 Hydrogen:

Hydrogen is widely considered as the future fuel. Hydrogen is not an alternative fuel, but
rather an energy carrier that must be created through the use of energy, beginning with
hydrogen-rich molecules. The growth of the hydrogen economy will almost depend heavily
on water electrolysis, which will need massive amounts of electric power to be produced.
Improvements in hydrogen storage, transportation, and distribution are also required for the
complete development of a hydrogen economy. Electrolysis and fuel cells can readily convert
hydrogen and electricity, and which of these two energy carriers will dominate, respectively
storage for electricity and transportation & distribution for hydrogen. The notion of
depending on hydrogen to get an unlimited supply of energy dates back to 1874, when Jules
Verne wrote his classic novel (The Mysterious Island) the following year. In this novel, a
main character says: "I believe that water will one day be employed as fuel, that hydrogen
and oxygen which constitute it, used singly or together, will furnish an inexhaustible source
of heat and light, of an intensity of which coal is not capable.... Water will be the coal of the
future".

 Hydrogen storage:
The effective introduction of hydrogen as a transportation fuel, which is the primary
use for the hydrogen economy, is dependent on hydrogen storage. The fundamental
function of any on-board fuel storage system is to offer a safe storage and handling
system for the supply of sufficient gasoline to meet the vehicle's operating range
requirements. Hydrogen gas has a high energy density by weight (33.3 Whkg1) but a
low energy density by volume (2.5 WhL1) when compared to hydrocarbons. Under
typical settings, hydrogen takes up approximately 3000 times the space that gasoline
does for a comparable amount of energy. Hydrogen storage devices can occupy a
relatively considerable space in fixed applications, including commercial and
residential purposes, and their weight is not a significant problem. In contrast,
hydrogen storage in transportation, such as vehicles, is constrained by volume and
weight. On-board hydrogen storage in the range of 5-13 kg is required to offer a
driving range of more than 300 miles for the entire platform of light-duty autonomous
cars powered by fuel cells. Off-board hydrogen storage that is low-cost and energy
efficient will also be required for fixed and portable applications, as well as across the
hydrogen transport system. Storage is necessary, for example, for hydrogen
production plants, hydrogen refuelling stations, and stationary energy production
plants. Substations and/or secondary storage locations may also require temporary
storage.

 Liquid hydrogen:
Hydrogen is the most difficult gas to liquefy after helium, and it can only be created
through a sophisticated and costly multi-stage cooling technique.
In the first process, hydrogen is pre-cooled with liquid ammonia to -40 ˚C (233 K)
and subsequently with liquid nitrogen to -196 ˚C (77 K). Helium is then utilized in a
multistage pressure system to produce liquid hydrogen at -253 ˚C (20 K). The
liquefaction of hydrogen requires around 30-40% of its energy content.
 Compressed hydrogen:
Hydrogen compression is now the preferred solution utilized in most hydrogen fuel-
cell prototype automobiles; however, it is far from adequate. Tanks capable of
withstanding greater pressures have been produced over time. Tanks composed of
innovative composite light-weight materials such as carbon Fiber with metal
(aluminium or steel) or polymer (thermoplastic) liners may now hold hydrogen at 350
or 700 atm (35.5 or 71MPa). However, such high-tech materials are too costly. Even
at 700 atm, hydrogen has a 4.6 times lower per-volume energy content than gasoline,
requiring a significantly bigger hydrogen tank. Moreover, compression requires
roughly 10-15% of the energy content of hydrogen.

 Metal hydrides:
Many metals and metal alloys, like sponges, may absorb hydrogen and create
hydrides. The quantity of hydrogen that can be injected varies on the chemical
characteristics of the system, but it is always a small percentage by weight since each
metal atom can only hold one or a few hydrogen atoms. As a result, the storage device
must weigh several hundred kilograms to store 5 kg of hydrogen. Depending on the
nature of the chemical link between hydrogen and metal atoms, metal hydride
production can be reversible or irreversible. Although irreversibility may be avoided
by chemically reacting the hydride with another substance (e.g., water), reversible
hydrides are clearly more appropriate as hydrogen storage systems in transportation.

 Hydrogen transportation and Distribution:

One of the challenges of using hydrogen as an energy carrier is the safe and efficient
transportation and distribution of the gas. Hydrogen can be transported in a variety of
ways, including by pipeline, tanker truck, and tanker ship. However, each of these
methods has its own challenges and limitations. Several different approaches have
been proposed for the transportation and distribution of hydrogen, including the use of
high-pressure gas tanks, cryogenic liquid hydrogen, and hydrogen-rich compounds
such as methanol or ammonia. Each of these approaches has its own benefits and
limitations, and the most appropriate approach will depend on the specific
requirements of the application. The distribution of hydrogen to end users can be
achieved through either a centralized or decentralized system.
 Centralized distribution:
The production, storage, and distribution of hydrogen from a central facility
to end users is referred to as centralized hydrogen distribution. The central
facility could be a hydrogen production plant, which generates hydrogen
through a variety of processes such as steam methane reforming or
electrolysis. After that, the hydrogen may be stored at the central facility,
typically in high-pressure gas tanks or in liquid form, before being distributed
 to end users via a network of pipelines or tanker trucks. We must conclude
that the properties of hydrogen raise significant issues regarding hydrogen
distribution, beginning with centralized production plants. As a result,
decentralized hydrogen production should be considered.

 Decentralized distribution:
Hydrogen is produced and distributed on a smaller scale, closer to the point
of use, in a decentralized hydrogen distribution system. This may involve the
use of smaller-scale hydrogen production facilities, such as on-site
electrolysis units or hydrogen production systems powered by renewable
energy. Before being distributed to end users via a network of local pipelines
or tanker trucks, the hydrogen may be stored locally in tanks or other storage
devices.
Various technologies and infrastructure, such as hydrogen compressors, hydrogen filling
stations, and specialized storage and transportation equipment, may be used in both
centralized and decentralized hydrogen distribution systems. The specific technologies and
infrastructure used will be determined by the application's requirements as well as the
location of the production and distribution system.

 Hydrogen powered vehicles:

Hydrogen-powered vehicles are those that use hydrogen as a fuel source to power an
electric motor. Hydrogen can be used to power vehicles in a variety of ways,
including using fuel cells or internal combustion engines (ICEs) that have been
modified to run on hydrogen. The high efficiency of hydrogen-powered vehicles is
one of their primary advantages. Fuel cells are extremely efficient, with some systems
achieving up to 60% conversion efficiencies. This is significantly greater than the
efficiency of internal combustion engines, which typically ranges between 20 - 30%.
Further research and development of hydrogen production and storage technologies,
as well as the creation of a strong hydrogen infrastructure, will be critical for the
widespread adoption of hydrogen-powered vehicles.

In a fuel cell-powered vehicle, hydrogen is stored on board the vehicle in high-

pressure tanks or as a cryogenic liquid. The hydrogen is then fed into a fuel cell,
where it reacts with oxygen from the surrounding air to generate electricity. This
electricity is used to power the vehicle's electric motor.

In a hydrogen-powered vehicle that uses an internal combustion engine, the hydrogen

is stored on board the vehicle in high-pressure tanks or as a cryogenic liquid. The
hydrogen is then fed into the engine and combusted to generate power. The engine
operates in the same way as a traditional gasoline engine, but the exhaust emissions
are typically water vapor and a trace amount of nitrogen oxides (NOx).
Overall, hydrogen-powered vehicles have the potential to be a clean and efficient
alternative to traditional gasoline-powered vehicles, but the lack of a well-developed
infrastructure and the high cost of hydrogen technologies remain significant
challenges. Further research and development of hydrogen production and storage
technologies, as well as the creation of a strong hydrogen infrastructure, will be
critical for the widespread adoption of hydrogen-powered vehicles.