Artery: Transports blood from the heart to the tissues

Thick muscular wall; Much elastic tissue;Not permeable

Narrow lumen (relative to diameter);Blood flows rapidly
Capable of constriction (due to muscle)
Usually carries oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery)
Carries blood at high pressure;Blood flows in pulses
Vein: Transports blood to the heart from the tissues
Thin muscular wall; Little elastic tissue;No pulses
Wide lumen (relative to diameter);Not permeable
Valves prevent backflow of blood; Blood flows slowly
Not capable of constriction
Can be easily compressed; Carries blood at low pressure
Usually carries deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein)
Capillary Links arteries and veins
Wall made of single layer of cells;Cells are thin
No muscle; No elastic tissue; No valves; No pulses
Large lumen relative to diameter;Diameter very small
Not capable of constriction; Blood moving slowly
Permeable/ Gaps between the cells
Blood changes from oxygenated to deoxygenated

Interphase:
G1; Cell growth/organelles synthesised/biochemical produced;
S; DNA is copied/production of histones;
G2; Organelles copied/organelles duplicated/cell contents doubles
to prepare for division/centrioles replicate/energy stores increase.
Prophase: Centrioles move to poles;
Chromosomes become visible/shorten and thicken;
Nucleolus disappears; Nuclear membrane disintegrates;
Spindle fibres start to develop/formation of spindle;
Metaphase: Chromosomes arrange along equator;
Spindle fibres attach to centromeres;
Anaphase: Chromatids separate; As spindle fibres shorten;
Telophase: Chromatids reach poles; No longer visible/
uncoil and lengthen; Spindle fibres disintegrate;
Nucleolus reforms; Nuclear membrane reforms;
Cell division/cytokinesis;Constriction in animal cells;
Cell plate formation in plant cells
VC – RA – RAVv – RV – RSLv – PA – L – PV – LA – LAVv – LV – LSLv – A – B

Blood flows from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure

SA node; Is the pacemaker;

SA node fires/initiates an wave of excitation;
The electrical wave spreads across both R+L atria;
The atria contract/atrial systole; From the top down;
Blood flows into the ventricles; Wave cannot cross
the layer of connective tissue between the atria and
ventricles/ventricles electrically insulated from atria;
This causes a time delay between atrial and ventricular contraction;
The AV node; Transmits the wave of excitation;
Along the (R + L branches of) Bundle of His;
Located in the (ventricular) septum;
To the apex of the heart; Purkinje fibres;
Transmit the electrical impulses into the walls of the ventricles;
Ventricles contract/ventricle systole; From the bottom up;
Blood flows into the arteries;

Left atrioventricular valve/bicuspid valve/mitral valve;

Prevents backflow of blood from the L ventricle into the L atrium;
Closes when pressure in the L ventricle is greater than pressure in
the atrium/pressure in LA lower than that in LV.
Left semilunar valve/aortic valve;
Prevents backflow of blood from the aorta into the L ventricle;
Closes when pressure in the Aorta is greater than that in the LV/
pressure in the LV lower than that in the aorta.

Crossing over
Occurs during meiosis; During prophase 1
When the replicated chromosomes pair up
Non-sister chromatids; Become entangled
Sections of DNA are exchanged; Causes
recombination of alleles; Alleles are variations
of the same gene;
Independent assortment/Random orientation
Occurs during meiosis; During metaphase1
Homologous pairs of chromosomes; Line up
along equator of cell; The order in which they
line up is independent of each other; So the
maternal/paternal chromosomes are randomly
assigned to gametes
Fertilisation
Gametes are genetically variable; Due to crossing
over and independent assortment; The male and
female gametes pair up randomly; The sperm
nucleus and egg nucleus join at fertilisation;
To make a zygote; Offspring carry random
combinations of alleles from the mother and father

Biosphere -> Ecosphere -> Biome -> Ecosystem - large

community of living organisms in a particular area.
The living (biotic) and physical (abiotic) components
are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flow
Community - group of organisms of different species
that live in a particular area -> Population- all the organisms
of the same species, which live in a particular area
->Individual -> Habitat

A: Population composition
- Sex ratio/fertility levels/age structure
‣ B: Population density
- Number of individuals per unit area/percentage cover in a unit area
‣ C: Population distribution
- random/uniform/clumped
‣ D: Population size
- effect of birth and death rate and migration on population growth
- exponential and logistic growth of populations
- effect of density independent and density dependent factors on population size

DNA replication always occurs in the 5' to 3' direction.

Helicase: Splits and unwinds

the two-stranded DNA molecule
The leading strand is synthesized
continuously in the 5' to 3' direction
by DNA polymerase III.
Primase: Makes a short RNA
primer which is later removed.
DNA polymerase III: Extends
RNA primer with short lengths
of complementary DNA to make
Okazaki fragments
DNA polymerase I: Digests RNA
primer and replaces it with DNA
DNA ligase: Joins neighboring
fragments together into longer strands