which
brand? What did the executive officer of that brand do? Was the problem solved?
How if yes, or why if no?
And then it is asked if there is anybody shopping on the internet. The students
are encouraged for speaking. It is determined if there is any student, who has never
shopped from the internet, and the student shopping from the internet is asked for
explaining the online purchasing to the student, who never had. This process is
repeated for once or twice.
Teacher expresses that he/she will shop from the internet. This may be a book.
He/she uses the internet and finds the book from search engines, then goes to the
website selling that book, and asks if there is any student voluntarily wanting to buy
that book. A volunteer student comes and properly orders the book in Turkish
website. Teachers may express that he/she will give that book to a student as a gift.
After other activities and homework, the course ends.
Instruction Design
Purpose: Learns the topic and meaning in selected text, performs the text-related
activities and learns the way of solving the problems he/she experience in daily life.
Objectives: Activity teaches the students to have knowledge about the adver-
tisements and tips of shopping, to estimate, to prepare questions, to solve the
problems, to summarize, and the grammar rules specified in activity.
Materials: Computer, projector, CD-DVD player, talking movies, mind maps,
images, photos, pictures, advertisement brochures, various products, relevant
images, and assessment sheets.
Attention: Teacher enters into the class with two new sports shoes. One of them is
the product of a well-known company (X), while other is the product of an
unknown company (Y). The teacher takes the shoes out of the boxes, places them
on the desk, and starts asking questions to the students;
• Which one of these shoes do you want to be yours?
• What do you pay attention to while shopping?
• Do you immediately buy the thing, food or beverage right after watching the
ads?
• Which one is important for you; the brand or the price?
After the answers of students, the teacher reflects the words and images related
to the product on the board. The hardcopies are given to the students, and the words
listen to students, and the students are asked to write the true brand under the true
product.
Tip: The words should listen for three times at most. The first listening may be
continuous and the second one may be interrupted after every word for providing
the students with chance of writing. It can be listened for the 3rd time to check the
written words.
Inform the target: Friends, we will acquire knowledge about the advertisements
and shopping. How advertisements are there? To what should be paying attention
while shopping? How and where to do right shopping? We will seek for the
answers of these questions.
Presentation of Content: Teacher starts showing the advertisements of different
products. As well as these advertisements may consist of only the images or photos,
they may also be a video. Then, the guidance will be provided for collecting
information about the products, which they want to buy, and to procure them from
reliable sources. The activities prepared for this purpose are presented.
Sample Text:
REKLÂMLAR
Alışveriş yapmadan önce alacağımız ürünün fiyatını araştırır, aynı kalitedeki ürünün en
ucuzunu almaya çalışırız. Çünkü gerekli araştırmayı yapmazsak fazla para ödeyerek zarara
uğrayabiliriz. Reklâmlar işte tam bu noktada bize piyasa hakkında bilgi ve biraz da neşe
vererek yardımcı olur.
Özellikle yaşamımıza televizyon girdikten sonra, reklâmsız bir yaşam düşünemez hâle
geldik. Yalnız televizyon mu? Reklâm gazetelerde, sinemada, radyoda, duvar panolarında
ve dergilerde de var. Hatta sokaklar, karayolları bile renkli, ilginç reklâmlarla dolu.
İyi reklâm, eğlendirici ve ilgi çekicidir. Başka türlü öğrenmemize olanak bulunmayan
şeyleri de anlatır. Reklâmlar sayesinde neyi, niçin, nereden satın alabileceğimizi öğreniriz.
Reklâmın amacı, piyasaya sunulan yeni bir ürünü tanıtarak tüketiciyi bilgilendirmek ve
aynı zamanda üreticinin kâr etmesini sağlamaktır. Üreticiler, bu ürünün piyasadaki en iyi,
en kaliteli, en çok işe yarayan ve en ucuz ürün olduğunu iddia ederler.
Reklâmların baş döndürücü çekiciliğine kapılmamalıyız. Reklâmların etkisinde kalarak
yapacağımız hatalı ya da gereksiz alışverişler israfa düşmemize neden olabilir. Bu yüzden
reklâmı yapılan ürün ve hizmetler arasından ihtiyacımıza ve aile bütçemize en uygun
olanını seçmeliyiz. Bu ürün ve hizmetlerle ilgili çeşitli araştırmalar yapmalıyız. Araştırma
yaparken bu ürünlerin markasından çok, kalitelerine ve fiyatlarına dikkat etmeliyiz.
Reklâmlar her zaman gerçeği yansıtmayabilir. Ürün ve hizmetlerin iyi yönlerini tanıtır.
Satın almayı düşündüğümüz ürünün reklâmlarda dile getirilmeyen eksik ve zayıf yönlerine
de dikkat etmeliyiz. Hele hatalı ve bozuk çıkma ihtimalini düşünerek alacağımız ürünü
mutlaka görmeliyiz. Böyle yaparsak, aldatıcı reklâmlar bizim için kâbusa dönüşmez.
Reklâmın kötüsü olmaz, demeden önce bir kez daha düşünmeliyiz.
Source: İlköğretim Türkçe 3. Harf Yayınları. Özgür Matbaacılık-Ankara, 2005.

After the text is read, then the advertisements seen on TV, paper, movie, radio
and billboards are presented on board, and participants discuss those ads. The topics
366 F. Bülbül
such as quality, credibility, and the reality of the ads constitute the basement of
speech. Teacher expresses his/her own opinions in the way representing his/her
experiences. Thus, the students would be protected from daily life problems and
allow them to learn right shopping techniques.
Further activities:
• The students are asked to determine and bring the good and bad—according to
their own opinion- to the class and to discuss them with other students,
• Students prepare a visual, photo or video advertisement for the product they
determined,
• They prepare a shopping list containing various products,
• And they asked to draw a chart indicating where that shopping can be made from.
Assessment: The students are asked to write a composition within one week on
their experiences regarding shopping in last week, and also to present three pre-
sentations on award-winner ad videos. In order to allow the activity to reach its
objectives, the activities in Practices of Activity Two book.
• The time period required for completing the practices is approximately 1 week.
• After the activities, the studies of students are assessed and then announced.
Semantic networks: In activities, the knowledge about the advertisements,
shopping and momentary, effective and effects of problems that they buy on your
own, and effective and efficient and solutions have been done. In order to ensure the
retention of knowledge, the 5E-compatile activities were prepared, and mind map,
music, videos.
Outcomes: The expected behaviors of students after the activity are:
• To learn right and appropriate shopping activities,
• Being able to order a product from internet,
• And eliminating the negative effects of advertisements.
Practices of Activity Three:
Uygulama 1: (verbal-linguistic intelligence) Aslı Acil Serviste meniyle ilgili
aşağıdaki soruları cevaplayınız.
3. Aslı ne zaman hastalandı?
4. Aslı’nın nesi var?
5. Aslı’nın ateşi kaç derece?
6. Hüseyin Bey kimi aradı?
7. Gülten Hanım ne iş yapıyor?
8. Doktor reçeteye hangi ilaçları yazdı?
9. Hemşire Aslı’ya ne yaptı?
Uygulama 2: (logical-mathematical intelligence) Aşağıdaki olayları metne göre

sıralayınız.
• Hüseyin Bey’in eczaneden ilaçları alması
• Aslı’nın ateşinin çıkması
• Hüseyin Bey’in Aslı’ya ateş düşürücü ilaç vermesi
• Hüseyin Bey’in Aslı’yı hastaneye götürmesi
• Gülten Hanım’ın Aslı’yı muayene etmesi
• Hüseyin Bey’in Gülten Hanım’a telefon açması
• Hemşirenin Aslı’ya iğne yapması
• Hüseyin Bey’in acil servise gitmesi.
Uygulama 3: (visual-spatial intelligence) Öğretmen öğrencilere sigaranın
zararlarıyla ilgili bir video seyrettirir ve bununla ilgili bir resim çizmelerini ister.
Uygulama 4: (musical-rhythmical intelligence) Öğretmen öğrencilerden herhangi
bir hastalıkla ilgili bir şiir yazmalarını ister. Daha sonra gönüllü bir öğrencinin bu
şiiri ritimli bir şekilde söylemesini ister. Veya enstrüman çalabilen bir öğrenciden
şiir için beste yapması istenir.
Uygulama 5: (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence) Bir öğrenci tahtaya kalkar ve ken-
disinin belirlediği bir hastalık çeşidini hareketlerle anlatarak diğer öğrencilerin
Uygulama 6: (interpersonal-social intelligence) Sınıf iki gruba ayrılır ve “teknolo-
jinin sağlığa etkileri”ni tartışır. Bir grup olumlu etkilerini diğer grup olumsuz
etkilerini savunur.
Uygulama 7: (intrapersonal-inward intelligence) Öğretmen “Alzheimer (Alzaymır)”
hastalığını anlatır ve öğrencilerden “En sevdiğiniz insan Alzheimer hastası olsaydı
neler hissederdiniz” konulu bir kompozisyon yazmalarını ister.
Uygulama 8: (naturalist intelligence) Öğretmen öğrencilerden bir veteriner
polikliniğini ziyaret etmelerini ve hasta gelen hayvanları inceleyerek gözlemlerini
yazmalarını ister.
9.2.4 Activity Four: I Learn Through Experience via Drama
Drama is the activities, where one or more people interact with each other, nature
and other objects and the internal and external motions and their life statuses are
widely shown (Adıgüzel 2013). The use of drama techniques in classroom activities
would encourage the children for learning more and provide the classroom with
more enthusiasm (Heldenbrand 2003). Shand (2008) emphasizes that the drama
allows the student to act together besides improving their speaking skill in second
language education. Moreover, Burke and O’Sullivan (2002) state that drama keep
the motivation of students at maximum level, translate the course into an interesting
activity, and bring the awareness about why the language learners learn another
language (Kılıçarslan 2014). The drama techniques used in language classrooms
368 F. Bülbül
can include all of the four fundamental skills. Among these four fundamental
language skills, it can be thought to improve the speaking skill at most. Besides the
speaking skill, drama plays an important role in the education of articulation skill.
All of the components of communication (articulation, intonation, accurate using,
etc.) can be improved via drama techniques (Goodwin 2001).
In this activity, a teaching design based on the drama technique was made. The
use of drama in language teaching allows the person to learn by actively experi-
encing, and increases the creativity, and imagination. By the use of drama method in
the course, the individual learning the language becomes a part of the activity and is
involved in the issue. So, the student considers himself/herself as a part of the course.
Tag of Activity
Type of Teaching: Teaching designed for living and experiencing. In this
teaching method, visual-auditory components, dialogue, question-answer, and
verbal communication were used.
Selected method and technique: Drama in the whole group, improvisation,
conscious corridor, teacher playing the role
Types of Learning: In this activity, the skills will be thought such as “ability to
express by the grammar in relations with friends and others”, “expressing his/her
opinions in accordance with the grammar in relations with friends and others”.
Prerequisite knowledge: Pre-activity preparation, visual-auditory tools, ability to
act.
Students’ participation: To ensure the student participation, the teacher writes
“Happy Person, Unhappy Person” on the board, and gives 5 min to students for
adding the additional information about them. Volunteer students write what makes
people happy or unhappy or the characteristics of happy/unhappy persons. After
this activity, the images related with happiness and unhappiness are projected on
the board, and the interpretations are made on these images.
Parents’ participation: Parents may talk to their children about happiness and
unhappiness. The reflection of their experiences on this matter would contribute the
emotional development of their children.
Keywords: Drama, drama with the whole group, creative drama, improvisation,
conscious corridor, role of teacher, visuality, target language, empathy, happy,
unhappy, question-answer, jest, mimic, intermediate level (B2), king, animation,
assessment sheets, activity.
Mini Scenario: Öğretmen sınıfa girer girmez soruyu sorar.
Teacher Arkadaşlar, nasılsınız? Kimler mutlu, mutsuz olan var mı?
Student A Geçen ay hasta oldum
Student A Ben çok mutluyum hocam
Teacher Çok güzel! Peki neden?
Student A Çünkü şimdi daha güzel Türkçe konuşuyorum
Teacher Aferin sana! Peki başka kim mutlu?
Student B Ben hocam. Çünkü sizi gördüm ve çok mutlu oldum
Teacher Teşekkür ederim. Ben de size gördüğüm için çok mutluyum.
Arkadaşlar Türkçede bir söz var. Bir kişi bize soruyor: “Nasılsın?” Biz de
diyoruz ki: “Seni gördüm daha iyi oldum.”
Student C Vay be! Güzel cümle
Teacher Evet, gerçekten güzel bir cümle. Çünkü bunu söylediğimiz zaman o
insan da mutlu oluyor, herkes mutlu oluyor, hepimiz musmutluyuz ☺
Teacher Peki arkadaşlar, sizce gerçek mutluluk nedir?
Student D Sağlıktır hocam. Yani biz sağlıklıysak mutlu oluruz
Teacher Başka?
Student E Ailedir hocam. Ben ailemi çok seviyorum, bu yüzden çok mutluyum
Teacher Peki başka?
Student F Paradır hocam. (Gülüyor)
Teacher O hâlde soruyorum: Para mı mutluluk mu? Hangisini seçiyorsunuz?
Student F Tabii ki para hocam
Student G Hayır hocam, mutluluk
Teacher Neden G?
Student G Hocam çünkü kimde çok para var o daha mutsuz. Ben hep böyle
gördüm
Student F Nasıl ya? Sen bir şey almak istiyorsun ama alamıyorsun. Şimdi sen
daha mutlusun, öyle mi?
Student G Hayır, öyle değil. Zengin insanlar her zaman daha çok para için
çalışıyor, çok çalışıyorlar. Her zaman iş, iş, iş… Aileyi çok
görmüyorlar. Karısı mutsuz, çocuk mutsuz, adam da mutsuz. Bu
nasıl hayat yaa?!
This speech is continued with questions of “What is the real happiness”, “Does
money bring the happiness (the word felicity is thought)”, and then the story of
“Unhappy King” is dramatized through creative drama.
Instruction Design
Purpose: Student is capable of expressing his/her emotions and opinions in his/her
relationships with friends and other in accordance with grammar rules.
Objectives: Activity teaches the students to clearly and grammatically express
his/her opinions and emotions and to write in accordance with their observation and
experiences.
Materials: Materials in class, rod, crown, baby doll, A4 paper, pencils, and
assessment sheets.
Attention: Teacher, in order to draw attention and evoke the preliminary knowledge
of students, projects the happy and unhappy human images on the board, and asks
certain questions to the students:
• Why is this man happy according to your idea?
• Do you think that this woman is happy? Why, if unhappy?
370 F. Bülbül
• This child has a beautiful toy, but he is crying. Why?

• She is a rich business person, but she doesn’t seem happy at all. Why?
After the answers of students, the teacher shows videos of rich but unhappy and
poor but happy persons and asks for the opinions of students.
Inform the target: Friends, we will dramatize the story of “Unhappy King” with
creative drama. By means of this drama technique, we will learn how we can clearly
express our emotions and opinions and write our observations and experiences.
Presentation of Content: Teacher aims to improve the students’ ability to speak.
So, they learn new words and express themselves better and more efficiently.
Sample Text and Drama Activity:
MUTSUZ KRAL
Güzel mi güzel bir köyde bir kral yaşarmış, kral o kadar mutsuzmuş ki kendisini şatosuna
kapatmış ve hiç kimseyi görmek istemiyormuş. Köylüler mutlu ve çalışkan insanlarmış.
Ancak kendisini şatoya kapatan kralı hiç görememekten ve mutsuz olduğunu duymaktan
dolayı da üzgünlermiş
Öğretmen sınıfa dönerek öğrencilere, siz bu köyde yaşayan insanlarsınız “Kralı

nasıl mutlu edebilirsiniz? diye soru yöneltir ve cevapları beraberce tartışırlar. Daha
sonra öğretmen, “şatodan bir haber geldiğini ve kralın, köylülerin evlerinde bulunan
ve onlar için en kıymetli olan şeyi kendisine hediye olarak getirmelerini istediğini”
söyler. Tüm öğrencilerin bu köyde yaşayan köylüler olarak nelerin onlar için çok
kıymetli olduğunu belirlemelerini ve bunu krala nasıl sunacaklarını tartışmalarını
ister. Bu tartışmalardan sonra öğretmen kral olur ve öğrencilerin kralı mutlu ede-
cekleri bir şeyle huzuruna gelmesini ister. Öğrenciler krala bir hediye vererek ya da
onunla konuşarak onu mutlu etmeye çalışır. Fakat kral, huzuruna bebekle gelen bir
kadının bebeğini görür ve ancak beni bu bebek mutlu edebilir diye düşünür. Daha
sonra kral bebeği annesinden zorla alır. Öğretmen, öğrencilere sınıf içerisinde bilinç
koridoru tekniğinden yararlanarak karşılıklı olarak bir koridor açmalarını söyler.
Kral bu koridordan geçerken her öğrenci, kralın yaptığı davranışın yanlış olduğunu
söyler ve onu bu kararından vazgeçirmeye çalışır. Koridorun sonunda öğrencilerin
söylediklerini düşünerek kral bir karar verir.
Adopted from Adıgüzel (2013), Akoğuz and Akoğuz (2013), Arslan (2008),
Uşaklı (2011), Üstündağ (2012), Vuraland Somers (2012)
This drama activity aims to develop the sense of empathy and the ability of
problem-solving, besides expressing emotions and opinions easily.
Further activities:
• Students observe the happy and unhappy persons,
• Animating the events in groups of 3–4 persons (for instance; a father having his
first child, a 10-years-old boy that lost his mother in an accident),
• Caricatures of happy and unhappy persons,
• Research on which songs people listen while happy or while unhappy or the
students are asked to carry out a survey on this topic in the field.
Assessment: Students are asked to write two events, which made them really
happy or really unhappy, by specifying the reasons and involving the emotions. By
the teacher, students are given homework of watching two movies, a comedy, and
drama, and then they are asked to dramatize how those movies made feel.
• Writings of students are attached to the wall.
• The photos of students are taken while dramatizing or the video was taken.
Photos are attached to the wall. Camera records—if students approve—are
published in the website of the school.
Semantic networks: In activities, the happy and unhappy people were observed
and, by organizing a drama activity, students were allowed to learn by experi-
encing. It has been seen that the students learnt new words by means of partici-
pating in drama activity, they empathized and their verbal skills improved.
Participation of students into drama was the most important factor ensuring the
retention of knowledge.
• Ability to express in accordance with the grammar in relations with friends and
others
• Ability of writing based on observations and experiences.
Practices of Activity Four
Uygulama 1: (Hazırlık-Isınma) Aynada Eller
Öğrenciler çiftler halinde karşı karşıya dururlar. Önce birisi elleriyle hareket eder ve
karşıdaki öğrenci de yapılan hareketi aynen yapmaya çalışır. Bunun yanında sadece
eller kullanılmaz, bütün vücut oyuna dahil edilebilir. Örneğin kravatını takmaya
çalışan birinin, tıraş olmaya çalışan bir erkeğin, makyaj yapmaya çalışan bir kadının
hareketleri yapılır.
Uygulama 2: (Canlandırma/Oynama) Öğrencilere aşağıdaki “Mutsuz Kral” metni
okunur.
“Güzel mi güzel bir köyde bir kral yaşarmış, kral o kadar mutsuzmuş ki kendisini
şatosuna kapatmış ve hiç kimseyi görmek istemiyormuş. Köylüler mutlu ve
çalışkan insanlarmış. Ancak kendisini şatoya kapatan kralı hiç görememekten ve
mutsuz olduğunu duymaktan dolayı da üzgünlermiş” Öğretmen sınıfa dönerek
öğrencilere, siz bu köyde yaşayan insanlarsınız “Kralı nasıl mutlu edebilirsiniz?
diye soru yönetir ve cevapları beraberce tartışırlar. Daha sonra öğretmen, “şatodan
bir haber geldiğini ve kralın, köylülerin evlerinde bulunan ve onlar için en kıymetli
olan şeyi kendisine hediye olarak getirmelerini istediğini” söyler
Tüm öğrencilerin bu köyde yaşayan köylüler olarak nelerin onlar için çok kıymetli
olduğunu belirlemelerini ve bunu krala nasıl sunacaklarını tartışmalarını ister. Bu
tartışmalardan sonra öğretmen kral olur ve öğrencilerin kralı mutlu edecekleri bir
şeyle huzuruna gelmesini ister. Öğrenciler krala bir hediye vererek ya da onunla
konuşarak onu mutlu etmeye çalışır. Fakat kral, huzuruna bebekle gelen bir kadının
372 F. Bülbül
bebeğini görür ve ancak beni bu bebek mutlu edebilir diye düşünür. Daha sonra kral
bebeği annesinden zorla alır. Öğretmen, öğrencilere sınıf içerisinde bilinç koridoru
tekniğinden yararlanarak karşılıklı olarak bir koridor açmalarını söyler. Kral, bu
koridordan geçerken her öğrenci kralın yaptığı davranışın yanlış olduğunu söyler ve
onu bu kararından vazgeçirmeye çalışır. Koridorun sonunda öğrencilerin
söylediklerini düşünerek kral bir karar verir.
Uygulama 3: Değerlendirme
Öğretmen öğrencileri dörderli gruplara ayırarak “Bir bebek annesine neden ihtiyaç
duyar?” başlıklı bir konu verir. Her gruptan en az üç maddelik bir yazı yazmaları
istenir. Daha sonra öğrenciler yazdıkları yazıları sınıf içinde okur. En son tüm bu
yazılanlar ışığında konu özetlenir, uygulama ile ilgili konuşmalarla ders bitirilir
(Kılıçarslan 2014).
Uygulama 4: Öğretmen sınıfa dört adet torba getirir. Torbaların üstünde sırasıyla
Karakter, Mekân, Konu ve Problem yazılıdır. Öğrencilerden dörder kişilik gruplar
oluşturulur ve her grup sırasıyla gelerek birer kâğıt çeker. Ardından çektikleri
kâğıtlardaki kelimeleri kullanarak yaratıcı yazma çalışması yaparlar. Öğretmen bu
çalışma için toplam 15 dakika süre verir. Sürenin bitimiyle grup üyelerinden biri
yazdıklarını okur.
Uygulama 5: Öğrencilere isimlerinden hareketle hikâye yazdırılır. Hikâyenin
cümleleri öğrencinin ismindeki harflerle başlayacaktır. Öğrencinin isminin Ümit
olduğunu var sayalım. Kurulabilecek cümleler: “Üç haftadır sinemaya
gitmemiştim. Maalesef cebimde bir bilet parası bile yoktu. İyisi mi annemden
isteyeyim diye düşündüm. Tam para istemek için ağzımı açmıştım ki, babam içeri
girdi.” (Şimşek, Topal, 2006).
Uygulama 6: Öğrencilerden biri ünlü bir insanı taklit eder, diğerleri de bu ünlünün
kim olduğunu bulmaya çalışır.
Uygulama 7: Masal Tamamlama
Birinci Aşama: Öğretmen, öğrencilere Grimm Masalları’ndan Çivi adlı masalı okur.
ÇİVİ
Bir tacir panayırda iyi alış veriş yapmış. Elindeki malların hepsini satmış. Para kemerini
altınla, gümüşle sucuk gibi şişirmiş. Gece bastırmadan evine dönmek istiyormuş. Para dolu
heybesini atın sırtına koymuş, yola çıkmış. Öğle üzeri bir şehirde mola vermiş. Tekrar yola
koyulacağı sırada uşağı hayvanı getirmiş:
– Bayım, demiş, sol arka ayağın nalından bir çivi noksan!
Tacir:
– Varsın olsun! demiş. Zaten altı saatlik yolum kaldı… Nasıl olsa o vakte kadar nal
yerinde durur. Acele etmem lâzım.
İkindi üzeri tekrar attan inip hayvana yem verdiği sırada uşak odaya girmiş:
– Bayım, demiş, hayvanınızın sol arka ayağının nalı yok. Nalbanta götüreyim mi?
Adam:
– Varsın olsun, demiş. Şurada birkaç saatlik yolum kaldı. O vakte kadar at nasıl olsa
dayanır. Acele etmem lâzım.
Adam yola çıkmış. Fakat çok geçmeden at aksamaya başlamış. Bu aksama çok sürmemiş;
hayvan topallamaya başlamış… (Grimm 2001, s. 201)
İkinci Aşama: Öğretmen yarım bıraktığı masalın öğrenciler tarafından

tamamlanmasını ister.
Üçüncü Aşama: Tamamlanan masallar okunur.
Dördüncü Aşama: Öğretmen, masalın sonunu okur:
Bu topallama da uzun sürmemiş. Hayvan yere yıkılmış, bir ayağı kırılmış. Tacir atı olduğu
yerde bırakmaktan, heybeyi sırtına vurup yaya olarak yola çıkmaktan başka çare
bulamamış. Gece yarısında eve varmış. Kendi kendine de:
– Bütün bu felâketlere sebep o uğursuz çividir! diye söylenmiş
İnsan acele etmeli ama önce tedbirlerini almalı.
Beşinci Aşama: Tacir, Uşak, At rolleri öğrencilere dağıtılır ve masal dramatize

edilir (Şimşek and Topal 2006).
Uygulama 8: İyi Haber Kötü Haber
Sınıf dâire şeklinde veya U düzeninde oturtulur. Öğretmen hep birlikte bir hikâye
oluşturacaklarını söyler. Hikâyeyi öğretmen başlatır ve sırasıyla her öğrenci “iyi
haber şu ki” veya “kötü haber şu ki” diyerek hikâyeyi genişletir. Söylenenlerin bir
önceki cümleyle veya konuyla ilgili olması gerekir.
Teacher Ferdi Hoca ve öğrencileri hafta sonu pikniğe gitmeye karar verirler
Student A İyi haber şu ki okula çok yakın bir yerde mükemmel bir piknik alanı
var
Student B Kötü haber şu ki hafta sonu yağmur yağma ihtimali var
Student C İyi haber şu ki orada üstü kapalı bir alan var
Student D …
9.2.5 Activity Five: I Learn by Reading and Writing

in the Guidance of My Teacher
Balanced reading and writing approach is an approach advocating the integration of

teacher-oriented teaching, which requires teachers modeling the strategies, process
and skills, and the student-oriented activities (Snow et al. 1998, quoted from
Deweese 2008). According to Frey et al. (2005, s. 272), the balanced
reading-writing approach is a philosophic adaptation assuming that reading and
writing skills would be enhanced in multimedia by using different teaching
approaches with different levels of teacher support. Batzle (1994, s. 17) defines the
374 F. Bülbül
balanced reading-writing approach as a frame language teaching approach con-

sisting of oral reading, collective reading, guided reading, and independent reading
besides interactive reading, model writing, guided writing and independent writing.
Considering the definitions, it is seen that the balance of educational support
constitutes the core of approach (Cavkaytar 2009: 22).
In this activity, the teaching design based on Balanced Literacy Approach was
prepared. Balanced Literacy Approach is an approach advocating the cooperation of
teacher-oriented teaching and student-oriented activities. In this approach, the
language education starts with the direct teaching and then continued with support
gradually decreasing till the learners become independent literates.
Tag of Activity
Focus of Teaching: Learner-oriented and teacher-oriented instruction
Method of Teaching: Constructivism, Social Interaction, Cooperative Learning,
Peer Solidarity, Mind Mapping Technique
Type of Teaching: Teaching by being model for the student and then trans-
forming them into independent literates. In this teaching, the visual-auditory
components, dialogue, question-answer and verbal communication were utilized
together.
Types of Learning: In this activity, the students will be thought the independent
literacy skills.
Prerequisite knowledge: Pre-activity preparation, visual-auditory tools, assess-
ment sheets, student diary, tape recorder.
Students’ participation: To ensure the student participation, the teacher projects
the images, photos, caricatures and pictures related to the unity, togetherness,
brotherhood, and friendship themes on the board and these visuals are interpreted
with students. Teacher asks the students to tell voluntarily one of
brotherhood-friendship memory of their own or one they have heard.
Parents’ participation: Parents may watch and interpret a
brotherhood/friendship-themed movie with their children. For instance: Stand by
me. While watching the movie, they may help their children via question-answer
technique by pausing the movie.
Keywords: Balanced Literacy Approach, reading aloud, reading together, guided
reading, independent reading, model writing, together writing, guided writing,
independent writing, improving the vocabulary, preliminary knowledge, text types,
narrating text, estimating, question-answer, summarization, jest, mimic, interme-
diate level (B1), mind maps, assessment sheets, activity.
Mini Scenario: Öğretmen sınıfa, öğrenciler için oldukça ağır olabilecek bir
çantayla girer. Öğrenciler merakla bu çantaya bakar ve içinde ne olduğunu sorarlar.
Student A Hocam bu ne?
Teacher Bu bir çanta ☺
Gülüşmeler ☺
Teacher Ama aslında biz buna valiz diyoruz. Genellikle seyahat ederken
kullanıyoruz
Student B İçinde ne var hocam?
Teacher Söylemem
Student C Neden hocam?
Teacher Söylemiyorum işte. Bana ne, bana ne, bana ne ☺
Gülüşmeler ☺
Teacher Belki söylerim
Student D Nasıl hocam?
Teacher Eğer bir öğrenci bunu tek başına kaldırabilir ve 1 dakika tutabilirse
içinde ne olduğunu söyleyeceğim
Student E Tamam hocam, ben kaldıracağım. (Öğrenci E sadece 10 saniye havada
tutabilir.) Çok zor yaa!
Teacher Biliyorum
Student F Hocam ben de yapacağım
Teacher Gel. (Öğrenci F de başaramaz.) Peki arkadaşlar, bu çantayı havada 1
dakika tutmak için ne yapmak lazım?
Student G Hocam belki arkadaşlarla birlikte kaldırmalıyız. Olur mu?
Teacher Tamam olur. O hâlde sen ve Öğrenci H gelin. (İki öğrenci de 1 dakika
tutamadı.)
Student I Hocam ben de geliyorum
Teacher Tamam, gel. (Bu kez üç öğrenci başardı.)
Applauses
Teacher Arkadaşlar bakın, nasıl oldu?

Student J Hocam bir kişi yapamadı ama üç kişi yaptı
Teacher Biz buna Türkçede ne diyoruz?
Student K Bir elin…
Teacher Evet, devam et ☺
Student K Hatırlayamadım hocam
Teacher Olsun aferin sana. İlk kısmı doğru. “Bir elin nesi var, iki elin sesi var.”
(Öğretmen iki eli çarparak ses çıkarır.)
Teacher Bir söz daha var: “Birlikten kuvvet doğar.”
Student L Evet hocam. Bu atasözü bu iş için daha güzel
Teacher Doğru
Student M Hocam arkadaşlar kaldırdı. Çantada yani valizde ne var?
376 F. Bülbül
Teacher Eveett! (Valizi açar ve öğrencilere gösterir. Valiz kiapla doludur.)

Arkadaşlar birlikte bu valizi kaldırabildiğiniz için valizdeki bütün
hikâye kitaplarını size hediye ediyorum. Bu kitaplar B1 için güzel, tam
size göre
Students Çok teşkkür ederiz hocam
Applauses
Teacher Evet, siz de birlikte hareket ettiğiniz zaman problemleri çözmek daha
kolay oluyor
Instruction Design
Purpose: To improve the reading comprehension and written expression skills of
the students.
Objectives: Activity teachs to understand the Turkish language better by
teaching the reading comprehension and written expression strategies and allows
them to use this language systematically.
Materials: textbook, projector, student diary, student working sheets, reading
comprehension test, writing skill exam, and assessment sheets.
Attention: In order to draw attention, the teacher displays a movie themed with
“Union is strength” (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nt2cb8VmKyY). After
watching this 1 min. 30 s. length movie, certain questions are asked to students:
• Which animals are there in this animation?
• What are they doing?
• What did happen at first, what did follow it?
• What did they do for succeeding?
• Have you ever had such an experience?
After the answers of students, the teacher makes an explanation about the
importance of moving together and receiving the help of others in certain
circumstances.
Tip 1: in B1 level, voice and video files should never take more than 2 min. If the
speeches in videos are less than normal, they may take 2.5–3 min; but, if they
involve intense speeches, they should not exceed 2 min.
Tip 2: in Balanced Literacy Approach, it is believed that improving vocabulary also
improves the understanding (Cavkaytar 2013). For this reason, all the words, which
the students are expected not to know, in this unit/text should be thought.
Inform the target: Friends, we will today learn how to summarize the story “My
Father’s Last Advice”. While summarizing this study, I’ll think aloud, and you will
see how I summarize. And then, we all check my abstract together.
Presentation of Content: Student wants to improve the students’ skill of sum-

marizing a narrating text. While doing this, s/he becomes a model for students,
demonstrates how to summarize, and then students will learn how to do those.
Sample Text:
BABANIN SON ÖĞÜDÜ
Bir adamın on iki erkek çocuğu varmış. Yıllarca çok çalışmış ve onları yetiştirmiş.
Çocuklarına iyiyi, doğruyu anlatmış. Fakat çocuklar sürekli birbirleriyle tartışıyormuş.
Baba bir gün çok hastalanmış. Çocukları, babalarının başından bir an olsun ayrılmıyor; bir
ihtiyacı olursa yapmak için birbirleriyle yarışıyorlarmış. Ancak birbirleriyle tartışmadan
duramıyorlarmış.
Baba onlardan birini çağırıp kardeşlerini toplamasını istemiş. Kısa sürede on iki oğlu
babalarının yanına gelmiş. Baba, her birinin bahçeye çıkıp, birer tane odun getirmesini
istemiş. Çok ince veya çok kalın değil, normal. Oğullar babalarının neden böyle bir şey
istediğini anlamamışlar ama bahçeye çıkıp birer tane odun bularak getirmişler. Tam ihtiyar
adamın istediği gibi “Ne çok ince ne çok kalın”. Baba bir de ip isteyip; on iki oğlundan
gelen on iki odunu üst üste koyup birbirine gücü yettiğince bağlamış.
“Şimdi” demiş, “Söyleyin bakalım bunu hanginiz kırabilir?” Oğullar sırayla birbirine bağlı
bu odunları kırmayı denemiş. En güçlüleri de kendisini en sona saklamış ama o da odunları
kıramayınca baba; “O odunları geri verin bakalım beceriksizler” demiş. Odunları alıp
tüm gücünü toplayarak yatakta doğrulmuş. Odunları bağlayan ipi çözüp, hepsini teker teker
kırmış. Oğulları içlerinden “Bu şekilde biz de kırardık” diye düşünmüşler ama ses
çıkarmamışlar. Baba saygıyla kendisine bakan evlatlarını teker teker süzüp, son öğüdünü
vermeye başlamış:
– Bakın evlatlarım! Sizi her anlamda iyi birer insan olarak yetiştirdim. Ama şu birbirinizle
tartışmanıza çok kızıyorum. “Odunları bu şekilde biz de kırardık” diye düşündünüz
değil mi? Evlatlarım hayat bir sınavdır bu da size, babanızın son sınavıydı. Bakın,
birbirine bağlı odunları en güçlünüz bile kıramadı. Ancak odunları çözünce çok kolay
kırıldılar değil mi? İşte siz de hayatta bu odunlar gibi birbirinize tutunursanız, yardım
ederseniz sizi kimse kıramaz. Ama birbirinize sahip çıkmazsanız ipi çözülen odunlar
gibi teker teker kırılırsınız. İşte bu, babanızın size son öğüdüdür!
Adopted from http://www.sihirlihikaye.com/babanin-son-ogudu.html
Tip 3: This text may be given in last 2 weeks of B1 course.

Further activities:
• Students are asked to try to break 12 rods into pieces as it was done in “My
Father’s Last Advice” story,
• They are asked to write a composition, where they will explain how they can
handle a problem, which they cannot solely solve,
• They are asked to bring Turkish proverbs about the unity, togetherness,
brotherhood, friendship, and fellowship.
Assessment: The students are asked to write their opinions on the caricature
below.
378 F. Bülbül
Source: http://eodev.com/gorev/1776441
After assessing the writings, the teacher determines the best one in terms of
writing and composition rules and also the one expressing the caricature at best.
Then the writing is attached to the wall.
Semantic networks: In these activities, we focused on the importance of soli-
darity and cooperation. Since the literacy strategies are thought to the children by
teacher’s acting as a model, and this process was continued since he becomes an
independent user. In order for students to gain conscious reading and writing skills
by using mind maps.
• Gaining life-long literacy skills,
• Understanding the difference between the narrating and informative texts and
better understanding those texts by utilizing appropriate strategies,
• Learning by linking the new knowledge to preliminary knowledge.
Practices of Activity Five:
Uygulama 1-Sesli Okuma: Uygulamaya başlamadan önce öğretmen: “Arkadaşlar,
ben şimdi bugünkü hikâyeyi bir kez sesli okuyacağım. Okurken bazen durup kendi
kendime soru sorabilirim ve hikâyenin devamıyla ilgili tahminler yapabilirim veya
bunları size yaptırabilirim. O yüzden beni dikkatle dinleyin tamam mı?” der.
Öğretmen “Babanın Son Öğüdü” hikâyesini, vurgu ve tonlamaya dikkat ederek
sesli okumaya başlar. Bir süre okuduktan sonra: “Ben burayı okudum ama bazı
yerleri anlamadım, daha iyi anlamak için bir şeyler yapmalıyım.” der ve bilmediği,
anlamadığı kelimeleri anlamlandırmaya çalışır. Cümleleri tekrar okur, sözlüğe
bakar, kelimenin anlamını bağlamdan çıkarmaya çalışır, ileriye dönük tahminlerde
bulunur ve soru üreterek cevaplar. Bunları yaparken sesli düşünür, böylece
öğrencilere model olur.
Uygulama 2-Birlikte Okuma: Öğretmen “Babanın Son Öğüdü” hikâyesini hem
projeksiyondan yansıtır hem de metnin fotokopisini öğrencilere dağıtır. Metin
okunmadan önce ilgili görselleri tahtaya yansıtır ve öğrencilerin önbilgilerini har-
ekete geçirir. Ardından metnin başlığına, görsellerine baktırarak tahmin etme
stratejisini kullanır ve metni okumaya başlar. Fakat öğretmen birlikte okumada,
sesli okumada olduğu gibi ön planda değildir. Bir süre sonra öğrenciler okumaya
devam ederler ve öğretmen zaman vurgu, tonlama ve telaffuza dikkat etmeleri
konusunda öğrencileri güzel bir şekilde uyarır. Öğrenciler okurken birden:
“Arkadaşlar, sizce bundan sonra ne olacak, şu kelimenin anlamı nedir, siz
olsaydınız ne yapardınız?” gibi sorular sorar ve hatta öğrencilerin de soru
üretmelerini ister.
Uygulama 3-Rehberli Okuma: Öğretmen öğrencileri dörderli beşerli gruplara ayırır
ve her gruba “Babanın Son Öğüdü” hikâyesini verir. Öğrenciler öncelikle bireysel
çalışarak metinle ilgili tahmin etme, soru üretme ve özetleme stratejilerini
kullanırlar. Daha sonra kendi çalışmalarını grup üyeleriyle paylaşırlar. Öğretmen,
gerekli gördüğü yerlere müdahale eder ve öğrenci çalışmaları son hâlini alarak
sınıfa sunulur.
Uygulama 4-Bağımsız Okuma: Bu, en öğrenci merkezli okuma türüdür. Öğrenci
okuyacağı metni kendisi belirler. Sınıf ortamında olabileceği gibi sınıf dışında da
yapılabilir. Sınıf içinde bağımsız okuma sisteminin güzel bir şekilde işleyebilmesi
için bir “sınıf kitaplığı”nın oluşturulması şarttır. Öğretmen, bağımsız okuma
etkinliği yapılacağını belirttiğinde öğrenci kitaplıktan istediği kitabı alır ve oku-
maya başlar. Öğretmen zaman zaman öğrencilerin okumalarını kontrol eder. Kısa
metinlerde öğrencilerin özetleme yapmasını ister ve metinle ilgili öğrencilere
sorular sorar.
Uygulama 5-Modelli Yazma: Öğretmen, yazma sürecini öğrencilere göstermek için
sesli düşünme yoluyla model olur. Örneğin farklı metin türlerinde nasıl özetleme
yapılacağını öğrencilere sesli düşünerek anlatır. Öğretmen, “Babanın Son Öğüdü”
hikâyesini sesli düşünerek özetler ve en sonunda bu metinle ilgili hazırladığı
kavram haritasını tahtaya yansıtır (Fig. 9.4).
Uygulama 6-Birlikte Yazma: Öğretmen daha az etkindir. Öğrenciler yazma boyu-
tunda düşünceleriyle katkıda bulunurlar, öğretmen de bu düşünceleri yine sesli
düşünme metodunu kullanarak tahtaya yazar. Öğretmen “Babanın Son Öğüdü”
hikâyesinin giriş bölümünü okuduktan sonra öğrencilerle birlikte gelişme
bölümünü yazabilir. Gelişme bölümünün nasıl yazılacağını sesli düşünerek
öğrencilere model olan öğretmen, onlardan gelen cevapları –düzenleyerek- tahtaya
yazar.
Uygulama 7-Rehberli Yazma: Öğretmen öğrencileri dörderli beşerli gruplara ayırır
ve her gruba bir yazma konusu verir. Öğrenciler öncelikle bireysel çalışarak bir
metin oluşturur ve öğretmen de zaman zaman öğrencilere rehberlik yapar.
Öğrenciler daha sonra kendi çalışmalarını grup üyeleriyle paylaşırlar. Öğretmen,
gerekli gördüğü yerlere son kez müdahale eder ve öğrenci çalışmaları son hâlini
alarak sınıfa sunulur.
Uygulama 8-Bağımsız Yazma: Öğretmenin en az etkin olduğu yazma sürecidir.
Öğrenciler istedikleri türde ve istedikleri konuda yazma çalışması yaparlar.
Öğretmen çalışma esnasında yazıları control eder ve gerekli gördüğü yerlerde
öğrencilere dönütler verir. Çalışmalar tamamlandıktan sonra öğretmen bunları
toplar, inceler ve değerlendirerek yine öğrencilere iade eder.
380 F. Bülbül
Fig. 9.4 Babanın Son Öğüdü Metninin Özetleme Kavram Haritası
9.3 Conclusion
Rapid advances in communication technology, and its worldwide spread has led
people to recognize, wonder, and learn different countries and cultures. In order to
satisfy this need, learning the target language is one of the primary objectives. Even
though there are distance education, mobile applications, and social media tools,
people travels to kilometers of distance and live there in order to learn the target
language in its native country. In order to protect the foreign language students
from disappointment, to provide the education in a systematical manner, and to
achieve the targets, it is very important to know the foreign language teaching
methods/techniques.
Having 8500 years of history, Turkish is the 5th mostly spoken the language.
Turkish is spoken by 220 million Turks from Eastern Turkistan to Northern Cyprus
Turkish Republic, most of them in Central Asia. As a result of agreements, visas
that have been abolished with certain countries reciprocally, tourism, marriages
with foreigners, and cultural activities, Turkish is spoken in a very large region
from the USA to Australia. This situation requires the systematical teaching of
Turkish.
Turkish Language Teaching as a Foreign Language is a domain, which is
recently becoming very common and where various approaches, methods, and
techniques are used. There are certain important aspects at this point; well-educated
specialist, equipment suitable for every level, qualified classroom medium, and
accurate methods. Deficiency of one or some of these may prevent the Turkish
Language Education as a Foreign Language from achieving the goals.
In this section of the book, the activities for B1 and B2 levels, which are defined
as Intermediate Level, are presented. Different method and approach were preferred
for each of the activities, and the samples from real-life activities of the author in
real classrooms were presented in content. This study is believed to be useful for
specialists and researchers interested in Turkish Language Teaching as a Foreign
Language.
Glossary
Açık uçlu soru Evet ya da hayır olarak cevaplanamayan, şıkları bulunmayan

klasik, yazılı soru tipidir.
Aşama Varılması istenen bir amaca doğru geçilmesi gerekli
dönemlerden her biri, evre, basamak, adım.
Birleşik zamanlı Herhangi bir haber ya da dilek kipi ekinden sonra, ek fiilin -dı
fiil (idi), -miş (imiş), -se (ise) biçimlerinden birini alarak
çekimlenen fiillere denir.
Çivi İki şeyi birbirine tutturmak, bir nesneyi bir yere sabitlemek
için çakılan, ucu sivri, başlı, metal veya ağaçtan yapılmış ufak
çubuk.
Felâket Büyük zarar, üzüntü ve sıkıntılara yol açan olay veya durum,
yıkım, bela.
Fiilimsi Fiilden türetilen, olumsuzu yapılabilen mastar, sıfat-fiil,
zarf-fiil vb. türleri bulunan ad, eylemsi.
Huzur Padişahın, kralın katı.
382 F. Bülbül
Kavram haritası Kavramlar arasındaki ilişkileri gösteren diyagramlardır.

Bilgiyi düzenlemeye ve ifade etmeye yarayan bir grafiksel
araçtır.
Marka Bir ticari malı, herhangi bir nesneyi tanıtmaya, benzerinden
ayırmaya yarayan özel ad veya işaret.
Metin Bir yazıyı biçim, anlatım ve noktalama özellikleriyle
oluşturan kelimelerin bütünü, tekst.
Nal At, eşek, öküz vb. yük hayvanlarının tırnaklarına çakılan,
ayağın şekline uygun demir parçası.
Nalbant Hayvanların ayağına nal çakan kimse.
Noksan Eksik.
Öğüt Bir kimseye yapması veya yapmaması gereken şeyler için
söylenen söz, nasihat.
Özetleme Bir yazı, konu, söz veya filmin içeriğini daha az sözle
anlatmak, özünü vermek, kısaltmak.
Reçete Üzerinde doktorun hastası için gerekli gördüğü ilaçlarla,
bunların kullanılış biçimleri yazılı olan kâğıt.
Soru üretme Metinle ilgili çeşitli sorular sorma ve cevaplama.
stratejisi
Şato Avrupa’da soylu kimselerin oturduğu, çevresi hendek, sur ve
kulelerle çevrili konak.
Tâcir Ticaretle uğraşan kimse, tüccar.
Tahmin etme Metnin okunmasından önce veya okunması sırasında neler
stratejisi olabileceği ile ilgili tahminlerde bulunma.
Tedbir Önlem.
Telaşlanmak Sıkıntı duyarak acele etmek, endişelenmek, telaş etmek.
Torba Genellikle plastikten veya kâğıttan yapılmış, içine öteberi
koymaya yarayan, çeşitli büyüklükte olabilen taşıma gereci,
poşet.
Ürün Türlü endüstri alanlarında ham maddelerin işlenmesiyle elde
edilen şey.
5EModeli Öğrencinin sahip olduğu bilgi ve becerileri aktif bir şekilde
kullanmasını sağlayan, öğrencinin araştırma merakını arttıran
ve öğrencinin beklentilerine cevap veren, Giriş, Keşfetme,
Açıklama, Derinleştirme ve değerlendirme bölümlerinden
oluşan bir öğretim modelidir.
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Sorunlar. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(17), 77–94.
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Yayınları.
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Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Bölümü, Eğitime Bakış Dergisi.
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emektir
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nt2cb8VmKyY
Chapter 10
Language of Turkish: First Levels
Vedat Kartalcık
In this section, theoretical explanations of beginner and elementary levels (A1 and
A2) in Turkish language teaching as a foreign language and the activity suggestions
for this level are discussed. In designing the activities for beginner and elementary
levels, EU’s Common Reference Guide for Languages was considered. These
conceptual frame and steps are detailed through the activities. This section consists
of “Presentation of the Field”, “Activity Samples”, “Glossary”, “References” and
“Bibliography”.
According to EU’s Common Reference Guide for Languages, A1 and A2 levels

correspond to the levels of beginner (breakthrough) and elementary (way stage).
They are described with six characteristics (wikipedia.com):
A1:
• Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases
aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type.
• Can introduce themselves and others and can ask and answer questions about
personal details such as where he/she lives, people they know and things they
have.
• Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly
and is prepared to help.
V. Kartalcık (&)
Education Faculty, Süleyman Demirel University, Doğu Yerleşkesi,
Room 252, Isparta, Turkey
e-mail: mkartalcik@hotmail.com

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_10
386 V. Kartalcık
A2:
• Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of
most immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information,
shopping, local geography, employment).
• Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct
exchange of information on familiar and routine matters.
• Can describe in simple terms aspects of their background, immediate environ-
ment and matters in areas of immediate need.
In each activity, samples provide some parental suggestions. Here some suggestions
that were prepared in parallel with the activities in this study: Parents can help
students meet their peers who speak the language fluently at different platforms and
give them a chance to practice the language face-to-face. By establishing connec-
tions through social media, parents can provide the opportunity of meeting with
language tutors or counsels who can speak both languages fluently. Parents may
organize reading hours in a home in order to improve the reading comprehension
skill of the student; every individual may be responsible for telling what he/she
understood, ask questions, and/or summarize the book. The students may be asked
to tell the content of the TV series or movie that they have watched. Parents may
visit the doctor to allow the student to have knowledge about the diseases. If they
live in Turkey, then they may visit a Turkish physician. Various departments and
also the patients in the hospital may be observed. They may talk about the previous
diseases of parents, the characteristics of those diseases and potential treatment
options. Parents can provide their children with artistic activities such as poems,
music, and sketch found in Turkish website and electronic books. Parents may talk
to students about the advertisement and product relations by watching the TV ads.
They may visit malls or markets to review the products they see on TV or different
sources. Moreover, to allow the student to have knowledge about the purchasing,
they may visit the market, greengrocery, grocery, bakery or stationery together. If
they live in Turkey, the student may work with a tradesman or in a mall for a day.
Parents may talk to their children about happiness and unhappiness. The reflection
of their experiences on this matter would contribute the emotional development of
their children. Parents may watch and interpret a brotherhood/friendship-themed
movie with their children. For instance: Stand by me. While watching the movie,
they may help their children via question-answer technique by pausing the movie.
Learners can further develop their language level by watching plays, and going to
theaters or cinema, and they can also participate in local and cultural organizations.
10 Language of Turkish: First Levels 387
Activity One: Activity One: I’m using all my intelligence fields.

Activity Two: I can tell properties of what I see.
Activity Three: A Word to the Wise is Enough!
Activity Four: I cannot believe my eyes!
10.2.1 Activity One: I’m Using All My Intelligence Fields
In this activity, a teaching design based on multiple intelligences language approach

was prepared. According to the theory of multiple intelligences, many things that a
person has difficulty in learning can be taught to that person as long as an easy way
to learn is figured out. The important point in education is to discover the style with
which every child learns and to teach through that style. Every student is different
from the other in terms of his intelligence structure and learning method. Some
learn only by listening, some learn by taking part in the learning process, and some
learn through different methods such as investigating, contemplating and analyzing.
Tag of Activity
Method of Teaching: Multiple Intelligences Language Learning and Teaching
Theory: In this method; Audiovisual tools: Computer, television, audio movies,
etc.; Visual Tools: Computer, projection, concept maps, pictures, photos, cartoons;
Audio Tools: CD players, MP3 players, cassette player, radio, etc. Usage of
appropriate tools in the teaching process.
Type of Teaching: Teaching carried out using all types of intelligence. In this
teaching; a combination of audiovisual elements, dialogue, questions and answers
and verbal communication is used.
Approach/Method: Multiple Intelligences Language Learning and Teaching
Theory
Types of Learning: In this activity, learning grammatical cases, and skills to be
able to use them in appropriate situations and in a correct way will be thought.
Prerequisite knowledge: Pre-activity preparation, audiovisual tools, and text
information.
Students’ participation: In order to ensure student participation, text reading in
the classroom, talking about visuals, and listening-understanding, watching-
understanding works will be carried out. Texts on the subject will be displayed
with a projector and their copies will be handed out to the students at the same time.
388 V. Kartalcık
A few volunteers can read the texts and dialogs out loud. Later, the activities that
are prepared depending on the time will be put into practice, and the course will be
supported by oral communication, visual materials, and dialogues. While carrying
out the activities, plain lecturing, written and oral questions about the texts and
writing practices will be done.
Parents’ participation: Parents determine a topic of conversation to ensure that
their kids can understand the use of grammatical cases and ask them questions at
appropriate times such as “what, who, where to, where, to whom, in whom, where,
from where?” and answer the questions and make an explanation when the child
has difficulty in answering the questions.
Keywords: Visuality, target language, multiple intelligences language learning
and teaching theory, predict, question-answer, gestures, facial expressions, basic
level (A1), what, who, where to, where, to whom, in whom, where, from where,
verbal-linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, visual-spatial
intelligence, musical-rhythmical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence,
interpersonal-social intelligence, intrapersonal-inward intelligence, naturalist intel-
ligence, evaluation sheets, activity.
Mini Scenario: Öğretmen sınıfa girer. Öğrencileri selamladıktan sonra onlara
sorular sormaya başlar.
Öğretmen: Arkadaşlar, merhaba! Nasılsınız?
Öğrenciler: Teşekkürler…İyiyim…Sen nasılsın?
Öğretmen: Teşekkür ederim, ben de iyiyim. Öğrenci A, sen nereden geldin, yani
hangi ülkeden?
Öğrenci A: Endonezya.
Öğretmen: Evet arkadaşlar. Ben ne dedim? Nereden, hangi ülkeden? Soruda -den, -
dan var, o zaman cevapta da -den, -dan var. Nereden? Endonezya’dan. Tamam mı?
Öğrenciler: Tamam.
Öğretmen: -den, -dan İngilizcedeki from gibi. Mesela “from Turkey” ne demek?
Türkiye’den demek. Peki, from Germany?
Öğrenci B: Almanya’den.
Öğretmen: Almanya doğru. Ama bir hata var, bir problem var, nedir?
Öğrenci C: Almanya’dan doğru.
Öğretmen: Çok güzel Öğrenci C. Neden arkadaşlar? Çünkü kalın kalın, ince ince
(Öğretmen, “kalın kalın” derken sesini kalınlaştırır, “ince ince” darken sesini
inceltir). Bu hangi kural?
Öğrenci D: Ünlü uyumu!
Öğretmen: Mükemmelsin dostum! Evet, ünlü uyumu. Bunu daha önce anlattım ama
problem yok. Tamam, Öğrenci E! Sen İstanbul’da nerede oturuyorsun, yani evin
nerede?
Öğrenci E: Şişli hoca.
Öğretmen: Senin evin nerede? (Öğretmen “nerede”deki –de ekini özellikle
vurgular).
Öğrenci E: Haa hoca, tamam. Şişli’de ☺ (Öğrenci de vurguladı).

Öğrenciler: Gülüyorlar ☺
Öğretmen: Aferin Öğrenci E, doğru ☺ Bakın arkadaşlar, Türkçede genellikle sor-
uda hangi ek var, cevapta da o ek var. Mesela; Nereyi? Türkiye’yi. Nerede?
Türkiye’de. Nereden? Türkiye’den. Tamam mı? Sorulara dikkat!
Öğretmen hâl eklerinin öğretimine, öncelikle öğrencilerin bildikleri kelimelerden
yola çıkarak ve soruları kullanarak başlar. Daha sonra bazı fiillerle kullanılan hâl
eklerine örnekler vermeye başlar.
Öğretmen: Arkadaşlar, Türkçede bazı fiillerle bazı ekler kullanıyoruz. Ek ne
demek? Suffix. Tamam mı? Mesela, “gitmek”. Türkçede “Nereye gidiyorsun?”
diyoruz. Çünkü gitmek genellikle -e, -a gitmek, tamam mı?
Öğrenciler: Tamam hocam.
Tahtaya hâl eklerine ilişkin örnekler yazılır ve telaffuz çalışması yaptırılır. Daha
sonra hâl eklerinin kullanıldığı durumlarla ilgili görseller tahtaya yansıtılır.
Öğretmen bu görsellerle ilgili “nereyi, kimi, nereye, kime, nerede, kimde, nereden,
kimden” sorularını sorarak öğrencileri konuşturur. Hâl ekleriyle ilgili
dinleme-izleme çalışması yapılır.
Instruction Design
Purpose: Using grammatical cases correctly with nouns.
Objectives: The activity ensures to teach the children to give appropriate answers
to “what, who, where to, where, to whom, in whom, where, from where?”
questions.
Materials: Computer, projector, CD player, visuals and evaluation sheets on the
subject.
Attention: In order to attract students’ attention and trigger their prior knowledge,
the teacher projects visuals (photos, pictures, cartoons) related to grammatical cases
on the board. She poses some questions while she projects these visuals:
• Ahmet neyi tutuyor?
• Adam neyi tamir ediyor?
• Öğretmen nereye yazıyor?
• Ayşe neye bakıyor?
• O nerede uyuyor?
• Mektup kimde?
• Çocuk nereden atlıyor?
• Onlar nereden geliyor?
390 V. Kartalcık
Tip 1: The teacher makes explanations for each image separately. For example,
after addressing the question “What is Ahmet holding in his hand?” to the students,
she points at the pen and waits for the students to give an answer.
Tip 2: There might be words in this image that the students may not know. In
this case, the teacher should let the students have a guess first and then she should
perform the word if possible. For example; to tell the verb ‘to jump’ in the sentence
“The kid is jumping from the tree”, she should climb on the chair and jump from
the chair, then she should explain “this is jumping”.
Inform the target: Children, today we are going to learn grammatical cases.
Nouns, pronouns, noun compounds and infinitives can take [İ], [E], [DE], [DEN]
morphemes to furnish these words with the concept of the “the” definite article, and
“to”, “in, at, on”, or “from” propositions of the English language (Göknel 2010).
Presentation of Content: Based on the fact that there are students with different
types of intelligence, the teacher should generate a rich learning environment in the
classroom to ensure understanding of grammatical cases. Therefore, she begins to

present those activities she prepared in accordance with each type of intelligence.
Tip 3: Since students are A1 level, she can make translations from English or the
students’ native language.
Örnek Cümleler:
Ali, kalemi aldı. Neyi aldı? Kalem-i aldı.
Ayşe telefonu düşürdü. Neyi düşürdü? Telefon-u düşürdü.
Ahmet okula gitti. Nereye gitti? Okul-a gitti.
Babam eve geldi. Nereye geldi? Ev-e geldi.
Arkadaşım hastanede. Nerede? Hastane-de.
Öğretmenim şimdi Belçika’da. Nerede? Belçika’da.
Mustafa, kütüphaneden kitap aldı. Nereden aldı? Kütüphane-den.
Hayvanat bahçesinden geliyorum. Nereden geliyorum? Hayvanat bahçesin-den.
The teacher gives two examples for each grammatical case and asks an example
from the students and while doing it she uses “what, who, where to, where, to
whom, in whom, where, from where?” questions.
Further Activities: The students are asked;
• to classify grammatical cases and make a presentation next week,
• to bring cartoons about grammatical cases,
• to draw a picture about grammatical cases and leave caption part blank so they
can do practice with other students in the classroom,
• to show the usage of grammatical cases through dramatization.
Assessment: The students are asked to write how a typical day of theirs looks like
from the morning they wake up until they go to bed, using grammar cases. To
ensure to achieve the desired objective of the activity, the exercises included in the
‘Practices of Activity Five’ get done.
• The time required for the completion of exercises is approximately one week.
• After the exercises, the works of the students are assessed, and the results are put
on the wall.
• After the activities, the teacher hands out a paper named ‘Student Diary’. The
students write down on these papers their thoughts about the course and the
teaching method.
Semantic networks: In the activities, information about the use of grammatical
cases was provided, and it was made sure that the close relationship between
grammatical cases and verbs were comprehended. In order to ensure lastingness of
information, works for different intelligence types were employed and a variety of
images, music and videos were used.
Outcomes: Behaviors we expect from students when these activities are
performed:
• Having knowledge about grammatical cases,
• Using grammatical cases in appropriate situations correctly.
392 V. Kartalcık
Practices of Activity One

Uygulama 1: (verbal-linguistic intelligence) Aşağıdaki alıştırmaları yapınız (Polat
and Abeş 2007):
1. Aşağıdaki boşlukları –da veya –de ekleriyle tamamlayınız
Örnek: Bardak masada.
Gözlük çekmece….. Çocuk ev….. Kadın balkon….. Öğretmen okul…..
Sinema….. film var. Yol….. arabalar var. Ütü….. su yok.
2. Aşağıdaki boşlukları –ta veya –te ekleriyle tamamlayınız.
Örnek: Kuş ağaçta.
Süt dolap….. Maç saat beş….. Çocuklar park….. Öğrenciler sınıf…..
Uçak….. yolcular var. Sepet….. meyveler var. Saat üç….. ders var.
3. Aşağıdaki boşlukları –dan veya –den eklerinden biriyle tamamlayınız.
Örnek: arabadan
otel….. masa….. pencere….. doktor….. ev…..
Ben sigara….. hoşlanmıyorum. Biz taksi….. iniyoruz.
4. Aşağıdaki boşlukları –tan veya –ten eklerinden biriyle tamamlayınız.
Sen köpek….. çok korkuyorsun. Kubilay otobüs….. iniyor.
Sen süt….. nefret ediyorsun. Öğretmen kitap….. şiir okuyor.
5. Boşlukları –a ya da –e yönelme durumu eklerinden biriyle tamamlayınız.
Örnek: cüzdana
arkadaş….. köy….. bilgisayar….. sınıf….. okul…..
6. Boşluklara uygun sözcükleri yazınız. (otobüs, ev, pantolon, okul)
Adam mağazada ……………a bakıyor.
Ben ……………e telefon ediyorum.
Turistler ……………e biniyorlar.
Biz her sabah ……………a gidiyoruz.
7. Boşlukları –ı, -i, -u, -ü eklerinden biriyle tamamlayınız.
Örnek: cüzdanı
okul….. üzüm….. sınıf….. otel….. anahtar…..
Öğretmen şu öğrenci….. tahtaya çağırıyor.
Onlar kapı….. açmıyorlar.
Uygulama 2: (logical-mathematical intelligence) Aşağıdaki boşlukları doldurup
olayları sıralayınız.
• 8’….. okul….. gitti.
• 7.45’….. ev….. çıktı.
• 8.15’….. ders….. girdi.
• Elin….. yüzün….. yıkadı.
• Ali sabah 7’….. uyandı.
• Mutfak….. kahvaltı etti.
Uygulama 3: (visual-spatial intelligence) Öğretmen öğrencilere bir video
seyrettirir ve diyalogda kullanılan hâl ekleriyle ilgili resim çizmelerini ister.
Örneğin, “-Nereye gidiyorsun? –Tiyatroya gidiyorum.” Öğrenci tiyatroya giden,

yüzü tiyatroya dönük olan birini çizebilir.
Uygulama 4: (musical-rhythmical intelligence) Öğretmen öğrencilerden içinde
hâl ekleri geçen bir şiir yazmalarını ister. Daha sonra gönüllü bir öğrencinin bu şiiri
ritimli bir şekilde söylemesini ister. Veya enstrüman çalabilen bir öğrenciden şiir
için beste yapması istenir.
Uygulama 5: (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence) Bir öğrenci tahtaya kalkar ve
kendisinin belirlediği bir hâl eki çeşidini hareketlerle anlatarak diğer öğrencilerin
Uygulama 6: (interpersonal-social intelligence) Sınıf iki gruba ayrılır ve bir grup
hâl eklerini kullanarak diğer grup ise hâl eklerini kullanmadan adres tarifi yapmaya
çalışır. 10 dakika süre verilir. Sonra bir öğrenci grup olarak yazdıkları tarifi okur.
Uygulama 7: (intrapersonal-inward intelligence) Öğretmen “Hâl eklerini kulla-
narak bir gününüzü yazın ve sonra kelimelerdeki bütün hâl eklerini silin” der ve
çalışmayı tamamlayan ilk üç öğrenciye yazılarını okutur.
Uygulama 8: (naturalist intelligence) Öğretmen öğrencilerden bir lokanta, kafe
veya otobüs durağındaki insanların konuşmalarını 3 dakika kaydetmelerini (bu bir
röportaj da olabilir) ve daha sonra bu ses kaydındaki cümlelerde yer alan hâl
eklerini yazmalarını ister.
10.2.2 Activity Two: I Can Tell Properties of What I See
In this activity, a teaching design based on cognitive teaching method was prepared.
In the cognitive method, new information is taught in conjunction with the previous
ones, and it is made sure that the rules were comprehended through contemplating
deeply. Students participate in the process as a producer and implementation,
comprehension and competence are essential in learning. Through enriching the
courses with visual elements and concept maps, the knowledge is ensured to be
permanent.
Tag of Activity
Focus of Teaching: Learner-centered + teacher-centered instruction
Method of Teaching: Cognitive Teaching Method: In this method; Visual Tools:
Use of computers, projectors, concept maps, pictures, photos and cartoons in the
teaching process.
Type of Teaching: Semantic, thematic, narrative and memory supportive
teaching. In this teaching method, visual elements, dialogue, questions and answers,
and oral communication are used in combination.
Approach/Method: Cognitive Model
Types of Learning: In this activity, the skills, based on A1 level, to be able to tell
properties of everything that can be seen in a school environment or daily life will
be taught.
Prerequisite knowledge: Pre-activity preparation, visuals, concept maps.
394 V. Kartalcık
Students’ participation: Questions-answers and prediction strategies, shows and

drama techniques will be used to ensure student participation. The visuals for the
subject matter will be projected on the board. First, the students will be questioned
about the elements in the visuals, and then properties of these elements will be
asked.
Parents’ participation: Parents can ask their children such questions as “What
type of a thing is this? What is it’s properties?” about things on TV, in books or
magazines or any place out there in order to give them the ability to tell properties
of assets. In addition, if a new product is to be purchased for home or any member
of the family, two brochures are taken from two different stores about that product
and given to the child. Then the parents can ask the child “What are the properties
of this product (e.g. a mobile phone)? Are there any differences between these two
brochures?”
Keywords: Visuality, target language, property, attribute, meaningful learning,
prediction, question-answer, gestures, facial expressions, basic level (A1), concept
maps, dialogue, questions and answers, deduction, reasoning, brainstorming, slide,
photos, cartoons, oral communication, evaluation sheets, activity
Mini Scenario: Öğretmen sınıfa girer, öğrencileri selamlar ve bir öğrenciye
yönelerek sorular sormaya başlar.
Öğretmen: Bu ne?
Öğrenci A: Eeee, bu kalem.
Öretmen: Bu, nasıl bir kalem?
Öğrenci A: …
Öğretmen: (Tahtaya “Nasıl?” yazar ve tekrar öğrencinin yanına giderek kalemi
eline alır.) Arkadaşlar, bu nasıl bir kalem?
Öğrenci B: Bu siyah bir kalem.
Öğretmen: Mükemmelsin dostum ☺
Öğrenciler: …
Öğretmen: Mükemmel, yani perfect.
Öğrenciler: “Mükemmel” kelimesini not alıyorlar.
Öğretmen: My friends, “Nasıl?” is “How?”. Tamam mı?
Öğrenci C: OK.
Öğretmen: OK değil, “tamam” ☺
Öğretmen: Arkadaşlar, bu ne? (Bacağını kaldırıp ayakkabısını gösteriyor.)
Öğrenci D: Bu, shoe ☺
Öğretmen: Evet, ama Türkçede shoe ne demek?
Öğrenci E: Ayak…
Öğretmen: Evet! Haydi!
Öğrenci E: Ayak…something ☺
Öğretmen: Aferin, “ayakkabı”
Öğrenci E: Yes.
Öğretmen: Yes değil, evet ☺
Öğretmen: Bu, nasıl ayakkabı?

Öğrenci F: Brown ☺
Öğretmen: Brown ne demek?
Öğrenci G: Kahverengi.
Öğretmen: Eveett, kahverengi. Kahve is coffee and renk is color. Kahverengi is
coffee color ☺
The teacher writes ever word she tells to the students on the board: “Pencil, how,
black, perfect, okay, shoes, brown, coffee, color…” This is a requirement of con-
tributing to the vocabulary knowledge of students all the time.
Tip 1: The most important thing that students need at a basic level, especially at
the A1 level, is vocabulary knowledge. After continuing such practices, the teacher
encourages students to ask questions to each other and answer them in a similar
way.
Instruction Design
Purpose: Telling the properties of goods and assets one sees and needs to know in
the first place (thing that one needs and uses most)
Objectives: This activity teaches students how to use A1 level words and
adjectives correctly.
Materials: Projector, visuals about the subject, concept maps and evaluation
sheets.
the teacher projects visuals (photos, pictures, cartoons) related to the texts she is
about to make students read on the board. She poses some questions after she
projects these visuals:
• Arkadaşlar, burada hangi isimler var?
• Bu isimlerin hangi özellikleri söylenmiş?
• Bu özellikleri bulmak için hangi soruları soruyoruz?
After students’ answers, the teacher projects the text on the board.
Tip 2: The visuals should be displayed from beginning to end and slowly at most
three times.
Inform the target: Friends, today we are going to see the words that identify
characteristics of the names and describe them. So, we will be able to tell properties
of people and goods when we describe them.
Teaching strategies: The teacher becomes a model by thinking out loud to teach
adjectives and makes sure that the students see and learns how to find/use
adjectives.
Presentation of Content: After showing how to use adjectives, the teacher
projects the visuals of the new text on the board and primarily poses the questions;
“What is this?” then “What is its characteristics? What kind of a…?” Through these
practices, it is tried to be ensured both vocabulary learning and establishing
396 V. Kartalcık
adjectives. Then, the following text is read and then the concept map of the text is
projected on the board.
Örnek Metin: EŞYALARIMIZ
Bizim kırmızı bir arabamız var. Bu hızlı bir araba, yavaş değil. Ben arabaları çok seviy-
orum. Benim üç tane oyuncak arabam var. Ben Formula 1 pilotu olmak istiyorum.
Annemin mavi çantası var. Pahalı değil, ucuz. Annem çantaları çok seviyor. Onun on iki
tane çantası var.
Babamın siyah bir ceketi var. Eski değil, yeni bir ceket. O, iş adamı. Bu yüzden onun çok
fazla takım elbisesi var. Tam sekiz tane.
Ben meyveleri çok seviyorum. Yeşil elmayı çok severim. Bu elma çok taze, çürük değil.
The teacher asks questions about the above concept map by thinking out loud
and answers them; “What is this? A car. What kind of a car? A red car. Is this car
slow or fast?” Then she asks the students the other visuals and characteristics about
them. She writes the answers given by the students on the board. After talking about
all the visuals, the teacher projects the following visual on the board
(Figs. 10.1 and 10.2).
The exercises included in the “Practices of Activity Four” attached to the text are
done in the evaluation sheets prepared by the teacher and handed out to the
students.
Further Activities:
• The visuals that the students should primarily know at the A1 level are projected
on the board, and the students are asked to give information about what they are,
their colors and properties.
Fig. 10.1 Eşyalarımız Metninin Resimli Kavram Haritası

Fig. 10.2 Eşyalarımız Metninin Kelimeli Kavram Haritası
• The students are asked to write some of their belongings in terms of their colors
and properties and bring them to the next lesson.
Assessment:
• The students are asked to write the differences between the words they use to
describe people and goods.
• The students are asked to write the content and characteristics of their favorite
cake or food.
Semantic networks: In this activity, those words that are frequently encountered
in daily life were introduced; it was contributed to the development of vocabulary
knowledge by providing characteristics of these words along with their antonyms.
performed:
• Knowing the names of goods encountered in daily life,
• Learning colors,
• Being able to tell antonyms of some words.
Practices of Activity Two

Uygulama 1: Eşyalarımız metniyle ilgili aşağıdaki soruları cevaplayınız.
398 V. Kartalcık
1. Şekil 1’de hangi eşyalar var?

2. Şekil 1’de hangi hayvanlar var?
3. Şekil 1’de hangi meyveler var?
4. Şekil 1’de hangi renkler var?
5. Şekil 1’deki eşya, hayvan ve meyvelerin özellikleri neler?
Uygulama 2: Eşyalarımız metnindeki eşyaların isimlerini ve özellikleri değiştirin
ve aşağıya yeniden yazın.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
Uygulama 3: Arkadaşlarınıza sınıftaki eşyaların isimlerini ve özelliklerini sorun.
Uygulama 4: Bir yarışma; “Gösterdiğim balonun rengini bilen öğrenci, hemen
balonu şişirmeye başlayacak. Kim bir dakikada daha çok balon şişirirse o
kazanacak”
Uygulama 5: Aşağıdaki boşlukları doldurunuz.
Üç ……………. aldım.
…………… şekerleri çok severim.
Bazı …………… çok güzel.
Bugün okula …………… öğrenci geldi?
10.2.3 Activity Three: A Word to the Wise Is Enough!
This activity (Eclectic Method) has been prepared according to the teaching design
based on language teaching approach. In Eclectic Method, individual differences
are taken into consideration more. The important point in education is to find the
method through which a student learns and teach him in accordance with that
method. In this method, teachers establish a one-on-one dialogue with students and
the target language is taught taking into account the situation of each student. The
language teaching principles “from simple to complex”, “from concrete to abstract”
and “from known to unknown” have been adopted in this method.
Tag of Activity
Method of Teaching: Eclectic Method. In this method; the overall objective of
the subject to be taught is described, a connection with the previously learned
subjects is established. Exercises on the taught subject are performed. It is measured
whether or not the students learned the subject and the taught subject is summarized
at the end of the course. Students are given homework on the subject (Doğan 2012)
Type of Teaching: In this teaching, the words are taught to the students from the
beginning of the lesson and to ensure lastingness of the words and also to be able to
use them during communication, the students are made to use the words in a
sentence as much as possible.
Approach/Method: Eclectic Method
Types of Learning: In this activity, subjects such as subjunctive conditional
mood (if), plural suffix, homophony, among Phonics/Morphology/Semantics, will
be discussed. Skills to use them in appropriate situations correctly will be taught.
Prerequisite knowledge: Before the activity, the learning needs of the students
are determined, and materials and activities for the subjects to be discussed are
prepared.
the classroom for morphology and semantics, talking about visuals,
listening-understanding, and watching-understanding works will be carried out. The
texts about subjunctive conditional mood (if), plural suffix, homophony will be
projected on the board and copies of the texts will be handed out to the students.
The texts can be read out loud by the volunteers in the classroom. Later, the
activities that are prepared depending on the time will be put into practice, and the
course will be supported by oral communication, visual materials, and dialogues.
While carrying out the activities, plain lecturing, written and oral questions about
the texts and writing practices will be done.
Keywords: Visuality, target language, Eclectic Method language teaching
approach, prediction, question-answer, gesture, facial expression, basic level (A2),
lesson, discussion, official, friend, family, script, vocabulary, subjunctive condi-
tional mood, homophony, plural suffix, visual, teacher, concept, symbol, sign,
computer, projector, letter, Muğla, breakfast, Gökova, Datça, gulf, ship, neighbor,
dress, cake, shoes, story, vase, Isparta, duck, postcard, idiom, proverb, Turkish,
course, dialogue, implementation, effectiveness …
Mini Scenario: Öğretmen sınıfa girer. Öğrencileri selamladıktan sözcük hazi-
nesiyle ilgili kağıtları öğrencilere dağıtır.
Öğretmen: Teşekkür ederim, ben de iyiyim. Size verdiğim kağıttaki sözcüklerden
bildiklerinizi işaretleyin?
Öğrenciler: Tamam öğretmenim.
Öğretmen: Evet arkadaşlar. Bitirdiniz mi?
Öğrenciler: Bitirdik.
Daha sonra bilemedikleri sözcüklerle ilgili sınıf içi bir diyalog yapılır ve
sözcükler tekrar edilir.
The teacher begins to teach the subjects of subjunctive conditional mood (if),
plural suffix, homophony based on the current knowledge of the students and by
400 V. Kartalcık
asking questions. Then she uses some words related to the subject and begins to
give examples. Some examples for subjunctive conditional mood (if), plural suffix
and homophony are written on the board and pronunciation work is done. Then,
visuals for situations where subjunctive conditional mood (if), plural suffix,
homophony are used are projected on the board. The teacher gives sentences for
these visuals and makes the students talk by asking the concepts of subjunctive
conditional mood (if), plural suffix and homophony. Listening-watching work is
done for subjunctive conditional mood (if), plural suffix, homophony.
Instruction Design
Purpose: Using subjunctive conditional mood (if) and plural suffixes in compliance
with their meaning. Finding homonyms.
Objectives: The activity teaches the students to give correct answers to the
questions related to “subjunctive conditional mood, homophony, plural suffix”.
They understand from what they know (word, symbol, sign, expressions…) short
and simple texts.
Materials: Computer, projector, visuals for the subjects and activity papers.
the teacher projects a text containing the concepts of subjunctive conditional mood,
homophony and plural suffix on the board. She poses some questions as she pro-
jects these visuals:
Tip 1: The teacher can do exercises for the subject, projecting a short and clear
letter on the screen.
Tip 2: Students may not know meanings of some of the words in the letter. In
this case, the teacher should let the students have a guess first then help them to
learn the words by giving tips about them if possible.
Inform the target: Friends, today we are going to learn subjunctive conditional
mood, homophony, and plural suffix. The following letter sample is examined.
Dilek şart kipi (sa/se)
Sevgili Halil,
Ailemle birlikte Muğla’dayız. Burası sakin ve küçük bir şehir. Dün kahvaltımızı
Gökova’da yaptık. Daha sonra tekne ile gezdik. Datça’ya gittik. Gezi sırasında çok
güzel koylardan geçtik. Akşam Gökova’nın üstünden körfezi izledik. Buraların
değişik doğal güzellikleri olduğunu fark ettim. Keşke sen de burada
olsan, birlikte gezsek daha iyi olurdu. Görüşmek üzere. Sevgilerle. (M. Kara)
Çoğul eki
Arkadaşlar bize geldi
Arabalar kaza yapmıştı
Komşular buraya toplanmıştı
Elbiseler çok pahalıydı
Çocuklar dışarıda oyun oynuyorlardı
Gemiler geldi.
Eşsesli
El eliyle yılan tutulmaz.
Her yanım cayır cayır yanıyor.
Arkadaşının yaş gününde bol bol yaş pasta yedi.
Ayakkabısının bağını düğümleyip arkadaşının bağ evinden uzaklaştı.
Onun yüzünden yüz yerde yüzüm kızarıyor.
Her yaz yaylaya çıkar, orada yarım kalan hikâyesini yazmaya çalışırdı.
Kır saçları rüzgârda dalgalanıyordu.
Şimdi vazolar kır çiçekleriyle doludur.
Böyle dik bir yokuştan kış günü her araba inemez.
Tüm öğrencileri bahçeye ağaç dikmeye davet ettik.
Using preliminary information: The teacher can perform the mini activities
above to trigger the students’ prior knowledge.
Presentation of Content: The teacher makes mini introduction speeches within
the framework of what is discussed in the lesson. They talk about the subjects they
choose. Then the teacher makes the students listen to a dialogue she chooses.
Activities are performed within the framework of this dialogue in terms of sub-
junctive conditional mood (if), plural suffix and homonyms. The students are asked
to write a singular and plural form of the objects they see around them as home-
work. The class is dismissed.
Tip 3: Choose a book you want and try to find words with subjunctive condi-
tional mood, homophony and plural suffixes in it, 10 words for each.
Activities related to this subject are performed (Practices of Activity Three)
Further activities: The students are asked to form sentences, using the expres-
sion of “I wish” to tell what they desire to do in life.
Assessment: The students are asked to tell each other that they regret doing
something.
Semantic networks: In this activity, the relationships between activities based on
the Eclectic language teaching method are discussed. In this context, it was tried to
attract the attention of the students with the sample text. To make the subjects
402 V. Kartalcık
taught in language class more lasting, groups were formed within the classroom,
and visual and literary materials were used. It was intended to improve students’
beginner level to further levels with language activities such as text exercises,
activities, and classroom discussions. The students were tried to be motivated
through these activities with discussions, reading and listening, commenting,
summarizing, grammar practices, interpreting, writing and self-expression
exercises.
performed:
• Understanding the text, they read and being able to make analyses,
• Enriching vocabulary,
• Reading short and simple texts,
• Understanding names and words in short and simple texts they read, and
understanding short and simple messages, slogans especially in illustrated
postcards, catalogs, announcements and banners,
• Understanding some descriptions such as advertisements, manuals, recipes, and
timelines,
• Understanding short and simple texts that are related to their work,
• Understanding short personal letters,
• Understanding simple phrases and proverbs frequently used in everyday
language,
• Realizing national and universal cultural values in the texts they read,
• Learning about the A1 level subjects that are taught.
Practices of Activity Three

Uygulama 1: Bu metindeki eş sesli sözcükleri bulunuz.
Çık çıkalım çayıra,
Yem verelim ördeğe,
Ördek yemi yemeden,
Ciyak miyak demeden,
Aldım baktım kimi çıkardım?
Adresimi hemen yaz.
Bu yaz Isparta’ya gideceğim.
Tip 4: Have you ever thought what your favorite rhyme is?
Uygulama 2: Aşağıdaki metinde bulunan dilek şart kiplerini bularak altlarını
çiziniz.
Ağlarsa anam ağlar
İsterse veririz.
Olursa bir şikâyet ölümden olsun.
Dönersem kahpeyim millet yolunda bir azîmetten
Ruhumun vahyini duysam da geçirsem taşına
Uzanırken gece mehtabı getirsem yanına
Bu son fasıldır ey ömrüm nasıl geçersen geç!
Uygulama 3: Verilen sözcükleri tekil ad haline getirip bulmacadaki yerlerine

yerleştirelim.
Uygulama 4: Aşağıdaki cümlelerden hareketle eş sesli sözcükleri bulup bir

cümlede kullanınız?
*Muhammed defterine yazı yaz.
*………………………………………………………………….
*Annem ekmeği dilimledi.
*………………………………………………………………….
*Ablam ve ben çarşıya gittik.
*………………………………………………………………….
404 V. Kartalcık
*Sabah yağmur yağdı.

*………………………………………………………………….
*Esat geç olmadan yatağa yat.
*………………………………………………………………….
*Babam fidan dikmek için toprağı kazdı.
*………………………………………………………………….
*Pazar günü kır gezisine gideceğiz.
*………………………………………………………………….
*Yazın denizde yüzdük.
*………………………………………………………………….
Uygulama 5: İçerisinde çoğul sözcüklerin ve eş sesli ifadelerin bulunduğu yarım
sayfalık bir kompozisyon yazınız.
Uygulama 6: Boş bırakılan yerlere uygun ifadeler bularak doldurunuz?
Dilek Şart Kipi:
Ahmet bugün gelir___Hasan da gelecek.
Çalışır___ başarılı olur.
Bu iş bir bit___ gideceğiz.
Çoğul Ek:
Tren__ buralardan çok geçer.
Komşu___ yetişin! Yardım edin!
Kardeş__ Lokantasına gittik.
Eş Sesli Sözcük:
Elindeki odunu kırdı. ……………………………..
Sahildeki gemi yandı………………………………
Bir ben kalmışım burada…………………………..
• After the activities and exercises performed, the teacher asks for an evaluation
about the things performed in the classroom.
• After the activities are completed, the students are asked to write their opinions
about the language teaching process.
Type 5: Picking a text in the form of another type of writing such as a story,
poem or article, samples related to the discussed subject can be examined.
10.2.4 Activity Four: I Cannot Believe My Eyes!
This activity has been prepared according to the teaching design based on
Audio-Visual language teaching approach. According to Audio-Visual language
teaching approach, the texts follow a sequence of events determined by clear
boundaries. The important point in education is to find the method through which a
student learns and teach him in accordance with that method. In this method, the
teacher teaches through verbal and visual expressions rather than written expres-
sion; most of the exercises and texts are based on dialogues.
Tag of Activity
Method of Teaching: Audio-Visual Method. In this method; Audio-Visual
Tools: Computers, TV, sound films, etc.; Visuals Tools: Computers, projectors,
concept maps, pictures, photos and cartoons; Audio Tools: CD player, MP3 player,
cassette player, radio, etc. are used in the teaching process.
Type of Teaching: Semantic, thematic, narrative and memory supportive
teaching. In this teaching method, visual elements, dialogue, questions and answers,
and oral communication are used in combination.
Approach/Method: Audio-visual Method
Types of Learning: In this activity, Adjectives (adjectives of quality and numeral
adjectives), the simple past tense and the past perfect tense are emphasized. Skills to
be able to use them in appropriate situations and in a correct way will be taught.
Prerequisite knowledge: Pre-activity preparation, audio-visual tools, and text
information.
the classroom, talking about visuals, listening-understanding, and
watching-understanding works will be carried out. The texts about the simple past
tense and the past perfect tense will be projected on the board and copies of the
texts will be handed out to the students. The texts can be read out loud by the
volunteers in the classroom. Later, the activities that are prepared depending on the
time will be put into practice, and the course will be supported by oral commu-
nication, visual materials and dialogues. While carrying out the activities, plain
lecturing, written and oral questions about the texts and writing practices will be
done.
Keywords: Visuality, target language, Audio-Visual language teaching ap-
proach, prediction, question-answer, gestures, facial expressions, basic level (A2),
lesson, spa, discussion, apart, Çanakkale, official, friend, family, fruit, animal,
movie, color, shape, situation, Konya, personnel, manager, authority, fox, crow,
fairy tale, tree, house, adjective, past tense, past perfect tense, script, CD, Turkish,
course, dialogue, implementation, activity.
Mini Scenario: Öğretmen sınıfa girer. Öğrencileri selamladıktan sonra onlara
sorular sormaya başlar.
406 V. Kartalcık

Öğretmen: Teşekkür ederim, ben de iyiyim. Öğrenci B, senin gömleğinin rengi
nedir?
Öğrenci B: Mavi öğretmenim.
Öğretmen: Evet arkadaşlar. Hangi renkmiş? Mavi?
Öğrenciler: Tamam.
Öğretmen: Bir nesnenin özelliği onun sıfatıdır. Mesela “yellow car” ne demek? Sarı
araba demek. Peki, red apple?
Öğrenci C: Kırmızı elma.
Öğretmen: Bu doğru. Çok güzel
Öğrenci C. Neden arkadaşlar? Çünkü nesnelerin bir özelliğini belirtiyorsak ona sıfat
diyoruz.
The teacher begins to teach adjectives based on the current knowledge of the
students and by asking questions. Then she uses some adjectives and begins to give
examples.
Öğretmen: Arkadaşlar, Türkçede bazı zaman bildiren ifadelerde ekler kullanıyoruz.
Zaman ne demek? Mesela, “okumak”. Türkçede “Kitap okudu veya kitap
okumuş?” diyoruz. Çünkü “okudu” derken gördüğümüz bir zamanı aktarıyoruz.
“okumuş” derken de duyduğumuz bir zaman kavramını aktarmış oluyoruz. Tamam
mı?
Öğrenciler: Tamam hocam.
Some examples for the simple past tense and the past perfect tense are written on
the board, and pronunciation work is done. Then, visuals for situations where the
simple past tense and the past perfect tense are used are projected on the board. The
teacher gives sentences for these visuals and makes the students talk by asking the
concepts of tenses. Listening-watching work is done for the simple past tense and
the past perfect tense.
Instruction Design
Purpose: Using adjectives and the past tense suffixes in compliance with their
meaning.
Objectives: The activity teaches the students to give proper answers to the
questions related to “adjectives of quality and numeral adjectives” and “tenses (the
simple past tense and the past perfect tense)”.
Materials: Computer, projector, visuals for the subjects and activity papers.
Attention: To attract students’ attention and trigger their prior knowledge, the tea-
cher projects a text containing the concepts of adjectives of quality and numeral
adjectives and tenses (the simple past tense and the past perfect tense) about
shopping, fruits, vegetables, travel and holiday on the board. She poses some
questions as she projects these visuals:
Örnek metin: İlginç Anı

Esat dersten sonra pazara gitti. Bir kilo portakal, iki kilo erik, yarım kilo kivi aldı. Bir demet
marul ve bir kilo soğan aldı. Eve geldi. Arkadaşı onu ziyarete gelmiş. Sohbet ettiler. Herkes
bir anısını anlattı. Esat’ın anısı şöyleydi: “Kışın tatile Çanakkale’ye gittim. Kaplıcaya
girdim. Orada bir hafta kaldım. Apartın bahçesinde düştüm ve bacağım kırıldı. Kaplıca
görevlileri çok yardım severdi. Benimle çok ilgilendiler. Aileme haber vermişler. Annem ve
babam benim için çok telaşlanmış. Yine de benim için çok güzel bir tatildi.”
• Esat neler almış?

• Esat’ı kim ziyaret etmiş?
• Arkadaşı ne anlattı?
• Apartta Esat neresini kırdı?
• Esat kaplıcaya nereye gitmiş?
• Kaç kilo kivi almış?
Tip 1: The teacher can do exercises for adjectives, projecting photographs of
various objects on the screen.
Tip 2: Students may not know meanings of some of the words in these visuals.
In this case, the teacher should let the students have a guess first then help them to
learn the words by giving tips about them if possible.
Inform the target: Friends, today we are going to learn some adjectives and some
tense suffixes.
Sıfatlara Örnek
İyi adam. Beyaz tavşan. Yuvarlak masa. Nasıl filmleri seversin? Kaçar lira
ayırmamız gerekiyor? Birtakım yanlış fikirleri vardı. Hiçbir öğrenci gelmemişti.
Bütün kitapları aldı. Her yer tertemizdi. Bir gün bu iyiliğinizi ödeyeceğim.
Kiplere Örnek
Komşu, dün bize geldi. Dün dersimizde konuları tekrar ettik. Bütün sorulara
doğru cevap verdim. Ödevlerimizi bitirmedik. Konuyu anladınız mı? Dün beni
aramış. Dün toplantıya herkes geç kalmış. Zor durumda olanlara yardım etmiş. Yeni
elbise sana hiç yakışmamış. Isparta’ya da kar yağmış mı?
Using preliminary information: The teacher can perform the following mini
activities to trigger the students’ prior knowledge:
• The students are paired to make discussions with each other.
• The students are asked to form sentences of color, shape and the situation on a
subject chosen in the context of the course.
• The teacher may give five sample sentences and ask the students to find the
described adjectives and tenses in them.
Presentation of Content: The teacher makes mini introduction speeches within
the framework of what is discussed in the lesson. They talk about the subjects they
choose. Then the teacher makes the students listen to a discussion text she chooses.
Activities are performed within the framework of this text in terms of adjectives and
408 V. Kartalcık
tense suffixes. The students are asked to write a singular and plural form of the
objects they see around them as homework. The class is dismissed.
Tip 3: Choose a book you want and try to find sentences with the simple past
tense and the past perfect tense suffixes in it, 10 words for each.
Activities related to this subject are performed (Practices of Activity Four)
Further activities: The students are asked to talk about some properties of the
objects or people they like most for 2–3 min.
Assessment: The students are asked to describe a person they know
Semantic networks: In this activity, the relationships between activities based on
the Audio-visual language teaching method are discussed. In this context, it was
tried to attract the attention of the students with the sample text. To make the
subjects taught in language class more lasting, groups were formed within the
classroom, and visual and literary materials were used. It was intended to improve
students’ beginner level to further levels with language activities such as text
exercises, activities, and classroom discussions. The students were tried to be
motivated through these activities with discussions, reading and listening, com-
menting, summarizing, grammar practices, interpreting, writing and self-expression
exercises.
performed:
• Expressing their personal information with a simple language,
• Commenting on what they do in their daily life, and whether they would like to
do something or not,
• Making suggestions,
• Responding to suggestions,
• Making simple conversation about daily routines,
• Improving language skills through reading and writing pieces of writings,
• Learning about the A2 level subjects that are taught.
Practices of Activity Four

Uygulama 1: “İlginç Anı” adlı metninde geçen sıfatları ve kip eklerini size verilen
etkinlik kağıtlarında belirtilen yere yazınız.
Tip 4: Think about the characteristics of your favorite friend. Let’s see how
many adjectives we will come up with!
Uygulama 2: Aşağıdaki uygulamayı farklı sözcüklerde de deneyiniz.
Uygulama 3: Bu metindeki sıfatları bulunuz ve bunları bir cümlede kullanınız.

Sayın Yetkili,
Personeliniz müşterilere yeterince kibar davranmıyor. Lütfen bu konuda per-
sonelinizi eğitiniz veya uyarıda bulununuz.
Sayın Yetkili, Pastaneniz çok temiz. Ürünleriniz de lezzetli. Ancak bu güzel
ortamı gürültülü müzik bozuyor. Bu güzel ortamda nefis pasta ve tatlılarınızı daha
sessiz veya klasik müzik eşliğinde yemek isteriz.
İyi günler. Konya’ya iki bilet almak istiyorum. Üzerinizdeki yeşil elbise çok
güzel ve size çok yakışmış ve sizi daha zarif gösteriyor (M. Kara).
Uygulama 4: Metindeki kip ekleri doğrultusunda metin sizce nasıl bitmiştir,
tamamlayınız?
Karga ile Tilki/La Fontaine Masalları
Bir varmış bir yokmuş; bir zamanlar bir ağacın dalında neşeyle dans eden bir karga varmış.
Karga çok mutluymuş, çünkü ağzında kocaman bir peynir parçası varmış, karga bulduğu
peynirden dolayı çok ama çok mutluymuş. Ağzındaki kocaman peyniri tam midesine
indirmek üzereymiş ki, oradan geçmekte olan bir tilki kargayı görmüş…
Uygulama 5: İçerisinde sıfatlar ve kip eklerinin bulunduğu yarım sayfalık bir

kompozisyon yazınız.
Elma Ağacı
Küçük bir köyde üç çocuklu bir aile yaşamış. Bu üç çoğun hepsi erkekmiş. Yaşadıkları evin
yanında küçük bir bahçeleri varmış. Bu bahçede değişik bir elma ağacı varmış. Bu ağaç
sadece yılda bir defa, bahar mevsiminde meyve verirmiş. Ayrıca, bu elmalar altın
kaplıymış. Ama bu elmalardan onlara yemek nasip olmamış. Çünkü elmalar yetiştiği an,
birileri onları yermiş… (M. Kara).
Uygulama 6: “Elma Ağacı” metninden hareketle aşağıdaki dilbilgisi

kavramlarıyla ilgili üçer örnek yazınız?
Niteleme ve Belirtme Sıfatı:
1. ___________________
2. ___________________
3. ___________________
Görülen Geçmiş Zamanlı Kip:
1. ___________________
410 V. Kartalcık
2. ___________________
3. ___________________
Duyulan Geçmiş Zamanlı Kip:
1. ___________________
2. ___________________
3. ___________________
• After the activities and exercises performed, the teacher asks for an evaluation
about the things performed in the classroom.
• After the activities are completed, the students are asked to write their opinions
about the language teaching process.
Tip 5: Picking a text in the form of another type of writing such as a story, poem
or article, samples related to the discussed subject can be examined.
10.3 Conclusion
For years, foreign language teaching experts and researchers have been seeking the
most effective approach and method. Some approaches and methods are considered
to be better or more effective than others, but still, they all have some limitations
and strengths. When we consider the Turkish language, it can be said that to the
subject of the teaching Turkish to foreigners is relatively new. Turkish Language
Teaching as a Foreign Language is a domain, which is recently becoming very
common and where various approaches, methods, and techniques are used.
In this section of the book, the activities for A1 and A2 levels, which are defined
as Beginner and Elementary Levels, are presented. Different method and approach
were preferred for each of the activities, and the samples from real-life activities of
the author in real classrooms were presented in content. This study is believed to be
useful for specialists and researchers interested in Turkish Language Teaching as a
Foreign Language.
Glossary
Aşama Varılması istenen bir amaca doğru geçilmesi gerekli dönemlerden

her biri, evre, basamak, adım.
Kavram Kavramlar arasındaki ilişkileri gösteren diyagramlardır. Bilgiyi
haritası düzenlemeye ve ifade etmeye yarayan bir grafiksel araçtır.
Metin Bir yazıyı biçim, anlatım ve noktalama özellikleriyle oluşturan
kelimelerin bütünü, tekst.
Örtük Örtülü, kapalı.
Özetleme Bir yazı, konu, söz veya filmin içeriğini daha az sözle anlatmak,
özünü vermek, kısaltmak.
Telaffuz Söyleyiş.
References
Neşriyat.
Eş sesli kelimeler. Retrieved March, 2, 2016 from: http://www.turkdilbilgisi.com/sozcukte-anlam/
es-sesli-kelimeler.html
Göknel, Y. (2010). Turkish Grammar. İstanbul: Berdan Matbaacılık.
http://www.egitimhane.com
Kocabaş, S. İsmin hal ekleri. Retrieved March, 3, 2016: http://sevcankocabas.blogspot.com.tr/
2014/03/ismin-hal-ekleri.html
Polat, Y., & Abeş, G. (2007). Yabancılar İçin Betimlemelerle Türkçe Dilbilgisi Alıştırmaları.
İstanbul: Multilingual Yabancı Dil Yayınları.
Bibliography
Ankara Üniversitesi TÖMER Yeni Hitit Yabancılar İçin Türkçe Öğretim Seti Çalışma Kitabı Ses
Kayıtları (Yeni Hitit 1), (Yeni Hitit 2), (Yeni Hitit 3).
Can, K. (2001). Yabancılar İçin Türkçe-İngilizce Açıklamalı Türkçe Dersleri. Ankara: Orta doğu
Teknik Üniversitesi Yayınları.
Çetin, Mustafa. (2003), Turkofoni Türkçe Öğrenim Seti 1–6, Dil Evi Yayınları.
Dilset Yayınları Açılım Türkçe Seti (Açılım Türkçe 1), (Açılım Türkçe 2), (Açılım Türkçe 3),
(Açılım Türkçe 4).
Dilset Yayınları Ana Dilim Türkçe Seti (Ana Dilim Türkçe 4), (Ana Dilim Türkçe 5), (Ana Dilim
Türkçe 6).
Dilset Yayınları Anadolu Türkçe Seti (Anadolu 1), (Anadolu 2).
Dilset Yayınları Gökkuşağı Türkçe Seti (Gökkuşağı Türkçe 1), (Gökkuşağı Türkçe 2), (Gökkuşağı
Türkçe 3), (Gökkuşağı Türkçe 4), (Gökkuşağı Türkçe 5), (Temel Seviye Okuma Kitapları),
(Orta Seviye Okuma Kitapları).
Dilset Yayınları Lâle Türkçe Seti (Lâle Türkçe 1), (Lâle Türkçe 2), (Lâle Türkçe 3), (Okuma
Kitapları Serisi 1), (Okuma Kitapları Serisi 2).
Dilset Yayınları Sevgi Dili Türkçe Seti (Sevgi Dili Türkçe 1), (Sevgi Dili 2), (Sevgi Dili 3).
Durmuş, M., & Okur, A. (Eds.). (2013). Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretimi El Kitabı. Ankara: Grafiker
Yayınları.
Gökkuşağı Türkçe Dil Seti, Dilset Yayınları.
Günday, R. (2015). Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Yaklaşımlar, Yöntemler. Favori Yayınları, Ankara:
Teknikler ve Multimedya Araç ve Materyalleri.
Güzel, A., & Barın, E. (2013). Yabancı Dil Olarak Türkçe Öğretimi. Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları.
İstanbul Üniversitesi Yabancılar İçin Türkçe Seti, (ders kitabı, alışıtırma kitabı, Cd, AB ölçütlerine
göre, A1 ve A2 düzeyi), İstanbul Üniversitesi Dil Merkezi (DİLMER).
Chapter 11
History
Murat Keçe
In this chapter, sample activities based on modern method and techniques towards
history education have been developed. The activities aiming the students to par-
ticipate actively the lesson in the learning process have diversified as a topic,
teacher and student-centered. In these activities, appropriate steps in accord with
collaborative learning, complete learning, computer-based learning, project-based
learning and 5E learning models have been followed. The sample activities in the
chapter have been designed as a guide for teachers and the other practitioners and in
the way of being able to be modified for different history topics.
11.1.1 Briefing
The questions like “What do people get by knowing or studying history or do people
really get something? Or in a broad sense, does the history have any benefit for
anybody?” and human communities’ diversely recording what they have made in
their own age from the first age to present and humans’ feeling the need of trans-
ferring these mentioned records to the next generations and in this regard, existing of
history lesson in the schools should have a reason. Yes, there is a specific reason of
teaching history. Teaching history allows us to see historical aspect of the problems
in the source of the present problems and to plan the future in a better way. In this
sense, it can help students to solve their problems related to joining the social,
economic and political institution in their future life (Güven 2014).
M. Keçe (&)
Faculty of Education, Room 339, Süleyman Demirel University,
e-mail: muratkece5@gmail.com

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_11
414 M. Keçe
In order to satisfy the next generations’ curiosity about the past and share the
experiences, historical events have been put in writing from the past to present.
Today, it is really hard to think a nuncupative history; whereas human being has
started to put their past in writing after a long time from civilizing. In the earliest
ancient times, stories of the important people in society and what they did were
tellingly transferred from generation to generation. The very first historians didn’t
content themselves with conveying only the events and tried to explain the reason
of occurrence of the events. Ancient Greek Herodotus died in about 430 B.C, wrote
the reason of the war between Persians and Greeks in the first history book in the
5th century B.C. Thucydides, lived in Ancient Greece, wrote about the famous
Peloponnesus War between Athens and Spartans. Until today from those times,
human being’s events have been going on to be recorded in the different ways. The
discipline of history appears to us as an area of examination in which the past
phenomenon and events are approached in the way of cause and effect based on the
documents by indicating a place, time and actors. In addition, our perceptions about
the present incidents influence our aspect and comments about the past events and
conditions and also shape our expectation related to future. In parallel with these
two, it can be said that our expectation from the future can affect goings-on in these
days and our perception and comments about the past. The components including
comments of the past, perceiving and understanding today and creating an
expectation related to future and examining the interrelation between these com-
ponents enter the field of study of history discipline (Stearns 2009).
In IX century, in the conception of the history of which Leopold von Ranke took
the lead, a positivist approach was adopted. Ranke was emphasizing the state in his
writings and was giving very small coverage to the society. The historical revo-
lution is coming up with Ranke was seen as a more objective and scientific method
revolution in the light of the official documents (Toprak 2015). Historians devel-
oped some techniques testing reliability of the documents and including chrono-
logical classification of those documents. According to this approach, an object of
history became political history; the subject became important people. On the other
hand, social historians’ studies were seen as unprofessional. After World War 2,
positivist conception of history started to give its place slowly to post-positivist
conception called as interpretive paradigm and beside oral history practices like
ordinary people’s life, cultures, and religion in history teaching, local history topics
that history of anyplace is searched was started to be concentrated. During World
War 2, on the ground that the official state sources didn’t reflect the whole reality
and some incidents like war crime (e.g. genocide) didn’t/won’t be able to take place
in the official records, being accepted of ordinary people’s testimonies and their oral
narration as evidence were seen as a milestone for validity of socio-cultural studies
in discipline of history (Çaykent 2015).
Together with modernism, social sciences are known to become one each
independent discipline that has different methodology and procedures. Post-modern
paradigm change has made social sciences closer each other, to be able to under-
stand the life that is becoming more and more complicated, different disciplines
have needed the help of each other (Yazıcı 2015). In a post-modern period, various
11 History 415
historical methods have played a part among the most frequently used research
strategies in the interdisciplinary study and in this sense, the fact that ‘‘history’’ as a
social science discipline started to benefit from various social science discipline has
necessitated benefiting from teaching method and techniques that are suitable for
interdisciplinary approach in teaching process.
11.1.2 Methods and Techniques in Teaching History
The fact that “history” expressing a past-present-future-based discipline is sur-

rounded by some abstract concept and terms has made it essential to benefit from
some special and common teaching method and techniques in history lessons. As
well as the other branches, teachers of history also need various teaching strategies
to teach their subjects in an effective way. History has tens of way to present to
students, but it is possible to say that almost all these ways have some strong and
weak features (Dinç 2009). Using drama technique in teaching history supports
students’ development of emphatic thinking skill (Karabağ 2014). Beside
question-answer technique encourages students to think about historical topics and
to question sources and evidence related to those topics, it forms a basis for
problem-solving, one of the teaching strategies. Problem-solving strategy or tech-
nique contributes to students on producing various hypothesis and arguments,
searching and finding evidence related to those from a variety of sources, reaching a
common and participative decision and views by listening to their friends or the
other people’s thoughts (Dinç 2009).
Group work and discussion methods are one of the most utilisable tools in order
to improve students’ historical understanding and linguistic development, in order
to increase intraclass communication and interaction. Thanks to these activities,
students are provided to be encouraged about the topic and to develop an under-
standing of past.
With the help of using project-based teaching method in history lessons, feed-
back about teaching is provided for the teacher by directing students’ way of using
knowledge and information about concept and topics in history lessons. With using
case method in history lessons, students gain the skills of actively thinking about
the topics presented to themselves, asking questions, criticising and reaching a
reasonable result within the scope of relation of cause and effect (Demircioğlu
2007; Dinç 2014; Güven 2014; Husbands et al. 2003). One another method used in
history lessons is inquiry method that enables students to make analytical discus-
sions and to develop their critical thinking skills.
When literature review is conducted, it is seen that the frequently used method
and techniques in history lessons are collected under the various titles in terms of
intended use. These are as follows:
Student-centered methods: It is a teaching method that is based on students’
learning information by studying as a group or individual, preparing homework and
project or producing a solution to a problem. In this method, teacher’s duty is to
416 M. Keçe
help students in the fields of choosing a topic, finding resources, research methods
and to check their works (Demirel and ve Turan 2009; Güven 2014). Teaching
methods based on the solving problem, project-based learning, inquiry, questioning
evidence, learning through discovery, oral history and local history and six thinking
hats, fishbone, brainstorming and circuit techniques are evaluated as
student-centered method and techniques.
Teacher-centered methods: This method expresses learning that occurs through
transferring a historical topic or incident to students by being planned and organized
carefully by the teacher. In this approach, the teacher is a person who provides
historical information, chooses examples that embody this information, decides on
visual and aural support factors used in the process of teaching, and presents the
context through teaching methods that are suitable for students (Şahin 2015).
Expression method is frequently benefited in the teaching-centered method.
Especially in teaching history topics including intensive content information,
expression method is seen as an effective teaching method involving the presen-
tation of the topic and asking questions related to the topic (Husband 1996). In
history lessons, expression or presentation method can be stated as a description of
the past with convenient words. Getting benefit from visual and literary materials
increase the efficiency of this method.
Mutual teaching methods: Mutual teaching, unlike teacher-centered method,
states an approach of which the central role that teacher undertakes is decreased in
educational activities, the responsibility related to teaching is shared between tea-
cher and student (Demirel and ve Turan 2009). Forum, panel, debate, producing an
idea, large and small group discussion techniques, inquiry, drama, learning with
collaboration, methods based on group works with discussion methods are evalu-
ated in this context.
Teaching methods based on equipment: Using equipment in history lessons is
closely associated with the adopted understanding of history and educational
opinion. Using equipment in history lessons is based on the opinion of which
pedagogical history and academic history is not different and developing students’
historian skills is necessary (Hali 2013). Within embodying historical events with
various equipment and teaching history based on equipment, one of the teaching
method providing a learning with touching discovering, teaching history methods
based on literary works like historical fictions, stories, poems, tales, saga and
legends, biography and autobiography get benefited from teaching history method
with historical film and documentaries, archive documents, press clippings,
teaching history method based on visuals and teaching history method based on
humour and comics. Garvey and Krug (1977) have emphasized the importance of
materials like historical ruin and items, pictures, coins, maps in the presentation of
the new topic for students. Authors state that images that visual materials present
are greatly beneficial for students in order to be able realistically to visualize the
scenes regarding past event and situations (Dinç 2009).
Methods based on a museum tour and field visit: For the purpose of teaching
historical events by embodying with these methods and students’ learning by
practicing and experience, within the frame of physical and technological
11 History 417
Table 11.1 Methods and techniques used in history teaching

Degree of Student-centered Teacher-centered Mutual Teaching history
frequency teaching history teaching history teaching methods based
(top to methods methods history on equipment
bottom) methods
Problem solving Teaching through Discussion Teaching history
presentation with archive
(expression) documents
Oral history Catechism Teaching history
practices with literary
works
Local history Drama Teaching history
practices with films
Learning based Cooperative Teaching history
on project learning with press
clippings
Questioning Inquiry Teaching history
evidences with humour
and comics
possibilities, teaching history in the museum and historical fields is performed.

Museum and historical places, important factors of out-of-school history teaching,
are effective to gain information, skill, attitude and values that are difficult to make
students gain in class practice (Ata 2009; Kale 2014) (Table 11.1).
In essence, history topics’ mentioning past phenomenon and events can cause
students not to be able to reflect information and skills that they learn in history
lessons to their daily life or cause students to form an opinion of which the topics
that they learn in school are unrequited in real life. When considered that people
shape today by analyzing the past and plan the future, actually, it is understood that
“history” is not only a past-oriented discipline but a study field in the line of
past-present-future. It shouldn’t be forgotten that the most important responsibility
is to parents at the point of history’s being taken out of school by engraining this
opinion in students. In this sense, parents’ showing interest in history, having a
conversation about historical events can break down the prejudices of which
“history is learnt only in class” on students. Also, history-themed theater plays and
films may be watched as a family. Parents can make students visit the places that
historical events occurred, or they can visit the places together with their students.
In addition to them, they can attend the panels and sessions in which historians are a
speaker or can watch TV. Parents can draw their family trees with students, visit
real or virtual museums. By researching in advance, tours can be organized towards
418 M. Keçe
historical places like ancient time cities, Egyptian pyramids, Colosseum (Rome).
They can act out historical event at home.
Parents can direct students to be affiliated to various websites in order to enable
them to have a conversation about history in the internet environment. They can
play various games by dramatizing the concepts and related networks in historical
events. For example, historical phenomenon and events can be adapted to games
like taboo and ludo. Also, parents can write a letter to the best and worst historical
person who lived in a date that parents choose because of their acts that they did in
their times. Then, everybody can read aloud his own letter.
Activity One: Religion-Based Wars in centuries XI. and XIII.: The Crusades
Activity Two: War Killed 40 Million People: Second World War
Activity Three: A Revolution in France, A Change in the World: The French
Revolution Activity Four: Towards a Unipolar World: Dissolution of the USSR
Activity Five: Serial Production and Enrichment of the West: Industrial Revolution
11.2.1 Activity One: Religion-Based Wars in Centuries XI

and XIII—The Crusades
5E learning cycle is a model providing that students explore new situations that they
are going to study on concepts and opinions, that students understand conceptual
changes, that students develop their own skills of questioning, interpreting, analyze
and synthesis by students’ structuring information. Learning cycle, important in
constructivism, enables students to compare, form and integrate this information
with existing information by paying attention to new information with researching
and empirical practices, in other words, it enables students to engage in the active
cognitive process. Learning cycle model encourages students to form their own
concepts, discuss them and develop themselves and in this way, structure their
information while it inspires interest and excitement on students in every stage by
looking at students’ concrete life, counts students in the learning process by pro-
viding attention and motivation.
11 History 419
Tag of Activity
Focus of Teaching: Student-centered learning
Type of Teaching: Within interdisciplinary teaching, a process based on
knowledge, skill and value teaching in which associations with geography and
economy disciplines are made is planned.
Approach/Method: 5E learning model
Method of Teaching: Catechism, expression method, brainstorming, fishbone
technique are going to be used.
Types of Learning: This activity foresees student-centered teaching based on
historical empathy, reasoning, historical thinking skills and analyze and synthesise
skills as well as concept and value teaching.
Prerequisite knowledge: Students must have knowledge about Europe’s politi-
cal, social, economic situations in between the 1100s and 1200s. Also, they should
have knowledge related to political and cultural improvements in Islam World. On
the other hand, students can search the topic previously for teaching the topic. In the
lesson, visuals, source texts, map, computer and projector related to the crusades are
going to be used.
Students’ participation: In order to encourage students to participate actively,
firstly, that the topic is going to be taught in a way of student-centered made
students feel. Also, each of student will be encouraged to participate lessons with
the help of the activities based on creative drama, catechism, and brainstorming.
Certain parts of a written text about the social aspect of the crusades are read by
students determined randomly, and it is wanted from students to interpret the text.
Parents’ participation: Within the scope of activity, parents can discuss a
crusade-themed book (can be a historical fiction) as a family by reading a book
every night half hour. In this context, they can feel empathy with the mentioned
heroes in the book by evaluating their attitudes and behaviours in the events with
respect to moral context. Also, they can discuss cause and effect of political events.
Apart from that, they can watch a crusade-themed documentary, film as a family.
Thus, students can understand that knowledge they learn in the school has a
reciprocity in daily life.
Keywords: Crusade, history, historical empathy, historical thinking, history lit-
eracy catechism, reasoning, brainstorming, drama, historical film, documentary,
fiction, comic, visual factors, interpreting, discussion.
Mini-scenario:
Teacher: Guys, have you heard the name “II. Urban” before?
Student A: Is he a Germen king?
Student B: One of the French kings?
Teacher: No, he is a pope.
420 M. Keçe
Teacher: Well, what makes Pope II. Urban important?

Student K: He is an ecclesiastic man ordering a council for crusades.
Student F: He is the person organizing crusades that cause thousands of people to
die.
Student M: He is the person uniting all the European kings and feudal lords under a
single flag for crusade…
Instruction Design
Purpose: The purpose of the activity is the teaching of which these wars have been
made by giving religious justification in accordance with economic interest besides
providing students to comprehend cause and effect of crusades.
Objectives: Students evaluate cause and effect of the crusades in terms of world
history.
• Students grasp that crusades are a war made for power and pecuniary advantage.
• Students interpret political, social, cultural and economic resultant improve-
ments in the crusades by using their historical thinking skills.
Materials: Computer, projector, visuals related to the crusades (comics, pic-
tures), written sources
Attention: Teacher makes two activities in this stage in order to arouse students’
attention to the topic. First of all, the teacher reads the text called “Holy war for
holy lands” and asks their opinion about the text. In the second activity, the teacher
shows a visual and ask them to give an answer by asking them some questions.
“Holy war for holy lands.”
These words were spelled by Pope II. Urban on 27 November 1095 in a council organized
in Clermont, France while he was making a speech to a big crowd involving clergymen and
the public. Pope II. Urban was saying to the West Christians that crusading is glorious duty
in respect of religion in order to save the religious fellows in the East from Turks’ pression
and cruelty. He was saying that entering under Turks’ rule is too disastrous, Turks are a
huge menace for Istanbul, and East Christians hope West fellows’ help. He was saying that
he guarantees that sins of the persons joining the war will be forgiven. A Frankish soldier
engaging in the crusade was telling what he saw and felt in the conquest of Jerusalem in
that way: “There was a mountain of heads, arms and legs in every streets of the city. People
were walking on the dead bodies and horse corpses. However, I talked about my innocent
experience among what I saw until now. If I told you all what I saw, you wouldn’t believe
me. What a fair punishment! Especially, the place (mosque) in which God was sworn was
covered with heretic blood… Right after the conquest, piousness that pilgrims presented in
front of the holy grave was so motivating. They were applauding, rejoicing and singing a
new song to God.”
11 History 421
Teacher projects the visual showing commanders that crusade from different
countries on the projector.
Source: http://www.crisismagazine.com/2015/history-crusades-obama-read
These questions are directed to the class based on the visual:

• Where are these soldiers from?
• What year does this picture belong to?
• Have you read a book about the crusades before?
• Have you watched a film or documentary about the crusades
• Which date were the crusades being done?
• What was the purpose of the crusades?
• Which countries did crusade?
• Were the crusades a holy war?
• How many crusades were being done?
• Was the crusades politic-based war or economic-based war?
If students have some topics that they want to take more information about the
crusades, catechism activity is done.
Inform the target: Guys, we are going to learn why the crusades have been orga-
nized and positive and negative results of it in respect of world history. Also, we are
going to examine the crusades’ sociological effects on communities and psycho-
logical effects on the individual.
Using preliminary information: The activity below related to discovering and
explaining stage, which is the second stage of 5E learning model, can be applied to
trigger students’ prior knowledge.
‘‘Crusade’’ is one of the topics which was started by Christian general council gathered in
the Clermont town of French in 1095 and whose final date is not told by the historians. The
reasons of Crusade are multi-directional. In parallel, the consequences of it are various.
There are religious, military, political, economical and coetaneous reasons of the expedi-
tion. As a result of Crusade of Middle Age, the shire that fell the latest among the shires
established in East Mediterranean was the tower and harbor of Akka which was conquered
by Mamelukes in 1291. Within this time period, throughout two hundreds years, the
Crusaders came to East Mediterranean by cruising from time to time and they made their
trade connections more permament. Nine expeditions were organized between the years
1095 and 1291 the first three expediments who went upon Anatolia were the biggest three
422 M. Keçe
of them. The fourth of them went towards Istanbul, the fifth and the other expediments were
like attacks to the shores of East Mediterrenean, Egypt and Tunisia (Kırpık 2009).
After the passage is read with the students, the teacher draws the routes on which
the Crusades were realized upon the maps of Europe and Middle East. Afterwards,
the teacher directs these questions to the students:
• How did the political structure of Europe in Middle Age take shape?
• How did the social structure of Europe in Middle Age take shape?
• How did the cultural structure of Europe in Middle Age take shape?
• How would you feel if you lived in Europe in Middle Age?
• What are the positive and positive features of Feudalism?
• Who participated in Crusades?
• Why didn’t the states in Europe walk all over the Muslims (holy lands) one by
one and why did they prefer to fight with a force that they established under the
name of “the Crusaders”?
• Was Crusade an obligation?
• What were the actual and apparent reasons of Crusade when it is thought
regarding its aims?
• What were the gains of Crusade for Europe?
• What do we say if we evaluate the Crusade in terms of the religions Islam and
Christianity?
Presentation of Content: In this stage in which the deepening activities will be
done according to 5E learning model, the content will be presented with the details
of the students and the students will be made informed about the Crusades.
• Firstly, a general perspective is presented to students by making them watch
3.08 min long video in “http://www.history.com/topics/crusades/videos/the-
crusades” link.
• The teacher states that the religion Islam and Muslim states started to get power
and lived in richness and wealth, but on the other hand, Europe in Middle Age
experienced the Dark Ages in terms political and economic structure.
‘The first Crusade lasting between the years 1096 and 1099 happened by entering to the
Muslim lands by walking upon the Balkans and the Europe which was Christian at those
times, fighting and arriving to Antioch by passing through the lands which was owned by
the emperor of Anatolian Seljuk Empire in Anatolia, arriving to Palestine and Jerusalem
upon Syria and Lebanon after the great siege of Antioch (Antioch) and capturing Jerusalem
in 1099 by European Christians in droves whose majority got excited about religion but a
very important part looked for personal adventures and profit.’’ Question-answer format is
used to evaluate and interpret by reading the text with the students. 70,000 soldier par-
ticipated in the first Crusade (http://www.history.com/topics/crusades).
Tip 1: “The questions below can be used to make the students comprehend the
relation between the discipline of “history” and the discipline of “geography”. Here,
it can be stressed that the history gets benefit from the other social science disci-
plines apart from geography.
11 History 423
• The students are given a map and asked to draw the route in which the Crusader
army passed through during the expedition.
• The visual which describes the Crusaders’ capturing of Jerusalem is presented to
the students, and the students are asked to make comment on this visual
Source: Emile Signol; “The Crusaders' capturing Jerusalem” (Gültekin, 2012)
• The students discuss the reasons for failure by stating that the Crusaders army
was unsuccessful in the second Crusade between the years 1147 and 1149 and
by considering the political, cultural and economic togetherness at the dates
being talked about in Anatolia.
• The text below which is related to Jerusalem’s being captured by the emperor of
Ayyubids, which results in starting off the third Crusade (1189–1192) is read by
students.
Selaheddin succeeded to bring the emperor and the army of Jerusalem to Hıttin in the near
of Tiberya in Palestine. Hıttin was a place which was famous for its wells. Selahaddin had
already kept the wells, so he didn’t left even a drop of water to Crusaders. Jerusalem army
encountered to Selahaddin in an exhausted and frazzled way because of thirst after the walk
lasting for days, Islam army has already kept the wells and had no intention to leave any of
them. After this point, they couldn’t turn back and they had to confront Selahaddin. In the
battle of Hıttin, Selahaddin defeated the Crusaders at the helm of emperor of Jerusalem,
Guy from Lusignan. The muchness of the loss of Crusaders made it easy for the Muslims to
capture almost the whole of Jarusalem Empire. Akka, Betrun, Beirut, Sayda, Nasıra,
Gaman, Caesarea, Nablus, Yafa and Askelon fell in three months. https://tr.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Selahaddin_Eyyubi-cite_note-maalouf-39. Selahaddin did his most effective strike by
capturing the Jerusalem which was at the helm of France for 88 years.
Tip 2: In this part of the activity, the questions below can be asked to students to
develop the skills of questioning, discussing and historical empathy:
424 M. Keçe
• What do we understand from this text in general?

• Mark the places whose names are in the text.
• Have you ever heard the name of Selahaddin Eyyubi before? What do you know
about him?
• Why did Selahaddin Eyyubi go down in history as an important commander?
Discuss it.
• What would you write in a letter to Crusaders army after capturing Jerusalem if
you were in the shoes of Selahaddin Eyyubi?
• Why is important to capture or lose Jerusalem? Discuss.
• Was this event the end of Crusade? Discuss.
• Finally, act of activity related to conquering of Jerusalem by Muslims is done
with the students.
In the Crusade IV, Pope III. Innocentius invited the whole Europe for expedition with the
aim of rescuing Jerusalem and this expedition started in Venice in 1202. At the beginning,
the aim of the expedition was capturing Eygpt and then going to Jerusalem and restraining
it, too. However, the Venetians and the duke of Venice Enrico Dandolo succeded to change
the target of this expedition. Crusaders surrounded and restrained Constantinein 1204. They
sacked and burnt a city full of the cultural treasures of Classical and Middle Age. On the
other hand, the fact that the Pope himself or Catholic clergymen commanded the army is
the basic feature which differs this expedition from the previous ones. (http://www.
historytoday.com/jonathan-phillips/fourth-crusade-and-sack-constantinople).
Tip 3: The questions below are directed to students to improve their value
judgement, to give them a chance for brainstorming and to make them emphasize
in terms of history:
• How can it be explained that the Crusaders who couldn’t reach to Jerusalem
plundered Constantine?
• What is the most distinctive feature of Crusade IV? Which differs it from the
previous experiments.
• Could you please show the route in which the Crusade IV? Break out true on the
map.
• How would you feel and how you pour your feelings into the news in the face of
the things that Crusaders did if you were a Constantinian journalist?
• Can it be said that the Crusade is an expedition done with religious aims when it
is evaluated in general?
Further activities:
• The students can read a historical novel about Crusades and share it with their
friends by summarizing the fictional narration.
• The students can watch the films whose main topics are Crusades. Especially,
The Empire of Heaven has a vital importance in terms of showing whether the
Crusades are done for a religious aim.
• The students can read the article Civilization Conflict by Samuel Huntington.
• The students can watch the documentaries about Crusade, and they can relate
the things told in the documentary to what they have learnt.
11 History 425
Assessment: This process corresponding the evaluation part of 5E learning model

is the stage where the students comprehend the evaluation activities related to in
what extend the topic are done.
Tip 4: The questions below can be used to support the skills of connecting the
past and today, forming a cause and effect relation between the events, and skills of
analysing, interpreting and evaluating:
• What do you say when you relate the battles done in the past to the battles done
today in terms of battle strategies, the weapons used and the reasons of the
battles?
• The students are asked about the similar and different aspects of Crusade from
the other battles.
• The students are asked to list the ranking and dates of Crusades chronologically.
• The students are asked to list the features of Crusades that differ them from each
other.
• The students are asked to write the results of Crusade for the Europe history.
• The students are asked to evaluate the relation between the Civilization Conflict
dissertation that was asserted by Samuel Huntington in 1993 and Crusades.
• The question about whether there is an effect of Crusade on polarization of the
civilizations today.
Tip 5: The following fishbone activity can be used to develop students’ skills of
forming cause and effect relation between the historical events.
The reasons Te reasons of The reasons

of Crusade IV Crusade III. of Crusade I.
The
Crusades
The results of The rasults of The results of

Crusade IV. Crusade III. Crusade I.
426 M. Keçe
Semantic networks: In this activity, it is examined whether Crusade is a religious

battle in the context of cause and effects. The historical notions like a battle,
conquest, expedition, peace, and siege are presented in the activity by relating them
to each other. Again, activities like question and answer, historical empathy, and
questioning which aim to support the development of the skills of historical
thinking, making a connection between past and present and forming the cause and
effect relation.
Outcomes: Behaviours expected of students once this activity is done are as
follows:
• Realizes whether the Crusade is a religious battle or it is a battle based on profit.
• Explains the reasons of Crusade.
• Explains the results of Crusade.
• States on which date the Crusades.
• Took place chronologically.
• Analyzes the basic features of Crusades which differ them from the other battle
in history.
• Shows the route that Crusade army followed on the map.
• Evaluates the reflection of Crusades on today.
• Interprets the relation between the dissertation Civilizations Conflict and
Crusade.
• Comprehends that the battles between the states are based on similar reasons in
principle.
11.2.2 Activity Two: War Killed 40 Million People: Second

World War
The mastery learning model is based on the assumption that everybody can learn
everything when the appropriate atmosphere and learning conditions are provided
and when the teacher and the topic area are dominant in the process of learning. The
mastery learning model is a model which increase the expected success in the
schools from 20 to 70 and 90 %. In the understanding of the mastery learning
model, the qualities of students, the quality of teaching service and the learning
products are recognised as the main variables. What is meant by saying the qualities
of students is cognitive and affective readiness to learn a range of learning unit. It is
based on that each student can reach the target degree with the quality of teaching
service and with the additional opportunities given to students.
11 History 427
Tag of Activity
Focus of Teaching: Teacher and topic based teaching
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary teaching. The relation between the disci-
plines of policy, geography, economy, and history, will be emphasized.
Approach/Method: The Mastery Learning Model
Method of Teaching: Collaboration based teaching methods, discussing,
question-answer, brainstorming and six thinking hats technique.
Types of Learning: In this activity, the information of notion, synthesis, and
interpretation which are the sub-dimensions of historical thinking will be taught.
Prerequisite knowledge: It is a prerequisite to have information about the
political, social and cultural developments happened after the World War II. The
students need to have information about the articles of agreement signed by the
Central Powers. They should know about the ideological substructure of the
political change in Germany and Italy. The visuals about the World War II, sample
cases, resource text, maps, computer and projection machine will be used in the
lesson.
Students’ participation: Student-based techniques will be prioritized to make the
student participate in the lesson actively. In this context, the active participation of
the students will be reached through the activities based on creative drama/acting,
historical empathy, searching/examining, question-answer, and brainstorming.
Again, summarizing the topic, relating, acrostics activities will be done aiming at
developing the skills of communication and social participation in the collaboration
with the group.
Parents’ participation: The parents can watch the movie “Saving Private Ryan”
which talks about the German-Russ battle in the World War II and they can share
their opinions about the events in the movie. In this context, the attitude and
behaviour of the character about events by having a historical empathy with the
character in the movie. A historical novel whose topic is the World War II can be
read by the family member at some specific hours, and they can share their opinions
about the part which have been read every evening. In addition, each family
member can write a one-page opinion essay about the reflections of World War II to
present and the effects of it on shaping the present, and then, the similarities and the
differences can be detected by reading what they have written.
Keywords: World War II, World War I, Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, history, his-
torical empathy, historical thinking, historical literacy, interpreting the visual,
power struggle, alliance, Europe
428 M. Keçe
Mini Scenario:
Teacher: What do the names Hitler, Mussolini and Stalin evoke on you?
Student B: Death
Teacher: What else
Student: Dictatorship, Alliance, Blood
Student K: Germany, Italy
Student F: Russia
Student M: World War II.
Instruction Design
Purpose: The purpose of the activity is to make the students comprehend the
developments that result in breaking out of World War II and the results showing
up with these developments.
Objectives: The students explain the policies that Germany, Italy, Russia and
Japan followed after the World War I.
• The students comprehend the developments about the breaking out and
spreading of the World War II
• The students comprehend the developments about finishing off the World
War II.
• The students evaluate the economic and social results of the World War II.
Materials: Computer, projector, visuals about the World War II (caricature,
picture), written sources, maps of Europe and the World.
Inform the target: We are going to learn about why the World War II broke out and
what kind of negative/positive results does it have regarding the World history.
Furthermore, we are going to examine the social, economic and political effects of
the World War II on societies.
Using preliminary information: First, the teacher makes the students watch
7.45 min long video whose topics are the developments happening in the beginning
process of the World War II to trigger the students’ prerequisite knowledge. This
video is accessible from the link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wvDFsxjaPaE
Afterwards, the text below is reflected on the board:
Roughly, Versailles Agreement which came into force in 10 January 1920 was devastating
Germany founded by Bismark and establishing a new European system. Germany was
leaving Alsas-Loren to French, Eupen, Malmed and a part of Monschau to Belgium, Memel
(Klaipeda today) to Lithuania which had just been founded, the south bottom of Up Silesia
11 History 429
and a very big part of West Prussia to Poland, some part of Up Silesia to Czechoslovakia.
Danzig was becoming a free city and being left to the patronage of Leauge of Nations. Saar
area would be left to French; the main fate of the area would be defined with the referendum
which would be done 15 years later. Germany would demolish the present fortifications in
she shores of Ren and Helgoland. Moreover, plebiscite would be done on the Schleswig
part of Holstein area in 1920. As a result of this plebiscite, while the Middle Schleswig is
being left to Germany, the North Schleswig consisting of the north parts of Tondern and
Flensburg and the whole of the disticts like Apenrade, Sonderborg, and Hadersleben was
passing to Denmark. In 15th June 1920, Germany transfered the North Schlswig to
Denmark officially.
The rights of Germany in China and its islands in the Ocean were transferred to Japan.
Germany was promising to unite with Austria; moreovever Germany was recognizing
Austria’s, Czechoslovakia’s and Poland’s independence. The juristically impartiality of
Beigium whose impartiality was violated in the war deinstalled.
Germany was demolishing conscription and it was obtaining an authorization to have a
army which icluded 100,000 soldier at most. Furthermore, Germany would not be able to
produce pigboat and planes. Germany was going to transfer all its ships to Allied Powers.
Germany was enjoined with a reparation which costs more than it could pay. Germany was
under grieveous obligations in terms of economy and policy (http://www.
historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/the-treaty-of-versailles/).
TIP 1. After reading the text above to inform students about the background of
the process that starts World War II to trigger the prior knowledge of students and
announce the topic to students, these questions are answered together:
• What are your opinions about Versailles Agreement which was signed to
Germany after the World War I?
• What would you do if you were the head of Germany for the future of your
country and state?
• Could Germany have committed such bad crimes that it was exposed to such
grievous terms in Versailles Agreement?
• What kind of a relation is there between the reasons of Versailles Agreement
and the World War II?
• What kind of relation is there between the reasons and results of the World
War I. and the World War II?
• Which states else did sign agreements which include heavy terms at the end of
the World War I?
Presentation of Content: The teacher says “I will show you a map, and we will
interpret this map together” and he/she reflects the map below with projection.
430 M. Keçe
Source: http://www.historyonthenet.com/ww1/versailles.htm
TIP 2. These questions below can be used to develop students’ reading skills.
• What is the first thing that draws your attention when you first look at the map?
• Where can be the place that is shown on the map?
• What kind of developments was experienced in the years 1919–1921?
• How would you feel if your country was in this situation?
In this following progress, the teacher states that Germany, Italy, and USSR
couldn’t leave the war as in a prosperous way as the other European states and that
the states whose names are mentioned aims to extend their boundaries. Although
Germany and USSR played ball with each other in the first years of the war starting
in 1939, the relationships got worse with German leader Adolf Hitler’s stepping
into action over USSR and USSR joined to the Allied Powers of United Kingdom,
French, China and the USA. Germany, Japan, and Italy formed Axis Powers.
The teacher divides students into group of two and gives the following work-
sheet on which this text is written and gives 10 min to read.
The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with
the Republic of China in 1937, but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1
September 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Germany and subsequent declarations of
war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a
series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental
11 History 431
Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop
Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of
their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. The war
continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the coalition of the United
Kingdom and the British Commonwealth, with campaigns including the North
Africa and East Africa campaigns, the aerial Battle of Britain, the Blitz bombing cam-
paign, the Balkan Campaign as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic. In June
1941, the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the
largest land theater of war in history, which trapped the major part of the Axis’ military
forces into a war of attrition. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United
States and European territories in the Pacific Ocean and quickly conquered much of the
Western Pacific.
The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway,
near Hawaii, and Germany was defeated in North Africa and then, decisively,
at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. In 1943, with a series of German defeats on the Eastern
Front, the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Allied invasion of Italy which brought about
Italian surrender, and Allied victories in the Pacific, the Axis lost the initiative and
undertook strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded
German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and
invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses
in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled
the Japanese Navy and captured key Western Pacific islands.
The war in Europe concluded with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the
Soviet Union, culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops and the
subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. Following the Potsdam
Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender under its
terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August respectively. With an invasion of
the Japanese archipelago imminent, the possibility of additional atomic bombings, and
the Soviet Union’s declaration of war on Japan and invasion of Manchuria, Japan sur-
rendered on 15 August 1945. Thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the
Allies.
World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world. The United
Nations (UN) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future con-
flicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United
Kingdom, and France—became the permanent members of the United Nations Security
Council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the
stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of
European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia and Africa began. Most
countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political
integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities and to create
a common identity (http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii).
After the reading process is over, each group is asked to summarize the text that
they have read to develop the students’ analysis skills. They are asked to form cause
and effect relation between events, relating past and present and to ranks the event
chronologically.
432 M. Keçe
Further activities:
• The movie “Enemy at the Gates” which evaluates the conflict of Germany—
USSR in the World War II from the perspective of the life of Russian marksman
Vasiliy Grigoryevich Zaytsev can be watched.
• The historical novels “The Book Thief” by Markus Zusak, “The Winds of War”
by Herman Wook or “Number the Stars” by Louis Lowry can be read.
• The places or the battlefields carrying the traces from the World War II can be
visited.
• The documentary which was published at Discovery Channel can be watched.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=79p8KI-vg_Q.
• An evaluation can be done which is oriented at comparing the past and present
policies of the states which participated in the World War II.
Assessment: At this stage which aims to determine to what extend the students
learned the topic, this catechetic activity below can be used:
• Why is the war between 1939 and 1945 called as the World War II?
• Write the reasons and results of the World War II as articles.
• Who are the lynchpin states of the World War II? Discuss.
• Discuss the World War I. and II in the context of cause and effects?
• Is there a risk of experiencing the World War III? Explain.
The students are asked the question “What kind of problems would have you
exposed to if you were a person who had experienced the World War II?”
Semantic networks: In this activity, the World War Two is evaluated as a whole
with pre and post events. In this context, the aims of the great powers who dragged
the world into war are discussed. The visual sources, maps, and videos are used to
learn historical events by making them concrete. Moreover, historical empathy is
applied by students for the aim of evaluating the historical events in the context of
those times. In his activity, the students’ attentions are tried to be kept aroused with
the activities to develop skills like catechize, analysis, synthesis, and interpretation.

follows:
• Explains the causes and effects of the World War II.
• Analyzes the role of Stalin and Hitler in the World War II.
• Orders the events experienced during the World War II chronologically.
• Evaluates the geographical position of Poland in terms of the course of the war.
• Explains the cause and affection relation between the World War I and II.
11 History 433
11.2.3 Activity Three: A Revolution in France, a Change

in the World—The French Revolution
Computer-based learning is an approach in which computers are used as the

environment where learning takes place, and that empowers learning process and
motivation and makes the individual learning easier, and which is composed of
self-learning and computer technology, and where the teacher takes the role of
guiding, and the student is in the active role of learning. Computer-based learning is
a term that can be used to describe virtually any kind of learning program using
computers as a central staple. This approach to learning takes advantage of the
interactive elements of computer software, along with the computer’s ability to
present many different kinds of media. There are several potential advantages of
computer-based learning programs, including the ability for people to learn from
their homes and study without the assistance of an instructor. The use of computers
for learning has generally increased with the advancement of technology. The
ability of computer hardware to process and present many different media types has
allowed for more complex computer learning strategies.
Tag of Activity
Focus of Teaching: Student-centered teaching
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary teaching. The relationship between the dis-
ciplines of politics, geography, and economy and history discipline.
Approach/Method: Computer assisted learning
Selected approach and technique: Question-answer, demonstration.
Types of Learning: This activity teaches concept knowledge, conceptual think-
ing, casualty, chronological thinking and information and communication
technologies.
Materials for the Activity: Students are required to have the knowledge of French
Revolution in 1789 and political, economic, and cultural structure of France.
Additionally, each student must have a computer or tablet PC and these devices
must be connected to teacher’s host computer.
Students’ participation: Each student shall be redirected to appropriate levels
depending on their individual learning speed. Thus, students can have increased
self-confidence, and they will think that “I can do”. Also, drama activity of French
Queen Marie Antoinette’s saying “If they can not find bread, let them eat cake” will
be realized by students.
Parents’ participation: Students can also watch the movie of Goya’s Ghosts,
which is directed by Milos Ferman and related to French Revolution, with their
parents at home. They can also virtually visit Bastille Prison, which is the symbol
place for French Revolution, and they can comment on the photos of this prison.
Using a flashback, they can also write a letter to the French peasants who lead the
434 M. Keçe
French Revolution. What’s more, they can watch the BBC documentary on the
WEB: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UCCgb0UOYGs. They can also dra-
matize the revolution process.
Keywords: The French Revolution, Nationalism, Bourgeois, Bourgeoisie,
Europe, Freedom, Human Rights, Democracy, Enlightenment, Nation States,
National Unity, Revolution, Modern Age, New Age, Historical thinking,
Monarchy, Feudalism, Imperialism, Multinational States
Mini Scenario:
Teacher: Today, we will end an age and open the new one.
Student A: Which one is ending and which one is opening, teacher?
Teacher: We will end New Age and open Modern Age, but how?
Student B: By the discovery of New World?
Teacher: No.
Student: By the French Revolution?
Teacher: Yes, correct. Can you tell what you know about the French Revolution?
Student K: Nation states were founded with the impact of nationalism.
Student F: There were significant developments regarding the human rights.
Student M: It affected the whole world as if it was Mexican wave.
Instruction Design
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to teach the reasons for the French
Revolution and its deepening effects on the whole world.
Objectives:
• Explains the reasons and consequences of the French Revolution.
• Comprehends that the French Revolution was the milestone in the development
of the human rights.
• Explains that the French Revolution was the reason for ending New Age and
opening Modern Age.
• Evaluate the relationship between the French Revolution and nationalism ide-
ology and the foundation of nation states.
Materials: Tablet PC or computer, internet connection.
Attention: Teachers instructs everyone to visit the web address “http://www.history.
com/topics/french-revolution”. In this address, there is a 2.49 min video presenta-
tion of the French Revolution prepared by street musicians by means of words,
11 History 435
music, and images. After watching this video, students write down their ideas (5–
10 min) in Document 1 by opening a Word document.
Inform the target: In this activity, we will elaborate on the current ideas on the
world, freedom of speech, the foundation of nation states, the collapse of empires,
the beginning of a new age in the context of the French Revolution and we will
comment on them in that period’s conditions.
Using preliminary information: Montesquieu’s quotation of “If the privileges of

seniors, the church, the noble, and townsman are removed in a monarchy, a tyranny
administration could take place of monarchy” and his summary of the French
Revolution saying will be shared with the students as follows:
Shortly before the French Revolution, a small percentage of the population comprised of
the clergy and a few nobles were known to be quite wealthy and lived a luxurious lifestyle.
However, the majority of the population consisting of peasants was living in abject poverty.
People would spend days searching for employment without luck, and when they finally
found work, the pay was only enough to feed their families. Most people lived in the
countryside, as the conditions there were a bit bearable as compared to city life. Urban
residents generally had a shorter life span since the air was filled with pollution while water
was quite dirty. Disease outbreaks were quite rampant leading to many deaths both in the
city and the countryside. The huge economic gap between peasants and the elite is one of
the primay reasons why the revolution began. Peasants were also not afforded equal rights
as those who were considered wealthy, and this intensified the discontent of the people of
France during that time (https://quizlet.com/111520681/history-test-napoleon-flash-cards/).
TIP 1. Teacher requests students to open a Word document titles Document 2

and they are required to write down their ideas about cause and effect relations
between these two documents.
Presentation of Content: Teacher says to students: “I want you all to watch the
animation videos in the following links: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
VEZqarUnVpo and http://www.turunculevye.com/videolar/goster/assassin-s-
creed-unity-icin-hazirlanan-fransiz-ihtilali-animasyonu.
These videos depict the life conditions of the people and managers which led to
the happening of the French Revolution. After students’ finish watching 7.48 min
animation videos, they prepare Document 3 in 10 min and send it to their teacher
involving their ideas reflected upon what they comprehended from these videos.
The following questions might be useful in unfolding students’ opinions:
• What were the nobles’ living conditions before the French Revolution?
• What were the people’s living conditions before the Revolution?
• What are the reasons for the differences between these two segments of the
living conditions?
• What are the reasons for the French Revolution’s influence in Europe?
• Do you think it is necessary to realize the French Revolution? Why?
Teachers assess students’ opinions quickly and give feedback.
! Symbol of the French Revolution: The Bastille Prison
436 M. Keçe
Bastille prison raid, which is the flashpoint of the French Revolution, will be
discussed in this chapter. In this context, teacher requests students to visit http://
bastille-day.com/history/storming-of-the-bastille-july-14-1789 web page and eval-
uate the relation between the French Revolution and Bastille prison and to interpret
the visuals. Students are given 15 min to write down their ideas in Document 4. The
following questions can be used in developing students’ skills of interpreting the
visuals and the text:
• What does Bastille prison mean for the monarchy in France? Please, explain?
• When and how did the Bastille raid happen?
• Who were the organizers of the raid?
• What meaning does Bastille raid carry for the French Revolution?
• How do you interpret the image on the Web site?
Marie Antoinette: If they cannot find bread, let them eat cake
Teacher shares the following cartoon and the French queen Marie Antoinette’s
following quotation of “If they cannot find bread, let them eat cake” with students.
Source: https://www.tes.com/lessons/wz8vtekYstcUBw/unit-v-part-iii-french-
revolution-cartoons
TIP 4. The following questions can be used in developing students’ skills of

interpreting the visuals:
• Can you explain irrationality in the quotation of “If they cannot find bread, let
them eat cake”?
• What ideas appear in your mind when you hear this quotation and how can you
refer to managers’ and the people’s living conditions based on it?
• What can we say about the economic conditions of the people who cannot find
to eat bread?
• What can we say about the attitude of the people in the administration who are
living in such conditions?
11 History 437
Students write down their opinions in Document 5 and send it to the teacher, and
the teacher evaluates these documents by providing feedback. In the last activity of
this chapter, the teacher shares the following text with the students:
With the French Revolution that took place in 1789, French Declaration of the Rights of
Man and of the Citizen was adopted and it was added as a preface to the French
Constitution adopted in 1791.
Now, everybody shall make a short research on French Declaration of the Rights
of Man and of the Citizen on the Web and write down their ideas on what items are
emphasized in this declaration, which ideologies are promoted, and how it affected
the other European countries in Document 6 and send it to the teacher. The teacher
provided the necessary feedback.
Further activities:
• Students who are eager to play computer games can play the game Assassin’s
Creed: Unity.
• Students can watch BBC documentary https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
UFgXR60eIHI
• The events are taking place in the novels of “Marie Antoinette: Bildnis Eines
Mittleren Charakters” or “A Tale of Two Cities” can be read and made into stories.
• Historical empathy can be established with movie characters by watching
“Farewell My Quen” movie which is about Marie Antoinette’s luxurious palace
life and the causes of the revolution.
Assessment: In this stage which aims to identify at what level the topic was
comprehended, question-answer method can be used:
• Why did the revolution take place in France but not in another European
country?
• What are the most important features of the French Revolution?
• Which basic rights did the people enjoy by the French Revolution?
• What are the economic, social and political conditions that led to the occurrence
of the French Revolution?
• Why have nationalist elements come to the fore as a result of the French
Revolution?
• Describe the relationship between the nationalist movements and resolving of
the multinational empire.
Students are given 20 min to answer these questions. After this period of time,
all students are required to send their Documents 7 to the teacher. Additionally,
each student shares what they wrote with the person sitting next to them and
everyone grades each other’s documents out of 100.
Semantic networks: In this activity, the political, economic, and political conditions
of Europe and France before the Revolution are identified by assessing the possible
reasons for it. It was comprehended that French managers were quite disconnected
from the public where there was monarchy during the Revolution, and the
438 M. Keçe
democratic regime is emphasized which replaces the former. Within this context,
the fact that no power that is illegitimate in the public cannot take the hold of the
sovereignty of the people is taught to the students. The idea that the nationalist
movement emerged after the revolution has led to the emergence of new states in
Europe and the European continent was reshaped is explained.
follows:
• Comprehends the significance of the French Revolution for France, Europe, and
the world.
• Interprets the political, economic and social consequences of the French
Revolution.
• Comprehends that the people can change the managers and administration
which is not regarded as legitimate by the public.
• Evaluates the relationship between the dissolution of empires and the nationalist
movement.
• Explains the French Revolution as the turning point for the closing of an age and
opening of the new one.
• Interprets the importance of the French Revolution in the process of the
development of human rights and freedom.
11.2.4 Activity Four: Towards a Unipolar

World—Dissolution of the USSR
Project-based learning is a teaching method in which students gain knowledge and

skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an
engaging and complex question, problem or challenge. Project-based learning is a
dynamic approach to teaching in which students explore real-world problems and
challenges. With this type of active and engaged learning, students are inspired to
obtain a deeper knowledge of the subjects they’re studying. The project-based
learning approach is often used in small school settings, like charter and magnet
schools because they are affected to a lesser degree by the high-stakes
state-mandated testing movement. Although project-based learning can be done
in combination with the national standardized testing model, it is often difficult for
teachers effectively to interweave these two seemingly different types of instruction.
Tag of Activity
Teaching type: Interdisciplinary teaching
Approach/Method: Project-Based Learning
11 History 439
Selected approach and technique: Lecturing, discussion, question-answer,

brainstorming, conversation circle, oral history research, and metaphor-analogy
techniques are used.
Types of Learning: This activity aims to teach students about the concepts,
structures, abstraction and conceptual thinking, and various ideologies.
Prerequisite knowledge: Students are required to have knowledge of the second
half of the 20th century, especially the last quarter, of Contemporary World History.
Each student must have the skill of at least conducting research by preparing
questions and doing interviews as part of the oral history research.
Students’ participation: The learning process is student-centered. Students’
motivation towards conducting research is expected to rise in this process.
Moreover, if students are made to perceive themselves as historians or journalists, it
will be more fun for them to experience this process. Also at the end of the project,
that the suggestions towards each student will put forward a product can be
motivated to succeed.
Parents’ participation: The participation of parents in the project-based learning
process could be facilitated by answering their students’ questions openly and
allocate some time to have engaging chats with them. Additionally, a novel that is
about the dissolution of the USSR can be read as a whole family. If possible, field
visits to historical traces of the USSR can be arranged, or historical documentaries
about the various historical events such as the fall of the Berlin Wall can be watched
together.
Keywords: USSR, USA, Cold War II. World War, bipolar world, multipolar
world, Gorbachev, the Berlin Wall, the dissolution, collapse, the East German
Republic, the iron curtain, communism, capitalism, Glasnost and Perestroika.
Mini Scenario:
Teacher: Which state is in the leading position in the world today?
Student A: USA.
Teacher: So, was it always the USA? Did they have another competitor before the
recent times?
Student B: Is it USSR?
Teacher: Yes, so what do you know about the USSR?
Student: It is communism’s father.
Student C: It was a state which held many different ethnical elements together by
pressure and force.
Teacher: What else can you say?
Student D: It had the widest surface area.
440 M. Keçe
Instruction Design
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to discuss the reasons for the dissolution of
USSR and to comprehend the similarities and differences by comparing and con-
trasting the new world order before and after the dissolution.
Objectives:
• Understand the attitudes of the USSR towards the nations under its sovereignty.
• Explains the policies pursued by the USSR in world politics.
• Explains the importance of having ideological disagreements between the USSR
and the USA.
• Analyzes the developments in the transition from the bipolar world to multipolar
world.
Materials: Computer, projection device, the USSR map, images related to the
USSR, written resources, videos, and worksheets.
Attention: Teacher shows the USSR flag on the screen to grab the attention of
students and asks what these symbols stand for in the flag.
The answers given by the students must focus on such concepts as communism,
the working class, and the iron curtain. After this question-answer and discussion
activities, teacher shows the following cartoon to students:
11 History 441
Source: http://go.padsdel.com/afu.php?id=535765
• What do you see in the picture? What are your comments?

• What do the boats evoke for you?
• What may be the cause of the sinking ship?
Inform the target: Dear students, in this activity, you are expected to behave as
historians to conduct research on the historical events and as a journalist to ques-
tioning the causes of historical events. In this regard, each one of you shall prepare a
10-item question form regarding one of the following topics: causes of dissolution
of the Soviet Union, sociological, political and economic situation in the relevant
period of time, the policies of the USSR towards the nations under its sovereignty,
Soviet relations with the European countries and the US during the cold war. Then,
you will have interviews with five people around you and get answers to these
questions. In other words, you will perform an oral history study.
Using preliminary information: In order to activate students’ schemata, teacher
make them watch the video in http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/fall-of-
soviet-union web address, and they are requested to make comments on it. Also, a
worksheet on which the historical events took place in the world in the period
between 1950 and 1990 are written are distributed to all students, and they are
requested to write down their opinions.
Presentation of Content: Teacher writes down the following topics on the board and
requires every student to select only one;
• Reasons for the dissolution of Soviet Union
• Political, economic and social impacts of the dissolution of USSR on the societies.
• Policies of Soviet Union towards the nations it ruled.
442 M. Keçe
• Soviet relations with the European countries (Berlin Wall)

• US relations with the Soviet Union (the Cold War).
After each student chooses one of these topics, they are requested to prepare 15
questions on that relevant topic. Teacher writes down sample questions by choosing
one of the topics (Questions are shown in TIP 1). The prepared question items are
shown to teacher and 5 of irrelevant and repeated questions are deduced, and each
student have 10 item questions left.
• How did the Soviet Union rise?
• Why were the borders of the Soviet Union called “iron curtain”?
• What were the factors that lead to the emergence of Soviets?
• To what extent did those factors contribute to the dissolution of USSR?
• What are the main reasons for the collapse of the Soviet Union?
• How did Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies affect the dissolution of USSR?
• What can you say about the Soviet’s Glasnost and Perestroika principles?
• …
In the following part of this activity, each student submits their oral history
project to the teacher. In the project proposal, information regarding activity title,
problem case, activity purpose, activity hypothesis and the techniques must be
available.
The teacher warns students about the three important factors (pre-interview,
during the interview, and post-interview) which they shall pay attention to while
conducting interviews.
Things to do before the interview:
• Pre-reading and research on the selected topic must be made.
• Study participants must be chosen among those who have prior knowledge
about the topic.
• The prepared questions must be clear and easy to understand.
• A quiet and calm environment for the interview should be preferred.
Things to do during the interview:
• Eye contact should be established with the participants.
• You should be a good listener.
• Participants’ words shall be recorded or noted.
• Participants’ speech shall not be interrupted.
• Avoid “yes-no” questions. Instead, ask “what lead to this” questions.
• The urge to get quick responses.
• At the end of the interview, participant name, date, place and interview topic
must be noted.
11 History 443
Things to do after the interview:

• Participants should be thanked.
• They shall be allowed to share if they have something to add.
• Data collected from the participants must be analyzed and reported.
Students are given one week of time to conduct their interviews. Then, each
student is given 5 min to share their project and findings in the classroom.
Further activities:
• “The Fall of the Soviet Union” movie can be watched.
• Policies towards the nations under iron curtain can be realized through creative
drama activities.
• Students can interpret the process of dissolution of the Soviet Union with six
thinking hats.
• Historical documentaries on the dissolution of USSR can be watched.
• Research on the differences between the last leader of Soviet Union Mikhail
Gorbachev and Stalin and Lenin can be conducted.
• Factors that impacted the Soviet Union to adopt communist ideology can be
studied.
Assessment: Students are expected to:
• Write down the results of the dissolution of USSR on European and World
countries,
• Make metaphor or analogy studies on the dissolution of USSR,
• Summarize (project summary) their learning outcomes in this project-based oral
history process,
• Explain in what area the most significant change took place in the transition
from bipolar world to multipolar world,
• Comment on how USSR dissolved although the USA did not,
• Analyze Germany in the pre and post period of the collapse of the Berlin Wall.
Semantic networks: In this activity, factors that contributed to the dissolution of
USSR were discussed, and the changing political structure of European continent
after this dissolution was analysed. USSR and USA showdown in cold war period
and their investment in defence industry made the other countries weakened. Also,
its efforts to hold the countries under its sovereignty together in so-called iron
curtain lost its sustainability, and this also speeded the collapse of Glasnost and
Perestroika policies declared by Gorbachev. Consequently, two nations of Germany
united after the collapse of the Berlin Wall, and independent states in Baltic, Central
Asia, the Caucasus and the Balkans have emerged. Lastly, bipolar world order was
substituted by the multi-polar world order and therefore the USA continued to grow
444 M. Keçe
its power in the world after its rivalry with USSR came to halt.
Outcomes: Behaviours expected of students once this activity is done are as follows:
• Explains the causes and consequences of the dissolution of USSR.
• Comments on the political, economic and social consequences of the dissolution
of USSR on Europe.
• Analyzes the relationship between the principles of Glasnost and Perestroika
and USSR’s policy.
• Comprehends that the dissolution of the USSR resulted in a new world order
and blocked Interstate blocking.
11.2.5 Activity Five: Serial Production and Enrichment

of the West: Industrial Revolution
Cooperative learning is an approach to group work that minimizes the occurrence of

those unpleasant situations and maximizes the learning and satisfaction that result
from working on a high-performance team. A large and rapidly growing body of
research confirms the effectiveness of cooperative learning in higher education (1–
4). Relative to students taught traditionally—i.e., with instructor-centered lectures,
individual assignments, and competitive grading—cooperatively taught students
tend to exhibit higher academic achievement, greater persistence through gradua-
tion, better high-level reasoning and critical thinking skills, deeper understanding of
learned material, greater time on task and less disruptive behavior in class, lower
levels of anxiety and stress, greater intrinsic motivation to learn and achieve, greater
ability to view situations from others’ perspectives, more positive and supportive
relationships with peers, more positive attitudes toward subject areas, and higher
self-esteem.
Tag of Activity
The focus of teaching: Student-centered instruction
The type of teaching: Interdisciplinary teaching
Approach/Methods: Cooperative Learning
Selected methods and techniques: Group work, collaboration, six thinking hats,
brainstorming, question-answer, discussion, reasoning, inquiry, structured grid,
historical empathy.
Learning types: Concepts, relationships, examples will be taught in this activity.
Prerequisite knowledge: Students are required to have knowledge of Europe’s
economic situation before the Industrial Revolution as well as geographical dis-
coveries experienced before the industrial revolution and the age of enlightenment.
11 History 445
Additionally, it is important for students to have portable tables and chairs for the
group members to be able to collaborate easily.
Students’ participation: The learning process is student-centered on maximizing
their participation in the activity. Taking into account the individual differences of
students, performance will be determined by the pace of learning. Students’ being
active in the learning environment in collaboration with their peers is facilitated
through increasing their motivation.
Parents’ participation: Regarding the Industrial Revolution, parents can rein-
force at home what students have learned in the school environment. For example,
because of the fact that most of the technological appliances that we use today are
connected to the Industrial Revolution, each family member can prepare a
Powerpoint presentation showing the past and present condition of a selected
technological device.
Keywords: Industrial Revolution, the Enlightenment, geographical discoveries,
inventions, mass production, industrial society, urban life, elementary family,
machines, the United Kingdom, colonialism, capitalism, capital, market search, raw
materials.
Mini Scenario:
Teacher: Have you ever travelled with the high-speed train?
Student A: Yes, teacher.
Teacher: At what speed does it go per hour? And how does it run?
Student B: Its speed goes up to 500 km/h, and it runs on electricity.
Teacher: So, what do you know about the trains which run at 50 km/h and run on
coal?
Student: They are the first locomotive running on steam engine in the history.
Teacher: What else do we know?
Student K: Coal was used as the energy source.
Student F: It was first used in the UK.
Student M: The invention is considered to be the beginning of the industrial
revolution.
Instruction Design
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to explain the reasons of factors con-
tributing to the industrial revolution and comprehend the importance of this event
from the perspective of Europe in special and the world countries in general.
Objectives:
• Comprehends that all technological devices that we use today have developed in
a historical process.
• Explains that Industrial Revolution decreased the need for manpower and
resulted in excessive production.
446 M. Keçe
• Associates the industrial revolution with higher levels of the economy in today’s
Europe.
• Comprehends that industrial revolution is a major turning point for humanity.
Materials: Written and visual sources related to the industrial revolution, cartoons,
documentaries, films, historical novels, geographical discoveries map, worksheets
related to the industrial revolution, some technological devices used in the past
(such as mobile phones and telephones), computer, and projector.
Attention: Teacher comes to the classroom holding one of the very earliest version
of mobile phones in his hand. Students who grew up with smartphones today are
surprised. The teacher asks what it is in his hand. The majority of the students reply
as a telephone. After this stage, the following questions are addressed to the
students:
• Did you use a phone like this before? Or did you see someone using it around?
• Why do you think those who produced this mobile phone did not produce a
smartphone?
• What are your thoughts on the process of development of technological devices?
Inform the target: Dear students, in this activity we will study the effects of the
industrial revolution in Europe and world countries on the basis of reasons that led
to the industrial revolution.
Using preliminary information: Teacher reflects the following map by projection
device that Show geographical discoveries.
Source: http://www.pinkmonkey.com/studyguides/subjects/euro_his/chap1/img1_7.jpg
11 History 447
Tip 1. The following questions can be asked to activate students’ prior knowledge
about the industrial revolution by developing skills of map interpretation:
• What does this map tell you, what can it be about?
• Which centuries might this map cover?
• What are your views on the movement direction of the arrows on the map?
• What do you know about the names written on the arrows?
Teacher divides the class into heterogeneous groups of 6 based on equal gender,
success, socio-cultural level. He also requests them to give a name for their group
and select one group leader and one group rapporteur. After this is finished,
worksheets on which the following text is written are distributed to every group.
The goods from Asia were transported to Europe through the Red Sea via Egypt and the
Mediterranean Sea. Although there was another route to Asia through the Gulf, owing to
the monopoly of Arabs over it, it was very insecure to use. After the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks, even the land-routes were cut off. Now it became essential for
Europeans to find out new and safe routes to Asia because European trade flourished with
Asia. The spices of Asian countries had high commercial value in the Western world. The
Portuguese took the lead but it was the Spanish took a greater interest in this mission.
Sailing around the Cape of Good Hope, Vasco da Gama landed in India around 1498. As a
result of these discoveries the attitude of people broadened. The new life-style, latest
discoveries, and routes to new lands, etc. became the talk of the people. As these European
people were exposed to the world. Due to the flourishing trade with these Asian countries,
the wealth of Europe also increased remarkably (http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.
com/Geographical+Discoveries,+Great).
Tip 2: The following questions can be asked to analyse the text in a historical
thinking skills context:
• What is the text about?
• What is the relationship between the enrichment of Europe and geographical
discoveries?
• Why did the Europeans need geographical discoveries?
• What can be the relationship between the geographical discoveries industry
revolution?
Presentation of Content: Teacher distributes the following text to classroom which
is about how the industrial revolution firstly started in the United Kingdom:
Why did the Industrial Revolution Start in England?
By the end of the 19th century, the island of Great Britain, which is about the size of the
state of Louisiana, controlled the largest empire in the history of the world—an empire that
covered one quarter of the world’s land mass. You will learn more about this empire in the
next chapter. But how did this little island come to rule an empire? How did Great Britain
acquire so much military and economic power in the world? The answer, of course, is that it
had an enormous commercial and technological head start over the rest of the world
because the Industrial Revolution started in England. But why did the Industrial Revolution
occur first in England and not somewhere else in the world? Historians describe a con-
fluence—a coming together—of many factors and they do not agree on which are most
important. Some of these factors we discussed earlier because they had their seeds in
448 M. Keçe
pre-industrial society. All of these factors came together in the late 18th century to create
the unique conditions in England that culminated in the first-ever Industrial Revolution:
The Agricultural Revolution discussed earlier resulted in increased food production and
increased population in England first. Population Growth, also discussed earlier, resulted in
more people from the countryside being freed up to work for wages in the new cities,— and
eventually increased demand for products such as clothing. Financial Innovations—such as
central banks, stock markets, and joint stock companies—encouraged people, especially in
Northern Europe, to take risks with investments, trade, and new technologies. The
Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution encouraged scholars and craftspeople to apply
new scientific thinking to mechanical and technological challenges. In the centuries before
the Industrial Revolution, Europeans gradually incorporated science and reason into their
worldview. Some historians argue that these intellectual shifts made English culture, in
particular, highly receptive to new mechanical and financial ideas. Navigable Rivers and
Canals in Great Britain quickened the pace and cheapened the cost of transportation of raw
materials and finished products. Adam Smith, the first modern economist, believed this was
a key reason for England’s early success. In 1776, in his famous book An Inquiry into the
Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, he wrote that “Good roads, canals, and
navigable rivers, by diminishing the expense of carriage, put the remote parts of the country
more nearly upon a level with those in the neighbourhood of the town. They are upon that
account the greatest of all improvements”. Coal and Iron deposits were plentiful in Great
Britain and proved essential to the development of all new machines made of iron or steel
and powered by coal—such as the steam-powered machinery in textile factories, and the
locomotive. Government Policies in England toward property and commerce encouraged
innovation and the spread of global trade. The government created patent laws that allowed
inventors to benefit financially from the “intellectual property” of their inventions. The
British government also encouraged global trade by expanding the Navy to protect trade
and granting monopolies or other financial incentives to companies so they would explore
the world to find resources. World Trade gradually increased in the centuries before the
Industrial Revolution and provided European countries access to raw materials and a
market for goods. It also increased wealth that could then be loaned by banks to finance
more industrial expansion in an upward spiral of economic growth. By 1500, Europe had a
technological supremacy over the rest of the world in shipbuilding, navigation, and met-
allurgy (metal working). In successive years, European countries would use these advan-
tages to dominate world trade with Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The Cottage Industry
discussed earlier, served as a transition from a rural to an industrial economy. Like the later
industrial factories, the cottage industry relied on wage labor, cloth production, tools and
rudimentary machines, and a market to buy and sell raw materials (cotton) and finished
products (clothes) (http://webs.bcp.org/sites/vcleary/ModernWorldHistoryTextbook/
IndustrialRevolution/IRbegins.html).
Students are given 15 min, and each group reads this excerpt and writes down
their opinions and evaluations on the worksheet that was distributed earlier and
gives it back to the teacher. Teacher gives feedback based on the worksheets
returned to him.
Under the presentation of content, students watch 10-minute video (http://study.
com/academy/lesson/causes-of-the-first-industrial-revolution.html) which is about
the reasons of industrial revolution, and then they are asked the following
questions:
11 History 449
• What are the main causes of the industrial revolution?

• What is the relationship between colonial empires and the industrial revolution?
• What are the effects of technological development and cotton industry on the
industrial revolution?
Group members discuss these questions, and they prepare a mutual text to
present it to the teacher. As a part of this activity, teacher distributes the following
text which is about the results of the industrial revolution and requires each group to
share their opinions and comment on these results as a report in 15 min.
Effects of Industrial Revolution
What effects did a revolution as big as this leave behind? How did it change the lives of the
people living in the United States? One of the most significant results of the Industrial
Revolution was the emergence of the middle class. As goods became cheaper because of
the cheaper and more efficient production of goods, people could buy more of the good.
They could buy everything they needed, and would have some money left over. The middle
class was made up of managers, clerks, accountants, retailers, and anyone with a decent job
at the time. The middle class had enough money to spend on leisure goods, rather than only
buying what they needed to live. As mentioned previously, production increased expo-
nentially. More factories were built as efficient machines were invented. With machines that
could mass-produce and a plethora of workers, factories could now produce much more
than they could have before. Transportation and communication were drastically changed
as well. Transporting goods, which used to take weeks, even months, now took days with
steamboats, roads, canals, and railroads. Communication, which also took a long time to
pass, could now be sent back and forth almost instantly. There was no time-lag anymore.
Everything took place at a faster pace. Lastly, as technology increased the efficiency of
farming, farmers could now yield more crops than ever before. This led to a surplus in food.
With more food, fewer people died of hunger. People in the United States began to live a
little longer, and population greatly increased as the number of deaths decreased (http://
firstindustrialrevolution.weebly.com/causes-and-effects.html).
The following steps are followed in the scope of the activity:

1. Students watch 4.25 min animation video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
xe4ELZM3OEQ. The video is about how Catherina and her family was affected
by the industrial revolution. The teacher tells students “Based on Catherina’s
experiences, explain the impact of the industrial revolution on people living in
the villages” and expects each group to prepare a report.
2. Teacher distributes white, yellow, green, black, blue and red hats to each
group. In this technique, each color represents an idea: white for facts, red for
feelings, black for cautions, yellow for benefits, green for creativity, and blue for
the process. Each member of the groups wears one of these hats by turns, and
they make a comment on the industrial revolution based on the hat color. This
continues until each member of the groups wears all of the hats at once. Thus,
students are given the chance of analytical, creative and critical thinking towards
the industrial revolution.
3. As a part of this stage, the teacher gives Grigory Petrov’s book “Finland: The
Country of White Lilies” to each group and requests them to read it in one week.
After reading the book, they are expected to prepare a report involving a
450 M. Keçe
conceptual evaluation of book’s topic, content, and author’s perception on the

industrial revolution, and perceive the events in that period from the eyes of the
main character of the book Johan Vilhelm Snellman.
Further activities:
• Researching how industrial revolution occurred in America and Asia.
• Discussing on the movies and documentaries that are about the industrial
revolution.
• Playing creative drama activity considering the conditions of a student who
lived in that period of time.
• Visiting technology museum located in the Berlin, the capital of Germany.
• Researching the scientific studies of Scottish scientist James Watt who invented
steam engine and provided a major contribution to the industrial revolution.
Assessment: The structured grid technique can be used in this stage of the
activity in order to identify at what level the topic was comprehended. In this
technique, a chart consisting of either 9, 12 or 16 boxes depending on the age group
and each box is respectively given a number.
Example 1: What are the causes of the Industrial Revolution?
Geographical Invention of the Invention of Steam

Discoveries iron Engine
Financial French Thirty Years War
Developments Revolution
Agricultural Enlightenment Collapse of Feudalism
Revolution
As can be seen in the chart, the correct answers are marked by green in the table.
This technique can be adapted to other questions.
Tip 3: Additionally, the following questions can be asked in order to identify to
what extent the students learnt about the industrial revolution:
• What are the reasons for the beginning of the industrial revolution firstly in
England?
• What is the connection between the countries that first started the Industrial
Revolution and colonial colonies?
• What is the impact of the industrial revolution in the social life of the people?
• What can be said about before and after the industrial revolution regarding the
European economic conditions?
• What are the causes and consequences of the Industrial Revolution?
• How can one explain the relationship between the current positions of con-
temporary European states and the industrial revolution?
11 History 451
Semantic networks: In this activity, it is taught that freedom and scientific devel-
opments were given more importance with Renaissance, underground and above-
ground treasures (raw materials) of Asia and Africa were taken to Europe with
geographical discoveries and the industrial revolution occurred in Europe under the
effects of the Enlightenment during which the scientific developments were at the
top. Moreover, it was discussed in cause and effect relationship that colonialism
activities and the establishment of colonial empires accelerated because of the
impact caused by the industrial revolution, human power in production was
replaced by the machines, industrial plants were established in cities, people
immigrated to the cities leaving their villages and therefore the horizontal mobility
was experienced.
follows:
• Interpret the effects of the industrial revolution on European and the world
countries.
• Explain the cause-and-effect relationship between the industrial revolution and
the other events took place in Europe.
• Empathize with people in history by thinking about the negative effects of the
industrial revolution on them.
• Sorts the development of the industrial revolution in Europe in chronological
order.
11.3 Conclusion
In this chapter, the subject presentations of five different activities based on the
history teaching were described. In these activities, the 5E learning cycle, mastery
learning, computer-based learning, collaborative learning and project-based learn-
ing models were taken as the base. The fact that they are student-centered making
them active participants of the lesson, they develop students’ questioning, analysis,
and synthesis skills, they are based on the principle of learning by doing has played
a significant role in choosing these models. Moreover, that these models were not
widely previously used in history teaching has also been one of the contributing
factors which were revealed as a result of the literature review. Both in process and
outcome evaluation stages of the developed activities, various methods, and tech-
niques such as six hat thinking, brainstorming, historical empathy, fishbone,
question-answer, station, and structured grid were used. It was found in our studies
on history teaching that these methods and techniques had positive effects on
academic success, and this resulted in using these methods and techniques in our
work.
Considering the importance of embodied learning experiences in the realization
of permanent behavioral change, the significance of using methods and techniques
that makes students active in the learning process in such a discipline which is
452 M. Keçe
based on abstract facts and events as “history” is once again understood. In this
regard, the activities developed in this book are expected to meet this need. Also,
these activities try to change the students’ perception that “history is a boring class
based on memorization” and thereby they will contribute to the transformation of
classes into a condition that students will enjoy learning and participate actively,
examine the contextual and causal relationships, and conduct analysis and syn-
thesis. They will also make it easier for students to have history literacy.
Today, the main purpose of history teaching in US, Canada, Australia and
almost all of the countries in Central and Eastern Europe is to educate students who
are historically literate. Having history literacy carries a meaning beyond memo-
rizing the historical event. In this regard, history literacy matrix developed by
Taylor and Young (2003) in a conceptual framework consisting of 12 sub
dimensions was used as a base for the development of activities.
Glossary
The Crusades The raids organized by the European Catholic Christians on

the territory of the Middle East between the 1096–1272 years.
Renaissance The Renaissance is a period in Europe, from the 14th to the
17th century, considered the bridge between the Middle
Ages and modern history.
Reform Reform means the improvement or amendment of what is
wrong, corrupt, unsatisfactory, etc.
Industrial The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new man-
Revolution ufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to
sometime between 1820 and 1840.
The Cold War The Cold War was a state of political and military tension
after World War II between powers in the Western Bloc
(the United States, its NATO allies, and others) and powers
in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its allies in the
Warsaw Pact).
Historical In the historical context, the concept of empathy is much
empathy more than just seeing a person, idea or situation through the
eyes of another, but rather is a much deeper understanding
of the circumstances and concepts surrounding the event.
Revolution A revolution is a fundamental change in political power or
organizational structures that takes place in a relatively
short period of time when the population rises in revolt
against the current authorities.
11 History 453
Nationalism Nationalism is a shared group feeling in the significance of

a geographical and sometimes demographic region seeking
independence for its culture and ethnicity that holds that
group together.
Empire An empire is defined as an aggregate of nations or people
ruled over by an emperor or other powerful sovereign or
government, usually a territory of greater extent than a
kingdom.
Age of The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement which
Enlightenment dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century.
Geographical The Age of Discovery is an informal and loosely defined
discoveries European historical period from the 15th century to the
18th century, marking the time in which extensive overseas
exploration emerged as a powerful factor in European
culture.
Nation-state A nation state is a type of state that conjoins the political
entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation.
Feudalism Feudalism was a combination of legal and military customs
in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and
15th centuries.
Historical Many education resources define historical thinking as a set
thinking of reasoning skills that students of history should learn as a
result of studying history.
Continent A continent is one of the several very large landmasses on
Earth.
War It is a state of armed conflict between societies.
State A state is a type of policy that is an organized political
community living under a single system of government.
Country A country is a region that is identified as a distinct entity in
political geography.
First World War It was a global war originating in Europe that began on 28
July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918.
Second World It was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although
War related conflicts began earlier.
Glastnost It’s meaning “publicity” in the sense “the state of being
open to public knowledge” has been used in Russian at
least since the end of the 18th century.
454 M. Keçe
Perestroyka It was a political movement for reformation within the

Communist Party of the Soviet Union during the 1980s,
widely associated with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev
and his glasnost (meaning “openness”) policy reform.
USSR She was a socialist state on the Eurasian continent that
existed between 1922 and 1991.
The Iron Curtain The term symbolized efforts by the Soviet Union to block
itself and its satellite states from open contact with the West
and non-soviet-controlled areas.
Determinism Determinism is the philosophical position that for every
event there exist conditions that could cause no other event.
Oral history It is the collection and study of historical information about
individuals, families, important events, or everyday life
using audiotapes, videotapes, or transcriptions of planned
interviews.
Positivism Positivism is a philosophical theory stating that positive
knowledge is based on natural phenomena and their prop-
erties and relations.
Historical novel It is a literary genre in which the plot takes place in a setting
located in the past.
Jerusalem Jerusalem located on a plateau in the Judean Mountains
between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea, is one of the
oldest cities in the world.
The Clash of It is a hypothesis that people’s cultural and religious
Civilizations identities will be the primary source of conflict in the
post-Cold War world.
Balkans The Balkan Peninsula and the Balkans is a peninsula and a
cultural area in Southeast Europe with different and dis-
puted borders.
Peace Peace occurs between heterogeneous social groups and is
characterized by a lack of conflict and freedom from fear of
violence.
Treaty A treaty is an agreement under international law entered
into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states
and international organizations.
Communism It is a social, political, and economic ideology and move-
ment whose ultimate goal is the establishment of the
communist society.
11 History 455
Capitalism It is an economic system based on private ownership of the

means of production and their operation for profit.
Ideology It is a collection of doctrines or beliefs shared by members
of a group. It can be described as a set of conscious and
unconscious ideas which make up one’s beliefs, goals,
expectations, and motivations.
Colonialism Colonialism is the establishment of a colony in one territory
by a political power from another territory, and the subse-
quent maintenance, expansion, and exploitation of that
colony.
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Chapter 12
Geography
Hüseyin Kaya
12.1.1 Briefing
A. The Significance of Teaching Geography

Geography is the science examining the relations and interactions between
people and the environment. From the past to present geography helps the humans
learn about the world, nature, and the environment. Geography provides a way of
helping students in schools to learn about, and reflect on, several aspects of the
world. Realizing the world around us means that geography is changing as society
changes. The relation between people and students is not simple and straightfor-
ward (Williams 1961).
Human beings have started to control the world more than ancient times. It is
well known that the world is limited; the lands to be used, plants, trees, and
vegetation, fossil sources of energy, the food, the animals, in short, all the natural
sources. So in order to leave a cleaner and liveable world to the future, we must use
the world carefully. With geographic knowledge, we understand natural and human
processes. We map the world and able to read it with the help of geography. We can
observe and understand the ongoing process of natural events around us. Simply
geography explains how humans influence the world in which they live in.
As people living on earth, we have a common purpose: to live in a healthy and a
more liveable world together in peace. This purpose is mostly related to geography
which aims to understand the earth and the activities on earth carried out by human
beings. So people with geographic skills may have the opportunity to live more
H. Kaya (&)
Room 335, P.O. Box 32260, Isparta, Turkey
e-mail: husekaya@gmail.com

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_12
460 H. Kaya
comfortably and leave a cleaner world to the future generations. A significant and
recently popular term in geography is the word “sustainable”. It is generally used
with the environment, natural sources, tourism, etc. When these concepts are
examined, a sustainable environment means a clean and liveable atmosphere, more
oxygen and less carbon dioxide, no holes on the ozone layer, clean and usable water
resources. As Bednarz et al. (1994) Suggest, geography also aims to solve not only
the local problems but also the ones at a global scale. Renewable energy sources,
ready to use tourism attractions, now and in the future. To protect our planet, to
lengthen its life and to leave a livable world for future generations, everyone should
have geographical knowledge and skills.
B. Current Approaches in Geography Teaching
Nature is the natural lab for geography courses, but it is not always possible to
study in nature. Traditional teaching approaches that put a teacher in the center of
the teaching process and giving students the role of receiving the knowledge in a
passive way do not meet the needs of educational aims. In accordance with the
developments in every field especially politics, social relations and technology
forced the change in educational processes.
The recent developments in information and technology have influenced edu-
cation. As Kent (2002) suggests Geography has always been well supported by a
bewildering array of curriculum resources including textbooks, curriculum packs,
audio-visuals and ICT resources. The integration of technology and education is
also a significant phenomenon in education. Using technology in education is an
important phenomenon in teaching to students. New approaches and methods in
learning emphasize the significance of assisting people to be aware of their own
learning so students should learn to recognize when they understand and when they
need more information (Bransford et al. 2000). The interest for internet and tech-
nology of young individuals lead the use of these devices in the classroom in
teaching geography. The use of geographic information systems, web based
applications and technological devices as mobile phones, navigators, GPS tools and
others have been so useful. Media has surrounded people with its instruments. So
the use of media such as newspapers, magazines, TV’s, films, videos, etc. in
geography teaching has been of increasing importance.
C. Factors Influencing the Determination of the Teaching Methods/Techniques
As Kaya (2011) states, the increase of technologic devices and the demand for
social media decrease the interest of students towards traditional methods. So
teachers need to do something to get the students involved in the lessons. Modern
methods and techniques suggest students be active in the learning process; students
involve in the activities, and learning has become more important than teaching. As
the constructivist theory suggests, students are at the center of learning, active and
acquire knowledge through mental processes. They do not get knowledge from the
teacher in a simple way. They need to be active to learn something. The role of the
teacher in such an approach is the organizing suitable activities for the students with
12 Geography 461
the help of appropriate strategies, methods, and techniques. In order to choose the
method and techniques in teaching geography, some factors are significant.
Teaching methods indicate the applications of teachers to reach the desired learning
goals. In other words, a teacher’s organization includes teaching instruments,
materials, technologies and activities to provide learning. In planning a geography
course, in each subject, different methods and techniques may be necessary and
most of the time not one method, more than one method and techniques are nec-
essary. Teachers should be aware of students’ different learning styles. Some stu-
dents may learn by seeing; some others may take notes, and some students may
learn by listening or touching. So, while planning a lesson, this point should be
taken into consideration. To be successful in teaching, varied methods, and tech-
niques that take the students into the learning process through different activities are
necessary (Küçükahmet 2009). The method and the techniques may be chosen
according to the aims of the lesson, students’ differences and needs, physical
conditions of the school, time, financial needs, and the desired qualifications of
students.
12.1.2 Methods and Techniques in Geography Teaching
In order to teach geographic skills efficiently, there are six important points. These are;
the application of teaching methods, using effective teaching materials and aids,
teacher and student interaction, organizational conditions, teacher qualifications,
correlation of geography lesson with other lessons and finally raising awareness of the
significance of geography in life (Vuk and Vrankovic 2009). Technological devel-
opments, the use of media, social networking sites have contributed to the teaching of
geography so much. Besides the traditional teaching methods and techniques, some
new ones that take the students in the center of teaching-learning process have also
been used. After the Constructivist Approach, many methods and techniques have
been derived that do not give students the knowledge basically, but necessitates that
learner acquire the knowledge after some mental processes (Kaya 2013).
Because of the fact that some of the new methods/techniques have newly
appeared in geography education, they need to be introduced to geographers.
Among these methods; The use of Social Network in Teaching Geography, Drama,
The use of Projects in Teaching Geography, Web-based Geographic Information
Systems, The Use of Media in Teaching Geography, Collaborative Learning were
given with activity samples in this part.
The role of parents in their children’s learning as the part of teaching-learning

process is important. Parents can be guides of their children in their learning.
462 H. Kaya
According to Kaya (2010), most of the students have good relations with their
parents and understand the significance of cooperation with parents. The aim of
school and family cooperation is to provide a qualified education. Parents help and
support their children in learning, doing projects and assignments. So parents
should be taken into the educational process so they may be aware of their role in
their children’s learning. According to this idea, geography teachers should tell the
importance of geography to the parents because even the parents also need geo-
graphic skills in their lives. A better world, a clean and sustainable environment for
future generations is dependent on geographic knowledge and skills.
Parents should support their children in providing educational tools and mate-
rials when and where necessary. In learning geography, a compass, maps, geo-
graphic magazines, a tablet or mobile phones with geospatial features can be
considered as some of the tools for learning that necessitate financial support. To
improve mapping skills, a laptop or a Personal Computer with internet connection
besides smartphones and similar GPS tools may be necessary. In project assign-
ments, students may need financial support and some arrangements to meet the
related people. Parents should also be aware of the importance of field trips for
geographical research. In the educational process, parents should help their children
during school years.
A final and may be the most significant role of parents in their children’s
learning is controlling their learning process all the time in contact with the teachers
of their children’s school for a better learning.

Activity One: Energy Sources, The use of Social Network in Teaching
Activity Two: The language of Climates, The use of Drama in Teaching
Geography
Activity Three: The use of Projects in Teaching Geography
Activity Four: The use Web based GIS in Teaching Geography
Activity Five: Collaborative Learning: Teams-Games-Tournaments
Activity Six: The use of Media in Teaching Geography
12.2.1 Activity One: Energy Sources
The social network which is commonly used by the students has started to be used in
education recently. One week before the lesson time, the subject “energy sources” is
declared on the facebook group to the students and the students are asked to follow the
instructions on the Facebook group by the teacher. The teacher uses the Facebook
group to direct the teaching process. A week before the lesson, the teacher announces
that “next week, we will study on energy sources. I want you to discuss and answer the
12 Geography 463
questions about energy sources”. Questions for discussion: (1) What are the energy
sources? (2) What are environment-friendly energy sources? (3) What are fossil
energy sources? (4) What is sustainable environment? (5) What is the relation
between energy sources and sustainable environment? (6) Which energy type is the
best? Why? Students try to answer these questions and make discussions on the
Facebook group with their friends. Students are also asked to write more and more
ideas on the group. The students with the highest participation rate may be rewarded.
One day before the lesson, teacher copies all the answers and discussions on the
facebook group to show them in the class. The teacher also classifies the answers and
discussions. This will be helpful during the lesson.
Tag of Activity
Method of Teaching: The use of Social Network in Teaching
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary; geography, sociology, engineering, sociology
Approach/Method: The use of Social Network in Teaching
Types of Learning: Visual, interpersonal learning
Prerequisite knowledge: Students are expected to know environment, basic geo-
graphical facts related to nature
Students’ participation: Students use their social network sites in order to partici-
pate in the lesson activities.
Parents’ participation: Parents support the internet and social media facilities for
their children
Keywords: social network, social media, facebook group, teaching process, sus-
tainable environment, energy sources, fossil energy sources, renewable sources of
energy
Teacher: Do you like cars?

Ss: Yes. Especially sports cars
T: How do they work?
S1: You start the car, and it Works!!
T: Good answer but what kind of energy do you need for cars?
S1: Petrol
T: Does it pollute the air?
S1: Yes. Unfortunately.
T: So petrol is nonrenewable and fossil, isn’t it?
S1: Yes.
T: Do you know any vehicles working with other kinds of energy?
S2: yes, cars with solar power
T: Yes, there are some vehicles with solar power but are they commonly
used?
S3: No
464 H. Kaya
T: Why not?
S4: They are not common, they need to be recharged.
T: So what are the other non-renewable energy sources?
Ss: Petroleum, coal, and gas.
T: OK. What are the renewable types of energy?
Ss: Solar energy, Wind turbines, geothermal energy, biomass, and
hydropower
T: You are right. What types of energy are more useful for us?
Ss: Renewable energy.
T: OK.
Instruction Design
Purpose: To Teach students energy sources
Objectives: To have the students be able to know the sources of energy and evaluate
them regarding sustainable environment
Materials: Photos, Worksheets, Answer Key.

Inform the target: The teacher informs the students that they will study sources of
energy and the importance of sustainable environment
Using preliminary information: The teacher reminds the students some basic fun-
damental physical geographic features as; sun, wind, rivers, mines, seas and oceans,
etc. that can be useful in producing energy.
Warm up: Teacher talks about the significance of social network in the modern
world.
1. Teacher shows the students answers and discussions in the Facebook group. All
the answers, discussions, and comments done by the students are examined and
evaluated during the lesson.
2. Teacher shows the students their answers, discussions, and comments in an
organized way. This time, the categories as, renewable energy, non-renewable
energy, sustainable environment, slogans for energy sources.
3. Teacher presents the subject.
(a) Non-renewable Sources of Energy: coal, natural gas, and petroleum are the
sources of energy that we use the most. These fossil sources take millions of
years to get formed and used once. To produce energy, they are put through
the combustion process, and this process causes pollution. They may also
cause acid rain and global warming indirectly.
(b) Renewable energy sources can be used over and over again. Solar energy,
wind energy, geothermal energy, biomass, and hydropower are among these
types of energy. They cause less pollution than non-renewable sources of
energy.
12 Geography 465
Tip 1: Teacher shows the students answers and discussions about sources of energy
in the Facebook group that were taken from their facebook group page. All the
answers, discussions, and comments done by the students are examined and
evaluated during the lesson.
Tip 2: Teacher shows the students their answers, discussions, and comments in an
organized way. This time, the categories as; renewable energy sources,
non-renewable energy sources, sustainable environment, slogans for energy sources
are determined.
Solar energy is originated from the sun. Solar panels are used to generate energy
and it is used in cars, heating, generating light, etc. Wind turbines are also used to
generate electricity. Geothermal energy is based on hot water comes from the deep
and is used to generate electricity and for heating. Biomass includes natural waste
products to generate energy. Hydropower, Dams, and rivers generate electricity
through a turbine.
Fossil fuel forms sulfur dioxide (SO2) that is an indicator of pollution in the
atmosphere.
Tip 3: Students examines the Facebook group writings and choose the best slogan
for renewable energy and sustainable environment. The student with the best slogan
is rewarded.
Practice: Students discuss the problem “How to solve the energy problem using
renewable energy sources in the future?” as a class.
1. Students examine the Facebook group writings and choose the best slogan for
renewable energy and sustainable environment. The student with the best slogan
is rewarded.
2. Students discuss the problem “How to solve the energy problem using renew-
able energy sources in the future?” as a class.
Sources of Energy: natural gas, the wind, hydro-electric, biomass, oil, biogas and
liquid biomass, geothermal, coal and coal products, and nuclear power, solar
Sources of energy
Renewable energy Nonrenewable energy
–Wind Solar energy Geothermal Tidal Wave –coal and coal products petroleum
Hydroelectric Power natural gas biomass
Further activities: Students prepare a Project for the theme “Renewable energy
sources in 2100.”
Assessment: Students are given the words of sources of energy and are asked to
distinguish them from renewable and non-renewable sources of energy categories
by filling in the chart.
Semantic networks: The types of energy are so significant in terms of sustainable
environment. In order to survive on earth, it is necessary to use renewable energy
and using fossil energy sources will threaten our planet and decrease the quality of
466 H. Kaya
our lives. The use of fossil fuels may cause acid rains and global warming. One of
the most significant problems among the world countries is energy. So the problem
for future energy sources should be solved.
Outcomes:
• Students will be able to classify energy sources
• Students will be able to be aware of sustainable environment
• Students will be able to comprehend the difference between renewable energy
sources and fossil energy sources.
• Students will be able to understand the significance of renewable energy
• Students will be able to understand the significance of energy
12.2.2 Activity Two: The Language of Climates
Teaching with drama has been so popular nowadays because drama increases the
interest and attention of students towards the lesson, makes the abstract themes
understand easily, provides the students’ questioning and analysing skills (Kılınç
2014). The purpose of using drama in geography teaching is to have the students be
actively involved in the activities, have them fun and provide permanent learning.
In the activity, students are asked to revive the story about the subject in their
minds. This stage is significant to produce new ideas about the subject of the drama.
Some features as freedom, passion, wonder, love, respect, trial, research, awareness
are acquired during the drama. In the last phase, the teacher directs a discussion
among all the students about the subject, so the players in the drama, the teacher,
and the other students share their ideas and evaluate as a whole class.
Tag of Activity
Method of Teaching: The use of Drama in Teaching Geography
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary; Geography, Chemistry, Meteorology,
Literature
Types of Learning: Interpersonal, verbal, visual
Prerequisite knowledge: Students have studied some of the climatic factors like
temperature, rainfall, winds, etc. İn the previous lessons.
Students’ participation: Students will be actively involved in the role play activities.
They will study, learn, cooperate with other group members, answer the questions
about the lesson topic.
Parents’ participation: Parents are required to support the students to maintain
suitable pieces of clothing and practice their roles at home.
Keywords: Drama, climate, permanent learning, roleplay, TV studio, presenter,
Mediterranean climate, continental climate, tropical climate, polar climate, TV
speaker
12 Geography 467
Teacher: Do you like theater plays?

Ss: Yes.
Teacher: Have you watched a theater play lately?
Ss: Yes. I have watched “A Midsummer Night’s Dream” by William
Shakespeare.
T: Would you like to role play in play?
Ss: Yes.
T: Today, we will make a roleplay together as learning types of climates.
Instruction Design
Purpose: To Teach students the features and different types of climates on earth.
Objectives: To have the students be able to classify the features and different types
of climates on earth.
Materials: Classroom will be organized as a TV studio, Photos, Cardboards,
umbrella, suitable clothes for different climates, a microphone

Attention: What is the weather like today? What was it like yesterday? (Students
answer) Then the teacher talks about the difference between weather condition and
climate. After that, the teacher gives a brief information about the types of climate.
The teacher shortly presents the plants, rainfalls, and the climate affected areas.
Then the teacher tells that they will make a drama activity with the class.
Scenario: A TV programme is prepared about climates. The best climate for a
living will be chosen in this TV programme. Each type of climate (represented by a
student) will introduce itself and after a discussion, we will decide which climate is
the best for a living. Drama Group: 7 students will role play; 1 for TV speaker, 6
other students for 6 different climates.
Tip 1: Volunteer students may be chosen or the teacher may choose according to
some criteria.
The classroom or school garden is organized as a TV studio. A video camera, the
TV speaker, holds a microphone and invites the climates to the scene.
Tip 2: Each climate (Student) wears costumes representing their features, i.e. winter
wears a thick coat, summer wears a t-shirt and sunglasses and others as well.
The Play Starts

TV speaker starts as “Welcome dear guests, today, our theme is “What climate is
the most suitable for living?” We are beginning with the Mediterranean Climate,
welcome!
Mediterranean climate: Thanks, I come from Southern Europe, Italy, Spain,
North Africa and south part of Turkey.
468 H. Kaya
TV Speaker: Then You must be tired, You can get rest for a while.
Mediterranean climate: Thanks.
TV Speaker: Now the continental climate, you look very cold, welcome!
Continental climate: I come from the inner parts of continents, arid and
mountainous places.
TV Speaker: Welcome again. Now Tropical climate, you look thirsty, welcome.
Tropical climate: Thanks, I am thirsty because I come from arid and hot areas
near the equator. But not always arid, sometimes wet.
TV Speaker: Now it is time for some more cold. Welcome, polar climate.
Polar Climate: Thanks! As you see I am extremely cold but the studio is so hot,
and I have a warm heart indeed. In my land, it is always below zero. Everywhere is
covered with snow and ice.
TV Speaker: Well, there are lots to say, but I want to take your last words, and
then we will choose the best climate.
Mediterranean climate: Hello again, as I told before, I am the best climate, no too
much rain or cold, every season is so nice, rainy in winter and hot in summer.
People like this climate, most of the suitable vacation places have my climate. I am
the best for a living!
Continental Climate: I am close to the polar climate as well. The weather is cold,
and summer is short in my land. But too many crops are grown especially cereals.
The vegetative cover is grass and taiga forests. Most parts of the continents have my
climate.
Tropical climate: Sometimes too much rain sometimes aridity, too hot is my
climate. Of course, I am the best.
(Discussions, too much noise)
TV speaker: Please silence!. Dear our guests. Our time is over. But we could not
decide which climate is the best. Maybe next time we can choose. Thanks for
watching us.
Further activities: Then a physical world map is used, and the climate types, their
coverage areas, and vegetative features played in the drama are shown on the map.
Giving feedback: The Teacher summarizes the types of climates and the students
with their roles.
Assessment: Teacher asks questions about the students with their roleplays.
• Who played what climate?
• What climate was played by who?
• What were the features of ……………………climate?
• What climate would you prefer to live in?
• Why are there different types of climate on earth?
Semantic networks: Types of climates are closely related to meteorology, chemistry,
physics, and environment. Climate also affects the formation of the surface of the
earth, rivers, lakes and seas, landslides, erosion, settlement types an even the
characteristics of human beings as well. So these points should be mentioned during
the lesson.
12 Geography 469
Outcomes:
• Students will be able to comprehend the difference between air condition and
climate.
• Students will be able to identify and classify the types of climates.
• Students will be able to establish relations between environment and climate.
12.2.3 Activity Three: The Conscious of Environment
An ideal teacher supports his/her students with necessary knowledge at the same
time motivates the students and attracts their curiosity as well (Brown 1987).
Projects are the activities carried out by individuals or groups using scientific
methods to solve a problem or search any research topic. Project-based learning is
so popular recently. Projects provide students with skills as; problem-solving,
thinking, sharing, taking responsibility, communicating with others, etc.
Before the Project activity, the teacher talks about the environmental problems.
Then a list of problems are written on the board with the whole class and project
groups are formed. A group of four or five is determined. Then each group is asked
to choose one environmental problem for research. Finally, the groups and the
problems are written as a complete list and a particular time is given to each group
to complete their research. When the allocated time is finished, each group prepare
their reports and share them in the class. As the last activity, teacher discusses the
reports with the whole class.
Tag of Activity
Method of Teaching: The use of Projects
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary
Types of Learning: Interpersonal, visual, logical, verbal
Prerequisite knowledge: Students have studied settlements, climate and some
themes related to the environment, so they have a background information related
to the environment.
Students’ participation: Students will be actively involved in the projects. They will
study, learn, cooperate with other Project groups, analyse problems and try to find
solutions for environmental problems.
Parents’ participation: Parents will help students in their projects in terms of
financial support or social arrangements on environmental issues.
Keywords: Sustainable Environment, Project, drop litters, pollution, ozone layer,
waste,
470 H. Kaya
Teacher: Do you drop litters?

Students: No, of course not.
T: Have you seen anybody polluting the environment?
Student1: I saw somebody dropping litters in the morning.
S2: I have seen, too
T: Why do some people pollute the environment?
S1: They are not thoughtful people.
S2: They do not care environment.
T: What happens if people pollute the environment?
S2: It would be so difficult to survive on earth.
S3: There would be a very terrific smell.
T: So what should people do?
S4: People should care environment.
S5: We should be aware of the significance of environment.
T: Yes, we must be conscious about the environment? Otherwise, it may
be so difficult to survive in the environment. OK. What pollutes the air?
What is harmful to the environment?
Ss: People, factories, waste, overuse of sources, etc.
T: Can we do something fort the environment?
Ss: Yes, we must do something.
T: OK. We will prepare projects on protecting the environment.
Instruction Design
Purpose: To teach students the causes of environmental problems and their possible
solutions.
Objectives: To have the students be able to classify the causes of environmental
problems, possible solutions for them. To have the students learn the importance of
being conscious for environmental problems and taking responsibility in the
solution of these problems.
Materials: Photos, Cardboards, umbrella.

Presentation: The Teacher have the class do a brainstorming activity to find out the
problems of the environment. Students are asked to think about the important
problems of the environment and tell the class. (Students think for a while)
Tip1: Students should be informed about the benefits of doing projects.
S1: Air pollution, factories pollute the air.
T: Yes, others?
S2: Deforestation. People cut trees and destroy vegetation.
T: Yes, this problem is also important. The forests are the lungs of the world.
When they are cut, it harms the environment and people.
S3: Ozone layer
12 Geography 471
T: Yes, scientists discovered holes on the ozone layer. It helps to protect us from
the sun’s ultraviolet radiation, which can damage our skins and may cause
several ailments. The holes in the ozone layer were formed by chlorofluoro-
carbons (CFs)
S4: Water pollution
S5: Waste
S6: Noise pollution
S7: Overuse of natural sources.
Tip 2: Teacher summarizes environmental issues and the future of our environment.
T: Ok. These are the main problem threatening our environment, and something
must be done. As project groups, first, choose an environmental issue and then
do a project research about it. Now who chooses what issue?
Tip 3: Each group chooses an issue, and the teacher explains how to carry out a
project research.
T: Now every group has an environmental issue. The first thing to do is to find a
name and a slogan for the Project and groups will try to find out the reasons of
the problems. To do this, related books, magazines, internet search and other
resources of research will be used. There must be group meetings all the time.
After group discussions and careful research, solutions for the problems will be
found out. At each stage of the project, group members make discussions and
take responsibilities as part of the project. Each group has one month to
complete their Project. After that time, each group prepares their project
reports, and we will discuss the reports in the class.
Assessment: After the Project time ends, groups prepare their Project reports and
bring them to the class. As a whole class activity, Project reports are presented in
front of the class.
Giving feedback: The teacher and the other students discuss the reports and give
feedback for further studies. As a class, the best three projects may be chosen
objectively and got rewarded.
Further activities: Then each Project is exhibited on the walls for the whole school
students.
Semantic networks: Environment is related to many scientific fields so to be able to
learn about environment some fields of study as biology, chemistry, engineering,
meteorology should cooperate.
Outcomes: Students will be able to understand environmental issues.
• Students will be able to carry out projects, take responsibilities.
• Students will be able to work in groups, share ideas and respect others’ rights.
• Students will be able to be aware of environmental problems.
• Students will be able to think about the future of our environment.
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12.2.4 Activity Four: Preparing Maps
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a popular computer-based aid for

geography. Recently, web-based GIS can be used more practically in geography
classes. Web-based GIS is composed of software, hardware, data, people, methods,
and network. Internet GIS server is essential in using web-based GIS in geography
courses. Many institutions share related data to the people via web-based GIS
servers in the world. So it would be a good idea to use this data in geography
courses. Nearly all the acquisitions in geography courses necessitate map or
geospatial data. So Such websites will be useful in nearly all the geography courses.
Tag of Activity
Focus of Teaching: Internet-based, student-centred instruction
Method of Teaching: The use Web-based GIS in Teaching Geography
Type of Teaching: Disciplinary
Types of Learning: web-based, kinesthetic, visual, spatial learning.
Prerequisite knowledge: Students have studied maps, digital maps, and mapping in
the earlier courses.
Students’ participation: Students use technology and the internet commonly. To
integrate their classes with technology may take students’ interest to the lesson.
Students will actively be in the activities. They will draw their own maps by the end
of the lesson.
Parents’ participation: Parents may provide the internet to their children.
Keywords: Technology, the internet, web based GIS, drawing maps, layers, map
symbology, mapping skills,
Teacher: Do you use some websites to find out maps?

Ss: Yes
T: Which ones do you use?
Ss: Google Earth, Yahoo Maps.
T: Is it possible to draw your own maps using the internet?
Ss: Yes.
T: Web-based Geographic Information Systems market his possible. Some
websites are available for this purpose.
12 Geography 473
Instruction Design
Purpose: To Teach students how to use internet sources to improve their geographic
skills including drawing maps in their geography courses.
Objectives: To have the students be able to integrate their internet habit to geo-
graphic skills. To have the students add layers to the maps, form their own maps
using web sources.
Materials: The Internet, a personal computer, a laptop or a tablet that can be used
with the internet.

Attention: The teacher shows some web pages for drawing maps.www.esri.com,
https://maps.google.com, https://maps.yahoo.com Students are told that they can
use these websites to find out a place from the map online. Then some layers may
be added to the map; zooming feature can be shown. Physical, political, satellite
views are shown.
Presentation of Content: Teacher explains the tools forming the architecture of web
based ARCGIS.
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A lot of data can be taken and used by web-based GIS servers. A major website
for geographic data (Basemaps, Boundaries and Places, Landscapes, Community
Maps, Transportation, Urban Systems, Demographics, and Lifestyles, etc.) is www.
esri.com. Here are some examples that were taken from this website.
One example of the use of web-based GIS application is from Turkey, The
Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs. In the ministry’s web server, there are more
than 500 layers to be used in geography classes.
12 Geography 475
The teacher tells the class to draw a map using web-based GIS applications.
First, everybody enters the website: www.esri.com/software/ArcGIS/free-trial and
log on the website.
Then students type an address into the field at the top of the page. Any place can
be chosen. Let’s write İstanbul.
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As it is seen, the map of İstanbul appears. Then add new points by clicking
button. Add map notes from the drop-down list.
Then select the stickpin and point to the map. Place it on the map and write the
necessary information. Give the location a title and a brief description and click
Change Symbol.
Click to show more symbol sets. Choose the Shapes option and select a shape.
Click OK to finish. Choose a different map to appear in the background (Basemap).
Choose imagery base map. Then Choose, Save and Save As from the
drop-down
12 Geography 477
Next, give your map a title, some tags so it can be discovered using search, a
brief summary, and click the Save Map button.
Now we have got our map. This was our first map using web-based GIS
application. Following maps will be more detailed.
478 H. Kaya
Further activities: Students are asked to prepare a map using web-based GIS with
some new layers and share them using social network sites.
Giving feedback: Teacher examines some of the maps and gives direction to
complete the map with layers.
Assessment: Students show their maps to the class and explain the details about it.
Then another map is prepared by the students, this time, more details can be added.
Semantic Network: While preparing maps students use physical geographic features
as well as political, geographic features. Each of these features forms a layer used to
define a property of the map. Students also need to use their maths skills to prepare
their maps.
12 Geography 479
12.2.5 Activity Five: Settlements
The team, Play, Tournament (TOT): team, play, the tournament is a technique in
collaborative learning. Students are set into groups of four. After the teacher makes
the presentation of the lesson, the teams start working on the worksheets. Then the
teams ask questions to other groups and each team speakers answer the questions in
turns. The teacher explains the ambiguous or unanswered questions and finally,
groups ask further questions to learn the subject deeply.
Tag of Activity
Method of Teaching: Collaborative Learning: Teams-Games-Tournaments
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary: Geography, History, Biology, Sociology,
Statistics
Types of Learning: Concepts, rules, semantic networks, relations
Prerequisite knowledge: Students have studied population as the background
information. Urban and Rural population rates, population statistics according to
the dwelling areas. Students also know geographical relief and conditions for living
in the suitable areas to be settled on earth.
Students’ participation: Students will be actively involved in the group activities.
They will study, learn, cooperate with other group members, answer the questions
about the lesson topic. They will also prepare a 3-d Project indicating a type of
settlement in groups.
Parents’ participation: Parent will help students in their projects on settlements.
Parents know earlier history of the settlements and they describe, i.e., their
village/town/city 10 years/20 years/30 years before, the pioneers of the
village/town/city, the geographic features (climatic events, disasters, etc.) that
affected their living.
Keywords: Collaborative learning, settlement, rural, urban, population, team, Speaker
of the team, evaluation, assessment, types of settlements, factors, worksheet, reward,
success, performance, Rural-Urban settlements, city, village, street, river, seaside,
lakes, plains, plateaus, mountains, ancient settlements, population, population
statistics, immigration, population decrease-increase, continuously/partly populated
areas, geographic features affecting settlement, volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, ero-
sion, hurricanes, climate, coasts, Glaciers, Rainforests
activity with pupils. Students are asked whether they live in the city center or
outside the city as well as the structure of their dwelling areas.
Teacher: Where do you live?

Ss: On earth!
T: Good answer. Do you live in the city center or outside the city?
S1: I live in Palm Street, in the city center.
480 H. Kaya
S2: I live in zone 4, outside the city.

T: Have you lived in a village?
S3: I live in the city center, but my grandparents live in the village
T: Have you seen their village?
S3: Yes Sometimes I visit them. Mountains, river and cows everywhere.
T: What about their house?
S3: A very nice house, made of Stones at the base and most of the walls are
wooden.
T: Which one do you like the most?
S3: Both, the house in the village is so nice, and I feel restful there, but no
technology, no internet.
T: What is the difference between a city and a village?
Here, students give advantages and disadvantages of both.
T: Where do people prefer olive? Why?
S4: Near the rivers. To provide water supplies
S5: Near the mountains, To be protected from storms, enemies, wood and hunting
needs.
S6: In the cities, for a modern life.
S7: In the villages, to have a natural life, health, to breed animals.
S8: Near the water basins, mines, agricultural areas, plains, plateaus, etc.
– Students are told that they will work in teams.
Instruction Design
Purpose: To Teach students settlements types with the activity
Objectives: To have the students be able to realise and explain the reasons for the
settlement types and the factors influencing settlement.
Materials: Photos, Worksheets, Answer Key.

1. Warm Up-Motivation: Audio-visual media can be used to present the types of
settlement at the beginning of the lesson.
2. Team Setting: While setting the teams, students’ success may be taken into
consideration. As a useful teamwork, the number of the team members should
be determined. In this activity, the teams have four members. In deciding the
groups of the students, there should be a balance. Each team should be formed
by students with low, medium and high performance in the lesson. Then the list
of teams with the students according to groups is formed. Each team finds a
name and slogan to their teams with brainstorming technique. Each team
member offers a name and a slogan for the group. Later, the names and slogans
12 Geography 481
are discussed, and a team name and a slogan for the team are chosen. In the
teamwork, each student tries to understand the lesson topic and help their team
members.
Then teacher starts giving information about the lesson topic. Students are
informed about the targetted learning points:
– Definition of Settlements,
– Types of Settlements,
– The Factors affecting the location of settlements.
Tip 1: Videos showing settlement types can be watched.

Teacher gives the necessary definitions about the lesson topic and explains the
subject in details. During this stage audio visual aids and settlement photos can be
used.
Tip 2: The influence of natural disasters, earthquakes, floods, erosions, aridity,
storms, volcanos over settlement can also be emphasized.
2nd Hour: Groups start working together. In ten minutes, soft speaker teams
summarize the teacher presentation in the previous lesson. In the remaining time,
the worksheets about the lesson are studied with the team members.
3rd Hour: The answer key is taken from the teacher and the team members check
and evaluate their answers with the answer key. Teams lead their questions to other
groups. The other teams’ speakers answer these questions with the help of other
team members in their teams.
4th hour: The ambiguous questions that need to is clarified are explained by the
teacher.
Tip 3: Websites, magazines, brochures, ads, etc. related to settlement types can be
used as materials.
Team members ask questions to each other and try to fully understand the
lesson.
3. Assessment of Teams:
Then students are evaluated individually after these team works. During this
evaluation, team members are not allowed to help each other. According to the test
scores, students’ developments are considered. The scores of the teams will be
determined by the average scores of each member of the teams and they will be
rewarded according to three level of scores; good team-70–80, very good team-81–
90, Perfect Team-91–100 out of 100. As a reward, names and photos of the suc-
cessful team members can be hanged on the walls, certificate of success, books,
chocolates and some other presents can be chosen. Students will be told that in
every activity they have a chance to be successful and their previous scores are used
to determine new teams.
482 H. Kaya
Further activities: Students in teams, prepare a 3-D settlement Project as an

assignment in a month. Each team choose a settlement modeler a type of house and
prepare a plan for it. After the teacher confirms the Project plans, they start building
their projects. A traditional Japanese village, An Italian trullo village, A traditional
Safranbolu House, An AngloSaxon settlement, etc. When they finish their projects,
they present them in the class to other teams.
Giving feedback: When teams make a presentation or activity, the whole group and
each member of the team is evaluated by both the other groups and the teacher.
After completing the worksheets, the teams evaluate themselves by the answer key
from the teacher. And finally, teacher always checks their performance as teams and
individually. The team with the best scores can be rewarded by several presents by
the teacher after they complete tests or worksheets during the activities. When they
complete the projects, the first three projects can be again rewarded.
Semantic networks:
• Earthquakes, floods, Erosion and landslides, storm, aridity and some other
Natural Disasters are so influential in determining the settlement types. Human
beings generally prefer more protected areas against natural disasters.
• Suitable areas for settlement are generally resides, fertile farmlands, places
around rivers, lakes, plains and other advantageous areas.
• Sociology: Settlement features also affect social structure of the people. In small
settlement units people generally know each other well and some concepts as
friendship, neighborhood, cooperation, having more common values are so
strong that make people connect each other socially.
Outcomes:
• Students will be able to categorize settlement types
• Students will be able to make connections among the settlement types and
geographical features.
• Students will be able to comprehend the structures of buildings with the geo-
graphical features around.
• Students will be able to comprehend and realise the advantages and disadvan-
tages of the settling areas.
• Students will be able to decide on a suitable settlement area.
• Students will be able to comprehend the influence of geographic features on
settlement
• Students will be able to comprehend the factors affecting types of settlements.
12 Geography 483
12.2.6 Activity Six: Natural Disasters—The Use of Media

in Teaching Geography
Educators should be aware that children nowadays are confronted by media so often
and travel experiences as influencing factors. They know more of the world than we
consider (Donert 2010). Media covers all the means of communication as written
(newspaper, magazine), audiovisual media and internet media. They may be so
useful regarding informing, socializing, entertainment, protecting cultural values,
criticizing, introducing in education (Özder 2013). In teaching geography, news
about the environment, disasters, tourism, industry, privatization, agriculture,
financial developments, population and dwelling and transport can easily be used.
Tag of Activity
Focus of Teaching: Student-centered
Method of Teaching: The use of Media in Teaching Geography
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary
Approach/Method:
Types of Learning: Visual, spatial, interpersonal
Prerequisite knowledge: Natural disasters based on mostly physical geographic
fundamentals. Students have background information on physical geographic
features.
Students’ participation: Students generally use the means of media, they will also
use them in the class.
Parents’ participation: Parents may provide the means of media to their children.
Keywords: Media, video, natural disasters, floods, drought, global warming, hur-
ricanes, tornados, landslides
Mini Scenario: Is shown in the “presentation of content” section.
Instruction Design
Purpose: To teach students how to use media in their geography courses.
Objectives: To have the students be able to identify and classify natural disasters
and comprehend their significance in terms of sustainable environment.
Materials: Pieces of newspaper, videos, magazines

Attention: Tell the students that they are going to watch a short video on an
earthquake. During watching the video, think about these questions.
Presentation of Content: The teacher starts the lesson with the 101 Earthquake
(http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/101-videos/earthquake-101) video.
After watching it, as a class, the teacher has students discuss what they know about
the impacts of earthquakes on communities. The students are asked to answer the
following questions:
484 H. Kaya
(a) Is an earthquake a natural disaster?

(b) Where do earthquakes occur?
(c) What earthquakes did you watch the video?
(d) Do other disasters coexist with earthquakes? Why?
(e) How do the countries get ready for the earthquakes?
After watching the video;
T: How did you feel?
SS: terrible
T: Have you ever lived an earthquake?
S1: I experienced an earthquake. It was terrifying. I do not want to remember.
T: Yes, now the first question; Is an earthquake a natural disaster?
S1: Yes, a natural disaster
T: Yes, It occurs at fault zones. We will learn about the fault zones later. This is
the answer to the question 2. Now Question 3; What earthquakes did you
watch the video?
S2: I saw Japanese houses in the beginning.
T: Yes. That’s right.
S3: Then Haiti earthquake.
T: That’s right, in 2010.
S4: There were modern buildings like US cities?
T: Yes, may be. It is not clear. The next question; Do other disasters coexist
with earthquakes?
S1: Tsunami?
S2: Flood?
T: Yes, that’s right. After some big earthquakes, it is possible to see tsunami
and flood disasters. The last question; How do the countries get ready for the
earthquakes?
S5: Some countries, some cities have the risk of an earthquake.
S6: There are a lot of earthquakes occur in Japan. They do not get harmed.
T: Do all the countries get prepared as Japan?
S7: No, there are a lot of places that people get harmed and died.
T: That’s right. What about the other natural disasters? Which ones do you
know?
S8: hurricane, tornado
S9: flood, landslide
S10: avalanche
S11: volcanic eruption
T: We can also add, tsunami, forest fire and drought.
Tip1: Teacher divides the class into groups and shows newspaper news about
disasters.
T: (to group 1) Look at this newspaper.
12 Geography 485
What kind of disasters does it mention about?

T: Yes, a flood at Eastern states and cities in the U.S.
T: (to group 2) look at this piece of newspaper:
T: (to group 3) look at this piece of newspaper

486 H. Kaya

12 Geography 487
Assessment: Groups examine the pieces of newspaper and report the disaster after
completing the following form:
DISASTER FACT SHEET
Type of Disaster:
Where Did it occur?
How did the disaster happen?
The number of people died:
The number of people injured:
Giving Feedback: Groups tell their reports to the class, and the whole class eval-
uates each report. Students prepare news for the media corner and students talk
about the news on the media corner as a whole class activity
Tip 1: Each video is watched, and teacher explains about the reasons and results of
natural disasters; floods, drought, global warming, hurricanes, tornados, landslides,
488 H. Kaya
1. Video about floods (3.29 min) http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/101-

videos/floods
2. Video about drought (2.58 min) http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/101-
videos/droughts?source=relatedvideo
3. Video about global warming (3.03 min) http://video.nationalgeographic.com/
video/101-videos/global-warming-101?source=relatedvideo
4. Video about hurricanes (3.08 min) http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/
101-videos/hurricanes-101?source=relatedvideo
5. Video about tornados (3.00 min) http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/
101-videos/tornadoes-101?source=relatedvideo
6. Video about landslides (3.47 min) http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/
101-videos/landslides?source=relatedvideo
Further activities: Students search for disaster news in the media, then from a media
corner including news about disasters for the following week.
Semantic networks: Students search for disaster news in the media, then from a
media corner including news about disasters for the following week.
• The Natural disasters influence settlement types and population density. Human
beings generally prefer more protected areas against natural disasters.
• Geologic, geomorphologic processes in the formation of disasters
• Sociology: Sociologic effects of disasters in societies are so significant. So these
effects should be taken into consideration in terms of sociology.
• Psychology: The influence of disasters over the witnesses may be traumatic. So
individual disorders related to disasters should be evaluated in psychological
terms.
Outcomes:
• Students will be able to define natural disasters.
• Students will be able to classify natural disasters.
• Students will be able to explain the reasons of natural disasters.
• Students will be able to comprehend the results of natural disasters.
• Students will be able to use the media for some geographic information.
12.3 Conclusion
Geography examines the relation between nature and human beings on earth, so
geography always surrounds us. Lambert and Jones (2013) state that geographic
thinking, questioning using geographic skills leads a person to be a part of con-
tinuous change in the world. In this point of view, the more geographic features we
learn the better we survive in nature. As the increasing importance of geography,
the struggle to teach it better is going on. After the integration of technology, the
teaching of geography has become more popular. The use of media has also con-
tributed to geography much. There are so many methods, techniques, technologies
12 Geography 489
and material to be used in geography teaching. There is no one way or method to

use in the classroom so the most suitable one/ones should be considered and used
when and where necessary appropriately. Some lessons must be studied inside the
nature to examine natural processes where some must be done at the computer
laboratory using technology. Teachers have a great role in determining the best
teaching atmosphere including teaching model, strategy, method, techniques,
technologies, materials for the students.
Glossary
Collaborative Learning with an organized group of people or entities who

Learning collaborate towards a particular goal.
Fossil Fuel any fuel derived from hydrocarbon deposits such as coal,
petroleum, natural gas.
Geographic The necessary tools and techniques for people to think
Skills geographically.
GIS Server is software that makes your geographic information available
to others in your organization and optionally anyone with an
Internet connection.
GIS Geographic Information Systems
Glacier A large body of ice which flows under its own mass.
GPS Global Positioning System
Hurricane A cyclonic storm, usually of tropic origin, covering an
extensive area, and containing winds more than 75 miles per
hour
ICT Resources Resources for Information and Communications Technology
—the electronic means of capturing, processing, storing and
communicating information
Media A means of conveying information, both graphic and textual.
Non-Renewable A resource that is not renewable
Ozone Layer is a region of Earth’s stratosphere that absorbs most of the
Sun’s ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
Privatization The transfer of a company or organization from government
to private ownership and control.
Renewable Sustainable; able to be regrown or renewed.
Social Network A network of personal or business contacts, especially as
facilitated by social networking on the Internet
490 H. Kaya
Sustainable able to be sustained for an indefinite period without dam-

aging the environment, or without depleting a resource
Tornado A violent windstorm characterized by a twisting,
funnel-shaped cloud
Traditional Methods consisting of or derived from tradition,
Methods old-fashioned.
Water Basin the area drained by a river and all its tributaries.
Web-Based GIS Geographic Information Systems based on Web Sources.
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Sever, R. (2010). Öğretim Teknolojileri ve Materyal Tasarımı, Tasarım Örnekleri, Anı Yayıncılık,
Ankara.
Ünlü, M. (2014). Coğrafya Öğretimi. Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
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Chapter 13
Information and Communication
Technologies
Veysel Demirer
In this chapter, there are activity samples regarding the Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) discipline. The terms and conditions of the
teaching process of curriculum development and teaching were considered in
developing these activities. These mentioned terms and conditions were detailed
under the “Activity Sample” title. This chapter involves “Presentation of Field”,
“Activity Samples”, and “Conclusion” subchapters.
In this subchapter, the discipline of Information and Communication Technologies

and the most commonly used teaching activities are introduced based on the lit-
erature. For this purpose, a briefing was provided in this chapter based on the
literature and the elements of discipline.
13.1.1 Briefing
Today, information and communication technologies are actively used in many

different disciplines including health, defense, energy and education, and they are
becoming an indispensable part of social life. Information and communication
technologies are seen as the source of today’s information society by leading to
major changes in many areas (Kozma 2008). For the communities to adapt to the
changing and developing conditions of the world, they need to educate individuals
V. Demirer (&)
Faculty of Education, Süleyman Demirel University, 32260, Isparta, Turkey
e-mail: veyseldemirer@sdu.edu.tr

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_13
494 V. Demirer
who are capable of meeting the needs of the information society. Therefore, ICT
education has a significant role in raising modern individuals who can follow the
developments of all kinds, constantly research and question, and generate knowl-
edge instead of consume it (Demirer and Sak 2015).
Effective use of ICT by individuals in today’s communities is regarded as one of
the indicators of a country’s level of development. Hence, more emphasis on ICT
education is given in developed countries at all levels of education (Benes et al.
2008; Demirer and Sak 2015; Rambousek et al. 2014). In fact, programming
training were initiated for children in their early ages by the countries which
realized the strategic and economic contributions of developments in the field of
software, and many projects have been implemented on this issue (Demirer and Sak
2015).
ICT literacy is also becoming as important as literacy in a world where the
technology develops rapidly and affects every aspect of modern life. For this rea-
son, ICT literacy is seen to be among the priority objectives of educational insti-
tutions in the 21st century. As this will have an extensive impact on people’s
personal and business lives, so it is expected to affect largely the education systems
that prepare people for life and business. Moreover, it will also have an effect on the
course contents and qualifications taught in schools by leading to the inclusion of
new topics and the transformation of the education system (Wilson et al. 2015). In
this context, schools and teachers have to re-design their curriculum and teaching
environments by considering the current education programs and learners’ digital
competences (Aesaert et al. 2013).
ICT is a fast developing discipline with new technologies emerging every day.
Students are mostly faced with outdated course contents regarding ICT education.
Up until now, while the main course contents of ICT education have been based on
basic computer competencies and office applications, these contents are inadequate
and even boring for today’s children. Additionally, many skills and knowledge are
taught to students which they will neither face in real life nor use at all. Failure to
fully define the ICT education and the variability of the technologies are important
factors (Chin and Chang 2011). Therefore, ICT education must involve the
developing technologies to attract students’ attention and force them to produce
new things.
ICT education can be associated with a wide range of activities including spe-
cializing in software tools and the development of algorithmic thinking
(Rambousek et al. 2014). In this regard, different practices emerging in ICT edu-
cation seriously affect children’s ICT competence and digital literacy (Rambousek
et al. 2014). In addition, teachers’ knowledge and skills are effective in the
implementation of ICT education programs, and therefore differences in practice are
experienced (Benes et al. 2008). Besides, ICT education varies from country to
country, and thematic variety and activities are differentiated (Rambousek et al.
2014).
ICT education is essential in educating individuals to use information and
communication technologies in accordance with the ethical, effective and produc-
tive manner. Primary and middle school levels are significant for ICT education,
13 Information and Communication Technologies 495
and this period of time is effective in developing students’ ICT competencies and
the efficient use of ICT (Rambousek et al. 2014). In general, ICT competencies that
students must have can be listed involving creativity, innovativeness, communi-
cation and cooperation, access to accurate and reliable information, critical think-
ing, problem-solving, decision-making, digital citizenship, and having a general
command of technological concepts (Gülbahar et al. 2013). Modern ICT education
shall increase children’s learning skill in the fast-changing environments and their
competencies of adaptation and transfer knowledge and skills to new contexts. It
must also provide children with critical thinking, decision making and logical
thinking, algorithmic thinking, problem-solving and creating thinking skills
(Rambousek et al. 2014). According to Gülbahar et al. (2013), students who are
ICT literate are expected to have the ability of using computer at basic level, to
search and process the information, to conduct project activities in communication
and cooperation, to produce new information by building on the existing knowl-
edge and visualize them, to share what they produce with others, and to pay
attention to ethical principles and copyrights in this process. In this context, ICT
education programs must include the teaching of digital literacy, use of technology,
programming, ethics, security, privacy, and cybercrime issues. Therefore, these
programs must present technology with a constructivist and cognitive teaching style
by a student-centered approach.
13.1.2 Methods and Techniques in ICT Education
The selection of appropriate methods and techniques in teaching a course is very

important, and the purposes and objectives of the course are significant in the
identification of methods and techniques. For instance, if the course objective
involves only practice, methods based on practice (problem-solving, drama, sample
case, etc.) can be used in this course (Timuçin 2010; Yanpar Yelken 2012).
However, there might be more than one course objective, and each objective might
belong to different learning areas. For this reason, it would be wrong to think that
only one method is superior to the other, and it meets all learning needs (Timuçin
2010; Yanpar Yelken 2012). Therefore, the courses can be diversified with various
course activities, and it seems wise to use different methods and techniques within
the course time and context (Yanpar Yelken 2012). For example, a drama activity
can be used to activate students’ schemata, then a demonstration method can be
conducted to introduce new information, and computer-based activities can be
added to ensure the practicality of the new subject (Yanpar Yelken 2012).
As different teaching models (mastery learning model, cooperative learning
model, constructivist learning model, Gagne’s conditions of learning model, 5E
model, multiple intelligence learning, etc.) can be used in ICT education, it is also
possible to use various methods and techniques together. However, it is observed
that ICT education teachers mostly prefer lecturing, question-answer, demonstra-
tion, discussion, project-based activities and cooperative learning methods in ICT
496 V. Demirer
education process. In this chapter, some of the methods and techniques that can be
used in ICT education are shortly introduced, and some sample activities are shared
that can be used in ICT education. Besides, there are many other resources that
suggest advantages and disadvantages of these techniques and methods in the
relevant literature. Teaching methods and techniques that can be used in ICT
education are briefly listed below:
Lecture Method: The teacher narrates and lectures his knowledge, background,
and experiences to passive learners (Timuçin 2010). This method is mainly used in
the objectives that are aimed at teaching knowledge level of the cognitive domain. It
is also practiced in transferring information, attracting attention to lessons, moti-
vating students, transition among the topics, expressing the important points of the
topic, and summarizing (Sünbül 2011). This method can be useful in teaching
knowledge-level course objectives of ICT education.
Question-answer method: This is one of the most effective methods that ensure
teacher-student and student-student interaction. It greatly contributes to learners’
thinking and speaking skills (Timuçin 2010). It can be used in different
objective-behavior levels by integrating into other teaching methods (Sünbül 2011).
In ICT courses, this method can be influential in finding out about students’
knowledge and opinions on ICT. This method can be helpful in highlighting the key
points of the course, the reinforcement of learning, attracting students’ attention to
the topic, increasing participation in lessons, helping learners discover
cause-and-effect relationships, providing feedback and correction, and enhancing
communication.
Demonstration method: It is defined as demonstrating and lecturing a skill
repeatedly by the teacher and the repetition of students of the same demonstration
until they realize it efficiently. Firstly, the demonstration is conducted and then
practice takes place, which also support learning by doing. In this method which is
used in ICT courses by the teaching of a software and its functions, students are
requested to implement a number of steps with the help of a projector, and then they
are required to conduct some practices, which comprehensively involve demon-
stration and practice method (Timuçin 2010).
Discussion method: This a teaching method which is based on small or large
group discussions, listening to each other and criticizing with the purposes of
encouraging students to think on a topic, clarifying unclear points and reinforcing
the information given. A teacher who uses this method facilitates the learning
process of students by helping them interact and discuss with one another and learn
something new in this way (Küçükahmet 1999). Discussion method increases the
interaction and provides active learning. It is also a method that can be used in
teaching many objectives of ICT education. Discussion method is helpful in
preparing for the topics to be taught to learners, arousing their interest, and pointing
their attention to the significant learning objectives. In addition, it is quite useful in
summarizing during and at the end of the course, the criticism about the subject,
and generating creative ideas (Yanpar Yelken 2012).
Drama method: It is defined as the playful processes through which learners act
out an experience, an event, a concept or behavior in a group by using techniques
such as improvisation and role-playing (San 1991). This method enables students to
experience how to behave in different situations by engaging in role-playing, theater
and improvisation activities and learning by doing the technique. ICT and human
interaction, ICT’s impacts on life, and the experiences in using ICT can be taught to
students through drama activities.
Case method: This is a teaching method in which a case or a problem that a
student can experience in daily life is examined in line with the teaching topic in the
classroom environment thereby ensuring resolving this problem. In this way, stu-
dents are provided with knowledge, attitude and skills for faster and more effective
solutions in a case that they can face (Sünbül 2011). Moreover, this method is
regarded quite significant in a sense that it bridges the gap between theoretical
knowledge and practice. This method is generally used in the realization of
high-level cognitive skills. This method can be used in a very efficient way in ICT
courses. For this purpose, ICT-related occasions or previously experienced prob-
lems are moved into the classroom environment, and they are thoroughly analyzed
(Timuçin 2010).
Cooperative learning method: In this method, students are evaluated together,
and they help each other, learn a topic by studying together in their learning process
and realizing course objectives through small groups (Demirel 2010; Slavin 1995;
Timuçin 2010). Sometimes, when a learner cannot solve a problem, it can be
possible to overcome it by the help of a group of learners. When learners work
together as a group in a project, they tend to be more eager to learn (Yanpar Yelken
2012). Many objectives can be taught by this method in ICT education, and
interdisciplinary studies can be conducted (Timuçin 2010).
Project-based learning method: It is a learning approach in which the problems
that students may face problems in real life are brought to the classroom envi-
ronment, and they are solved by an interdisciplinary approach. In this method,
students can perform their own learning. In practice, students define their goals,
plan the procedure and demonstrate a unique product at the end of this process by
the help of their creativity skills. The process and the product are evaluated toge-
ther. The teacher’s role here is to prepare the work schedule, and students make
presentations by reports, and the process is assessed. Group work also facilitates
cooperation. What students learnt in ICT courses can be transformed into original
outputs thanks to project-based learning method. While the skills of research,
analysis, critical thinking and creativity are taught to students, collaborative
learning can be provided in small groups.
Peer-assisted learning method: This is a learning method that aims at transfer-
ring experiences from one individual to the other by using materials in a
master-apprentice relationship, and it develops individuals’ academic and social
skills. This is also a process during which a talented and trained student teaches a
concept or skill to one or more than one student in teacher’s guidance. Considering
the fact that students’ individual characteristics and learning paces are different,
students who are superior to other in terms of knowledge and can quickly learn in
the comprehension of ICT skills can help their peers. It might be challenging for
teachers to provide feedback for all students especially with large groups, and
498 V. Demirer
therefore teacher’s workload can be decreased and the student interaction is sup-
ported by means of using this method.
In addition to the methods mentioned above and techniques, the techniques of
inquiry learning, anchored teaching, critical thinking, reflective learning, webquest,
and mobile learning can be used in ICT education (Ocak et al. 2010). Specifically,
webquest technique is useful in activities that are based on research and output.
Additionally, educational computer games can be used in the facilitation of the ICT
objectives. Some other brainstorming technique, six thinking hats, fishbone thinking
technique, discussion and debate technique can also be used in ICT education. In this
context, it is highly likely to suggest that all teaching methods and techniques can
actively be conducted in ICT education (Timuçin 2010). Thus, there are different
activity samples in which various models, methods, and techniques are used altogether.
Information technologies are used widely in every area of our lives, and it is
increasingly becoming indispensable. The living areas are fitted with these tech-
nologies and individuals of all ages tend to interact with them. From this point of view,
both parents and children have to use these technologies effectively and come up with
new knowledge and output products. Even though today’s children are characterized
as digital natives (Prensky 2001) who are grown up with these technologies, they need
teachers’ and parents’ guidance in using information technologies accurately and
reliably. Moreover, they need to keep the track of the constantly-changing latest
technologies and learn about them. In this regard, parents have this responsibility of
informing their children about the technologies that make children’s lives easier and
facilitate their learning process by making these technologies available to them.
Parents can also conduct extracurricular activities to reinforce and facilitate ICT
education, and they can guide the students to use these technologies accurately and
effectively. The accurate, efficient, reliable and ethical use of technology must be
guided by family members. In addition, parents must prevent their children from
becoming passive consumers of these technologies. In this highly competitive
world, active use of technology can only be possible by supporting children’s
creativity and canalizing them to generate new innovative ideas and products.

Activity One: Using ICT for Communication
Activity Two: Information Searching
Activity Three: Information Sharing
Activity Four: Creating Multimedia
13.2.1 Activity One: Using ICT for Communication
Three different instructional design based on three different teaching model were
designed for this activity. In the first one, the topic was taught by “Gagné’s Nine
Events of Instruction” model. In the second one, “5E model” was used, and in the
third one “multiple intelligence theory” was included.
According to Gagné, learning takes place by the interaction of external and internal
factors. Learning can be observed through observable behaviors, and he defends that it
occurs in the brain. Depending on the process occurring in the human mind, Gagne
suggested a nine-step process that shows how learning and teaching phases are formed.
The 5E model involves arousing students’ curiosity for research, satisfying the
expectations of them, and focusing on knowledge and skills with the help of an
active research and comprehension process. While this model includes students in
every stage of the activities throughout the learning process, it also encourages
students to constitute their own concepts.
According to multiple intelligence theory, intelligence is multidimensional, and
all intelligence are of equal value or one or a few of them are not more significant
than the others. In a class where teaching is conducted based on this theory,
teachers are required to diversify their activities for different bits of intelligence.
Tag of Activity
Type of Teaching: This activity has an interdisciplinary approach, and it involves
practice samples of social studies, linguistics, communication, and information and
communication technologies disciplines by using relevant concepts and facts on
these fields.
• In the Instructional Design, 1 with Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction model,
presentation, lecturing, demonstration, and question-answer methods and tech-
niques are used.
• In the Instructional Design, 2 with 5E teaching model, question-answer, dis-
cussion, brainstorming, and creative drama methods and techniques are used.
• In the Instructional Design 3 with Multiple Intelligence Theory, question-
answer, discussion, brainstorming, and creative drama, critical thinking, ques-
tioning, and interpretation methods and techniques are used.
Approach/Method: Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction, 5E Model, Multiple
Intelligence
Types of Learning: Concept knowledge, relationship network and actions are
taught in this activity to communicate with individuals in distance using informa-
tion and communication technologies.
Prerequisite knowledge: Prerequisites for the activity are basic computing skills,
communication, and Internet knowledge.
Students’ participation: Teaching activities are conducted as student-centered in
teacher’s guidance, and students participate actively in the activities. To enable
500 V. Demirer
student participation, the activities of question-answer, brainstorming, and drama

are conducted.
Parents’ participation: Students’ parents can organize extracurricular to rein-
force and facilitate the learning procedure. They can also help their children
communicate with their relatives, friends and the others through online environ-
ments and e-mails to enrich communicational experience in information tech-
nologies. They can also collaboratively participate in e-mail sending process and
support their children by developing ideas and adding more creative elements to
e-mails.
Keywords: Letter, envelope, stamp, mailman, pigeon, smoke, fire, email, com-
puter, internet, online media, send button, transmission speed, information sharing,
greeting, address, mailbox, e-mail account, message, low cost, easy communica-
tion, etc.
Mini-scenario: As this activity involves three different instructional design,
mini-scenarios are shared throughout the instructional stages.
Instructional Design I: Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to teach the use of e-mail in communicating
with distant people.
Objectives: The objectives of this activity are to make students realize the diffi-
culties in sharing information and to make use of electronic mail in sharing
information.
Materials: Computer, projector, Internet connection, visuals, a few letters, a few
sample events from daily life.

Gaining Attention: Teacher comes to the classroom dressed as a mailman and
carries a few letters in his hand. Students feel surprised and ask why he is dressed
like this. Teacher asks the following questions:
• Which occupation do you think I represent now?
• What is the duty of mailman?
• Have you ever sent a letter?
After receiving a number of responses to these questions, the teacher shows
some visuals on projector regarding red-Indians doing something with fire and
smoke, a pigeon with a letter attached to its foot, a mailman who brings letters to a
family, and a little child who writes something in front of the computer.
A brainstorming session is held regarding what these people or creatures are doing
in these photos.
Tip 1: A short movie or animation can be watched regarding what humanity has
experienced in the communication process throughout the history.
Informing learners of the objectives: Teacher explains the objective of this lesson
by indicating that they will learn and realize the difficulties of sharing information
with distant people in the past, and they will comprehend how e-mails make
communication and sharing information with distant people easier.
Stimulating recall of prior knowledge:
• Students are expected to share their ideas and hold a brainstorming session
about how they communicate with distant people. Communication types are
written on the board, and they are discussed.
• Teacher shows one of the letters to the class and asks what materials they need
to write a letter. The expected answers from students involve envelope, blank
paper, stamps, pens, etc.
• The teacher requires students to recall letter writing stages and talk briefly about
them. These stages are explained as writing a letter to the blank paper, putting
the letter into an envelope, writing the sender and recipient information on the
envelope, sealing the envelope and throwing it into the mailbox.
Tip 2: Writing algorithms activity can be used at this stage regarding writing a letter
and sending it.
• The teacher helps students become aware that the stages of writing a letter and
sending an e-mail are quite similar to one another.
Presenting Information: Teacher conducts a teaching and lecturing session on

sending an e-mail using presentation and lecture methods.
• Teacher says that he will reply by e-mail to one of his friends who sent him a
letter. After projecting his computer’s screen via a projector, he logs into his
own e-mail account by filling username and password. Thus, students are
reminded about how they can access their e-mail accounts that they learnt in the
previous lessons.
• After opening the mailbox, he shows the emails in the inbox to students and tells
them that they can track the e-mails that are sent by others.
• The teacher opens a new e-mail writing window by clicking “compose a new
e-mail” button. He writes down his friend’s e-mail address to the recipient
section. He notes “Hello, this is an e-mail from my students” to the subject
section and me. To the message section, he writes the following message “I am
very happy to receive your letter. Now, I am in a class with my students. See
you soon, bests”. In the meantime, he talks about these processes in detail. After
finishing writing an e-mail, he clicks “Send” button.
Providing Guidance: Teacher requests all students to repeat the same process by
following similar steps of writing and sending an e-mail. Students are put into pairs
and are requested to work together. The teacher provides guidance in this activity.
502 V. Demirer
Eliciting Performance: After sending e-mails, each student checks, and controls
whether the e-mail has been sent or not.
Providing Feedback: Students talk with their friends to control whether the e-mail
has been received or not. Teacher gives reinforcement to students who are
successful.
Assessment: Students learning levels are assessed at this stage.
• Students are requested to write down the similarities and differences between
writing a letter and sending an e-mail.
• Students are expected to explain the advantages of e-mail systems and its fea-
tures (transmission speed, low cost, efficient use, etc.)
Further Activities: Students can send an e-mail involving their opinions about a
book to its author. They can ask some questions to author in their e-mails. If a
response is received from the author, a thank-you note can be sent in an e-mail too.
Tip 3: Different tasks can be given to students in this stage based on sending an
e-mail topic. In addition, they might be requested to brainstorm about communi-
cation with distant people or a research assignment can be given.
Semantic networks: This activity is based on teaching students how to use e-mails
to share information and become aware of the difficulties of communicating with
distant people. Firstly, communication processes and methods from the past to the
present were examined, and students were made to realize this transformation.
Especially, it was shown that there are similarities between sending a letter (writing
a letter to the blank paper, putting the letter into envelope, writing the sender and
recipient information on the envelope, sealing the envelope and throwing it into the
mailbox) and writing an e-mail, and the steps of writing and sending an e-mail were
taught effectively.
Learning outcomes: Behaviors expected of students once this activity is done as
follows:
• Defines communication process
• Comprehends the tools that make communication easier
• Learns how to use e-mail
Instructional Design II: 5E Model

information.

1. Engage: Teacher comes to the classroom dressed as a mailman and carries a few
letters in his hand.
• Which occupation do you think I represent now?
• What is the duty of mailman?
• Have you ever sent a letter?
After receiving a number of responses to these questions, the teacher shows
some visuals on projector regarding red-Indians doing something with fire, a pigeon
with a letter attached to its foot, a mailman who brings letters to a family, and a little
child who writes something in front of the computer. A brainstorming session is
held regarding what these people or creatures are doing in these photos.
Tip 1: A short movie or animation can be watched regarding what humanity has
experienced in the communication process throughout the history.
2. Explore:
• Teacher shows one of the letters to the class and asks what materials they
need to write a letter. The expected answers from students involve envelope,
blank paper, stamps, pens, etc.
• The teacher requires students to recall letter writing stages and talk briefly
about them. These stages are explained as writing a letter to the blank paper,
putting the letter into an envelope, writing the sender and recipient information
on the envelope, sealing the envelope and throwing it into the mailbox.
Tip 2: Writing algorithms activity can be used at this stage regarding writing a letter
and sending it.
• He distributes a few letters to make them examine them. Then, students are
requested to write a letter to a blank page describing what they did in the
summer holiday.
• Students are expected to brainstorm about how they communicate with distant
people. These methods are written on the board and discussed.
3. Explain:
e-mail account by filling username and password. Thus, students are
reminded about how they can access their e-mail accounts that they learnt in
the previous lessons.
504 V. Demirer
• After opening the mailbox, he shows the emails in the inbox to students and
tells them that they can track the e-mails that are sent by others.
section and me. To the message section, he writes the following message “I
am very happy to receive your letter. Now, I am in a class with my students.
See you soon, bests”. In the meantime, he talks about these processes in
detail. After finishing writing an e-mail, he clicks “Send” button.
• Students are requested to talk about the similarities and differences between
• Students are expected to explain the advantages of e-mail systems and its
features (transmission speed, low cost, efficient use, etc.)
4. Elaborate: In groups of two, students are asked to send one e-mail to each other
involving what they wrote in the blank paper at the beginning of the lesson.
Students log into their e-mail accounts using their username and passwords.
After checking the inbox, they click on “compose a new e-mail” button and they
send their e-mails to their friends. The teacher provides guidance during the
activity. When all students are finished, they check whether e-mails were sent
accurately or not. They also ask their friends if the e-mail has been received.
Tip 3: Different tasks can be given to students in this stage based on sending an
e-mail topic. Also, they might be requested to brainstorm about communication
with distant people, or a research assignment can be given.
5. Evaluate: Students can send an e-mail involving their opinions about a book to
its author. They can ask some questions to author in their e-mails. If a response
is received from the author, a thank-you note can be sent in an e-mail too.
taught effectively.
follows:

Instructional Design III: Multiple Intelligence

information.

Attention: Teacher can conduct different multiple intelligence activities at this stage
to increase students’ interest in the course and to create a conceptual infrastructure
related to the communication process.
Tip 1: Different activities based on multiple intelligence can be used in this stage by
considering students’ intelligence variety.
Musical–Rhythmic Intelligence: At the start of the course, the teacher makes
students listen to “The Mailman” children’s song and he wants them to sing along.
Link to the song and Turkish lyrics:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1UjM75aNT0
1. Chorus: 3. Mailman:
Look, the mailman’s coming, “This is all I have today,
He’s greeting us. Don’t be sorry,
Everybody looks at him eagerly Tomorrow I’ll be back,
Goodbye!”
2. Child: 4. Chorus:
“Thank you very much, Mr. Mailman, “Come on, goodbye,
You brought me good news!” Have a nice ride,
And very good
Luck to you!”
Tip 2: Many different children songs from various cultures can be chosen based on
communication and sending emails. For example:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLIrP1d8ZI4&nohtml5=False
Bodily–Kinesthetic Intelligence: A group of students can imitate and act out the
actions seen in the video. These movements are as follows:
506 V. Demirer
• Everybody walks like a mailman clockwise when they hear “Look, the mail-
man’s coming” part.
• Everybody greets in the “he’s greeting us” part.
• Everybody looks around in the “Everybody looks at him” part.
• Everybody moves their hands to their mouth, feeling eager, in the “eagerly”
part.
Visual–Spatial Intelligence: Teacher shows some visuals on projector regarding
red-Indians doing something with fire, a pigeon with a letter attached to its foot, a
mailman who brings letters to a family, and a little child who writes something in
front of the computer. A discussion session is held about what is happening in these
visuals. Lastly, the teacher tells that the children in front of the computer are
composing an e-mail to his friend.
Inform the target: Teacher explains that they will learn and realize the difficulties of
sharing information with distant people in the past, and they will comprehend how
e-mails make communication and sharing information with distant people easier.
Using preliminary information: The following activities about verbal-linguistic and
visual-spatial intelligence can be conducted to activate students’ prior knowledge:
Verbal-linguistic Intelligence: Teacher shows one of the letters to the class, asks
what materials they need to write a letter, and writes them on the board.
• ……………….
• ……………….
• ……………….
• ……………….
Visual-spatial Intelligence: Teacher requests students to remember the steps of
writing and sending a letter, and show these steps with an algorithm.
Presentation of content: In this stage, teacher talks about the process of writing and
sending an e-mail based on verbal-linguistic and visual-spatial intelligence
own e-mail account by filling username and password. Thus, students are
reminded about how they can access their e-mail accounts that they learnt in the
previous lessons.
• After opening the mailbox, he shows the emails in the inbox to students and tells
them that they can track the e-mails that are sent by others.
section and me. To the message section, he writes the following message “I am
very happy to receive your letter. Now, I am in a class with my students. See
you soon, bests”. In the meantime, he talks about these processes in detail. After
finishing writing an e-mail, he clicks “Send” button.
Naturalistic Intelligence: Students watch a video about saving the environment
by sending an e-mail instead of writing a letter on a piece of paper.
Further activities:
Interpersonal Intelligence/Social Intelligence: Each student is required to choose
a pair for themselves and send each other an e-mail about what they did on their
summer holiday. Also, an e-mail group can be created to help students share
something among themselves.
Intrapersonal Intelligence/Personal Intelligence: Students are required to share a
short text about themselves (their hobbies, likes, dream job, etc.) in the e-mail
group.
Verbal-linguistic Intelligence: Students are asked to brainstorm about different
technologies that can be used for communicating with distant people.
Assessment: In this stage, students’ learning objectives are controlled based on
logical-mathematical intelligence, verbal-linguistic intelligence and physical—
kinesthetic intelligence.
• Students are requested to write down the similarities and differences between
• Students are expected to explain the advantages of e-mail systems and its fea-
tures (transmission speed, low cost, efficient use, etc.)
• Students can send an e-mail involving their opinions about a book to its author.
In this stage, students are expected to achieve the following steps successfully:
– Log into e-mail server page using username and password
– Compose a new e-mail
– Write down the recipient information
– Compose the message
– Send the e-mail
taught effectively.
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follows:
13.2.2 Activity Two: Information Searching
In this activity, teaching subject was conducted based on demonstration method and
supported by Webquest technique. In the demonstration method, teacher firstly
teaches the skills that students must learn through knowledge transfer. In the
meantime, the teacher guides students during the activity to deal with sufficiently.
A WebQuest is an inquiry-oriented activity in which some or all of the information
that learners interact with comes from resources on the internet, optionally sup-
plemented with multimedia resources (Dodge 1997). WebQuest involves activities
that require individual or group work through the Internet. There are some steps that
students need to follow step by step while doing the activity. WebQuest is an
inquiry-based teaching tool, in which students of all ages and levels participate in
an authentic task that use pre-designed, pre-defined internet resources, though other
print resources can also be used (Lim and Hernández 2007).
Tag of Activity
Type of Teaching: Presentation, lecture, question-answer, discussion, brain-
storming, thinking, questioning, interpretation, demonstration. This activity has an
interdisciplinary approach, and it involves practice samples of social studies,
geography and information and communication technologies disciplines by using
relevant concepts and facts on these fields.
Approach/Method: Demonstration, Webquest, research and analysis, active
learning
taught in this activity regarding information search.
Prerequisite knowledge: Prerequisites for the activity are basic computing and
Internet skills and intermediate level presentation skill.
Students’ participation: Teaching activities are conducted as student-centered
with the guidance of a teacher. Students are involved in the teaching process by
question-answer and brainstorming activities throughout the teacher’s lecture, and
then they will repeat what they observed on their own. Lastly, students will com-
plete the WebQuest task by doing research.
Parents’ participation: Parents can organize extracurricular to reinforce and
facilitate the learning procedure. They can also work together with their children on
topics that they are curious about. They can check together the accuracy and
reliability of the information. Different materials or products can be prepared based

on the findings. Thus, students are provided with the opportunity of using the
information that they learnt into making creative outputs.
Keywords: Information search, accurate and reliable information, search engines,
keywords, parameters, filtering, different types of search, file format, search results,
text, audio, video, etc.
Mini-scenario: Teacher can engage in the following dialogue at the beginning of
the lesson to attract students’ attention:
Teacher: Dear students, I need to prepare a presentation about our country for a
friend of mine who lives abroad.
Student A: We need to collect information.
Student B: We need to find images and photos.
Student C: Can we find some videos?
Teacher: Yes, we can use different multimedia contents in our presentation. So,
how can we reach all these content?
Students: We can search the Internet, teacher.
Teacher: It is possible to use millions of websites on the Internet to search for
specific information, but it might be impossible to know which
website has the information we are searching for. So, how do we
search the Internet?
Students: We can search on Google.
Teacher: Yes, we can search for different sorts of content through search
engines. What’s more, we can even customize the search and access to
only accurate and reliable information resources.
Instructional Design
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to help students learn how to search the
Internet for specific information in digital environments and access to accurate
information.
Objectives:
• Lists the techniques that are used in the search for information.
• Uses search engines effectively.
• Filters search results based on the type of information and file format.
Materials: Computer, projector, internet connection, webquest

Attention: Teacher conducts the dialogue above stating that he has a problem and
needs to find a solution thereby increasing students’ attention and interest in the
lesson. There may come different responses from students. The teacher tells that it is
possible to use millions of websites on the Internet to search for specific infor-
mation, but it might be impossible to know which website has the information we
are searching for. Students are expected to give examples of Internet websites that
510 V. Demirer
they use for searching information. The possible responses from students may
involve Google, Bing, Yahoo, Yandex, etc.
Inform the target: Teacher tells to students that they will learn how to use search
engines to access to accurate and reliable information on the Internet in this lesson.
Stimulating recall of prior knowledge: In this stage, students are requested to talk
about their previous experiences and solution methods while searching for infor-
mation. In this way, they recall their prior knowledge and realize what they lack in
this subject.
Presentation of content: Teacher expresses that the search engines are used for
searching different types of content on the Internet, and they makes access to
information easier and quicker. Some examples of search engines are shared.
Students are shown details about search engines of Google, Bing, Yahoo, and
Yandex and what types of content (text, audio, video, news, location, etc.) they can
search on these websites.
The concept of “keyword” is explained to the students. They are informed about
the fact that they must use short keywords instead of using long sentences while
searching on search engines, and in this way, they can access to more accurate
results. The teacher also underlines that keywords are necessarily significant factors
of a searching information process. A specified search term is search on one of the
search engines. While the number of results is low in the first search, students are
required to find out about which search terms are respectively unnecessary.
Whenever one search term is omitted, the search is repeated, and it is observed that
the number of results is exponentially increased.
Example:
While there are around 20.000 results in Google search engine when typed “A rainbow is a
meteorological phenomenon that is caused by reflection, refraction and dispersion of light
in water droplets resulting in a spectrum of light appearing in the sky”, there are around 297
million results when searched for “rainbow”.
Teacher shows all students how to make a search on different search engines on
text, image, video, news, books and maps, and asks them to repeat the same
procedure. In this stage, students are asked to search for some materials that they
can use in the preparation of the presentation about the country, and thus they both
put what they learnt from their teacher into practice and collect some materials to
use in the presentation project. These searches involve the following:
• Texts about the history of the country
• Images about the historical, cultural and geographical characteristics of the country
• Promotional videos about the country
• Current news about the country
Then, a selected search term is searched on different search engines, and the
results are compared and contrasted. It is pointed out that while some of the engines
give more results, the others can provide fewer results on the same search term. It is
shown that there are various search parameters in order to effectively use search
engines and to reach the intended results faster. The following information is
shared, and different practices are conducted on each parameter.
• A quotation mark (‘’): This can be used to search for a sentence or a group of
words. For example, if you want to access to information about laser printers,
you must write the search term “laser printer” in quotation marks. In this way,
the search brings you the results that are only used together.
• + Mark: When you want to add one more term to your search result, you can add
+ mark just before the word without spaces. For example, if you write movie +
action, you will see websites about action movies.
• − Mark: When you want to exclude one term from your search results, you can
add − mark just before the search term that you are looking for. For example, if
you write film-war, you will see all movies except for war productions.
• Filetype: If you want to search for a specific filetype (txt, ppt, doc, mp3, wave,
BMP, jpg, gif, pdf, Avi, MPEG, MOV, exe etc.) in the search result, you can
add “filetype:” search term with your original search terms. To do this, you need
to know about different file types. For example, if you want to search for
PowerPoint presentation about “Animal Kingdom”, you need to type “animal
kingdom filetype:ppt” in the search engine. Thus, the results will involve pre-
sentations about the animal kingdom on the Internet.
Finally, we can do the math on search engines. For example, if you type
432 + 2132 * (47 * 15) − 260 into a search engine, you will get the mathematical
result of it.
Assessment: At the end of the lesson, teacher asks the following questions to the
students:
• What is a search engine?
• What is a keyword?
• Which type of content can we find on search engines?
• Which mark is used for exact matching results?
• How can we filter a search result excluding a specific term?
Further activities: Teacher introduces and shares the link of Webquest activity that
he prepared before at the end of the lesson. He demands all students study this
activity and complete the task requested in this activity until the next class. This
Webquest can be as follows:
Introduction: John is a student who lives in the United States. He has become
friends with you on Facebook. You also talk to John on Facebook quite frequently
both to know more about different cultures and improve your English. You want to
invite John over to your country, but he has never visited your country, and he
know very little about it. Therefore, you want to prepare a presentation about
historical, geographical, and cultural characteristics of your country to introduce to
John, but you do not have enough content (information, image, music, etc.) to do
so. In this case, what do you plan to do?
512 V. Demirer
Task: Your duty is to prepare a presentation about your country to introduce to

John. You will involve the historical, geographical, and cultural characteristics of
your country in your presentation.
Information sources: First of all, it is necessary for you to increase your
knowledge level by searching for this topic on the Internet sources. John expects
you to introduce your country. You must learn about historical, geographical, and
cultural characteristics of your country and contact with John. For this purpose, you
need to collect different materials (information, visual and audio) on the Internet
using the search engines. OK, start searching now! Good luck.
Process: You have learnt various characteristics of your country in the previous
step. Now it is time to prepare the presentation. You have one week to do this task.
You can organize your presentation following these steps:
Organize the information: Now it is your time, transfer the information that you
found on the Internet to your presentation. You can read these texts out loud to your
family or friend and get their suggestions.
Add images, video, and pictures: Select appropriate visuals, videos, images, and
animations for the text that you prepared and added them to the appropriate positions.
Add transition effects: You can add transition effects between slides to make your
presentation more attractive.
Add background music: You can add an appropriate background music to your
presentation.
Create and share the presentation: Congratulations! You have completed all steps.
Give John good news immediately and send your presentation in your e-mail. John
will absolutely like this presentation about your country.
Guidance: As you have completed preparing the presentation, we can now
evaluate it. A rubric was given to you to use for the evaluation. Firstly, you can
evaluate your presentation based on the criterion on this rubric. If you find your
presentation insufficient as a result of your evaluation, you edit it based on these
evaluations. Additionally, you can hear the comments of your friends by sharing
your presentation with them. We will discuss your presentations in the next lesson,
and we will select the best presentation of the week, which can be yours.
Conclusion: Dear students, you have completed this Webquest activity and
prepared a presentation about the historical, geographical, and cultural character-
istics of your country effectively using search engines. I wholeheartedly congrat-
ulate you. See you in the next adventures…
Semantic networks: The objectives of “searching for information online” and
“accessing to accurate information” were taught in this activity. Through pre-
sentation method, students were taught that search engines could be used to search
for information on the Internet, correct search terms must be used to accurate
results, the different content search can be done, and there are some parameters for
effective search results, and the learning objectives were improvised.
Learning outcomes: Behaviors expected of students once this activity is done are as
follows:
• Uses different search engines for searching information

• Selects appropriate keywords
• Searches for different content
• Filters search results using search parameters
13.2.3 Activity Three: Information Sharing
In this activity, the subject is taught in mastery learning model, and students are
provided with the opportunity to put theory into practice through the presentation,
question-answer, and discussion teaching methods.
Tag of Activity
Type of Teaching: Presentation, lecture, question-answer, discussion, and
demonstration. This activity involves the samples of concepts and practices of
sharing the information in different environments.
Approach/Method: Mastery learning model, inquiry learning, critical thinking,
active learning
taught in this activity regarding information sharing and sharing environments.
Internet knowledge, becoming a member of different websites, using web tools,
social media, etc.
teacher’s guidance, and students participate actively in the activities.
Parents’ participation: Parents can organize extracurricular to reinforce and
facilitate the learning procedure. They can also support their children in sharing
different contents and follow their shares by raising awareness of them with regards
to ethics and safety issues.
Keywords: Different types of information, information sharing, difficulties and
challenges of sharing, safety, security, Wikipedia, YouTube, blog, social media,
etc.
Mini-scenario: Teacher can engage in the following dialogue at the beginning of
the lesson to attract students’ attention:
Teacher: Dear students, I want to share some of the texts, audio and video
materials with other people, but I do not know how to do it. If you were
me, how would you do this? For example, I did an information research
on this topic and prepared a-few-pages text. How can I publicly share
this text?
Student: Can we organize a web page or web site?
Teacher: What if we do not have a website? For example, I wanted to share an
encyclopedic knowledge?
514 V. Demirer
Student: Can we use Wikipedia?

Teacher: Yes, correct. So, what if I want to share a big-sized video?
Students: YouTube, maybe…
Teacher: Yes, we can share videos in different environments, but the most
popular one is YouTube. What if I want to share some personal and
private videos in a limited circle of people?
Students: It may be Facebook…
Teacher: Alright children, we can share different types of information, mostly
multimedia materials, on the Internet in different environments.
Instructional Design
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to teach students how to share different
types of information in various digital environments.
Objectives:
• Defines the tools that are used in information sharing.
• Selects appropriate tools for information sharing.
• Share different kinds of content in various digital environments
Materials: Computes, Internet connection, projector.

Attention: Teacher conducts the dialogue above stating that he has a problem and
needs to find a solution thereby increasing students’ attention and interest in the
lesson.
Inform the target: Teacher states that they will talk about different information
sharing tools and how to conduct sharing in these environments in this lesson.
Using preliminary information: Students realize that the most of the content found
on the Internet are created by the other users and shared in different environments.
Presentation of content:
• Teachers start his presentation and lectures about information sharing and dif-
ferent sharing environments through question-answer technique.
• Teacher firstly expresses that there are different information sharing systems
formed by the contribution of different users, the most important example of this
is Wikipedia. He also emphasizes that this encyclopedia is completely prepared
by the mutual efforts of users, and adds that students can also contribute to the
contents of Wikipedia or create new ones. Students are requested to visit
Wikipedia website and go over it.
• The teacher tells that the most popular multimedia sharing websites are
YouTube, Flickr, and Instagram. Teacher asks all students to visit YouTube and
do a search on it. Students are made to realize that many different videos are
listed. The teacher also talks about how to be a member of YouTube and upload
videos. In a similar way, it is stated that they can use Flickr and Instagram for
sharing a photo.
• Students are also given information about the fact that they can create Blog
pages to write down their ideas and share them with the other users. Teacher
states that they can write a text about an event, a shopping experience, a book, a
movie in their blog posts. Blog sites are introduced to students that can be used
for individual purposes for free.
• Lastly, students are told that social networking sites are the websites that are the
whole of shares and connections on the Internet. These sites allow for con-
necting with different people through different kinds of multimedia content. It is
also underlined that the first websites to come to mind are Facebook, Twitter and
Google Plus
Further activities: Students are given the following scenario:
“Student will go on a camp in the summer holiday. Many students come from different
cities to this summer camp. The organizers of this camp ask all participants to prepare a
personal blog to help them get to know each other. Teacher requests all students to share a
text about themselves (personal information, favorite food, games, hobbies, phobias, etc.)
involving photos and videos in their personal blog. When students go to the summer camp,
they will continue to write their daily experiences including some interesting photos and
videos in their Blogs.”
Based on the given scenario, students are asked to

• Write a text introducing themselves
• Select some of the photos taken at different times
• Record a video of themselves and create a digital story
• Upload texts, photos, and videos by editing them appropriately and publish
them on their personal Blogs
Tip 1: These contents can also be shared on social media accounts.

• Publish the selected photos on their Instagram accounts with proper statements
• Share the digital stories on their own YouTube channels
• Share all these contents on their Instagram, YouTube and Facebook accounts
and their personal Blogs.
Assessment: Students are requested to visit their friends’ personal blogs and make
comments on them. The best Blog of the classroom is chosen with the participation
of students, and it is awarded.
Semantic networks: This activity is based on teaching how to share different con-
tents on different digital environments. In this context, different sharing environ-
ments on the Internet are examined and how to do shared on these sites are taught in
practice.
516 V. Demirer

follows:
• Defines the tools used for information sharing
• Selects the appropriate tools for information sharing
• Shares different contents on different digital environments.
13.2.4 Activity Four: Creating Multimedia
In this activity, teaching subject is conducted through project-based learning model.

This type of learning is an approach in which the problems that students can face in
real life are brought into the classroom by an interdisciplinary approach to solving
them. In this process, students set their goals, plan the process and produce an
original product using their creativity. Process and products are evaluated together.
Tag of Activity
Type of Teaching: Interdisciplinary teaching. This activity has an interdisci-
plinary approach, and it involves practice samples of social studies, linguistics, and
information and communication technologies disciplines. Presentation, lecture,
question-answer, discussion, brainstorming, thinking, questioning, interpretation,
demonstration.
Approach/Method: Project Based Learning, active learning, critical thinking
taught in this activity to create multimedia.
intermediate level video processing software use, and effective use of search
engines on the Internet.
teacher’s guidance, and students participate actively in the activities.
Parents’ participation: Parents can create multimedia contents of presentations,
videos, and digital stories enriched with audiovisual elements. They can also ask
their children to make their beautiful memories into digital stories. Parents should
help children to develop their creativity.
Keywords: Audio-visual items, multimedia, images, video, text, sound, music,
timeline, audio, transition effects, create, publish, share, etc.
Mini-scenario: The mini-scenario of this activity is given in the practice
procedure.
Instructional Design: Project Based Learning
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to teach students how to create multimedia
using different media types.
Objectives:
• Selects appropriate tools for preparing an audiovisual material
• Uses multimedia applications effectively to present information
• Creates multimedia contents using different media types
• Shares the multimedia content on social networking sites
Materials: Computer, Internet connection, video processing software, projector

Attention: Teacher shows a number of video and animations on YouTube as in the
example of following links:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sv7OHfpIRfU
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qCSY04X8BBo
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v8unGCTWUWI
Teacher expresses that these are multimedia materials and they involve different
content elements in their structure. Using brainstorming technique, students are
asked about which content elements these multimedia materials involve. The
expected answers are images, videos, texts, and audio, etc.
Tip 1: Teacher tells these elements one by one, and asks whether or not they have
ever created a multimedia content. All class discusses it.
Inform the target: Teacher states that students will learn how to create multimedia
using different types of media contents in a project work.
Using preliminary information/Information Sharing:
• The teacher explains that he will shortly talk about the process of creating
multimedia, and then students will learn by doing the project work.
• Teacher asks all students to form groups of three for the project work.
• He emphasizes that he will provide guidance throughout the learning and project
development process.
Presentation of Content: Teacher expresses that there is a different tool to create
multimedia (Photostory, Moviemaker, Online tools, etc.). He also tells that student
can choose among these tools and use anyone they want in their multimedia. As
there are countless number of multimedia tools, teacher introduces one of them to
students and explains the following issues:
• Talks about timeline
• Shows how to add title, image, video and sound to this timeline
• Teaches how to capture image from camera
• Explains how to record voice using microphone
• Tells about moving, resizing and deleting images in timeline
• Shows how to add texts and titles over videos and images
518 V. Demirer
• Shows video effects and transitions

• Demonstrates how to finalize and publish the project. Shows how to save the
project as a movie.
Teachers want all students to repeat the same process on their computers.
Implementation: After making sure that all students learnt how to use the program,
advanced practice is conducted. The purpose of this practice is to help students do
research on a specific subject, write their original stories, prepare an appropriate
image and audio-visual elements, and create their digital stories using multimedia
content in the context of a project work. For this purpose, teacher distributes the
following scenario to students at the end of the lesson:
Land, water, forest, mineral and energy resources are the primary natural resources. People
and even all living things depend on the existence of natural resources to continue their
lives. Throughout history, humans have used a variety of natural resources to meet their
needs. While using these natural resources, they have changed the natural environment to
some extent. So, are the natural resources on earth unlimited?
All the resources on earth are limited, and we unconsciously consume these resources
quickly. We live on a planet in which the population increased from 1.5 billion to 7 billion
in less than 200 years. 40 years from now on, we will 9 billion people. We need to realize
that the only problem to experience in the future is not oil. There will be days when we will
have problems with all resources. In case it goes on like this, we will absolutely face hunger
and thirst.
Here, your duty is to create a digital story to raise awareness of the public against excessive
consumption of natural resources. Your story must involve the answers of the following
questions.
The following questions are addressed to the students:

• What are the excessively consumed natural resources in the world and our
country?
• What are the consequences of the consumption of natural resources excessively?
• What can be the impacts of excessive consumption on the economy of the
country?
• What can we do for conscious consumption of natural resources?
Teacher separately asks each group to gather information from different sources
about excessive consumption of natural resources and its consequences and what to
do as a conscious consumer. Consequently, they are requested to create a digital
story that can contribute to the excessive use of natural resources. Application steps
are detailed below:
Tip 2: If the course hours are limited, 2 or 3 weeks of time can be given to each group
to finalize their projects. Although this is a group work, students can either work
individually or in a group. With project-based learning method, they will both help
each other, and they will not get bored with the project as each student will learn in his
learning speed. Those who finish their work can help the other members of the group.
First Session:
• The teacher monitors students and guides them in this session. He/she also sets
the time limit for each step of the project and does not allow for exceeding these
limits. He/she continually lets students know about the remaining time.
• Students give a nickname to their group.
• Each group plans ahead and distributes the tasks of each member.
• Each group goes to their computers and start visiting different websites with the
help of search engines regarding the excessive use of natural resources and
creating a digital story on how to prevent this.
• When groups start to finish their search, they come up with a creative and
attractive slogan that gives the main idea of this project.
• Each group writes a story of 500 words based on their perceptions. Teachers
remind them all that there must be an introduction, development, and conclusion
of their stories.
• Each group saves appropriate images, videos, photos, figures, animations on
their computer. Additionally, students can do research on the Internet as well as
take photos and transfer it to the computer by the scanning device.
• All groups can tell their stories in any way they like. They can, for example,
prepare a flow chart and design their stories based on this thereby making it into
a digital video story. Thus, they can determine which sentence or paragraph
matches with which image or video in their stories. This can make the story
developing process easier.
After the completion of these steps, each group is accepted as having completed
the preliminary work for their digital stories.
Second Session:
• Until this stage, each group has written their story and prepared appropriate
images for it. In this second session, they start creating their digital stories using
story development tools (PhotoStory, Movie Maker, etc.).
• After uploading images to the program, the story is ordered as in the flow chart.
• Each group can present the complete story or each image separately. They can
also add appropriate texts and titles to the images in the story. In addition, their
stories can be more attractive by adding transition effects.
• The groups can add some background music in accordance with the sense of
story. However, they need to pay attention to the fact that the tone of back-
ground music should not be higher than presenters’ voice.
• Lastly, the groups that can finalize all steps successfully can produce their
digital story as a video. This digital story can be shared in video sharing
websites or social networking sites.
520 V. Demirer
Tip 3: In this session, the teacher can provide support in visual design.
Presentation and Providing Feedback: Teacher repeats the real objectives of this
activity and summarizes what they have done so far. Such speech can be delivered:
Dear students, I put you into groups, and you have prepared digital stories altogether for the
future of the earth. Each group has prepared digital stories by a great effort. I had the
opportunity to review all of your work, and I liked them one by one. However, I want to
select the best one and publish it on our school website, but I cannot decide on this on my
own. So, can you please help me?
Now, I will gather all projects in my computer, and I will respectively show all of them to
you. After we watch the project of a group, the other groups will come together and give
points from 1 to 10 in one minute.
After this speech, the teacher shows all projects via projector and calculates the
total scores of each group’s works. The digital story project with the highest score is
selected the best work, and it is published in school web site. If multiple groups
share the first place, each of them is published.
In this stage, teacher can deliver such speech:
“I congratulate you all! Those who are not in the first place should not be unhappy. Each of
your projects deserved to be at the top in my opinion. In the preparation phase of this
project, I had so much fun working with you. What about you? Did you like the activity?”
Further activities: Teacher can organize different story writing activities on different
topics in other classes.
Evaluation: No examination or test application will not be used to assess students.
The teacher will only assess students’ projects and evaluate them based on his
observations during the project work phase. In this activity, a rubric can be used as
well as the following criterion:
• Were students able to select an interesting topic?
• Did students use the time given effectively?
• Were students active in the project work?
• How did students communicate with one another?
Semantic networks: This activity is based on teaching how to create typical mul-
timedia materials bringing together different media content. In this regard, the
process of using some software and development tools that are needed for creating
multimedia videos is explained, and students were given the opportunity of putting
what they have learnt into practice by project work.
Learning outcomes: As a result of this activity, students can select appropriate tools
for creating multimedia materials, use the multimedia software in presenting
information in an effective way, develop multimedia content using different types of
media content, and share their multimedia content on social networking sites.
13.3 Conclusion
All in all, learning by doing method is significant in gaining the skill of information
technologies literacy in which students are active members of the learning process.
In achieving this objective, students must be given the chance to experience and
find solutions to the problems or situations particularly associated with real life in a
group work in the framework of the project work approach. In the preparation phase
of the courses in which topics related to ICT are taught, detailed information about
objectives, duration, methods and techniques, and equipment must be provided in
advance. Before sharing a new information in the lesson, students must be moti-
vated for the lesson based on student’s prior knowledge, needs and demands (case
study, a short film, drama, art, visit the website, etc.). After ensuring student’s
attention and motivation, sharing information must be conducted, and information
about the activities must be given in detail. In the implementation stage of the
lesson, student-centered in-school or outside-school activities can be organized in
accordance with instructional goals. Projects and products are prepared as a result
of student activities. Alternative assessment methods can be used in the evaluation
of these activities.
In the assessment, performance evaluation involving portfolios, projects, prod-
ucts, drama and the other similar techniques are used more frequently. Additionally,
scoring rubrics and checklists, interviews with students, self-evaluation of students
and peer evaluation can also be used alternatively. Consequently, various activities
can be given to students at the end of each learning activity in order to reinforce
what has been learnt, and different sources can be presented to enable them to
obtain more information.
Glossary
Communication It is the act of conveying intended meaning to another entity

through the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic
rules. Communication requires that all parties understand a
common language that is exchanged with each other.
Digital citizenship A digital citizen is a confident and capable user of infor-
mation and communication technology (ICT), is aware of
ICT challenges and can manage them effectively, uses ICT
to relate to others in positive, meaningful ways, demon-
strates honesty and integrity and ethical behavior in their
use of ICTs, respects the concepts of privacy and freedom
of speech in a digital world, contributes and actively pro-
motes the values of digital citizenship. Digital citizenship is,
on the other hand, defined as “the norms of appropriate,
522 V. Demirer
responsible behavior with regard to technology use”

(Mossberger et al. 2007).
Digital natives A digital native is a person who was born during or after the
general introduction of digital technology, and through
interacting with digital technology from an early age, has a
greater understanding of its concepts (Prensky 2001).
ICT literacy The OECD defined ICT literacy as “the interest, attitude
and ability of individuals to appropriately use digital tech-
nology and communication tools to access, manage, inte-
grate and evaluate information, construct new knowledge,
and communicate with others in order to participate effec-
tively in society” (Lennon et al. 2003).
Information The study or use of systems (especially computers and
Technologies telecommunications) for storing, retrieving, and sending
information including all kinds of visual, auditory, printed
or written instruments.
Multimedia Multimedia is content that uses a combination of different
content forms such as text, audio, images, animation, video
and interactive content.
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Part II
Summary
In this part, authors gave some ready-to-use activity samples with some useful tips
in the fields of Language Teaching (English and Turkish), History Geography, and
ICT—Information and Communication Technologies.
In seven chapters, totally, thirty-four activities (approximately 5 for each
chapter) have presented. On each activity samples, authors explain the preliminary
information in the “Tag of Activity” sections. These sections are highly-effective to
have an idea about the activity and its elements and processes. For instruction
designers and teachers, this info has the potential to be quite useful.
In the second sections (instruction design) of the activities, instruction processes
were explained in detail. Instruction design sections were structured basically
According to Gagne’s “Nine Events of Instruction” model. Besides, according to
the teaching fields' characteristics, some combined models were developed through
using various instructional models and strategies. Also in the instructional design
sections, many of practical tips presented to the readers.
Part III
Effects of Instructional Activities
Chapter 14
Celal Akdeniz
In this chapter three issues have been addressed: factors affecting the instructional
process, discussion about effects of instructional activities onto some variables and
research suggestions. In the first section, the effectiveness of some variables onto
instruction process is briefly analyzed. In the second section, a wide discussion
about effects of the instructional activities onto five interlocutors (pupils, teachers,
parents, school, and society) is made, and at the end of the chapter, some research
suggestions are presented.
14.1 Factors Affecting the Instructional Process
There is no magical stick to make the instruction better and of course, we have no
the best instructional activity to teach all things to all people. Everyone is unique;
everyone has different traits from each other. Each learner needs differently
arranged curriculum objectives, strategies, methods, techniques (etc.) compatible
with its own characteristics. So, we need to find different ways to teach each pupil.
From this frame, we’re going to examine briefly the factors affected the instruction
process.
In this section, we will address teaching fields, disciplinary or interdisciplinary
instruction, teacher competences and pupil traits, parents’ contributions and
instructional environment.
Besides; nature of instruction process, curriculum, educational paradigms,
educational policies, national and international standards, professional standards,
physical facilities, and educational administration are among the factors that affect
C. Akdeniz (&)
Education Faculty, S. Demirel University, East Campus (Doğu Yerleşkesi),
Room: 354, Isparta, Turkey

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8_14
530 C. Akdeniz
the instruction process. Because of the time limit, if possible, these factors will be
addressed in the next editions of the book.
14.1.1 Considering Teaching Fields
It’s not considered that teaching fields being independent of politics, dominant
culture, national or international unions, contemporary needs, school levels, etc. In
many of countries education levels/stages approximately same as a nursery,
pre-primary schools/kindergartens, primary/elementary schools, secondary schools,
high schools/colleges, undergraduate programs, graduate programs, post-graduate
programs.
Firstly, we can say education is the most efficient and effective way of teaching
and learning the basic and advanced skills and knowledge. Besides the kinds of
schools, type of education is also an important factor. Formal or non-formal or
informal education, face to face or online education, indoor or outdoor education,
general or special or vocational education, adult education, and such that.
Let’s get a wide view of teaching fields and education levels relation. On
Table 14.1, a view about this relation can be seen.
As shown in the table, in most countries primary and secondary education
assessed under the basic and compulsory education. In these levels, decision makers
(mostly politicians and in some countries religious institutes and foundations) use
the education in order to transfer culture, vocational training, and to raise good
citizens. As in Turkey special, recently, according to politics, religious education is
the most important field of education.
As mentioned above, teaching fields can be varying in different education levels.
If we focus on basic and compulsory education, we will see affection of the central
institutions. In most of the countries ministry of education and board of educations
determine the basic rules, conditions, and principles. Each of curriculum has to be
compatible with these factors.
For example, if a central institution brings a condition that should be considered
about intercultural or multicultural education, curriculum experts have to follow this
condition, and they will write intercultural acquisitions in the curriculums. If the
central institutions made a standard about evaluation (like Joint Committee in the
USA), curriculum development experts have to take into account.
Main approaches to the national education systems may be different, some of
them take precedence of the theoretical instruction, some of them prefer skill-based
instruction, some of them care knowledge (like memorization, gaining and col-
lecting information) other ones care high-level thinking (like analyzing, reflecting,
synthesis, evaluation, critical thinking, etc.), some of them suggest outdoor edu-
cation and another one present indoor education, and so on. We may say that these
preferences connected with cultural and historical backgrounds.
One more example to be given to comparing education systems:
14 Effects of Instructional Activities 531
Table 14.1 Relation of the teaching fields and education levels

Level of education
Nursery education Primary education Secondary Higher education
education
Descriptions Also known as After nursery Secondary Schooling gets over
elementary or education, a child education is the with secondary
preschool is exposed to final stage that a education and a
education, nursery primary education child undergoes in student now enrolls
education is the where he a school during his himself in an
first step towards establishes his adolescence. The undergraduate and
gaining a formal foundation on education format post graduate
education. It various subjects, transforms from a college or
includes nursery like mathematics, comprehensive university to receive
school and science, social primary education the highest level of
kindergarten. This sciences, and to optional and education in his
stage marks the language. Primary specialized subjects of
stepping of the education starts in training subjects. specialization. Also
child from the most countries Here, he receives known as tertiary
comforts of a from the age of 5 detailed education, higher
home to the world or 6 and continues information and education is a
outside. Nursery for the next 6– knowledge on his non-compulsory
education is 8 years. However, preferred subjects level of education
usually given to the age of primary (lifestyle. (lifestyle.iloveindia.
children between education and the iloveindia.com/ com/lounge)
the age of 3 and subjects taught lounge)
five years differ from one
(lifestyle. country to another
iloveindia.com/ (lifestyle.
lounge) iloveindia.com/
lounge)
Kind of Nursery schools, Primary schools, Secondary schools, Junior technical
schools pre-primary elementary schools junior high colleges, faculties,
schools, schools, institutes
kindergartens gymnasiums,
vocational high
schools
Types of In some countries Basic and Basic and Associate degree
programmes basic and compulsory compulsory programs,
compulsory programmes programmes undergraduate
programmes, in programs, graduate
other countries programs,
optional programs post-graduate
programs
Curriculum Central, modified Central, modified Central, modified, Instructor-centered,
and and integrated and integrated integrated, and trainer-centered,
instruction curriculums curriculums adapted and field-centered
curriculums curriculums
Types of Nursery teachers, Tutors, class Field teachers Field experts,
teacher pre-school teachers teachers faculty members (in
some institutes
research assistants)
(continued)
532 C. Akdeniz

Level of education
Nursery education Primary education Secondary Higher education
education
Teaching Foreign language Mother language Mother language Mother language
fields (in some countries)
Art teachers (in Foreign language Foreign language Foreign language
some countries)
Music teachers (in Mathematics Visual arts Field courses
some countries)
Optional courses Life sciences Music Specialized courses
(cultural and basic
aspects)
Visual arts Physical education Optional courses
Music Science
Physical education Social sciences
Science Vocational field
courses for boys
Social Sciences Vocational field
courses for girls
Optional courses Vocational field
courses for
coeducation
Optional courses
Table 14.2 Comparing instruction situations

Situations Results Further results
In a precise time learn just one thing Permanent • Skill of creating knowledge
Mostly experimental instruction learning • Using time effectively
• To responds to new situations
Outdoor activities
finding new ways
• Independent from the context
In a precise time collect many of Forgettable • Skill of memorization
information and keep them information • Cannot be able to find new ways
Theoretical instruction or hardly in new situations
• Dependent to the context
Indoor activities
In some developed countries primary and secondary education curriculums not

as much intensive as some developing countries. The main philosophy of the
developed countries is simple; learn a rule or information or a skill at one time and
use it in your life and keep it in a lifetime. But in many developing countries the
equivalent levels’ curriculums filled full of acquisitions, achievement, and attain-
ments. In PISA exam results this situation is seen clearly (see the link: https://www.
oecd.org/pisa/aboutpisa/). These situations make different results as shown in
Table 14.2.
14.1.2 Choosing Disciplinary or Interdisciplinary

Instruction
In the disciplinary instruction (vertical approach) process, we can see that prelim-
inary information (related to discipline) is used and priority—recency relationships
between the concepts is established. But, if you want to use a conceptual rela-
tionship for more than one discipline (semantic network), it means, you will make
interdisciplinary instruction.
To interdisciplinary instruction (horizontal approach), teachers establish links
among the topics, themes, and concepts. The interdisciplinary approach synthesizes
more than one discipline and creates teams of teachers and students that enrich the
overall educational experience. In this way, students tend to discover relationships,
structures, and concepts in a systematic way through to go beyond the discipline
and taking into account the different aspects of the world. For example; we will
handle health issues, and our aim is to enable the students to realize how the foods’
nutritional values affect their school and sports life performance, and how it con-
tributes to their physical, affective (attitudes, values, emotions, and so on), social
and mental states. Then students will develop the skills to prepare menus, do the
shopping which has high nutritional value and chooses health foods as well as food
preparation.
According to Jacobs (1989), interdisciplinary instruction involves a conscious
effort to apply knowledge, principles, and values to more than one academic dis-
cipline simultaneously. The disciplines may be related through a central theme,
issue, problem, process, topic, or experience. The organizational structure of in-
terdisciplinary/cross-curricular teaching is called a theme, thematic unit, or unit,
which is a framework with goals/outcomes that specify what students are expected
to learn as a result of the experiences and lessons that are a part of the unit.
There seem to be two levels of integration that schools go through: The first is
integration of the language arts (listening, speaking, reading, writing, thinking); the
second involves a much broader kind of integration, one in which a theme begins to
encompass all curricular areas.
Interdisciplinary instruction is often seen as a way to address some of the
recurring problems in education, such as fragmentation and isolated skill instruc-
tion. It is seen as a way to support goals such as transfer of learning, teaching
students to think and reason, and providing a curriculum more relevant to students
(Marzano 1991; Perkins 1991).
According to Perkins (1986), many of the important concepts, strategies, and
skills taught in the language arts are “portable”. They transfer readily to other
content areas. The concept of perseverance, for example, may be found in literature
and science. Strategies for monitoring comprehension can be directed to reading
material in any content area. Cause-and-effect relationships exist in literature, sci-
ence, and social studies. Interdisciplinary instruction supports and promotes this
transfer. Critical thinking can be applied in any discipline. About the interdisci-
plinary instruction some introductory description is given below:
534 C. Akdeniz
• Interdisciplinary instruction provides a meaningful way in which students can

use knowledge learned in one context as a knowledge base in other contexts in
and out of school (Collins et al. 1989).
• Interdisciplinary instruction is often seen as a way to address some of the
recurring problems in education, such as fragmentation and isolated skill
instruction. It is seen as a way to support goals such as transfer of learning,
teaching students to think and reason, and providing a curriculum more relevant
to students (Marzano 1991; Perkins 1991).
• Interdisciplinary instruction gives an opportunity to learn from students’
sometimes unexpected interdisciplinary connections, and provides more ways
for students to learn and demonstrate their skills and understandings, and gives
an opportunity for students to connect new learning with what they know and
are interested in.
• In interdisciplinary instruction process, students see teachers model continued
learning, interest in their discipline and those of others, collaborating with peers,
making connections between what they know and new ideas, working from new
and different perspectives, problem-solving, creativity, flexibility.
• Interdisciplinary instruction highlights students’ strengths; builds confidence to
overcome challenges learning new/difficult concepts, and encourages students to
become personally invested in their work (since they are given the privilege and
responsibility of making choices about what and how they learn and demon-
strate their learning).
• Interdisciplinary instruction can increase students’ motivation for learning and
their level of engagement. In contrast to learning skills in isolation, when stu-
dents participate in interdisciplinary experiences they see the value of what they
are learning and become more actively engaged (Resnick 1989).
• Interdisciplinary instruction provides the conditions under which effective
learning occurs. Students learn more when they use the language arts skills to
explore what they are learning, write about what they are learning, and interact
with their classmates, teachers, and members of the community (Thaiss 1986).
According to Jacobs there are some considerations for developing interdisci-
plinary curriculum and some of them shown as below (Jacobs 1989; Jacobs and
Borland 1986):
• “Students should have a range of curriculum experiences that reflects both a
discipline-filed and an interdisciplinary orientation; students cannot fully benefit
from interdisciplinary studies until they acquire a solid grounding in the various
disciplines that interdisciplinary attempts to bridge.”
• Teachers must design and implement curriculum based on the scope and
sequence of the integrated disciplines and be flexible enough to form and revise
the curriculum according to the students’ needs.
• “Interdisciplinary curriculum should only be used when the problem reflects the
need to overcome fragmentation, relevance, and the growth of knowledge.”
• Interdisciplinary units should be shared with all faculty, administration, and

community members so that they can have the opportunity to contribute their
knowledge and skills.
• Interdisciplinary units should engage students in epistemological questions such
as “What is knowledge?” “What do we know?” and “How can we present
knowledge in the schools?”
• Interdisciplinary units offer students the opportunity to see connections and
relevance between topics and provide a variety of perspectives.
• Students should be involved in the planning and development of interdisci-
plinary units.
14.1.3 Considering Teacher Competences and Pupil Traits
In the instruction process, there are a great number of pupil traits to consider.
Cognitive, physical, and psychological developments; attitudes, tendencies; multi-
ple intelligence quotients; learning styles; personality types; learning strategies; age;
interests; capabilities; socio-cultural and socio-economic points; physical and
emotional characteristics; previous academic achievements, and other traits can be
count.
In the planning process, teacher competences take an important place. Shulman
(1987) says, teachers, minimally, must have knowledge base in the seven cate-
gories: content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, curriculum knowledge,
pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge of learners and their characteristics,
knowledge of educational context, and knowledge of educational ends, purposes,
values, and their philosophical and historical grounds.
Here, we can examine the competences in three sections: knowledge of teaching
profession, knowledge of teaching field, and knowledge of liberal education.
Knowledge of teaching profession (pedagogical content knowledge) contains
some skills and knowledge like; having awareness about his/her profession, having
the knowledge of instructional strategies, methods, techniques and tactics, having a
theoretical knowledge and practical experience about the nature of learning (ped-
agogical issues), knowing the students’ recognition techniques and self-recognition
techniques, and etc. While content knowledge is important and necessary, it alone
cannot determine whether the teacher can teach so that students learn. Teaching
profession knowledge differs pure fields from the pedagogic ones. For example; a
biology has a broad information about biology, but the biology teacher additionally
has the knowledge and skill, how to teach biologic issues. The main difference
starts at this point. At this point we can count some effective teacher characteristics:
• Effective teachers use multimedia sources effectively
• Effective teachers do problem-based instruction
• Effective teachers encourage the pupils to make innovation
536 C. Akdeniz
• Effective teachers keep learning to improve their life-long learning skills

• Effective teachers encourage the pupils to collaborative/cooperative learning
• Effective teachers encourage teamwork
• Effective teachers encourage the pupils to learn independently
• Effective teachers make positive classroom climate
• Effective teachers encourage the pupils to ask questions
• Effective teachers encourage the pupils being curious
• Effective teachers encourage the pupils to involve the instruction process
• Effective teachers revitalize the intrinsic motivation
• Effective teachers are also good readers
• Effective teachers have strong analytical skills
• Effective teachers are imaginative
• Effective teachers are like life coaches and mentors
• Effective teachers are also trustworthy people
• Effective teachers demonstrate leadership in the instruction process
• Effective teachers stay in front of the pupils like an encyclopedic source
• Effective teachers are tolerant and humble
• Effective teachers accept feelings
• Effective teachers are patient
• Effective teachers are open-minded
• Effective teachers encourage the pupils’ to make their knowledge
• Effective teachers encourage the pupils’ to share their knowledge
• Effective teachers monitor the pupils’ academic process and give them on-time
and positive feedbacks
• Effective teachers make individual help
• Effective teachers encourage and appreciate diversity
• Effective teachers interest the pupils’ interests
• Effective teachers apply higher-level questioning
• Effective teachers have knowledge of teaching models, instructional strategies,
instructional methods, and instructional techniques
• Effective teachers have unique instructional tactics and use them frequently
• Effective teachers improve open and multiway relationships with pupils
• Etc.
Knowledge of teaching field (content/subject matter knowledge) includes; hav-
ing detailed information/knowledge about his/her teaching field. Philosophical
arguments, as well as common sense, support the conviction that teachers’ subject
matter knowledge influences their efforts to help students learn the subject matter.
When teachers possess inaccurate information or conceive of knowledge in narrow
ways, they may pass on these ideas to their students. They may fail to challenge
students’ misconceptions; they may use texts uncritically or may alter them inap-
propriately. Subtly, teachers’ conceptions of knowledge shape their practice–the
kinds of questions they ask, the ideas they reinforce, the sorts of tasks they assign
Knowledge of liberal (culture) education contains some professional skills:
Being able to explain events and facts using different disciplines’ concepts,
establish the bond with the subject of the information related to different disciplines,
in the instructional process, utilization the knowledge of other disciplines while
making analogies, discriminations, synthesis, encourage the students to improve
their overall cultural life.
According to the Akdeniz’s (2016) study each competence connected with each
other. For example; if you have a broad information about your teaching field but if
you don’t know how to teach them to the pupils, it means something is missing. It’s
clear that nothing can escape from eyes of the pupils. Now let’s reverse the sce-
nario; if you have quite strong instructional skills but if you don’t have enough
content information/knowledge about your profession, it means something is
missing again. You cannot solve the conceptual misunderstandings at least. In
Table 14.3, these three teacher competences compared:
Table 14.3 Teacher competences

Teacher competences
Knowledge of Knowledge Knowledge of Results of the
teaching profession of teaching liberal education implementation for learners
field
Key Pedagogy, Content Different
concepts Psychological knowledge, disciplines, making
development, curriculum, analogies,
instructional theory pure discriminations,
and models, sciences, generalizations,
instructional teaching improving overall
methods, fields cultural
instructional understanding
techniques, tactics
Scenario Having good Insufficient Sufficient liberal • Negative thoughts of
one enough pedagogic knowledge culture students about teacher
knowledge and • Unwillingness
skills • Be bored
• Low academic success
• Acquired desperation
• Credibility issues
• Try to find alternative
• Etc.
Scenario Insufficient Highly Sufficient liberal • Unwillingness
two professional qualified culture • Be bored
knowledge/skills content • Communication accident
knowledge • Try to find alternative
• Loss of confidence
• Etc.
Scenario Sufficient Sufficient Insufficient liberal • Unwillingness
three pedagogic field culture • Be bored
knowledge knowledge • Motivation issues
• Prestige issues
• Etc.
538 C. Akdeniz
14.1.4 Enhancing the Parents’ Contributions

on the Instructional Process
We see positive effects of the school—family solidarity on the pupils’ success.

Beside the solidarity, domestic harmony, family’s supportive approach and parents’
contribution to the instructional and educational activities affect the students’ aca-
demic success. According to Diaz’s (1989) research, the most important factor on
the pupils’ achievement is “parental support and interest”. Lack of parental support
and interest is also a risk factor. Stiffness, inconsistency and incompatibility of
parents are also another risk factors.
In the opposite way, in families with a supportive approach regarding education,
students’ academic achievement is increased. According to Jencks and others, the
most important environmental factors are family, parental support, and parental
interest.
Compatible, communicative, and extrovert personality characteristics are
important for education life. As well as academic achievement, personality devel-
opment starts in the family. The studies on social cohesion is showed that the first
impacts on the child are extremely important. Parent–child (for us student) inter-
action (asking child’s ideas, thoughts about the family issues) determines the child’s
place in the family. When we look at from this point, we can say, parents can help
the students to get its first democratic understanding in an experiential way. In this
way, child adopts the concept of democracy and shows democratic behaviors in
his/her social and academic life. So, if governments want to see compatible citizens
they need to strength family ties.
So far, we tried to say, parental contributions like parental interest and support
are important for students’ academic and social success. If we are taking the pre-
sented contributions in the context of developmental properties, firstly we need to
focus physical, affective, and cognitive development. Detailed examples of these
topics examined below:
In the topic of physical development, parents can help their children in some
subjects like; nutrition, sleep regime, physical exercises (swimming, trekking,
walking, body exercises, etc.), popular sports games (soccer, basketball, volleyball,
cycling, etc.), coordination activities and so on. For further information on this
topic, readers can follow some social and professional organizations and websites.
In the topic of affective development; parents can take some measures like;
getting professional advice to determine child’s personality traits, helping them to
make healthy friendships, helping them to determine interests, contacting with
relatives, participation in social projects, organizing trips and travels, and so on. For
further information on this topic, readers can follow some social and professional
organizations and websites.
We are going to examine the cognitive development topic wider than the others.
In the topic of cognitive development, parents can help their children to develop
high-level thinking skills, to create new meanings, to understand the relationships

between concepts (semantic network), to improve the schemes and to add new
ones, transforming the information into the knowledge and in other aspects. In
cognitive development, some of the activities that can be offered to parents as
follow:
• Firstly, you must make feel good him/her about your parental support
• Encourage him/her to make graphic organizers (knowledge, concept, mind
mapping, etc.) about his/her daily routines or lessons
• Encourage him/her to seek to mobilize high-level thinking skills
• Encourage him/her to make brain exercises 15–20 min in a day for reading
comprehension
• Encourage him/her to spread school tasks at the time, to look positively at the
his/her homework
• For a regular life, encourage him/her to make schedule and to implement it
without any delay
• Pay attention to his/her thoughts and make him/her feel the privilege of being
different
• Play with him/her educational attention and memory games like a jigsaw,
puzzle, checkers, sudoku, chess, matching and pairing games, word games,
finding the differences between the images, etc.
• Play with him/her math games that difficulty level is variable and requires
imagination
• Contribute to the development of his/her synthesis skills through interruption
visual and auditory response (for example, silence movies or silence stories)
• Help him/her to improve his/her neuron activity through examining the words,
numbers, and events in ordinal and reverse ways
• Mobilize his/her input-operation-output process to improve his/her
information-processing skills. For example; tell him/her a designated subject
and then want from him/her to revive it by drawing pictures
• For the improve memory and attention strategies, organize “listen and sing”
activities. For example; give him/her a command and request a repetition as
understand
• Improve his/her thinking skills through applying the “WH” questions (who—
what, where, when, how, and why) activity. This activity aims to teach students
how to construct their reading passages. In this way, while the student is reading
a passage, sees systematically the incident’s occurring format and place, and
time
• Ensure that child tell others what they have learned. In this process, parents act
as “peer learner” and listens to them by asking questions. This activity improves
the pupils’ expression and explanation skills
• Organize the house with sufficient amount stimulants
• Buy some educational game sets and play them with children
• Create a reading time at home, and ensure compliance it
540 C. Akdeniz
• Do not direct the children just one precise field, like science or math. For
cognitive development, children need to feel free to choose their interest, even if
against the wishes of parents
• Give the children enough time to explain themselves
• Play computer games with children
• Make some discussion times to criticize the tv programs with children
• To determine children’s tendencies, make short trips and travels
• Buy some paint books, and compare your coloring with theirs
• Etc.
14.1.5 Arranging the Instructional Environment
Another important factor in the instructional process is the instructional environ-

ment. The environment concept in this section includes meaning of place, physical
possibilities (educational materials and facilities), and interaction types.
In the meaning of place contains indoor (interior) and outdoor education
activities. Indoor activities include classrooms, gymnasiums, laboratories, perfor-
mance halls, and other interior place activities. In an educational sense, outdoor
activities include schoolyard, playground, and countryside actions; short trips,
travels, camping, jungle life, survival training, voluntary works, job shadowing, and
other exterior place activities. Outdoor activities as important as indoor activities.
Because of pupils’ age characteristics and motivation issues, outdoor activities may
helpful.
Although outdoor activities seem more fun to do, most of the society still believe
that indoor activities are better. They thought that indoor classroom activity is more
organized than outdoor. But for some parent, nowadays they prefer a school that
provides outdoor classroom for their children because in their opinion by studying
Outdoor their children will get more advantages and experiences. Both indoor
activities and outdoor activities have their advantages and disadvantages
(Table 14.4).
Physical possibilities of the educational organization have an important effect on
the instructional process. Physical possibilities include facilities like buildings, labs,
useful blank areas, playgrounds and educational materials. In many developed
countries, physical possibilities and their educational materials were sufficiently
provided by governments, non-governmental organizations, and PTAs. They don’t
need to concern about the educational materials and facilities. One can say, this
kind of support, supports schools’ and pupils’ academic and social needs. In many
underdeveloped countries, parent-teacher-associations (PTA) don’t exist or not
functional. As mentioned in the section titled Parents’ Contribution, school—family
collaboration is highly effective in the instructional process.
Table 14.4 Advantages and disadvantages of the indoor and outdoor activities
Indoor activities Outdoor activities
Advantages • Provide more information than • Pupils obtain new information and
outdoor experience from nature
• Chance to get high-level academic • Provide real instructional and
success non-instructional experiences,
• Curriculum friendly system semi-free from curriculum
• Easy to have control on the pupils • Understanding and
(class management) implementation skills can
• Sometimes more economic improve
• In a certain time, the curricular • Provide chances to pupil to
message can reach more pupil improve their intrinsic motivation
• Mostly disciplinary and creativity
• Mostly based on concrete learning • Make the pupils more active and
experiences willing and healthy
• In most cases, development • Interdisciplinary
knowledge through reading and • Learning by experiencing in the
writing real natural and cultural
• More didactic experiences environment—mostly authentic
• Etc. • Development knowledge through
physical activity and movement
• More sensory experiences
• Etc.
Disadvantages • In most cases, creativity doesn’t • In most cases, pupils’
improve concentration can decrease
• Lessons can be bored • It needs more time, more money,
• Some pupils’ may have fewer and environmental possibilities
capabilities and skills • It is harder to control the pupils
• In some cases, • In most cases, pupils’ academic
collaborative/cooperative activities achievements, especially in
can be boring, and some pupils cognitive domain, may remain
cannot be taking responsibility unfinished
• Less full-body experiences • Etc.
• Etc.
Interaction types refer to face-to-face and online interactions. In formal educa-

tion organizations mostly face-to-face interaction is made. Some researchers (Snow
2007; say that to effective teaching, teachers mostly prefer face-to-face interactions.
In Table 14.5 advantages and disadvantages of the interaction types are presented.
14.1.6 Personality
There are some factors influencing the quality of instructional activities. An

important majority of these variables are related to curriculum, instructional envi-
ronments, students’ characteristics, and teachers’ qualifications. Teachers’ ages,
542 C. Akdeniz
Table 14.5 Advantages and disadvantages of the face-to-face and online interactions
Face-to-face interaction Online interaction
Advantages • Provides more intimacy and • More comfortable
proximity • Provides synchronous and
• Provides real, in time and on-time asynchronous activities
feedbacks • Provides wide accessibility
• Provides sensory experiences • Mostly audio-visual experiences
• To some teachers and researchers, • More economical (money, less
more efficient space and material requirement,
• Mostly highly interactive verbal etc.)
discussions, • Gives the chance to improve
• Provides strong, concrete physical self-direction skills
contents and materials • Doesn’t need any physical place,
• Ensures healthy instruction designs more flexible
(like indoor and outdoor education • Provides rich online media content
activities) (electronic documents:
• Encourage social interactions presentations-mostly pptx, portable
• Gives opportunities to improve the document files-mostly pdf, word
analyze skill of body language and processor files-mostly doc, images,
non-verbal messages charts, diagrams, audio and video
• Ensures depth analysis organizers, etc.)
• Provides chances to improve verbal • Provide chance to work on multiple
skills topics at the same time
• Gives opportunities to rearrange the • Gives rich opportunities to improve
instruction process the reading and writing skills
• Provides to each individual • Ensure some opportunities to the
participant feedbacks and ensure pupils to manage the instruction
immediate reactions to feedback process
• Gives opportunities to minimize the • Provide to participate in parallel
learning errors sessions and blended courses
• Improves the information • Doesn’t need to wait for the
processing skills learners’ arrival
• Ensures collaborative/cooperative • Makes the instruction process more
learning environment attractive
• Provides qualitative advising • Reduces the authorian behaviors of
• Etc. instructors
• Etc.
Disadvantages • Limited actions in limited time • Mostly less controllable
• May cause authoritarian behaviors environment
• Sometimes may more stressful for • Limited verbal ve visual discussions
the pupils • Excessive use of resources can
• Limited topics at the same time threaten health (like sight, hearing,
• Requires more time, more some mental illnesses, infertility,
possibility etc.)
• Less economic • Lack of transferring the instructors’
• Limited accessibility experiences
• Etc. • Delayed reactions and feedbacks
• Limited amount of verification and
correction
• Lack of depth analysis
• May not be appropriate, suitable for
everyone
• Etc.
gender, instructional skills, perceptions regarding the instructional process, intel-

lectual capacities, tendencies, professional experiences and their cognitive, affective
and kinetic characteristics are among the variables influencing the quality of the
instructional process.
Personality could be considered in the first place among the individual charac-
teristics mentioned above as it views individuals in all aspects (Jung 1971; Myers
1998; Wyspianski 1999). One of the basic reasons for this is that the preferences of
teachers with different personality types regarding the instructional and learning
processes differ to a considerable extent (Kiersey and Bates 1984; James and
Woodsmall 1988). Myers and Briggs, who conducted studies on personality based
on Jung’s (1971) widely accepted the classification of personality types, stated that
teachers with different personality types follow different ways in instructional and
learning processes and have different preferences.
Because of its importance, we examine the concept of personality under a
separate heading. The personality can be described as a set of individually and
distinctive features from other people. Personality can also describe as a complete
set of behaviors that are associated with the character traits of the individual. Many
research findings show that (including author’s studies) there is a strong relation-
ship between the success of instruction process (learning and teaching) and per-
sonality. For further information, please go to the other sources placed in the
bibliography section!
There are several researchers have done to adapt Jung’s theory of personality
types into the instruction process (learning and teaching). We find the most com-
prehensive and qualified descriptions about the learning types in Isabel Myers
and Catherina Cook Briggs’s and Harvey Silver Robert Hanson, Richard Strong
and Matthew Perini’s studies.
In the Jung’s “Psychologic Types” theory there are two dimensions: perception
and judgement. Perception is about assimilation the information and the judgement
are about the information processing. According to Jung (1971); there are two ways
assimilation the information (in another saying, perception): sensing and intuiting.
Through sensing, we collect concrete data and through intuition, we collect abstract
data. We also processing the data (in another saying judging) through in two ways:
thinking and feeling. Through thinking, we are processing the data in an objective
way and through feeling, we are processing the data in a subjective way. The
“senses” reveal that something is “exist”; intuiting reveals that “from where they
come and go,” thinking reveals them “what are they” and feeling reveals them as
“acceptable or not.”
Personality types have different needs and tendencies in the learning process.
From differences and similarities, a new concept was created “learning types”.
Combining the four dimension (sensing = S, intuiting = N, thinking = T,
feeling = F) four learner types are created: Mastery Type = ST = SensoryThinker;
Interpersonal Type = SF = SensoryFeeler; Comprehensive Type = NT =
544 C. Akdeniz
intiutiveThinker; Self-regulatory Type = NF = intiutiveFeeler (Silver and Hanson

1996; Silver et al. 2007). In the instruction process, personality types’ teaching and
learning behaviors may similar and different. A wide relationship among some
educational and instructional variables and personality types (in another saying,
learner types, and teacher types) presented in Table 14.6.
Adapted with Myers and Myers (1997); Silver and Hanson (1996); Silver et al.
(2007); Akdeniz and Erişti (2015).
As mentioned above, on the contrary to Jung’s 8 personality types (1971),
Briggs and Myers developed the 42 = 16 personality profile by adding the defi-
nitions of auxiliary, tertiary and inferior besides the dominant personality type to
Jung’s (1971) theory of “psychological types, personality types” and created the
MBTI inventory depending on these 16 personality profiles. The MBTI profile
demonstrates individuals’ preferences regarding four personality dimensions
(Myers and Myers 1997; Wheeler 2001). These four personality dimensions were
focusing the attention, obtaining information, decision making and handling the
outer world. Each MBTI profile is shaped with respect to opposite preferences on
the four dimensions of personality. For example, it could be stated that a person
with an ESTJ profile (extroverted, (sensory thinker), judger) is extroverted in
focusing his or her attention, sensory in obtaining information, thinker in making
decisions and judger in handling the outer world; on the other hand, a person with
an INFP profile (introverted, intuitive, feeler, perceiver) could be said to be intro-
verted in focusing his or her attention, intuitive in obtaining information, feeler in
making decisions and perceiver in handling the outer world.
The relationships between MBTI profiles and teaching and learning are exam-
ined under four sub-dimensions within the dimensions of obtaining information and
decision making. These are sensory-thinker (ST), sensory-feeler (SF),
intuitive-thinker (NT) and intuitive-feeler (NF). It is believed that the dominant
dimensions they have are effective on shaping the instructional process of teachers.
Teachers with ST profile (mastery) generally want to reach substantial results, to
apply what they have learnt, to be engaged with something at a time, to become
active in the instructional process and to know precisely what they are expected to
do in the process. In addition, it could be stated that teachers with the ST-type are
reformers and providers of realistic information about concepts; that they are
inclined to organize or competitive teaching and convergent thinking; and that they
tend to put forward product. Those with the SF profile who give importance to
details enjoy instant feedback and rewards while they dislike activities requiring
fiction and intuition and activities which are open-ended or ambiguous. Teachers
with the SF profile (involvement) give importance to individual teaching and the
views and experiences of other teachers and take other teachers’ thoughts into
consideration while conducting their studies. In addition, it could be stated that the
teachers with the SF type are educatory, supportive, emphasizer apt to socialization
and inclined to conduct group projects, doing verbal narrations and strengthening
interpersonal relationships and that they tend to carry out such activities in the
Table 14.6 The relationship of the personality types and instructional variables
14
Personality types
Variables ST NT SF NF
How can we Organize factual information, Create a problem-solving mode Provide for group work or a task Provide choices for completing
organize practice for recall where students sort out data, that involves the effect assignments and projects or
teaching analyze and draw conclusions assign task that involves
tasks? imagination, innovation
How can we Traditional rows or pairs; Teams that will create a Groups or pairs for Learning centers, pupils
adjust teacher at focus debating atmosphere; teacher collaboration; teacher meets arranged for interest, teacher is a
settings? moves from team to team pupils at eye level resource
How can we Frequent, quick, short/need to Infrequent but with explanation Frequent, quick with an Infrequent but with emphasis on
give know if they are right of why they received the grade emphasis on the amount of effort its value; its uniqueness and
feedbacks? they did that is evidenced creativity
What kind of Provide a model of what a Problem-solving, analyzing Opportunities for articulating Projects or opportunities to
homework complete and accurate work; it too must be modeled ideas, learning from others, create new or different ways of
will we give? assignment look like, practice develop skills of collaboration looking at material, important to
and drill designed to convince pupils they set criteria
have knowledge
How do we True and false, fill in the blanks, Critical essays, debates, research Interviews in and out of class. Anything that can show what
do any measure that allows to projects which measure the Let the pupils question you the pupils can do with what they
assessment pupils to recall factual material ability to see relationships have learned
and
evaluation?
Teacher Trainer, informative, Intellectual challenger, Educator, emphasizer, Facilitator, modeler, creator
characteristics director-conductor researcher, theorist supportive
Learner Realist, practical, focusing on Logic, intellectual, Syphatic, interpersonal, friendly Curious, insight owner,
characteristics events and real knowledge-based imaginative
Learning Purposeful study organized or Discovery, inquiry, and Personal intimacy, interaction, Originality, flexibility,
environment competitive independency and cooperation imagination
(continued)
545
546
Personality types
Variables ST NT SF NF
What will we Basic skills, concept acquisition Critical thinking, concept Positive subject, socializing Creative thinking, moral
teach? developing development
Which Practices and drills, convergent Information processing, inquiry, Group projects, group research, Imagination, divergent thinking,
instructional thinking, demonstration, making inductive reasoning, written individual sharing, oral reports, synectic, creative/artistic
strategies, portfolio, mastery fields, reports, problem-solving, communication activities, peer explanation, describing the
methods, and team-game-tournament, research, concept acquisition, to peer sharing, class meetings, values, data, and information
techniques memorization concept formation, reading, and peer learning, collecting, breaking mental
will we use? interpreting, asking Socratic team-game-tournament patterns, creative problem
questions, comprehensive solving, inductive learning
planning activities
How do we True and false, fill in the blanks, Critical essays, debates, research Interviews in and out of class, Anything that can show what
do any measure that allows to projects which measure the let the pupils question you, the pupils can do with what they
assessment pupils to recall factual material, ability to see relationships, personal diaries, oral reports, have learned, fluency practices,
and objective examinations, control open-ended questions, essays, rubrics, structured observations, flexible responses, taking into
evaluation? lists, criteria tests, uncovering interpretation and synthesis self-assessment and account the details, developing
original skills activities, compositions self-evaluation creative products, observations,
collecting unknown data
C. Akdeniz
instructional process as group research, paired sharings, classroom meetings,

mutual learning, team guidance, team games and tournaments. SFs like things that
require attention and courage in the instructional process. Competitive instructional
activities requiring detailed and obligatory routine jobs are not attractive for them
(Silveret al. 2007; Silver and Hanson 1996).
While learning, teachers with the NT profile (understanding) prefer to study on
thoughts in a planned manner, to discuss on a reasonable analysis and to conduct
problem-solving activities via data collection, organization and evaluation; on the
other hand, while teaching, they demonstrate inductive behavior and tend to
become challenger, researcher, concept producer and interrogator. As for the
teachers with the NF profile (synthesis), while learning, they become creative,
engage with a job at a time and try to find realistic solutions to real problems; on the
other hand, in the instructional process, they become modeler, focus on creative
thinking, have insights, raise moral and values, tend to think in a distinctive and
divergent manner and feel anxious about originality (Silver et al. 2007; Silver and
Hanson 1996).
14.2 Discussion: Effects of Instructional Activities
This subsection includes a discussion about the impacts of the instructional activ-
ities onto instructional process in the context of some variables. Here, we will
examine the impacts of the instructional activities of society, parents, teachers,
pupils, and school.
The first question is; how should be an instructional activity?
The second one is; how the instructional activities affect the interlocutors?
The third one is; is there an interaction among these variables? If yes, how?
In the discussion, we will consider together these three questions. Of course,
readers can ask a question like “why didn’t you take into account the other vari-
ables, like; local authorities, decision makers, curriculum developers, politicians,
school managers, etc.?” The answer is quite simple; “everything can affect on other
things, we cannot consider all of them, but we can consider the primary
interlocutors”.
As seen in Fig. 14.1, an instructional activity affects the students and teachers’
duo, then affects the parents and then school and society. Interlocutors are con-
nected each other, as links in the chain.
Modern educational approaches; involve the parents into the learning process,
give the learning responsibility to the pupils, arrange the teachers’ roles as a mentor,
facilitator, and Pathfinder, define the school as a living place.
We are going to discuss the relationship between instructional activities and its
primary interlocutors in a scenario. There will be a scenario in the context of
548 C. Akdeniz
Fig. 14.1 The primary

interlocutors of the
instructional activities
interdisciplinary content and curriculum. The scenario tries to answer those three
questions that mentioned above (Table 14.7).
It’s possible to increase the number of scenario samples, but that one is sufficient
to give the readers an idea. As can see from the sample; instructional activities have
a great potential to affect the society, school, parents, teachers and pupils. Let’s
continue with the scenario!
Answer one (S.1.A.1): An instructional activity should be connected with an
interdisciplinary content and curriculum.
Answer two (S.1.A.2): An interdisciplinary activity has the potential to affect the
five interlocutors. Let’s see how it can be:
It affects teachers. An interdisciplinary content requires focused attention and a
Table 14.7 Discussion chart

Scenario topic Questions
Q1. How should Q2. How the Q3. Is there an interaction
be an instructional instructional activities among these variables? If
activity? affect the interlocutors? yes, how?
Answers
Interdisciplinary S.1.A.1 S.1.A.2 S.1.A.3
content and
curriculum
wide field information to establish links among the topics, themes, and concepts.
Interdisciplinary instruction involves a conscious effort to apply knowledge, prin-

ciples, and values to more than one academic discipline simultaneously. So, to
execute an instructional process in this way, teachers must do the following actions:
• Further reading efforts in other related disciplines,
• More effort to make interdisciplinary lesson plans and improve instructional
design skills
• To further effort to improve their communication, task distribution, class man-
agement, and effective teaching skills
• Teachers must take account into pupils’ needs, traits, learning characteristics,
etc.
It affects pupils. In an interdisciplinary instruction, students tend to discover
relationships, structures, and concepts in a systematic way through to go beyond the
discipline and taking into account the different aspects of the world. In the inter-
disciplinary instruction, students may have a chance to improve their listening,
speaking, reading, writing, thinking and other skills. Also, it provides to transfer
their preliminary information to other fields and gives a chance to use their capa-
bilities in an integrated context. For example; we will handle health issues, and our
aim is to enable the students to realize how the foods’ nutritional values affect their
school and sports life performance, and how it contributes to their physical,
affective (attitudes, values, emotions, and so on), social and mental states. Then
students will develop the skills to prepare menus, do the shopping which has high
nutritional value and chooses health foods as well as food preparation. In an
interdisciplinary instruction, pupils take some responsibilities and gain some new
abilities. Some of them as below (from Section One):
• … collaborating with peers, making connections between what they know and
new ideas, working from new and different perspectives, problem-solving,
creativity, flexibility
• … students’ strengths; builds confidence to overcome challenges learning
new/difficult concepts, and encourages students to become personally invested
in their work (since they are given the privilege and responsibility of making
choices about what and how they learn and demonstrate their learning)
• … increased motivation and more actively engagement
• … Students learn more when they use the language arts skills to explore what
they are learning, write about what they are learning, and interact with their
classmates, teachers, and members of the community
• … “Students should have a range of curriculum experiences that reflects both a
discipline-field and an interdisciplinary orientation; students cannot fully benefit
from interdisciplinary studies until they acquire a solid grounding in the various
disciplines that interdisciplinary attempts to bridge”
• … Students should be involved in the planning and development of interdis-
ciplinary units, etc.
550 C. Akdeniz
• For further information apply online and printed sources, like in Bibliography
section.
It affects parents. As mentioned above in “teachers” and “pupils” parts, inter-
disciplinary instruction gives some opportunities and responsibilities to the inter-
locutors. Parents, as an interlocutor, can involve instruction design process, like,
developmental needs and should engage the interdisciplinary activities. According
to Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (2005), in the instruction process, parental
involvement is affected by parents; motivational beliefs, perceptions of invitations,
and perceived life context. And also, family culture is effective on this topic.
As explained in Bloom’s Taxonomy; high-level skills need high-level effort. In
the interdisciplinary process, pupils try to improve high-level writing, reading,
listening, speaking, thinking, questioning, creating, and other skills that they
already have and they try to acquire new ones. This challenging and productive
process requires the contribution of parents. To ensure qualitative contribution
parents may apply some practices, as in the following examples:
• To support the pupils to development of effective usage of the time
• To encourage the pupils to share their original thoughts
• To provide extra sources that pupils need
• To improve the pupils’ to develop their intrinsic motivation
• Etc.
It affects the school. First of all, school is main places for instruction. When you
apply the interdisciplinary instruction, you should provide related materials, create
an environment contains an opportunity to actuate acquired skills like; curiosity,
research, discovery, associating, synthesis, concluding and other skills.
It affects society. Society affects the science and is affected by it. In this book’s
context, the meaning of society concepts includes people, community,
non-governmental and voluntary organizations, educational unions, and other
influential people. Interdisciplinary instruction needs interdisciplinary context; this
context needs some supportive people and organizations like mentioned above. The
society gives the pupil some chances to show their acquired skills and provides
some supports, like; awards, competitions, career opportunities, honour, commu-
nication, interaction, and other opportunities.
Answer three (S.1.A.3): Simply, yes, there is an interaction between them. Let’s
show this interaction in a flowchart.
What kind of Who are the

And then?
support? providers?
Yes Question it! Material Teachers

Time
Tolerance Parents
Is interdisciplinary Guidance
instruction needs Feedback School
support?
Reinforcement
Opportunity to
Society
apply
Motivation
Cooperation
No Apply it!
14.3 Further Studies
This subsection brings some efficiency-oriented research proposals to increase

instructional activities in the instructional process.
Topic One: Educational Paradigms
Questions: What is our education system’s paradigm? Which one is better? Do we
need to change our educational paradigm? What we want to train: A good citizen or
critical thinker (it doesn’t mean opposite ways), a well-reader or a skilled person, an
adaptive person or inquisitive person and so on?
Suggestion One: Time is changing, the world is changing, borders are changing
(in fact they are disappearing), cultural aspects are changing… So, we must find a
new paradigm to adapt or to stand against the change.
Suggestion Two: The technology is taking the place of a lot of things since
ongoing years. Maybe in the near future, people learn the knowledge units with
organic pills or with nanochips or something else showing without an effort. So,
need to create a new paradigm to adapt the new situation or make better the human
systems.
Warning: To address this issue, on the basis of the opinions of domestic and foreign
field experts to determine a better option, decision makers (this issue in the area of
government responsibility) should create workshops in far away from politics.
Topic Two: Curriculum
Questions: Do we satisfy our education systems’ success? Do we satisfy our
children’s academic achievements? Do we want to see our children more capable,
552 C. Akdeniz
more skillful, problem solvers, and so on? Do we find the curriculums good
enough?
Suggestion Three: Of course the curriculum is not the only one factor affecting
the instructional process. But it is the most effective factor. We have to choose the
best option for us: knowledge-base curriculum or skill-base curriculum; full of
achievements or quite enough achievements (for more time to practice); national
curriculum or an integrated curriculum?
Warning: A well-designed research can be helpful to find the best option.
Topic Three: Domains and Models
Questions: Which one is the best for us? Is there any culture-adapted teaching
model?
Suggestion Six: Culture is a key concept, and it contains language, religion,
traditions, sub-cultures, understanding of democracy, conception and philosophy of
life, etc. Cultural aspects may affect the instructional process. This topic was
popular once upon a time. But, it looks like that some parts of this issue is still
missing.
Warning: A well-designed research can be helpful to find the best teaching
model for researcher’s culture.
Glossary
Assessment Assessment is the process of gathering data on student

learning or the measurement of pre-determined criteria.
Behaviour observable actions that can be seen and counted (Moore
2000).
Collaborative “An instruction method in which students at various
Learning performance levels work together in small groups toward
a common goal” (Gokhale 1995).
Constructivism view of knowledge as constructed by individuals acting
withing a social context that molds knowledge but does
not determine absolutely what constitutes knowledge
Crossdisciplinary Viewing one curricular subject from the standpoint of
another.
Curriculum and thematic teaching are also terms used to describe
integration teaching methods that include interdisciplinary studies
(Jacobs 1989).
Curriculum Courses are constituting an area of specialization in the

secondary educational institution (Canady and Retting
1996).
Effective instruction Instruction that enables students to acquire specified
skills, knowledge, and attitudes, and which students
enjoy (Reiser and Dick 1996)
Epistemology Branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of
knowledge or how we come to know things (McNergney
and McNergney 2009).
Evaluation The formal reporting about a system, practice, individ-
ual, or group and a performance grade within the report
(Danielson and McGreal 2000).
Evaluation The formal reporting about a system, practice, individ-
ual, or group and a performance grade within the report
(Danielson and McGreal 2000).
Evaluation Activities (Lecture, review of previous materials,
demonstration, board work, video clips, and reading
assignments) currently observed in a traditional setting
Facilitator A person assisting in needs identification and learning
strategies for students (Knowles 1973).
Feedback Providing the learner with answers to exercises and other
information about progress in in learning.
Individualized Instruction tailored to the individual abilities of students.
instruction Means of individualizing instruction include allowing
each student to proceed through instruction at his or her
pace, providing different instructional materials for dif-
ferent students, and allowing different students to work
on different objectives (Reiser and Dick 1996).
Instructional The steps (events) that take place when the instruction is
activities presented to students (Reiser and Dick 1996).
Instructional models Deliberate, explicit, complete plans for teaching that can
be fitted to students and objectives (McNergney and
McNergney 2009).
Instructional The daily transactions that occur between teachers and
strategy students which lead to the attainment of the identified
outcomes. These transactions should include multiple
materials, techniques, and activities supported by
554 C. Akdeniz
modeling, intensive coaching, supervised practice, and

monitoring
Instructions Planned action, practice, or procedures for teaching
Knowledge A type (or domain) of learning outcome that focuses on
the ability to recall and state-specific information (Reiser
and Dick 1996)
Learning centers Situations designed to provide individuals or pairs of
students the opportunity to practice skills extend
knowledge and skills beyond those gained by the typical
class, rehearse knowledge and skills before assessment,
and practice skills that have not been mastered in an
earlier assignment or activity (Canady and Retting
1996).
Learning The assimilation of new information into the existing
structure, and accommodating or modifying the existing
structure to deal with the new information.
Mentors People who assist students by being their guides, advi-
sors, leaders, or tutors (Evans 1992).
Multidisciplinary The combination of several content areas that are con-
cerned with one problem, but without intentional inte-
gration (Jacobs and Borlands 1986).
Pedagogical content Particular teaching knowledge necessary to impart con-
knowledge tent knowledge (McNergney and McNergney 2009).
Performance Assessment based either on observation of a process
Assessment while skills are being demonstrated or on the evaluation
of products created (Stiggins 1997)
Personality A set of individually and distinctive features from other
people. Personality can also describe as a complete set of
behaviors that are associated with the character traits of
the individual (Jung 1971; Myers 1998).
Personalizing Instruction and course objectives are based on the unique
instruction needs and abilities of each student (Conti 2004).
Psychomotor That area of learning devoted to becoming proficient in
domain performing a physical action involving muscles of the
body.
Teacher-centered Direct instruction, sometimes synonymous with exposi-
learning tory or didactic teaching, in which the teacher is the
major provider of information (Borich 1988).
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Author Index
A B
Abalı-Öztürk, Y., 361, 362 Bağcı, H., 311
Abeş, G., 393 Baker, R.M., 62
Açıkgöz, K.Ü., 309 Baldwin, R.S., 237
Adams, C.M., 48, 50 Baloche, L.A., 32, 33
Adebule, S.O., 240 Bandura, A., 61
Adıgüzel, A., 361, 362 Banks, J., 94
Adıgüzel, H.Ö., 367, 370 Barnum, K.T., 30
Aesaert, K., 494 Barrows, H.S., 284, 292, 294
Afzal, H., 244, 246 Başar, U., 311
Akdeniz, C., 57, 84–86 Bates, M., 164, 165, 217, 218, 543
Akoğuz, A., 370 Batzle, J., 347, 373
Akoğuz, M., 370 Bazan, D.E., 64, 72, 95
Akpınar, B., 361, 362 Beck, C., 243
Aksan, D., 310 Bednarz, S.W., 460
Akyol, H., 310 Benbunan-Fish, R., 30
Alexander, P.A., 237 Benes, P., 494
Algozzine, B., 243 Bergs, M., 84
Ali, I., 244 Bettis, N.C., 460
Allen, R.H., 236, 243 Bilen, M., 30, 110, 148, 164, 169, 189
Ambrose, S.A., 234, 236, 237, 251, 256 Blaz, D., 48, 50
Ames, C.A., 245 Bloom, B.S., 11–14, 46, 69, 70, 158
Anderson, A., 131, 132 Boehm, R.G., 460
Anderson, L.W., 70, 71 Bolin, F.S., 6
Anderson, R.C., 237, 242 Bolvin, J.O., 139
Anthony, W.S., 284 Borcher, S.D., 137
Arbaugh, J.B., 30 Borland, J.H., 534
Arslan, M., 370 Boshuizen, H.P.A., 237
Arslan, O., 495 Bosuwan, T., 295
Ata, B., 417 Boud, D., 284
Atasoy, B., 127, 129 Boudreault, C., 131
Ausubel, D.P., 19, 65, 113, 169, 237, 348 Bowel, P., 133
Avcı, S., 48 Bransford, J.D., 460
Awolaju, B.A., 240 Bridges, M.W., 234
Ayers, W., 236, 237 Briggs, C., 543, 544
Aykaç, N., 150, 151, 156, 166, 168, 170, 171, Briggs, L.J., 72, 264, 265
182, 187, 194, 195, 199–201, 204, 205, 214 Brophy, J.E., 234, 236, 242, 244
Ayoola, O.O., 240 Brown, A.L., 460
Ayvacı, H.Ş., 139 Brown, H.D., 469

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8
560 Author Index
Bruner, J., 65 Demircan, Ö., 307

Bruner, J.S., 65 Demircioğlu, İ.H., 415
Bryant, D.A., 236 Demirel, M., 416, 497
Bülbül, F., 306, 362, 397 Demirel, Ö., 11, 15, 110, 114, 139–141, 158,
Bundy, C.E., 136, 137 309
Burden, P.R., 8, 22, 37, 48, 49, 234, 237, 239, Demirer, V., 494
241, 250, 251, 253 Demirhan, C., 297
Burke, A.F., 367 DeNisi, A.S., 251
Burroughs, F.N., 247 De Souza, A.R., 460
Bye, D., 244 Deveci-Topal, A., 498
Byrd, D.M., 8, 22, 37, 48, 49 DeVito, T.R., 72
Deweese, C.S.P., 373
C Dewey, J., 31, 67, 180
Calhoun, E., 7–11, 16, 22–27, 30, 31, 41–43 Diaz, S.L., 538
Canady, R.L., 58 Dinç, E., 415, 416
Cano, J., 72, 247 DiPietro, M., 234
Carmichael, K., 44 Dobbs, V., 98, 101
Carofiglio, V., 38 Dobransky, N.D., 247
Caroll, 11 Dodge, B., 508
Catherine, O., 240 Doğan, C, 355, 399
Cavkaytar, S., 374, 376 Donert, K., 483
Çaykent, Ö., 414 Donk, T., 9, 10, 26, 30, 41–43
Çelikkaya, T., 131 Doolittle, P.E., 68
Çepni, S., 139 Dörnyei, Z., 246
Chang, E., 494 Downs, R.M., 460
Chapman, C., 84 Doyle, W., 238
Chen, S.Y., 203, 238 Driscoll, A., 58
Chernobilsky, E., 249 Ducasse, C.J., 58
Chesler, M., 41–43 Duffy, T.M., 294
Chickering, A.W., 84 Dunn, K.J., 238
Chin, K.L., 494 Dunn, R.S., 238
Cırık, İ., 108 Dwyer, F., 62
Clark, L.H., 57, 148, 224
Clark, P., 39 E
Cocking, R.R., 460 Edvantia, 64
Consulting Psychologist Press (CPP), 79 Edwards, H., 292
Conway, M., 244 Eggen, P.D., 6, 21, 22, 35, 37, 40, 43, 112,
Cookson, P.,, 94 157, 253, 254
Cooper, H., 257 Ehrman, M.E., 72
Corno, L., 48 Eick, C., 131, 132
Coşkun E., 310 Ekeyi, D.N., 136
Coulson, R.L., 294 Elliott, J., 243
Crone-Todd, D.E., 47 Epstein, J.L., 257
Cunningham, D.J., 294 Erdem, M.D., 307
Erdoğan, A., 147
D Erduran, S., 40
Dagostino, L., 244 Erenoğlu, S.Ö., 331
Dai, Y., 122 Erişti, B., 85, 86
Dale, E., 137 Ertopcu, F.B., 300
Daniels, E., 244, 248 Estes, T.H., 59, 124
Dean, R.J., 244 Evans, D.N., 110, 113
Deci, E.L., 246, 249 Evenson, D., 292
Dell’Olio, J.M., 9, 10, 26, 30, 41–43 Everston, C.M., 252
Demir, S., 131, 157 Eyre, H.L., 45, 47
Author Index 561
F Güven, İ., 413, 415, 416

Feltovich, P.J., 294 Güven, M., 238
Fer, S., 108, 109
Fettahlıoğlu, H.S., 121 H
Fettahlıoğlu, P., 39 Haines, S., 297
Ford, N., 238 Hali, S., 416
Fox, E.J., 47 Hamann, K., 122
Fox, R., 41–43 Hamid, K., 244
Freeman, D.K., 136 Hanson, J.R., 72, 74, 544, 547
Frey, K., 297 Harmer, J., 307
Friedlander, B.D., 256 Harmin, M., 242, 257
Frigaard, N.U., 236 Harris, K.R., 256
Frizzelle, R., 256 Harrison, A.H., 252
Fry, R., 284 Hattie, J., 250
Frymier, A.B., 247 Hawley, W., 94
Heacox, D., 48, 51, 238
G Heap, B.S., 133
Gaddy, B.B., 235 Hebb, D., 58
Gage, 58 Heldenbrand, B., 367
Gagné, R.M., 16–21, 263, 265, 270 Henderlong, J., 247, 248
Galbraith, J., 75 Hendrix, R., 131, 132
Gale, J., 284 Hengirmen, M., 307
Gamson, Z.F., 84 Hernández, P., 508
Gardner, H., 58 Herried, C.F., 127
Garton, B.L., 72 Hesapçıoğlu, M., 109, 122, 127, 130, 139
Gay, G., 94 Hicks, C.D., 249, 251
Glaser, R., 139 Hilden, K., 248
Glasgow, N.A., 249, 251 Hindman, J.L., 239
Glasser, W., 236 Hisley, J., 246
Goals, K.C., 16 Hmelo, C., 292
Gochyyev, P., 494 Holmes, G.E., 136, 137
Göknel, Y., 390 Holubec, E.J., 69
Good, T.L., 163, 234, 236, 242, 244 Houser, M.L., 247
Goodwin, J., 368 Huang, H.Y., 69, 72, 75, 76
Gordon, W.J., 26, 27, 30 Hunter, M., 9, 21–23, 245
Gözütok, D., 108 Husband, C., 416
Grabe, W., 310 Hyman, R., 205, 238
Graham, S., 256
Granito, M., 249 I
Grant, L.K., 45 Ilkhan, M., 495
Gregory, G.H., 84 İnci, H., 300
Grimm, J.-W., 373 Inman, T.E., 49
Gülbahar, Y., 31, 495 Irvine, J., 94
Gültekin, F., 423
Gunawardena, C.N., 30 J
Günday, R., 348 Jack, S.L., 253
Gündoğdu, K., 18 Jacobs, H., 270, 275, 533, 534
Güneş, F., 148, 149, 361 James, T., 543
Gunter, M.A., 9, 10, 22–25, 28, 30, 31, 34, 37 Jensen, E., 75, 76
Gunter, P.L., 253 Jo, S., 25
Gurlitt, J., 237 Johnson, D.W., 31–34, 69, 155
562 Author Index
Johnson, R.T., 31–34, 69, 155 Kriwas, S., 297

Jonassen, D., 284 Küçükahmet, L., 180, 461, 496
Jones, J., 248 Kulik, C.-L., 44, 47
Jones, K., 309 Kulik, J.A., 44
Joyce, B., 7–11, 16, 22–27, 30, 41, 42, 62 Kulikowich, J.M., 237
Jung, C.G., 72, 543, 544 Kurudayıoğlu, M., 361, 362
K L
Kagan, M., 31, 32, 34 Ladyshewsky, R., 292
Kagan, S., 31, 32, 34, 69 Lambert, D., 488
Kale, Y., 417 Lang-Helmut, R., 110, 113
Kara, Ö.T., 309 La Pointe, D.K., 30
Karabağ, Ş.G., 415 Larsen-Freeman, D., 284, 285
Karadağ, R., 51, 185 Lasley, I., 112, 113
Karaman, A.C., 306 Lasley II, T.J., 6, 11, 52
Karbach, J., 37–39 Lavoie, R., 243, 244
Karwowski, M., 25 Lennon, M., 522
Kauchak, D.P., 6, 21, 22, 35, 37, 40, 43, 112, Lepper, M.R., 245, 247–249
157, 253, 254 Leshin, C.B., 233
Kaya, H., 460–462 Lim, D.H., 63
Kayabaşı, A., 121 Lim, S., 508
Kayabaşı, Y., 135 Lively, D. L., 248
Kazu, I.Y., 238 Lovett, M.C., 234
Kearney, P., 247 Lumsden, L.S., 244
Keller, F.S., 44, 47, 48
Keller, J.M., 16 M
Kelley, C.M., 251 Machiels-Bongaerts, M., 237
Kellogg, J., 132 Madden, N.A., 34
Kempler, T., 246 Maden, S., 132
Kent, A., 460 Maker, C.J., 25
Keogh, R., 284 Mandel, S.M., 31, 37
Keskin, F., 310 Marran, J.F., 460
Kester, L., 237 Marsha, W., 62
Khan, M.A., 244 Martin, V., 237
Kiersey, D., 543 Marzano, R.J., 58, 62, 63, 77, 79, 235, 533,
Kilbane, C.R., 7, 11, 22, 25 534
Kilis, S.,, 495 Matteson, D.M., 136
Killen, R., 64 Mayer, R.E., 58, 157, 240
Kimball, B. A., 127 McClintock, A.H., 237
King, A., 237 McCroskey, J.C., 247
Kirsch, I., 522 McLoughlin, A.C., 218
Kitson, A., 415 Memiş, M. R., 307
Kılıç, Z., 40 Menke, D., 237
Kılıçarslan, R., 367, 372 Merrill, M.D., 64, 84
Kılınç, Y., 466 Metsala, J., 249
Kırpık, G., 422 Miller, M., 62
Kluger, A.N., 251 Milman, N.B., 7, 11, 22, 25
Köksal, D., 308 Monk, M., 40
Kolb, D.A., 284 Moore, K.D., 58, 72, 241
Kosel, B., 294 Morgan, B., 136, 137
Kosnik, C., 243 Morrison, G.R., 159, 276
Kozma, R.B., 493 Mossberger, K., 521
Krashen, S., 307 Mouton, H., 18
Krathwohl, D.R., 70 Muammar, O.M., 25
Author Index 563
Mudrak, D., 494 Polat, Y., 392

Myers, I.B., 72, 74, 543, 544 Pollock, E.J., 64, 79, 93, 235
Myers, P.B., 197, 544, 554 Pollock, P.H., 122
Prensky, M., 498, 522
N Prince, G.M., 26, 30
Newhouse, B.S., 240 Prochazka, J., 494, 495
Nieto, S., 94 Pushkar, D., 244
Nolan, V., 26
Norford, J.S., 235 R
Norman, M.K., 234 Ragan, 59
Novak, J., 169 Rambousek, V., 494
Nwike, M.C., 240 Ray, J.B., 64, 69, 84
Reigeluth, C.M, 18
O Renkl, A., 237, 365, 398
O’Brien, M., 64, 72 Resnick, 58, 534
Ocak, G., 108, 113, 121, 131, 133, 136, 150, Retting, M.D., 58, 97, 99
151, 163, 166, 167, 174, 186, 206, 216 Richard, M., 72, 174, 306
Ocak, M.A, 498 Richards, J.C., 283, 285, 288
Ökten, C.E., 306 Richardson, V.E., 61, 62
Okur, A., 310, 330, 336, 372, 373, 378, 393 Richmond, V.P., 247
Omatseye, B.O.C., 122, 123 Roberts, J.L., 49
Önce, G., 324, 326, 336, 365, 378, 388 Roberts, T.G., 218
Öncül, R, 108 Robinson, J.C., 257
Ornstein, A.C., 6 Rodgers, T.S., 283–286, 288, 289, 306
Osborn, A., 180–182 Romiszowski, A., 181
Osborne, J., 40 Rosis, F., 38
O’Sullivan, J.C., 367 Rosoff, B., 238
Otçu, S., 331 Rost, M., 306
Özden, Y., 7, 8, 16, 25 Rovai, A.P., 30
Özer, Ö., 31, 34 Rushton, S., 72
Öztürk, A., 11, 13 Russell, M., 244
Öztürk, D.A., 13 Rutherford, B., 238
Rutherford, F.J., 284
p Ryan, R.M., 246, 249, 427
Palmer, D., 245–247
Papert, S., 283 S
Park, Y.S., 79, 82, 83 Saban, A., 31, 32, 195
Patall, E.A., 257 Saddler, B., 256
Patrick, B.C., 246 Sağır, U., 40
Paynter, D.J., 64, 79, 93, 235 Şahin, A., 416
Pear, J.J., 47 Şahin, C., 361, 362
Pedota, P., 252, 254 Sak, N., 494
Peleg-Bruckner, Z., 237 San, İ., 132, 175, 497
Pelletier, L.G., 246 Saskatchewan Education, 58, 62, 64, 69, 70
Perini. M.J., 544, 547 Scalise, K., 494
Petry, A., 415 Schmidt, H.G., 237, 284
Petry, B., 18–20 Schmitz, C.C., 75
Phye, G., 237 Schulze, S.K., 237
Piaget, J., 58, 92, 96, 276 Schwap, J., 9, 10, 22–25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 34, 37,
Picciano, A.G., 30 59, 121, 124
Pichert, J.W., 237 Schwartz, P.B., 72, 98, 208
Pickering, D.J., 64, 79, 92, 93, 235 Senemoğlu, N., 7, 11–13, 16, 18–21, 30, 44,
Pierce, R.L., 48, 50, 215 140, 141
Plax, T.G., 247 Shaftel, F.R., 40–43
564 Author Index
Shaftel, G., 40–43 Topal, Y., 372, 373, 498

Shand, J.W., 367 Toprak, Z., 414
Shannon, D., 131, 132 Torrance, E.P., 6, 25
Sharan, S., 37 Toulmin, S.E., 31, 37–39
Sharan, Y., 37, 209 Tucker, P.D., 239
Sher, A., 30 Turan, İ., 416
Sherman, S.J., 34, 275
Shores, R.E., 253 U
Shulman, L., 62, 535 Uşaklı, H., 370
Silver, H.F., 62, 72, 74, 544, 547 Üstündağ, T., 370
Simon, S., 40
Şimşek, A., 21, 22, 30, 57, 151 V
Şimşek, T., 372, 373 Vallerand, R.J., 246
Slavin, R.E., 31–34, 37, 68, 497 van Braak, J., 494
Smith, V.R., 59, 154, 157, 247, 284 van Merriënboer, J.J., 237
Snow, E., 373, 541 Van Voorhis, F.L., 257
Somers, J.W., 370 Vanderlinde, R., 494
Somyürek, S., 129 Varışoğlu, B., 308
Sönmez, V., 31, 34, 36, 163, 214 Vatterott, C., 257
Sorenson, G., 247 Veatch, N., 62
Soszynski, M., 25 Velez, J.J., 247
Sözer, E., 112 Von Davier, M., 522
Spencer, R.E., 45 Vrankovic, R., 461
Spiro, R.J., 294 Vuk, R., 461
Starr, I., 57, 148 Vural, R.A., 370
Stearns, P.N., 414 Vygotsky, L., 31, 61, 66, 361
Steffe, L., 284
Stephen, W., 37 W
Štípek, J., 494 Wager, W., 16–18
Stoller, F., 297 Wagner, M., 522
Streit, L.D., 240 Walker, D., 183–185, 284
Strickland, 50 Weaver, T., 26, 30
Strong, R.W., 72, 74, 544, 547 Weil, M., 7–11, 16, 22–27, 30, 31, 41–43, 62,
Stronge, J.H., 239 84
Suchmann, J.R., 66 Weinstein, C.E., 157
Sünbül, A.M., 496, 497 Wetzels, S.A., 237
Swanson, R.L., 248 Wheeler, P., 544
Widodo, H.P., 288
T Wiggins, G., 251
Tamblyn, R.M., 284, 292 Wildová, R., 494
Tan, Ş., 135, 147 Williams, L., 62
Tapp, A., 248 Williams, R., 459
Taşpınar, M., 136 Wilson, B.M., 122, 152, 494
Taveggia, T.C., 44, 47 Woloshyn, V.E., 237
Taylor, T., 452 Wood, E., 237
Teague, F.A., 240 Woodrow, L., 295
Terrel, T., 307 Woodsmall, W., 543
Timuçin, E., 495–498 Wooland, B., 133
Tiperley, H., 250 Wormeli, R., 50
Tobias, S., 237 Wyspianski, J.F., 543
Tochon, F.V., 306
Tolbert, C.S., 521 Y
Tomlinson, C.A., 48–51 Yadav, A., 129
Tondeur, J., 494 Yamamoto, K., 522
Author Index 565
Yanpar-Yelken, T., 495–497 Young, B.J., 132

Yaşar, Ş., 110 Young, C., 452
Yazıcı, F., 414 Ysseldyke, J., 243
Yeager, J., 140 Yüksel, A., 48
Yıldız, C., 310
Subject Index
A 332, 338, 350, 357, 364, 365, 369, 376,

Açık uçlu soru, 381 389, 395, 400, 401, 406, 408, 418, 430,
Activity, 10, 20, 25, 27, 30, 35, 36, 41, 57, 58, 440, 442, 466, 494–496, 509, 513, 514,
70, 76, 113, 132, 133, 170, 177, 193, 198, 519, 521, 539, 544, 547, 548
214, 237, 244, 247, 250, 263, 267, 269, Attitude, 12, 17, 41, 48, 49, 58, 77, 121, 132,
271, 272, 283, 285, 286, 289, 295, 297, 151, 205, 264, 297, 417, 427, 440, 497, 535
298, 307, 312, 316, 317, 319, 327, 328, Audio-visual aids, 195
330, 333, 334, 338, 339, 345, 347–349, Authentic assessment, 36
355, 357, 358, 362, 366, 367, 370, 374, Authentic text, 290
376, 386, 387, 389, 393, 395, 397, 398,
400, 405, 408, 419, 421, 426, 432, 433, B
435, 438, 439, 441, 443, 445, 449, 450, Balkans, 422, 443
461, 466, 467, 469, 471, 479, 487, 493, Behaviour, 217, 247, 248, 294, 316, 333, 426,
495, 499, 500, 502, 504, 507, 508, 511, 427, 438, 451
514, 516, 520, 539, 547, 548 Birleşik Zamanlı Fiil, 381
Adaptation, 75, 268, 317, 323, 495
Age of enlightenment, 444, 453 C
Alternative assessment, 521 Çivi, 372
Approach, 7, 11, 16, 39, 48, 49, 52, 62, 64, 72, Classifying, 77, 120, 359
79, 108, 110, 113, 131, 148, 180, 182, 189, Cognitive strategies, 17, 18, 76, 266
190, 201, 241, 269, 270, 284, 289, 294, Collaboration, 76, 202, 295, 416, 427, 444, 540
300, 301, 306, 307, 345, 347, 348, 355, Collaborative learning, 154, 218, 413, 451, 479
361–363, 373, 374, 381, 387, 398, 405, Collaborative teaching, 158
410, 414, 416, 433, 438, 444, 460, 495, Communication, 124, 125, 156, 174, 185, 199,
499, 516, 521, 533 206, 208, 219, 247, 254, 272, 285,
Argumentation, 31, 37–39, 76, 271 289–291, 307, 309, 311, 312, 347, 349,
Aşama, 372, 373 355, 362, 368, 380, 388, 394, 399, 405,
Assessment, 13–15, 33, 35, 36, 49, 51, 69, 125, 427, 483, 493, 495, 499, 500, 503–505,
158, 190, 193, 199, 200, 203, 204, 209, 507, 508, 549
217, 219, 251, 256, 266, 269, 272–275, Communicative activity, 301
292, 349, 350, 356, 357, 363, 364, 374, 376 Communicative approach, 307
Asynchronous communication, 218 Comparing, 22, 77, 156, 211, 213, 255, 440,
Attention, 8, 9, 12, 17, 18, 44, 50, 68, 76, 111, 530
113, 114, 116, 120, 125, 141, 150, 175, Continent, 131, 290, 438
178, 187, 240–243, 245, 248, 254, 260, Consulting Psychologist Press (CPP), 79
265, 267, 269, 271, 275, 286, 293, 306, Cold War, the, 431, 441, 442, 452
308, 309, 316, 317, 322–324, 327, 328, Crusades, the, 418, 420, 421, 426

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8
568 Subject Index
Cooperation, 31–34, 36, 51, 130, 165, 179, G

209, 309, 462, 495 Geographical discoveries, 444, 446, 447, 453
Country, 125, 126, 290, 346, 429, 494, Geographic skills, 459, 461, 473, 488
510–512 GIS, 462, 472, 474, 489
Creating analogies, 16, 27–29, 71, 77 Glacier, 489
Creating metaphors, 77, 93 Glastnost, 453
Crossdisciplinary, 275 GPS, 460, 462, 489
Curriculum, 7, 14, 40, 43, 49, 51, 61, 62, 69,
85, 111, 139, 140, 180, 196, 203, 206, 234, H
238, 264, 268, 274, 275, 283, 460, 493, Handout, 301
494, 529, 530, 532–535, 547, 548, 552 Historical empathy, 419, 423, 426, 427, 437,
444, 451, 452
D Historical novel, 424, 427, 432, 446, 454
Digital citizenship, 495 Historical thinking, 419, 420, 426, 427, 434,
Digital natives, 498 453
Distributed education, 94 Hurricane, 479, 483, 484, 487, 489
Diversity, 165, 309, 536 Huzur, 381
Domains, 284, 355, 552
affective domain, 7, 12, 20, 40, 41, 75, 76, I
121, 127, 174 Ice-breaker, 301
cognitive domain, 12, 14, 46, 75, 127, 174, ICT Information and Communication
496 Technologies
psychomotor domain, 6, 7, 12, 20, 51, 75, ICT literacy, 494, 522
238 ICT resources, 460, 489
Ideology, 434, 443, 454
E Improvization, 175, 223
Educational field trip, 193, 196, 197, 222 Industrial Revolution, 418, 444–452
Educational game, 15, 160, 193, 203, 539 Information technologies, 61, 125, 498, 500,
Effective teacher, 63, 168, 233, 239, 241, 250, 521
255, 535 Instruction, 8, 10, 18, 21, 44, 48, 51, 57, 58,
Empire, 422, 423 61–64, 69, 70, 84, 90, 100, 110, 135, 147,
Epistemology, 264, 275 196, 233, 239, 255, 263, 270, 312, 393,
Evaluation, 13, 14, 35, 43, 47, 66, 68, 74, 82, 463, 483, 499, 508, 513, 529
120, 124, 129, 135, 139, 141, 151, 166, Instructional activities, 49, 61, 86, 245, 250,
168, 171, 179, 181, 254, 266, 267, 274, 267, 275, 529, 547, 548
291, 389, 394–396, 410, 425, 451, 512, Instructional methods, 62, 66, 71, 73, 74, 84,
521, 545, 553 87, 88, 107–109, 140, 159–161, 237, 240,
Experiential learning, 69 255, 275, 537
case study, 110, 127, 129, 130, 154, 189,
F 191, 309
Facilitator, 51, 72, 73, 97, 208, 272, 545 conference, 148, 166, 309, 328
Feedback, 8, 10, 17, 20, 47, 77, 87, 168, 251, debate, 39, 62, 214, 216, 257, 318
256, 265, 272, 288, 297, 302, 448, 482, demonstration, 8, 70, 95, 111, 112,
502, 542 135–137, 152, 163, 193–195, 265, 495,
Feedback types 508
peer feedback, 302 discussion, 39, 70, 110, 113, 124, 131, 150,
Felaket, 330 155, 167, 205, 206, 213, 217, 219, 249,
Fiilimsi, 331, 354, 381 399, 463, 499, 547
Focus on form, 301 dramatization, 142, 172, 391
Fossil fuel, 465, 466, 489 explanation, 94, 137, 171, 194, 329, 390
Subject Index 569
grammar translation method, 301 fishbone diagram, 153, 157, 180, 187, 223
inquiry, 64, 67, 68, 198, 272, 292, 416, fishbowl, 154, 209, 211, 212
444, 508 forum, 25, 26, 33, 169, 219, 309, 416
lecture, 10, 15, 37, 45–47, 69, 95, 110–113, jigsaw, 34, 35, 208, 209, 539
142, 158, 163, 212, 312, 496, 514 journal, 33, 49, 155
question and answer, 164, 426 mime, 157, 176, 177, 302, 324
socratic seminar, 99, 143, 255, 258 oral history, 414, 439, 441
Instructional objective, 96, 202, 234, 239, 245, pantomime, 132, 172, 176, 223, 323, 325,
271 327
Instructional process, 62, 85–87, 128, 266, 537, Philips 66, 154, 156, 209, 210
540, 549 puppetry, 172, 178
Instructional strategy, 7, 57, 61–64, 66, 69–71, realia, 286
72, 79, 84–86, 88–91, 96, 223, 553, 148, role-playing, 20, 40, 41, 43, 131, 135, 143,
267, 275, 535 152, 172, 245, 327, 497
activity-based, 91, 317 six practicing shoes, the, 224
classifications, 57, 63, 69, 91, 155, 163, 221 six thinking hats, the, 183–185, 224
cooperative/collaborative strategies, 2, 63, think-pair-share, 212, 225
66, 80, 159–162, 270, 536, 541 Instruction types
crossdisciplinary, 552 effective, 11, 65
discovery strategies, 65 non-directed, 97
inquiry strategies, 67 student-directed, 99, 269
popular, 64, 91, 196, 219, 298, 460, 466, teacher-centered, 25, 64, 100, 110, 112,
472, 514 135, 239, 302, 416
presentation activities, 10 teacher-directed, 70
presentation strategies, 65, 270 Intellectual skills, 16, 218
simulations, 99, 156, 172, 180, 187, 202 Intelligence, 48, 141, 346, 355, 356, 367, 390,
traditional, 8, 64, 91, 101, 243, 324, 340, 499, 507
444, 460, 482 Interaction, 7, 32, 59, 68, 175, 192, 213, 265,
Instructional strategy activities 309, 415, 497, 538, 541, 545, 550
discussion & brainstorming activities, 87, Interactive group, 96
88, 92 Interdisciplinary, 115, 286, 415, 444, 479, 529,
ınstructor-focused ınstruction activities, 86, 533–535, 549
87 Iron curtain, the, 439, 440, 454
learner-focused ınstruction activities, 86, 87 Ism-s
making write & taking notes & summarize capitalism, 439, 445, 455
activities, 90 colonialism, 445, 451, 455
modeling & role playing & simulation communism, 439, 440, 454
activities, 88 feudalism, 422, 434, 453
problem solving & sample event activities, nationalism, 434, 453
88 positivism, 454
project & research activities, 90, 91
question & answer activities, 89 J
thinking & ınterrogating & ınterpretation Jerusalem, 420, 422–424, 454
activities, 89
Instructional tactic, 61, 142, 233, 258, 273, K
275, 536 Knowledge, 6, 12, 21, 51, 67, 78, 81, 85, 101,
Instructional techniques, 66, 88, 153, 159–161, 114, 148, 157, 165, 170, 194, 204, 222,
243, 275, 417, 536, 537 236, 237, 263–265, 268, 277, 292, 298,
brainstorming, 26, 86, 87, 92, 154, 157, 307, 318, 324, 329, 347, 349, 360, 362,
170, 180, 181, 222, 305, 318, 324, 394, 371, 393, 406, 428, 460, 495, 499, 533,
424, 444, 470, 499, 500, 508, 517 535, 536, 541
concept mapping, 69, 169, 237, 345
570 Subject Index
L Pedagogical content knowledge, 79, 81, 98,

Learning, 6, 7, 10–16, 18, 19, 21, 31, 34, 37, 535
44, 47, 48, 51, 57, 59, 64, 70, 74, 78, 94, Perestroyka, 454
99, 112, 114, 125, 141, 151, 154, 157, 168, Performance assessment, 98, 554
178, 196, 208, 235, 238, 245, 263, 270, Personality, 72, 87, 179, 275, 538, 543, 544
288, 292, 312, 333, 345, 347, 355, 362, Portfolio, 49, 74, 162, 255, 273, 521
397, 416, 426, 461, 495, 499, 513, 530, Praise, 77, 247, 248
534, 541, 545, 549 Prerequisite skills, 98, 277
Learning centers, 34, 50, 554 Privatization, 483, 489
Learning theories, 7, 275, 348 Project, 297, 516
behaviorism, 92 Project-based learning, 84, 297, 438, 497, 518
cognitivism, 93, 276 Prompts and clues, 251
constructivism, 48, 65, 271, 345, 374
neuropsychologic, 2, 3 R
Literacy, 97, 374, 378, 452, 494, 495 Reçete, 358, 382
Reform, 284, 555
M Renaissance, 451, 452
Marka, 363, 365 Renewable, 460, 463–466
Media, 30, 34, 89, 195, 220, 240, 284, 311, Revolution, 414, 433–438, 444–446, 448–450,
433, 460, 461, 483 452, 457
Mentee, 97 Rubric, 36, 71, 95, 219, 512, 546
Mentors, 97, 536
Metin, 314, 349, 350, 378, 379, 409 S
Models of teaching, 7, 41, 270 Saskatchewan Education, 58, 62, 64, 69, 79,
Mother tongue, 289, 302, 307 267
Motivation, 12, 48, 76, 125, 151, 155, 174, Şato, 382
203, 244, 247, 250, 287, 418, 521, 549 Self-monitoring, 99, 143, 256, 258
Motivation types, 88 Self-regulation, 99, 257
extrinsic motivation, 142, 258 Silent period, 302
ıntrinsic motivation, 142, 244, 246, 258, Simulation, 99, 161, 180, 187, 188, 202, 224
536, 550 Social network, 461–463, 489
Motor skills, 16, 17 State, 6, 8, 14, 21, 29, 30, 40, 51, 108, 148,
Multidisciplinary, 276, 554 210, 218, 235, 252, 258, 285, 414, 426,
Multimedia, 219, 508, 516, 517, 520, 535 434, 439, 452, 456, 511, 533
Stress, 31, 286, 302, 444
N Strickland, 50
Nal, 372, 382 Supplementary material, 302
Nalbant, 382 Sustainable, 460, 463, 465, 469, 490
Nation-state, 453 Synchronous communication, 100, 224
Noksan, 372, 382 Synthesis, 20, 66, 160, 218, 418, 432, 539, 550
Non-instructional behaviors, 97
Non-renewable, 464, 489 T
Tacir, 341, 373
O Tactic, 100, 233–236, 238, 241, 244–249, 251,
Observation, 33, 36, 67, 79, 88, 137, 156, 193, 253
204, 268 Task, 14, 18, 36, 49, 80, 181, 206, 237, 250,
Öğüt, 314, 382 508
Oral history, 414, 416, 417, 442, 454 Teaching, 5–8, 11, 14, 19, 25, 39, 51, 59, 72,
Örtük, 341 87, 101, 108, 114, 129, 141, 549
Özetleme, 379, 380, 382 Teaching models, 84
Ozone layer, 460, 469, 470, 489 concept attainment model, 16, 22, 270
cooperative learning, 25, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37,
P 111, 198, 309
Peace, 426, 454, 559 differentiated ınstruction, 7, 48, 51, 52
Subject Index 571
direct ınstruction, 8, 9, 11, 69, 70, 100, 270, Traditional, 47, 66, 73, 111, 244, 461
554 Treaty, 454
5E, 362, 363, 366, 382, 413, 418, 419, 422,
425, 499, 502 U
gagné’s nine event of ınstruction, 21, 270 Ürün, 382
ındividualized instruction, 15 USA, 381, 430, 439, 440, 443, 530
ınformation processing model, 16, 270 USSR, 418, 430, 432, 439–441, 443, 454
mastery learning, 8, 11, 12, 15, 426, 495,
513 V
non-directed model, 97 Value, 26, 73, 121, 236, 271, 447, 534
personalized system of ınstruction, 43 Verbal information, 16, 17
personalizing instruction, 98, 554 Visual aid, 164, 192, 213
synectics, 26, 30, 180, 270
toulmin’s models of argumentation, 37 W
Tedbir, 382 War, 115, 121, 414, 420, 427–431, 452
Telaşlanmak, 382 Water basin, 490
Telaffuz, 341, 356, 379, 389 Web-based GIS, 472, 490
Torba, 372, 382 Workshop, 66, 154, 180, 191–193
Tornado, 483, 484, 490
“Peace at home, peace on the world. Atatürk”

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8

Instructional Process and Concepts in Theory and Practice

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Celal Akdeniz Editor

ISBN 978-981-10-2518-1 ISBN 978-981-10-2519-8 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016953654

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Knowledge is to understand, to understand

Instruction ¼ teaching þ learning

This book wants to emphasize that instructional process cannot be considered

Organization of the Book

Part I: Instructional Process

Part II: Activity Samples

In Chap. 12, theoretical explanations of Geography Education and sample

Part III: Effects of Instructional Activities

Isparta, Turkey Celal Akdeniz

A. To thoroughly understand the THEORETICAL sections;

Part One Introduction

review the definitions and descriptions of the related primary

read carefully chapter questions! (4)

and ask these questions to yourself:

B. To thoroughly understand the PRACTICAL sections;

Presentation of the field

Stages of the Lesson

consider the other sections! (8)

and ask these questions to yourself:

Isparta, Turkey Celal Akdeniz

Part I Instruction Process

Part II Activity Samples

Part III Effects of Instructional Activities

About the Editor

Dr. Celal Akdeniz is currently Assistant Professor at

Necmi Aytan, Ph.D. was born in Kula, Manisa. He

Work Address: Süleyman Demirel University, Doğu Yerleşkesi, Education Faculty,

Çiğdem S. Belikuşaklı-Çardak, Ph.D. got her

Hilal Bozoğlan, Ph.D. currently works at Süleyman

Faculty of Education, Süleyman Demirel University,

Ferdi Bülbül, Ph.D. is Assistant Professor at the

Work Address: Artvin Coruh University, City Campus 08000 Artvin/Turkey

Veysel Demirer has a Ph.D. degree in Curriculum and

member of the Association Turkish Information & Communication Technologies

G. Feryal Gündüz, Ph.D. is currently an ICT teacher

Vedat Kartalcık, Ph.D. is Assistant Professor in

Hüseyin Kaya, Ph.D. is currently Associate Professor

Murat Keçe, Ph.D. is currently Assistant Professor in

Faculty of Education, Anadolu University, P.O. Box 26470, Eskisehir, Turkey

Levent Vural, Ph.D. is currently Assistant Professor

Faculty of Education, Trakya University, P.O. Box 22030, Edirne, Turkey

Derya Yılmaz got her B.A. in 2012 from Middle East

Institute of Educational Sciences, Süleyman Demirel University, P.O. Box 32260,

Psychologic Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism Neurophysiologic Humanist

and ﬁnish with “planning for instruction”. As discussed in the chapters, in a

Ç.S. Belikuşaklı-Çardak (&)

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 5

behaviors, thoughts, feelings or emotions (Özden 2003). Various learning theories

1.2 Behavioral Models of Teaching

1.2.1 Direct Instruction

pre-requisites, present new information by using materials, provide an opportunity

1.2.2 Mastery Learning

Another example of behavioral models of teaching is mastery learning model which

pre-requisites or behaviors in cognitive domain required for learning in the fol-

4. Previous learning unit should be revisited if it is needed.

accomplish this task by carefully analyzing the learning levels of pre-requisite

learning programs implement programmed instruction (Joyce et al. 2004) for

1.3 Cognitive Models of Teaching