Mecatronic Systems

Mechatronic Systems
Techniques and Applications

Volume 4
Electromechanical Systems
International Series
Engineering, Technology and Applied Science
Volumes 1-5
Edited by Cornelius T. Leondes
Books on M echatronic Systems

Volume 1 Industrial Manufacturing

Volume 2 Transportation and Vehicular Systems
Volume 3 Energy and Power Systems
Volume 4 Electromechanical Systems
Volume 5 Diagnostic, Reliability and Control System Techniques
Previously published in this series were volumes 1-6 on

Medical Imaging Systems Techniques and
Applications and volumes 7-15 on Structural
Dynamic Systems Computational Techniques
and Optimization
Biomechanical Systems Techniques and Applications

Computer-Aided and Integrated Manufacturing Systems (CAIMS)
Expert Systems Techniques and Applications
Computer Techniques in Medical and Biotechnology Systems
Data Base and Data Communication Networks Techniques
and Applications
Computer-Aided Design, Engineering and Manufacturing (CADEM)
Systems Techniques
This book is part of a series. The publisher will accept continuation orders which may be
cancelled at any time and which provide for automatic billing and shipping of each title in the
series upon publication. Please write for details.
Mechatronic Systems
Techniques and
Applications
Volume 4
Electromechanical
Systems
Edited by
Cornelius T. Leondes
Professor Emeritus
University o f California
at Los Angeles
Published in 2000 by
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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CONTENTS
Series Description and Motivation vii

Series Preface ix
Preface xi
Industrial Magnetic Bearings — Basics and Applications 1

Roland Siegwart, Hannes Bleuler and Alfons Traxler
Mechatronic Systems Techniques for Real-Time Optical
Measurement Systems 71
Carl During
Mechatronic System Techniques for Mechanical Parts
Inspection by Robot 125
C. R. Allen and I. C. Leggett
Techniques and Applications of Accurate Hydraulically-Operated
Processes and Machines 171
Hyung S. Cho, Young J. Park and Hee J. Park
Mechatronic Systems Techniques for Intelligent Paper Roll
Manipulator Systems 231
Pentti Valia, Juha Roning, Tapio Heikkila, Juha Kerva
and Jari Rehu
Supervisory and Adaptive Fuzzy Control for a
Flexible-Link Robot 299
Kevin M. Passino and Stephen Yurkovich
SERIES DESCRIPTION AND MOTIVATION
Many aspects of explosively growing technology are difficult or essen

tially impossible for one author to treat in an adequately comprehensive
manner. Spectacular technological growth is made stunningly manifest by
any number of examples, but, just to note one here, the Intel 486 IBM-
compatible PC was first introduced in late 1989. At that time the price of
this PC was in the $10,000 range and it was thought to be much too
powerful for widespread use. By early 1992, a little more than two years
later, the price had dropped to $1,000 and it was felt that much more
power was needed, leading directly to the Pentium IBM-compatible PC. A
similar price reduction pattern has followed for the Pentium computer,
which was then replaced by the Pentium II. With the introduction in 1999
of the Pentium III processor, the pattern of rapid decrease in price is now
evident for Pentium II-based computers. In fact, the decline in prices is
accelerating, with Pentium computers available for less than $500, Pentium
II PCs for less than $1,000, and new 600 MHz Pentium Ill-based computers
selling for substantially less than Pentium II systems did at their introduction.
This “power hungry” pattern will very likely continue into the foreseeable
future, with a 1,000 MHz Pentium III processor expected sometime in 2000.
The CD-ROM has now evolved to the DVD (Digital Versatile Disk) with
data storage capability a full magnitude greater (7 Gb vs. 650 Mb). A DVD-
ROM can hold a database of all the phone numbers and addresses in the
United States, which would normally require multiple CD-ROMs. And the
DVD format has room to grow. In any event, these examples and their clear
implications with respect to the many application-oriented issues in diverse
fields of engineering, technology and applied science and their continuing
advances make it obvious that this series will fill an essential role in
numerous ways for individuals and organizations.
Areas of major significance will be defined and world-class co-authors
identified as contributors for essential volumes in respective areas. These
areas will be determined by criteria including:
1. Will volumes fill important textbook voids in respective areas?

2. In some cases, a “time void” for an important area will clearly suggest
the need for a volume. For example, the important area of Expert Systems
might have a textbook void of several years that “requires” an important
new volume.
viii SERIES DESCRIPTION AND MOTIVATION
3. Are these technology areas that simply cannot sensibly be treated

comprehensively by a single author or even several co-authors?
Examples of areas requiring important volumes will be carefully defined

and structured and might include, as the case arises, volumes in:
1. Medical imaging systems

2. Structural dynamic systems
3. Mechatronic systems
4. Biomechanical systems
5. Computer-aided and integrated manufacturing systems (CAIMS)
6. Expert systems
7. Computer techniques in medical and biotechnology systems
8. Data base and data communication networks
9. Computer-aided design, engineering and manufacturing (CADEM)
systems.
One of the most important aspects of this series will be that, despite rapid
advances in technology, respective volumes will be defined and structured
to constitute works of indefinite or ‘Tasting” reference interest.
SERIES PREFACE
The first industrial revolution, with its roots in Janies Watt’s steam engine
and its various applications to modes of transportation, manufacturing and
other areas, introduced to mankind novel ways of working and living, thus
becoming one of the chief determinants of our present way of life.
The second industrial revolution, with its roots in modem computer
technology and integrated electronics technology — particularly VLSI (Very
Large Scale Integrated) electronics technology, has also resulted in advances
of enormous significance in all areas of modern activity, with great economic
impact as well.
Some of the areas of modem activity created by this revolution are:
medical imaging, stmctural dynamic systems, mechatronics, biomechanics,
computer-aided and integrated manufacturing systems, applications of expert
and knowledge-based systems, and so on. Documentation of these areas well
exceeds the capabilities of any one or even several individuals, and it is quite
evident that single-volume treatments — whose intent would be to provide
practitioners with useful reference sources — while useful, would generally
be rather limited.
It is the intent of this series to provide comprehensive multi-volume
treatments of areas of significant importance, both the above-mentioned and
others. In all cases, contributors to these volumes will be individuals who
have made notable contributions in their respective fields. Every attempt
will be made to make each book self-contained, thus enhancing its usefulness
to practitioners in a specific area or related areas. Each multi-volume treatment
will constitute a well-integrated but distinctly titled set of volumes. In
summary, it is the goal of the respective sets of volumes in this series to
provide an essential service to the many individuals on the international
scene who are deeply involved in contributing to significant advances in the
second industrial revolution.
PREFACE
Mechatronic Systems Techniques and Applications
Electromechanical Systems
The field of mechatronics (mechanics/electronics) has evolved as a highly

powerful and most cost effective means for product realization. This is due
to developments in powerful computers including microprocessors,
Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), computational techniques,
and advances in the product design process. End products cover a wide
spectrum of fields such as manufacturing, transportation, energy and power
systems, and a great variety of electromechanical systems. A number of
descriptions of the broad field of mechatronics have been put forward on
the international scene. One such description is: “the synergistic and optimal
design, development and support of a wide variety of diverse engineering
or industrial products and processes utilizing a wide variety of technologies
and computers and computer processes.” Recently, the technical committee
on mechatronics formed by the International Federation for the Theory of
Machines and Mechanisms, in Prague, Czech Republic, adopted the following
definition or description of the term: “Mechatronics is the synergistic
combination of precision mechanical engineering, electronic control and
systems thinking in the design products and manufacturing processes.”
Whichever description is adopted, the general process and great significance
of mechatronics are apparent.
This is the third set of volumes in the Gordon and Breach International
Series in Engineering, Technology and Applied Science, and it consists of
5 distinctly titled and well-integrated volumes on Mechatronic Systems
Techniques and Applications that can nevertheless be utilized as individual
books. In any event, the great breadth of this field certainly suggests the
requirement for 5 volumes for an adequately comprehensive treatment.
The set of volumes on mechatronics treats:
1. Industrial Manufacturing
2. Transportation and Vehicular Systems
3. Energy and Power Systems
4. Electromechanical Systems
5. Diagnostic, Reliability and Control System Techniques.
xii PREFACE
The first chapter to this volume is “Industrial Magnetic Bearings — Basics

and Applications,” by Roland Siegwart, Hannes Bleuler, and Alfons Traxler.
This contribution is a comprehensive treatment of active magnetic bearings
(AMB) as a mechatronics system which is widely used. An Active Magnetic
Bearing (AMB) can completely support a body by magnetic forces alone
without mechanical contact. The ferromagnetic forces are generated by
permanent magnets or actively controlled electromagnets but it is known
that stable contact-free suspension in all degrees of freedom (DOFS) cannot
be achieved by permanent magnets only. Magnetic bearings based on
permanent magnets, which are not discussed here, are passive elements
unable to control rotor vibration actively and are used only in conjunction
with other bearing systems. Active magnetic bearings (AMBs) have some
unusual properties:
• Magnetic bearings work without any mechanical contact. Therefore,

electromagnetic bearings will have a long life with very low maintenance
and small bearing losses. Since no lubrication is required, processes will
not be contaminated. An AMB can work in harsh environments or in a
vacuum. The rotational speed is only limited by the strength of the rotor
material (centrifugal forces), and peripheral speeds of up to 300 m/s or
higher have been reached.
• The electromagnetic bearing is an active element which enables accurate
shaft positioning and makes its integration into process control easy. The
vibrations of a rotor can be damped. It is possible to let the rotor rotate
about its inertial axis and to eliminate the dynamic forces caused by the
unbalance or other vibrating loads. This contribution concludes with a
presentation of the many significant applications of AMB.
The next chapter is “Mechatronic Systems Techniques for Real-Time

Optical Measurement Systems,” by Carl During. The development of
optical devices, such as the semiconductor laser, the optical fiber, and the
CCD (Charge Coupled Devices) cameras, have produced a number of
different types of equipment for industries, offices and homes, which are
based on optic, mechanic, electronic and computer sciences. These systems
are sometimes referred to as opto-mechatronic systems. They can be
categorized in real-time optical information systems and real-time optical
measurement systems; information systems, such as hand held laser scanners
used for storing information in a computer; and measurement systems,
where the information of the measurements produces a system response.
A system can be symbolized by an autonomous mobile robot using a fiber
optic gyroscope together with pulsed laser diodes range finders based on
time of flight measurements, for navigation control. There are also
PREFACE xiii
combinations of these two categories such as optical disc storage systems.

In this case the measurement of the reflected light displays the stored data
of the disc as well as information to keep the laser beam on the track of
the disc. Focusing on real-time optical measurement systems, this
contribution is a detailed treatment of mechatronic systems techniques in
this area of wide significance.
The third chapter is “Mechatronic System Techniques for Mechanical
Parts Inspection by Robot,” by C. R. Allen and I. C. Leggett. Mechatronics
may be considered the process of simplifying the manufacture of products
by using electronics and computing to replace tasks traditionally done by
purely mechanical systems. This contribution describes results obtained
from a pan-European research and development project into the design of
a flexible manufacturing system capable of automatic inspection of workpieces
using image analysis methods. Each part is 100% inspected, after the finishing
process, for casting defects using a camera-based sensor head and gazing
incidence illumination, while the part is moved about in 3D space using a
six-axis robot manipulator. Since these pit defects are small in size, the
workpiece must be inspected using a large number of image frames, one for
each facet of the workpiece. Visual inspection tasks often have constraints
imposed by the structured lighting conditions required to produce images
suitable for analysis by a vision system. To automate the process of
programming each position and orientation, a description of a new method
for calculating a robot path plan for inspection of brass castings based upon
a geometrical workpiece model is provided.
Chapter 4 is “Techniques and Applications of Accurate Hydraulically-
Operated Processes and Machine,” by Hyung S. Cho, Young J. Park and Hee
J. Park. Mechatronic systems which are hydraulically-operated have been
used in a wide variety of applications ranging from precision control systems,
such as robotics and machining, to high power heavy industrial systems,
such as machine tools forging processes. Rolling mill and webbing are
described in this chapter. In these processes, hydraulically-operated systems
play an important role because of their high power capability, high accuracy,
high stiffness and compactness. Although engineers have tried to substitute
hydraulic systems with electrical power systems because of relative easiness
of control, this sometimes does not work. Modem hydraulic components
have been combined with electrical or electronic components to take
advantage of the merits of both. The high power to weight ratio of hydraulic
systems with the highly sophisticated electronic signal processing technology
produces electro-hydraulic systems which provide a flexible and efficient
means of power transfer and accurate control. This combination of hydraulics
and electronics with the development of the microprocessor enables machines
to be powerful as well as accurate. Through this marriage complete closed-
xiv PREFACE
loop control of acceleration, velocity, position, and force are available with
an electro-hydraulic system. This contribution treats this broad class of
mechatronic systems which are of major significance and includes various
illustrative examples.
The fifth chapter is “Mechatronic Systems Techniques for Intelligent
Paper Roll Manipulator Systems,” by Pentti Vaha, Juha Roning, Tapio
Heikkila, Juha Kerva and Jari Rehu. Paper production systems are a major
area for the use of mechatronic systems. General techniques for control
systems for intelligent and skilled paper roll manipulators are discussed
here. The elementary operations related to both manipulations and
environment observations are described, and a plan for the integration of
these with a hierarchically organized planning-executing-monitoring (PEM)
architecture is given. The kernel of PEM architecture is a goal-oriented
module consisting of these principle parts. Motion control of the paper roll
manipulator is divided into free motion (gross motion) and force-constrained
motion (fine motion) phases. Gross motion control takes the paper roll from
the starting position to the vicinity of the goal position and the fine motion
control is used during pick up and in placing the paper roll against other
paper rolls and a support, for example, the walls of a ship. For coarse
recognition of the environment a 3D laser device is used. The accurate
position of paper rolls in the pick up phase is measured with the aid of a
laser scanner, and the final force constrained placement is carried out based
on measurements of spring forces of the flexible tool attachment mechanism
or hydraulic pressures of the manipulator system. Because of the importance
of paper production, this contribution is one of significance.
The final chapter is “Supervisory and Adaptive Fuzzy Control for a
Flexible-Link Robot,” by Kevin M. Passino and Stephen Yurkovich. Robots
are an essential element of many mechatronic systems. Various modem
techniques such as fuzzy theory or neural networks are used in robotics
systems. This chapter is a rather substantive treatment of these and other
issues and it includes various illustrative examples.
This book on mechatronic systems and techniques in electromechanical
systems reveals the effectiveness of the techniques available, and with
further development, the essential role they will play in the future. The
authors are all to be highly commended for their splendid contributions that
will provide a significant reference for students, research workers,
practitioners, computer engineers, and others for years to come.
1 INDUSTRIAL MAGNETIC BEARINGS —
BASICS AND APPLICATIONS
ROLAND SIEGWART1, HANNES BLEULER1, ALFONS TRAXLER2
1EPFL (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology) Lausanne, Switzerland

2Mecos Traxler AG, Winterthur, Switzerland
This chapter presents the basics of active magnetic bearings (AMBs) as a typical m echatronics
system and should help engineers to decide if magnetic bearings are suitable for a given
application.
The knowledge presented is based on over 15 years of research and num erous industrial
developments and applications in various fields ranging from vacuum to power industry. The
activity has started in at the ETHZ (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich) under professor
Schweitzer and has led to spin-off companies such as M ECOS Traxler AG (Winterthur).
A detailed overview on magnetic bearings can be found in the books ‘M agnetlagerung’
(Springer) [10] and its english translation Active M agnetic Bearings [8]. A Chinese translation
is also available [9].
In 1988 the first ‘International Sym posium on M agnetic B earings’ [7] was organized at
the ETH Z to account for the fast increasing interest on magnetic bearing technology. Four
Symposia, 1990 in Tokyo [2], 1992 in W ashington [1], 1994 again at ETHZ [11] and 1996
in Kanazawa, Japan [4] have been held since, creating an international platform for m agnetic
bearing technology and summ arizing the latest results in research and application. The 1998
Sym posium will be held in Boston, USA and the year 2000 Symposium in Paris.
Other im portant conferences on magnetic bearings are the International Symposium on
M agnetic Suspension Technology [5] organized by NASA, and the MAG conference [6],
organized by the University of Virginia, Charlottesville.
A special issue of the IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology was devoted to
m agnetic bearings control in September 1996 [3].
M agnetic bearing technology is still a fast growing area. A large variety of applications in
different fields have already proven the validity of the concepts. Many industries new to the field
are in the process of getting involved in this prom ising technology.
1
2 R. SffiGWART et al.
1.1. INTRODUCTION
An Active Magnetic Bearing (AMB) can completely support a body by

magnetic forces alone without any mechanical contact. The technically
interesting ferromagnetic forces are generated by permanent magnets or
actively controlled electromagnets, but it is known since a long time that
stable contact-free suspension in all degrees of freedom (DOFs) cannot be
achieved by permanent magnets only. Magnetic bearings based on permanent
magnets, which are not covered her, are passive elements unable to control
rotor vibration actively and used only in conjunction with other bearing
systems.
Passive magnetic bearings are also possible either with the Meissner effect
and the flux pinning effect in super conductors or electrodynamically, at
fast motion of a magnet over a conducting material. This last mode of
operation has such high losses that it either is used for induction melting
of free-floating metal drops or it again needs superconductors. This last
method is used for certain MAGLEV vehicle prototypes, but is not yet fully
operational on an industrial basis. Therefore, industrial rotor applications
for complete contact-free support use almost exclusively the active elec
tromagnetic principle. “Active” refers to the required feedback controller,
which in fact, as will be shown, proves to be a great advantage in industrial
use.
Active systems have been built as early as 1938 by Kemper for experiments
and later for momentum wheels in space applications. Due to the enormous
progress achieved in electronics, the number of industrial applications has
considerably increased in the last 15 years. Even a small selection would take
too much space here. Surveys can be found in the literature mentioned in the
preface and listed at the end of the chapter (section 1.8).
Active magnetic bearings have some unique properties:
• Magnetic bearings work without any mechanical contact. Therefore,

electromagnetic bearings will have a long life with very low maintenance
and small bearing losses. Since no lubrication is required, processes will
not be contaminated. An AMB can work in harsh environments or in a
vacuum. The rotational speed is only limited by the strength of the rotor
material (centrifugal forces), and peripheral speeds of up to 300 m/s or
higher have been reached.
• The electromagnetic bearing is an active element which enables accurate
shaft positioning and makes its integration into process control very easy.
The vibrations of a rotor can be actively damped. It is possible to let the
rotor rotate about its inertial axis and to eliminate the dynamic forces
caused by the unbalance or other vibrating loads.
INDUSTRIAL MAGNETIC BEARINGS 3
AMB Actuator
x: displacement
u: control signal
i: current in the coil
Figure 1. Active Magnetic Bearing.
1.1.1. Basic Principle
The operation mode of an AMB can briefly be described as follows (Figure 1):
a sensor measures the displacement x of the supported rotor. A controller,
e.g. a microprocessor, uses the sensor information to derive an appropriate
control signal u. This control signal is amplified by a power amplifier to drive
the control current in the coil, causing a magnetic force to act on the rotor.
The electromagnetic force has to be calculated by the controller in such a
way, that the rotor remains in its predefined and stable hovering position.
When the rotor moves away from the bearing, the sensor produces a
displacement signal which leads to an increase in the coil current. Thus the
increasing electromagnetic force pulls the rotor back to its nominal position.
An electromagnetic bearing system is a typical mechatronic product
including a mechanical system (rotor), a sensor, an actuator and a controller
providing the AMB system with a certain degree of 'intelligence' .
A technical rotor, of course, needs several of these bearing actuators for
full suspension. They have to be interconnected by a multi-variable control.
Figure 2 shows an example of a rotor assembly completely supported by two
radial bearings and one thrust bearing. Therefore, five degrees of freedom
have to be controlled. For each degree of freedom a magnetic actuator has
to be controlled individually. The control signals, however, depend on one
4 R. SIEGWART et al.
Radial Bearing A Radial Bearing B
CONTROLLER
r
pP
..
pp*
^Power Amplifier^
Figure 2. Rotor in Active Magnetic Bearings.
another, i.e. each bearing will in general depend on all sensor signals. The
axial suspension of the rotor is not shown here. Its control is decoupled from
the radial one and can designed out separately. For the radial bearing system,
all sensor signals are fed back to all actuators by a central controller, or the
bearings are only partly coupled by a decentralized control.
1.1.2. Components in an AMB System
The components of a magnetic bearing system are now shortly described.
Sensors
For most applications eddy-current sensors or inductive sensors are used.
Other possibilities include optical sensors, flux density sensors or a direct
calculation of the position using the current and voltage values in the coils.
Controller
The controller hardware can be built either in analog or digital technology.
Because of their great flexibility, digital controllers have become more
interesting recently. For high dynamics, multi-processor systems or digital
signal processors (DSPs) are used.
Control layout can be centralized or decentralized. The most important
advantages of decentralized feedback are the significant simplification of
controller hardware and the higher control frequency range.
For the controller layout different methods such as PD, PID, optimal output
feedback, observer based state feedback and H°° are in use.
CurrentAmplifiers
Small systems work with simple linear voltage-to-current amplifiers. For
high power applications, switched amplifiers are preferred on account of
their small losses. The amplifier is often the limiting component in an AMB
system.
Amplifiers with voltage or flux density control may improve AMB
performance in certain cases, but are not yet widely used.
Electromagnets
The electromagnets of an AMB look somewhat like the stator of a motor
(Figure 18). A radial bearing unit is normally composed of four pole pairs in
order to exert forces in any radial direction. Rotor- and stator elements are
made of laminated soft magnetic iron.
The electromagnets are usually arranged in pairs of opposed coils for each
degree of freedom. They are energized with a constant bias current io which
is symmetrically perturbed by the control current ix to produce the dynamic
control force. The fixed bias current provides a linearization of the quadratic
current-force relation. It is about half the maximum coil current or much less
when low power consumption is important.
1.2. THE ACTIVE MAGNETIC BEARING (AMB) ACTUATOR
1.2.1. Basic Equations for the AMB Actuator
The AMB actuator is the element within the control loop which transforms
an electrical input into a mechanical output, the bearing force. The AMB
actuator consists of both, the electromagnet and its power amplifier.
6 R. SIEGWART et a l
Figure 3. Electromagnet of an AMB.
The characteristics of an AMB actuator can be deducted from electrical

and geometrical properties or they have to be determined experimentally.
For an AMB electromagnet (Figure 3) the relationships between the force
F and current i , and between the force F and the magnetic flux density B
can be found for soft magnetic iron (neglecting saturation and hysteresis) as
follows
cos a N 2 A /io x T
’ x2 / ; x2
F = (T + X)r ~ l ~ J =F = k \ — ) <!“ K8"“ (2)1)
o rf (2,2)
MO
where jjlq = Atc • 10-7 [Vs/Am]

where N is the number of windings of the coil, A the flux cross-sectional
area of the air gap, /iq the permeability of air, s the nominal air-gap, x the
deviation from the nominal air-gap and a the angle shown in equation 2.1.
The rectification term A
A = ------ ^ 2 ------ ^ //gA (2.3)

2jjLr (s — x ) A f e 2 fJLrs Af e
Figure 4. Quadratic force-current characteristic of a single AMB magnet.
describes the influence of the iron on the bearing force. A fe is the flux
cross-sectional area in the iron (Figure 3), lfe the length of the magnetic loop
in the iron, and \jlt is the relative permeability of the iron. The rectification
term A is usually quite small, it tends to zero for large relative permeability
of the iron.
For a relative permeability of silicon iron of fir = 1500 to 6000 and a
realistic relation for the path length and cross-sectional areas in the air and
in the iron of lfeA /2 sA fe ~ 50 —200A-values of around A = 0.01 —0.12
are obtained. For low flux densities (e.g. below 1 Tesla) and big air gaps s
the A can often be neglected. The rectification term also depends on the flux
density.
The Maxwell equation
dB
u = N A —- (2.4)
ot
defines the relation between the flux density B and the voltage u. By inserting
equations 2.1 and 2.2 into the Maxwell equation 2.4 the following results are
found:
dB N 2A iu,0 9 / i \ 9 / i ,
u = N A — = -------—---- I --------) = kAk — ( -------- (2.5)
dt 2(1 + A) 3^ \ s — x J dt \ s —x ;
where K A 2(1+A )
cos a ’
The static inductance L of the electromagnet is given by
L = NA— (2.6a)
i
which, with equations 2.1 and 2.2, yields
A/u,0N 2 1 , 1
L = — !-?■ = kAk --------- (2.6b)
2(1 + A) (s —x) (s — X)
The inductance depends on the air gap (s — x). Thenominal inductance Lo
for v = 0 for an AMB coil is
L0 = — (2.6c)
Pair of Electromagnets for a Single Mechanical Degree of Freedom
The electromagnets for a radial bearing are usually arranged as shown in

Figure 5. Using a bias current z‘o premagnetizing the coils, the resulting force
Ft for such a pair of opposed electromagnets is
The premagnetization current z‘o results in a fairly linear current-force

characteristics of the AMB actuator around the operationg point. Without
premagnetization the slope of the force would be horizointal for zero control
current ix. which results in total loss of controlability in this operating point.
For the related voltage in the coil on the positive u+ and negative u - side
we obtain:
Figure 5. Pair of electromagnets for positive and negative force of a single

mechanical degree of freedom.
1.2.2 Linear Relation between Current and Force
For x « v and ix io equation 2.7 can be linearized using a Taylor’s series

expansion. It yields the well known linear AMB equation 2.9.
4ki?{ 4kin
Ft = - r - x H j - i x = ksx + kiix (2.9)
V-3 Sz
The force-displacement coefficient ks is the open-loop stiffness. It is less than

zero and is therefore often called the negative stiffness constant of the AMB.
As will be discussed later, this negative stiffness ks leads to an open-loop
instability.
The force-current coefficient ki is the actuator gain.
The AMB actuator has an inherent negative stiffness.
The relations (2.1)-(2.10) do not account for the resistance of the coil, the
leakage flux, iron saturation, hysteresis and eddy current losses. These are
described in section 1.2.5.
Figure 6 shows the current-force relation of an AMB actuator pair. Special
AMB actuator design programs allow to predict the stationary current-force
relation very precisely.
Figure 6. Measured current-force characteristics of an AMB actuator (pair of

magnets as in Figure 5);
k =4.57 106 Nm2/A2; 5 = 0.4 mm; ks =4570 N/mm; kt =4.57 N/A.
Similarly, equation 2.8 can be linearized to get the following relations for
the voltage u+ and u - across the coils.
3 io dx dix
U+ =k/\k = L0
31 \s* 37 s dt ^ dt _
(2.10a)
A ( 10 io dx dix "
u_ = k^k = L0
'dt m ] s dt dt _
Furthermore, a relation between the derivative of the force and the difference
of the voltages at the coils is obtained from relations 2.9 and 2.10a.
io dx 3/1 kAS dFt

—U- = 2L q (2.10b)
s dt dtJ 2/q dt
Figure 7. Maximum bearing force for different geometry of radial bearing.
1.2.3. Maximum Static AMB Force
For conventional soft magnetic material such as e.g. silicon iron (see section
1.2.5) the maximum flux density Bmax is limited to around 1.5 Tesla.
Therefore, using equation 2.2, the maximum bearing force Fmax related to
the flux cross-sectional area A is given by
———= cosa = 1.65 ■106[N/m2] with: cc = 22.5° (2.11a)

A no
and, using a realistic relation between A and A r (see Figure 7) for a radial
bearing of
— ^ ^ 5
A tt/16
the following relation for the maximum static bearing force density (magnetic
pressure) can be obtained:
N
Fmax = 33 (2.11b)
A r D
Using equation 2.1 one can get a relation for the requiredmagnetomotive
force © = Ni dependent on the force density and the air gap.
e = Ni = 2(1 + A) J ^ - ( s - x) (2.12a)
cos a V A
With A ~ 0 and cos a = 0, 92 and for the nominal position (x = 0) this
becomes
® = Ni = 1.86 • 103 J - s (2.12b)
12 R. SIEGWART etal.
force density — [N/cm2]

Ar
10 20 30
force density ~ [N /cm 2 ]

A
Figure 8. Required magnetomotive force © in function of the force density and the
air gap.
The required magnetomotive force is proportional to the root of the force

density F /A and proportional to the nominal air gap v. This behavior is
displayed in Figure 8.
Equations 2.11 and 2.12 help for a rough layout of an AMB actuator.
For the final layout, constraints such as available space for the
windings or heat dissipation have to be considered.
1.2.4. Dynamics of the AMB Actuator
The dynamics of the bearing force can be described by the time derivative of
the force. From equations 2.7 and 2.8 one obtains:
The maximum available voltage umax, at the coils gives a maximum dynamic
bearing force at the nominal position (x = 0) of
— = L84- — (2.14a)
dt s
where = umax; u~ = —wmax; cos a = 0.92, A ~ 0.
Choosing the bias current as half of the maximum current of the power
amplifier io = 0.5/max the following relation between the maximum output
power Pmax of the power amplifier and the maximum slope of the force can
be derived:
— = 0 . 9 2 (2. 14b)
dt s
Assuming the dynamic force to be sinusoidal with frequency / and amplitude
Fo equation 2.14b can also be written as
/w = - L o .9 2 — (2.15a)
2 jtj s
Fomax is the maximum amplitude of a sinusoidal force with the frequency / .

Similarly, the maximum frequency fo {cut-off frequency) for a given
amplitude Fo is proportional to the amplifier power and the inverse of the air
gap (Figure 9).
fo = tV ° -9 2 —s
271Fo
(2.i5b)
Equation 2.15 only gives an upper limit for the dynamic force. A power
amplifier also has a transfer function dependent on its internal current control
loop and its operation mode (see section 1.2.7). This is usually called the
small signal transfer function (far below the current and power limitations)
and affects also the dynamic force.
Figure 10 shows a general Bode plot of an AMB actuator. The transfer
function for small signals is given by the control loop of the power amplifier.
Up to the frequency fo the maximum force amplitude is limited by the
maximum flux density (see section 1.2.5) in the coil. For higher frequencies
the maximum obtainable force amplitude is limited by the power amplifier.
Equations 2.14 and 2.15 are simple relations for the estimation of the
performance of an AMB actuator. They are therefore helpful for the actuator
design.
1.2.5. Behavior of the Magnetic Material
The magnetic field generated around a conductor carrying a current i is called

magnetizing field H (Figure 11).
14 R. SIEGWART e ta l
Figure 9. Cut-off frequency of an AMB actuator as a function of the amplifier power

for different force amplitudes F0 and different airgaps 5 .
, limited by the maximum flux density

cut-off frequencyJ J 0 = function (Pmax )
^
limited by the
maximum power of the amplifier
zero phase lag limitation
I
behavior of signals
below the limitations
Figure 10. Bode plot: Bandwidth of an AMB actuator.
Figure 11. Integration path for equation 2.16 of a magnetizing coil.

Figure 12. Magnetization curve (B —H diagram) of silicon steel, the ferromagnetic

material mostly used for AMBs and electromotors.
The new curve is applicable during first magnetization
B r : Remanence; remaining flux density for zero magnetizing field
Hc: Coercitive magnetizing field; magnetizing field needed to bring the flux density
down to zero.
The circle integral relates the magnetizing field to the magnetomotive force
© = Ni.
Equation
B = (2.17)
describes the dependence of the flux density B on the magnetizing field
H. The relative permeability /zr depends on the material, and for nonlinear
magnetic material (e.g. ferromagnetic material) also on the flux density and
the time history of the magnetization. If \xr > 1, the material is called
diamagnetic, if /xr < 1 paramagnetic (materials with /xr 1 are called
ferromagnetic).
The behavior of nonlinear magnetic material is usually visualized in a B - H
diagram (Figure 12). Thus, when an unmagnetized ferromagnetic sample is
placed within a homogeneous magnetizing field H of increasing intensity,
flux density B changes according to the new curve in the first quadrant, and
B increases rapidly. If H keeps increasing, the flux density continues to

increase, but much more slowly. From a certain magnetic field strength on,
saturation is reached and B only increases with the slope /jlq.
When the outer field is reduced to H = 0, the flux density does not run
reversibly along the new curve, but irreversibly along the so-called hysteresis
l o o p . The flux density remaining at H = 0 is referred to as remanence B r .
If H is increased in the opposite direction, B drops. The magnetizing field
intensity necessary to attain B = 0 is called coercitive field intensity He-
With increasing intensity of the magnetizing field the sample is magnetized
until saturation in the opposite direction is achieved. By resetting the field to
zero and by increasing it subsequently in the original direction, saturation is
achieved again, and the hysteresis loop has thus been completed once.
For small alternating variations of the magnetizing field, the cycle will take
place on a so called minor loop.
1.2.6. Losses in AMB’s
Power losses in active magnetic bearings are usually less then 20% of those in
fluid film bearings. Nevertheless, they may be decisive for certain applications
such as e.g. flywheels.
The relationships presented in section 1.2.1-1.2.4 do not account for
hysteresis, flux leakage, saturation of the iron and eddy currents. Especially
for high performance AMBs (e.g. high force density, high rotational speed)
these effects, which are mainly dependent on the materials and the bearing
design, have to be considered.
1.2.6.1. Magnetic losses in the rotor

The hysteresis losses P f e (iron loss are much smaller than the friction losses
in conventional bearings. They depend on rotor speed, the material and the
direction of the flux vector B over the rotor circumference. The braking
moment caused by the iron losses consists of a constant part of hysteresis
loss Ph and a part of eddy-current losses Pec which increase proportionally
to the rotational speed Q.
Hysteresis Losses Ph
At remagnetization, the iron in the B-H diagram travels along a hysteresis
loop (Figure 12). With each loop the energy diminishes by Wh = Vfe^BH-
Here, ABH represents the surface of the hysteresis loop and V/e the volume
of the iron concerned. Consequently, the hysteresis losses are proportional to
Figure 13. Reducing the eddy current losses by dividing the iron core into sheets.
the frequency of remagnetization. The surface of the hysteresis loop depends

on the material of the magnet and on the amplitude Bm of the flux density.
For iron and flux densities between 0.2 and 1.5 Tesla equation
Ph = k hf uB ^ V fe (2.18)
holds, where the material constant kh has to be derived from loss measure
ments and from the surface of the hysteresis loop respectively. The value f u
represents the hysteresis cycle frequency.
Eddy Current Losses Pec

When the flux density within the iron core changes, eddy currents are
generated. A solid core (Figure 13a) acts as a short circuit winding and
generateslarge eddy currents. The eddy current losses are reduced by
composingthe ironcore of sheets (Figure 13b)or particles(sinter cores)
that are insulated against each another.
The smaller these insulated areas in the core, the smaller the eddy current
losses. Losses occurring in laminated iron can be calculated approximately
if the magnetomotive force in the sheets is distributed evenly and has a
sinusoidal shape:
Pec = L n 2e2f 2B2mV (219)
6p
Here, p is the specific electric resistance of the iron, e stands for the thickness
of the sheets, f u for hysteresis cycle frequency, and Bm for the maximum
flux density or amplitude of the flux density respectively.
The flux density on the rotor circumference, and hysteresis loss, depend
on the structural shape of the bearing. In case of a bearing design as shown in
Figure 17a, the iron of the rotor is remagnetized twice per revolution. Eddy
current losses can be kept low here since the rotor can be laminated easily, i.e.
built as a stack of punched lamination sheets. If, on the contrary, the bearing
has a shape as shown in Figure 17b, the iron passes below poles with equal
polarity, which keeps hysteresis losses smaller, but now rotor lamination is
difficult.
1.2.6.2. Air friction losses, stator losses

In addition there is air friction and resistive losses in the stator coil.
Air Friction Losses

The rotor is divided in sections of similar air friction as in the following
example
• cylinder without sheathing, including front areas
• cylinder front areas within the axial bearing
• cylinder within the bearing and the motor
• cylinder within the backup bearing
The braking moments for each section, which are typically proportional
to the square of the rotational speed, have to be calculated and added up.
Experimentally the air losses can easily be found by measuring the coasting
curves of a rotor in air and in vacuum respectively (Figure 14).
Stator Losses
The stator losses are dominated by the ohmic losses in the coils. They are
dependent on the square of the current i in the coil and the specific resistance
(Pcu, the cross sectional area Acu and the length lcu of the windings.
Pr = (PcJcuAcJ2 (2.20)
Therefore the stator losses typically increase proportionally with the bearing
force (Figure 14).
1.2.7. Power Amplifiers
The power amplifiers are usually designed as current amplifiers with a voltage
input. For some special applications it might be preferable to control the
output voltage across the coil or the flux density in the air gap.
Figure 14. Braking couple determined from coasting tests (— ) compared with the
calculated values (---).
In applications with performances over approximately 0.6 kVA per

channel, switching amplifiers are used almost exclusively because of their
low losses are as compared to linear amplifiers. The main drawback are
electromagnetic noise produced by switching devices.
Linear amplifiers are mostly used for applications sensitive to disturbances
or for low-power applications because of their simple structure.
The LinearAmplifier
The excess power is simply lost in the transistors (Figure 15a). As an example,
for an input voltage Up of 150 V, a maximum output voltage of 6 A and a
winding resistance Rcu of 2 Q, power dissipation in the conducting transistor
will be 828 W.
SwitchedAmplifier
The switched amplifier (Figure 15b) altematingly switches the positive and
the negative voltage Up across the winding of the bearing at a constant
frequency / ( / = 20 kHz to 100 kHz). With this pulse-width modulation
(PWM), the current i altematingly increases and decreases. When the positive
voltage within a cycle T is switched on longer than the negative one, a
positive mean value of um will result and current i will rise (Figure 16).
Figure 15. Linear power amplifiers (a) versus switched power amplifiers (b).
Figure 16. Example of voltage and current signals generated by a switched power
amplifier with pulse-width modulation.
To reduce the current, the negative voltage must be switched on for a longer
period. Since only the low forward voltage us lies across the interruptors S\
or S2, the losses P = usi are kept considerably lower than with the linear
amplifier. With the same example as before, the losses are approximately
30 W. Since the attracting force of a magnet does not depend on the
direction of the current through the coil, the power amplifier has to supply
unidirectional current only, one of the two switches may be replaced by a
diode.
One of the drawbacks of switched amplifiers is the current ripple which
causes hysteresis losses in the bearing. However, the shorter the cycle T , the
smaller the ripple amplitude of the current.
Figure 17. Most common bearing arrangements, (a) heteropolar radial bearing; (b)
homopolar radial bearing; (c) thrust bearing arrangement.
The amplifier is often the limiting component in an AMB system. As seen

in section 1.2.4, the power of the amplifier limits the frequency range of the
AMB actuator.
1.2.8. Arrangement of Coils
Basically, there are two arrangements of radial bearings. In the homopolar

configuration the magnetic flux is moving parallel to the rotor axis (Figure
17b), and in the heteropolar configuration perpendicular to it (Figure 17a).
The thrust bearing is usually arranged as shown in Figure 17c.
The configuration shown in Figures 17a and 18 is most often used as a
radial bearing. Its stator is quite similar to that of an electrical motor and
easy to manufacture. In order to keep eddy current loss low, the rotor has to
be laminated, i.e. the magnetically active part of the rotor must be produced
as stack of circularly punched iron sheets.
An advantage of eight-pole radial bearings, as defined in Figures 17a and
18, is the fact that each pole pair can be assigned to one degree of freedom
in Cartesian coordinates. However, for a radial bearing a minimum of three
Figure 18. Heteropolar radial bearing.
poles with three windings would suffice, but control becomes more difficult
since the force generation in x and y directions is coupled.
Various arrangements of the coils for a fully levitating rotor system are
shown in Figure 19.
With large bearings it is preferable to increase the number of poles in order
to keep the outer diameter low with respect to the inner parameter. All this
basically also holds for arrangements with external rotor motors, where the
stator with the windings is inside the rotor.
H etero-Polar Bearings w ith L a m in a tio n on th e R o to r

L o w lo s s e s a ls o f o r h o r iz o n ta l a x i s / h i g h d y n a m ic s o f th e b e a r in g / b e a r in g c o ils s im ila r to m o to r c o ils
1 Standard design
2 r a d ia l b e a r in g s
w ith 3 o r 4 c o ils
■ Conical bearings
• c o m b in e d th r u s t
a n d r a d ia l b e a r in g
9 3 o r 4 p o le s f o r
e a c h b e a r in g
9 lo w - c o s t c o n tr o lle r
p o s s ib le (3 p o le s )
Homo-Polar Bearings w ith o u t L a m in a tio n on th e R o to r

n o la m in a tio n o n th e r o to r r e q u ir d / s p e z ia l c o il d e s ig n / v e r y lo w lo s s e s o n ly f o r v e r tic a l a x is / lim ite d
d y n a m ic s o f th e b e a r in g
1 Standard design
2 r a d ia l b e a r in g s
w ith 3 o r 4 c o ils
■ Conical bearings
9 c o m b in e d th r u s t
a n d r a d ia l b e a r in g
9 3 o r 4 p o le s f o r
e a c h b e a r in g
9 lo w - c o s t c o n tr o lle r
p o s s ib le (3 p o le s )
Figure 19. Various bearing arrangements for a magnetically levitated rotor system.
1.3. AMB CONTROL CONFIGURATIONS
In most AMB systems the power amplifiers for the electromagnets are
configured as current amplifiers. The controllers are most often of analog
PD/PID type. For today’s and tomorrow’s demanding AMB applications,
digital control and more advanced control concepts are applied.
The following main control configurations are possible:
- current control
- voltage control
- flux measurement and flux density control
- ‘self-sensing’ control (operation without displacement sensor
An AMB actuator for a single mechanical degree-of-freedom usually

consists of a pair of opposed electromagnets, one for the positive and one
for the negative force direction, and two power amplifiers. Starting with a
general state space model of an AMB system, the basic ideas of current, flux
density, voltage and self-sensing control are discussed in this section.
State-Space Model
The complete state-space model for the AMB system includes at least two me
chanical states (velocity and displacement). In addition, each electromagnet
contributes one state variable to the model. In the case of two-sided actuators,
two state variables, for example the currents in the coils, are necessary for
each mechanical degree of freedom to completely describe the behavior of
the open-loop system.
Figures 20 and 21 show the state-space model of an AMB actuator acting
on a general mechanical system. For simplicity we assume in section 1.3 that
the mechanical system consists of a mass m with one degree of freedom v.
According to Newton’s law we obtain the following differential equation:
mx = F (3.1)
(For a rigid body rotor, m would stand for an equivalent rotor mass effective
at the actuator.)
The MIMO system (Multiple Input Multiple Output) shown in Figure
20 is observable from the current measurements z+, i- alone. Using the
voltage inputs m+, w_, it is also controllable. This means that, theoretically,
the measurement of the rotor displacement x is not needed for control. This
has been demonstrated and patented in experimental setups at the Institute
of Robotics at the ETH Zurich, although such an operation mode is still far
from practical application.
u -
Figure 20. Linearized state-space model for one mechanical degree of freedom and
two coils according to Figure 1. The two currents (/+, i_) in each coil of the bearing,
rotor velocity and displacement x are selected as state variables.
Figure 21. Linearized state-space model for one mechanical degree of freedom and
two coils according to Figure 1. The two flux densities (B+, J5_), in each coil of the
bearing, rotor velocity x, and displacement x are selected as state variables.
A simpler state-space model is found choosing Z?+ and B - as state variables

rather than i+ and z_ (Figure 21).
1.3.1. Voltage Control
The state-space models shown in Figures 20 and 21 can now be used to

design a bearing control with voltage instead of current as input variable.
This will be called 'voltage control' . Voltage control has been investigated
thoroughly by many authors, often in the context of magnetically levitated
vehicles (MAGLEV).
The system of Figure 20 is observable if at least two of the three outputs
(j+, i - and x ) are available to the controller. The following two cases, both
of which have some advantages for AMB applications, will be examined
further:
u++u- ^ i ++L
Figure 22. Transformed state-space model for the system of Figure 1 with a single
mass model of the mechanical system. This choice of state variables produces two
decoupled subsystems, Figure 22a (with states x, x and F) and Figure 22b with the
single state variable (/+ + /_). Figure 22b shows that the body movement only depends
on the difference between the two input voltages u+ and w_, whereas the sum of the
currents i+ + i_ is only a function of the sum u+ + n_.
• voltage control combined with three measurements (/+,/_, and x)

• voltage control combined with the current measurements only ('self-
sensing’ bearing.
The system of Figure 21 is observable if x and either B+ or B- are available

to the controller.
One way to control the above systems is to implement a Luenberger
observer and a state-feedback controller. The full state-feedback matrix has 8
coefficients (2 inputs, 4 states). Some additional control parameters are used
for the Luenberger observer.
For greater simplicity, it is possible to describe the plant (Figures 20 and
21) as a set of two SISO systems (Single Input Single Output), as shown in
Figure 22. If the four values (z+ + /_), x, x and F are used as state variables
instead of z+, x and x, the MIMO system can be replaced by a 3rd order
and a first order SISO system. The transfer function of the first subsystem
(Figure 22a) is
x = --------r(^+ — U-) (s : Laplace operator/v : nominal air gap) (3.2)

k/±sm s5
which is a simple triple integrator. The transfer function of the second

subsystem (Figure 22b) is
+ i- = — -(w+ + u-) (s : Laplace operator/s : nominal air gap)

2Lo s
(3.3)
which is a first order system independent of the rotor movement.
Thus, a controller for the voltage-controlled bearing consists of two
independent sub-controllers according to the two subsystems of Figure 22.
For the subsystem in Figure 22b a simple proportional controller is suitable.
Since its main function is to keep the premagnetization current (/+ + /_) at
a nominal value z'o, it is referred to it as ‘operating point controller’.
The extension to a full order system with multiple mechanical degrees of
freedom is straightforward. Each pair of opposing electromagnets is separated
into two subsystems. The operating point controller remains uncoupled to the
mechanical system.
The influence from one mechanical degree of freedom to another acts
just like an additional force input at the corresponding summation points in
Figures 20 or 21. Decentralization, i.e. the implementation of local feedback
based on a complete model, is feasible in most practical cases, with the
obvious implications on the model order used for analysis. With such a design
approach, the on-line computing power requirements grow only proportional
to the number of control channels.
In many cases, it is even possible to simplify even further and to base the
control layout itself on a decentralized model, which brings us back to the
simple models described in this section.
1.3.3. Current Control
Strictly speaking, the term ‘current-controlled bearing’ designates a special

voltage-controlled bearing consisting of two current controllers as inner loops
(Figure 23) and a position control as outer loop. Because the magnet current
is really a state variable, the dynamics of the inner control loop is usually
neglected for treatment of the outer (position control) loop.
The inner control loops keep the two currents at the values required by the
position controller, which is possible as long as the voltages are not saturated
and the gain of the inner loop is high. The linearized transfer characteristics
from current to force is given by equation 3.4 as
l+ ~~ 1
^-f-desired — i-j- a n d / _ desired =:: i— F = ksX -f- k( — = ksX ki i (3.4)
Figure 23. AMB system with current controlled actuator.
Figure 24. AMB system with flux density controlled actuator.
1.3.4. Flux Density Control
Quite similar to the current control, the flux density measurements can also
be used to directly control the flux densities and in the air gaps to
desired values by means of two inner loops, as shown in Figure 24.
The behavior of the flux density controlled bearing is then given by
equation 3.5.
N A i n cos a
-S+desired = afrd B —desired — B—^ F = —— — ($+ —B -) (3.5)
(1 - A)s
The advantages of this actuator control configuration is that it can be described
as an almost perfect 'force-source' without the negative bearing stiffness
associated with the current control. Furthermore, the relation between force
and flux density is linear, as opposed to current control and voltage control,
where the assumed equations are only valid around the operating point and
some other specific locations in the work space.
From equation 2.1 it can be seen that the displacement x can be obtained
from the flux density and the current in the coil. This type of indirect
displacement measurement is excellently suited for large air gaps.
C riteria Voltage Current Flux \

Control Control Control
Sensitivity to timelag in
the measurement O ♦
Sensitivity to noise in
the measurement O ♦ O
Copper resistance o
Stray field mu
O
Saturation of iron o
^ Validity of linearization ■i
o J
^ Advantage g g Minor disadvantage Mu disadvantage
Figure 25. Comparison of actuator control configurations.
1.3.5. Comparison of Actuator Control Configurations
Current control has the advantage that the two states associated with the two
magnetic coils can be neglected under certain conditions (see section 1.3.3).
It makes the design of the main controller a little easier (e.g. PD control is
feasible).
When voltage control is applied, only one of the two states is taken care
of by an inner actuator loop, whereas the second state has to be considered
in the layout of the main controller.
Voltage controlled AMBs, however, have the advantage that the open-loop
system has no negative stiffness ks (highly unstable open-loop system). It is
known from control theory, that a highly unstable open-loop system is very
sensitive to time lag and noise in the measurement. A small comparison is
shown in Figure 25. It indicates that flux control has not yet been used to its
full potential and that the straight-forward current control is too often taken
as obvious.
1.3.6. Self-sensing AMB
The transfer function 3.6 from input u = (u+ — u- ) / 2 to output i =

(i+ — i- ) / 2 nicely shows the operating principle and the feasibility of
Figure 26. Transformed state-space model of the SISO-plant of Figure 20 for

self-sensing operation. (State variables: i = (0 — *2)/2, x and x). This system,
together with the subsystem of Figure 22b, can be used to design a simple linear
controller for the self-sensing bearing.
the self-sensing bearing.

J _ s2 _ 2il
i = — -----. A/vVm u (s : Laplace operator/v : nominal air gap) (3.6)
s5
Both transfer functions 3.3 and 3.6 are of full order. Therefore, the voltage-
controlled AMB plant is observable and controllable from the measurements
of current i only.
Figure 26 shows the corresponding simple state-space model.
It can be shown that the simplest linear controller for the self-sensing
bearing is
Z?2S2 + b \S + bo .
u = ------------------- 1 (s : Laplace operator) (3.7)
d \S -f do
In practice, realization of self-sensing bearings is however quite difficult
[3].
1.4. SENSOR SYSTEM
In an AMB system, the displacement in the bearing is actively controlled.

Therefore, the performance of a magnetic bearing strongly depends on the
performance of the displacement sensors used. In order to measure the
position of a revolving rotor, contact less sensors must be used which,
moreover, must be able to measure on a revolving surface. Consequently,
the geometry of the rotor, i.e. its sensor target surface quality, and the
homogeneity of the target material will also influence the measuring results.
Definitions
Medsuring mnge: The output signal of a sensor changes according to a

physical effect as a function of the measurand. The area in which the
output signal can be used, often corresponds with that area having an
approximately linear correlation between measurand and output signal. This
linear measuring range can be considerably smaller than the physical one.
Linearity: The linearity is usually represented as a percentage of the
maximum measuring range. It shows to what extent the measurand deviates
from a linear relation between measurand and output signal.
Sensitivity: The sensitivity indicates the value of the output signal in
relation with the quantity to be measured; for a displacement sensor for
instance it is indicated in V/ /xm. The sensitivity can be increased by electric
amplification of the output signal.
Resolution: In addition to the useful signal, each sensor system produces
noise interferences in the output signal. The value of the useful signal which
can be distinguished from noise is called resolution. The resolution is mostly
indicated in absolute values — for instance in fxm for a displacement sensor.
It cannot be improved by simple amplification. It can be improved e.g. with
low-pass filters, at the expense of frequency range. External noise input will
considerably reduce the resolution.
Frequency range: In magnetic bearing applications, especially with
displacement sensors, flat frequency response, (i.e. sensitivity independent
of frequency) is important and minimal phase lag is of prime importance.
Besides range, linearity, resolution and frequency behavior, immunity
to interference from actuators, amplifiers, dirt or aggressive media or
temperature has also to be considered.
1.4.1. Inductive Displacement Sensors
An inductor placed on top of a ferrite core is a part of an oscillating circuit

(Figure 27a). When a ferromagnetic object to be measured approaches the
coil the inductance alters and the oscillating circuit is changed. The signal is
demodulated and becomes proportional to the gap between sensor and object
to be measured after linerarization.
Two sensors opposing each other are frequently arranged on a rotor (Figure
27b). They are operated differentially in a bridge circuit with a constant bridge
frequency, producing a well linearized signal.
Inductive sensors are operated with bridge frequencies from 5 kHz up to
100 kHz approximately. The cut-off frequency of the output signal lies in
a range between one tenth and one fifth of the bridge frequency. Under
normal circumstances the inductive sensors are not sensitive to external
magnetic fields which may occur near bearing magnets, since the coil is
shielded by the ferrite core. However, massive interference can occur when
Figure 27. (a) Single inductive displacement sensor; (b) Differentially measuring
inductive sensors.
the magnetic bearings are driven via switched power amplifiers and the
switching frequency of the amplifiers is near the bridge frequency.
1.4.2. Eddy Current Sensors
High-frequency alternating current runs through the air coil. The electro
magnetic coil section (Figure 28a) induces eddy currents in the conducting
object to be measured, thus absorbing energy from the oscillating circuit.
Dependent on the clearance, the amplitude of the oscillation varies. This
amplitude variation will provide a voltage proportional to the clearance, once
it is demodulated, linearized and amplified. The usual carrier frequencies lie
in a range of 0.5-2 MHz and have bandwidth up to 20 kHz approximately.
Inhomogenities in the material of the revolving rotor cause noise-like
disturbances and reduce the resolution accordingly. Manufacturers mostly
indicate the susceptibility in measuring carried out with aluminum. When
measuring with steel, however, the measuring range is smaller. Therefore,
shielded sensors must be used for applications in the vicinity of bearing
magnets where quickly changing magnetic fields exist.
Sensors may also cause mutual interference. For this reason, the minimum
clearance between sensors is mostly defined in the mounting prescriptions.
A minimum clearance to conducting material must also be. These clearances
are smaller for shielded sensors. When operating several sensors within the
same system, synchronization of the carrying frequencies is recommended.
However, synchronization is not possible with all sensor systems.
1.4.3. Capacity Displacement Sensors
The capacity of a plate capacitor varies with its clearance. During the
capacity measuring procedure, the sensor and the opposing object to be
Figure 28. (a) Eddy current displacement sensor; (b) Capacity displacement sensor.
measured form one electrode of a plate capacitor each (Figure 28b). Within
the measuring system, an alternating current with a constant frequency runs
through the sensor. The voltage amplitude at the sensor is proportional with
the clearance between the sensor electrode and the object to be measured,
and it is demodulated and amplified by a special switch. Commercialized
capacity displacement measuring systems are expensive, but they mostly
have extraordinary resolution (for instance 0.02 fim at a measuring range of
0.5 mm). Carrier frequencies for the output signal range between 5 kHz and
100 kHz approximately.
The electrostatic charge of the contactless rotor may cause additional
interference. The sensors are sensitive to dirt which modifies the dielectric
constant in the air gap.
1.4.4. Magnetic Displacement Sensors
When current i is kept constant in a magnetic loop with an air gap, flux density
B serves as measurement for the size of the air gap. From an arrangement
according to Figure 29, a well linearized displacement signal results from
the difference between both measurements of the flux density Ubp — Ubu-
The differential voltage Up — Un is proportional to the velocity of the object
between the coils. The flux density B may also be measured with Hall-effect
sensors or with field plates. Magnetic displacement sensors are sensitive to
disturbances caused by external magnetic fields.
Figure 29. Magnetic displacement and velocity sensor.
1.4.5. Optical Displacement Sensors
Applying the most simple principle of an optical displacement sensor, the

object to be measured shadows off a light source opposing a light-sensitive
sensor (Figure 30a). The resulting difference in light is converted into an
electric signal and serves as a measurement for the position of the object. By
selecting different light sources and the light-sensitive sensors, and by using
the most various apertures, we obtain systems that provide well linearized
displacement signals.
Systems where the object to be measured reflects the light of a light source
function similarly. The fraction of light received by the light-sensitive sensor
changes according to the movements of the object (Figure 30b). For this kind
of system photo diodes, photo transistors, photo resistors, and photo-electric
cells can be used as sensors. The source of light ought to be adjusted to the
wave length of the sensor. Such systems can be made almost completely
insensitive to the influence of extraneous light by modulating the light of
the light source (of a LED for instance), and by demodulating the signal
received.
Another, more sophisticated method is the application of an image sensor.
Take for example a line camera (CCD-array sensor) in a magnetic bearing
system (Figure 30c). The rotor image is reflected both for the x- and the y
direction over a deviating mirror onto a CCD sensor. The picture of the rotor,
tinted black, in front of a lit-up background is converted into a video signal.
By counting the pixel (light-sensitive dots) until the light-dark boundary is
reached one obtains a digital displacement signal.
a) b)
Figure 30. (a) Optical displacement sensor measuring the light intensity; (b) Optical
displacement sensor by triangulation; (c) Optical displacement sensor using a CCD-
array.
However, optical displacement measuring systems are not appropriate for

many application fields, since they are very sensitive to dirt, and the resolution
is limited due to defraction effects.
1.4.6. Filtering
If a digital controller is implemented, filtering of the displacement signals

is necessary in order to avoid aliasing effects. For many applications, also
with analog control, additional filtering is required to avoid high frequency
noise disturbance or to avoid excitation of high frequency eigenvalues by
notch filters. Apart from the anti-aliasing filter, filtering can be regarded as
an additional controller layout tool to fulfill certain control objectives. It is
therefore discussed in section 1.6.
1.5. ROTOR DESIGN AND MODELING
The rotor design has a major impact on the closed-loop behavior of the system.
It is therefore crucial that the rotor design be included in the AMB system
design.
During the design stage of a rotor for an AMB system, the material strength
has to be evaluated, the rotor has to be modeled and the controllability and
observability of the rotor have to be identified. Depending on the application,
various other considerations are needed.
1.5.1. Material Strength
Unlike roller or fluid film bearings, magnetic bearings have no theoretical

a priori limitation on rotational speeds. Because of the absence of any
mechanical wear or friction, the only real limitation in rotational speed is
given by the material strength of the rotor material.
In order to cope with high static and dynamic forces on the one hand and
to reduce vibration effects on the other hand, rotors often have to be designed
as stiff as possible. The consequence of this basic design rule is a short rotor
with a shaft diameter as large as possible. Therefore, due to centrifugal forces,
the rotor elements are subject to stress up to the mechanical limit.
In order to reduce eddy current and hysteresis loss, motor and magnetic
bearing elements usually consist of soft magnetic iron sheets which have to be
shrink-fitted on to the rotor core. These lamination sheets do not increase rotor
stiffness; they only add mass to the rotor core and therefore lead to decreased
natural frequencies of the bending modes. Hence, from the stiffness point of
view, the inner diameter of motor and bearing lamination sheets must be as
large as possible.
From the material exploitation point of view, however, thicker lamination
sheets would allow higher surface speeds, since reference stress at the inner
edge of the lamination sheets increases with the inner sheet diameter. For high
peripheral speeds, the maximum strength has to be evaluated. The equations
for the reference stress in a cylindrical ring shrink-fitted on the rotor core can
be found in engineering handbooks.
Figure 31 shows an example of the speed dependency of radial and
reference stress at the inner edge of the lamination sheets. The material
strength of soft magnetic iron permits surface velocities near 400 N/mm2.
1.5.2. Model of the Rotor
The rotor is obviously the central part of the suspension system, and it has to
be modeled mathematically as the plant within the control loop. Depending
on the application and the rotor design, the rotor can be modeled as a rigid
body, or it has to be modeled as a flexible structure. The experienced AMB
engineer has to decide whether the rotor can be regarded as a rigid body
rotor core lamination sheets

0 96 mm
mm
-8a- 32
26
rotational speed [rpm]
04- —I ,----- 1----- 1_— |------1-----|_X-
0 lO'OOO 20V00 30V00 40V00
Figure 31. Radial stress or at the contact between rotor core and lamination sheets
and maximum reference stress ctq at the inner edge of the lamination sheets for the
front radial bearing.
or not. As a rule, rotors with high bearing stiffness or rotors running close to
or above the first bending mode have to regarded as flexible structures. The
engineer must then decide on the number of flexible modes relevant for the
design.
For the following rigid and flexible rotor models the following assumptions
are made:
- rotor displacements are small compared with the rotor geometry

- the rotor is rotationally symmetric (except for small unbalances
- material behavior is linear-elastic
- lateral and axial rotor displacements are decoupled
- axial rotor movement is left out of consideration (simple rigid body
motion.
- all forces are acting on the rotor at discrete locations
- all measurement quantities result from discrete locations
- inner damping of the rotor is small (if any)
I.5.2.I. Rigid rotor

Even if all mechanical structures (rotors) have some flexibility, for some
AMB applications it might be enough to model the rotor system as a rigid
body.
Figure 32. Rigid body rotor in active magnetic bearings.
The rotor with a vertical axis (Figure 32) shall be kept in its reference
position by two radial bearings A and B and, of course, by a thrust bearing.
The thrustsuspension with one degree of freedom is not included in this
model, sincefor small radial displacements, it is not coupled withthe radial
motion.
The rotor displayed in Figure 32 has 4 degrees of freedom and can be
mathematically described by a linear second order differential equation.
M • 2 + [D + GQ] • z + [K + N\ • z = Bf • uf + Vf • wf (5.1)
With the state position vector z
z = W x - a y ^ ( 5 .2)
and the vector uf containing the bearing forces and w/ containing all external
disturbance forces (e.g. unbalance forces Wi = mej r Q 2 sin(Qt + (pi))
Uf := [fa x fb x fa y fb y l ? U)f = \W\ U)2 W 3 W 4 J ( 5 . 3)
the structural matrices for mass M, gyroscopic effect G can be found as

follows
- h 0 0 0- - 0 0 h 0-
0 m 0 0 0 0 0 0
M= G= (5.4)
0 0 Ix 0 -h 0 0 0
_0 0 0 m_ _ 0 0 0 0_
Damping matrix D and stiffness matrix K are zero for the rigid body rotor.
The gyroscopic matrix G is proportional to the rotor’s inertia Iz around the
z-axis and couples the two lateral directions (x, fi) and (y, —a) with each
other. Matrix Bf, consisting mainly of the sign-value coordinates a and b
for the bearing locations, connects the bearing forces with the rotor system.
Matrix V connects the external disturbance forces, which in our case are
unbalance forces.
a b 0 0“ ei 0 0 -
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
Bf Vf = (5.5)
0 0 a b 0 0 e\ ei
_0 0 1 1_ _0 0 1 1_
The rotor displacements z are expressed in terms of the measured displace
ment z* from the sensor signal or of the displacement Zb in the bearing by
'c 1 0 0-
d 1 0 0
Zs = [xc yc Xd yd]' = TSZ\ Ts = (5.6)
0 0 c 1
.0 0 J 1.
or in terms of the displacement in the bearing (plane V and ‘fo’) by
■a 1 0 0-
b 1 0 0
Zb = [xa ya Xb ybY = Tbz; Tb (5.7)
0 0 a 1 = Bf
.0 0 fo 1.
Equations 5.7 or 5.8 can be inserted in the equation of motion in order to
express them in the measured variables z5 or the bearing variables Zb as well.
Furthermore, it is appropriate for control purposes to use the state space
representation
x =Ax + B uf + Vwf\ x =
zs = C x ; Zb — Cbx
"0 I 0
o
A
=Q
II
II
_0 - M ~ l GQ_
... i
C=[ TS 0]; Cb[Tb 0] (5.8)

In this representation we have a linear first order differential equation

only with the input vector of the control force Uf and of the external
disturbance forces Wf as seen above. Using the transformation matrix 7&,
the measurement vector with the measured displacements and the vector
of the displacement in the bearing are obtained.
Assuming a current-controlled AMB characterized by equation 2.9 for each
bearing, the state-space representation for the rigid rotor plant is described
by the following equations.
x =Apx + Bpu + Vu)f\ x = Zs — CpX, Zb — CbX (5.9)
0 I "0
; bp = C„
_M~l Bf KsTb ~ M ~ l GQ_ _ M ' l Bf K{
Ks —diag\ksa ks ^ ks,a ks,b\
K[ —diag[U,<:/ k[ b ki^a kib\
As already mentioned, the negative stiffness Ks of the bearings leads to

open-loop instability of the plant (Ap has eigenvalues in the positive complex
plane).
I.5.2.2. Flexible rotor

Structural elasticity of the rotor leads in principle to partial differential
equations. Higher order modes may however be neglected due to their
low amplitude. Model reduction techniques lead to a description directly
compatible with the control design methods. For the derivation of such a
model let us start with a finite element representation of the flexible rotor
(Figure 33).
Ms + Ks + {D + GQ}s = Buf + Vwf;
• z s = T sS] Zb = TbS (5.10)

<12
"M0 0 " ~k q 0 ' ~D0 0 ‘ 0 Go"

M= ;K = ;D= ?G —
_ 0 M0 _ _ 0 Ko_ _ 0 Do_ Go 0 _
Bf 0 0 vf o o Tm 0
Bf = Ts = Tso 0 ; Tb =
0 Bfo _ ; Vf = 0 Vfo J 0 Tso 0 Tbo
where s consists of two n x 1 vectors q \ and q2 of generalized displacements

for each rotor plane. The vector u/ again stands for the bearing forces and w/
596
node 8 node 7 node 6 rude 5 node 3 node 2 node 1

sensor bearing thrust bearing sensor
B B bearing 4 A
□ linear-elastic core
B additional mass not increasing the rotor stiffness
Figure 33. Finite Element (FE) representation of a milling spindle rotor (8 nodes).
Each node has four degrees of freedom, displacements along and rotations around the
two radial axes. Therefore, the FE model has 24 degrees of freedom, which would
lead to an order of 48 in state space description. Thanks to the reduction technique, the
state-space model, representing the relevant two first bending modes, can be reduced
to an order of 16.
for all other external forces. Mo, Ko, Do and Go are the generalized mass,
stiffness, damping and gyroscopic matrices of the two perpendicular rotor
planes. The matrices Bo, Vo, Tso and Tbo are filled with zeroes except for the
node locations q\/ 2 i where the forces act or the sensors measure.
A general way of reducing the large set of finite element equations is to
truncate the modal representation of equation 5.10. If inner damping (matrix
D) is small, the representation of the free flexible rotor can be found.
M0q + K 0 q = 0 (5.11)
The eigenvectors </>; resulting for equation 5.11 are real and can be included
in ascending order in the eigenvector matrix d>:
<*> = [0101 L M (5.12)

Both massand stiffness matrices (M, K) can bebrought into diagonal
(modal) form by using <3> as transformation matrix.
M \ + Kq = 0
q = <$>q
M = &M<$> = I
K = <&'K<b = diag(a^) i = 1L„ (5.13)
The reduction is now done by restricting the eigenvector matrix <J> to the
number r (r < ri) of relevant mode shapes, e.g. by cutting off all modes
above the AMB actuator bandwidth.
= [01 01 T0r] (5.14)
This leads to the reduced modal plant model with z representing the relevant
modes:
M rz + K rz + { D r + G r Q } z — BRUf + VRwf ;
0
S’ = (5.15)
0 ®R
zs = Tsr s ; Zb = TbRs
<&fRMo<&R 0
M = = I
0 & r M o$>r
& r K o* r 0 diag(fi>? + 8 ?) 0
K =
0 & r K 0* r 0 diag(a>? + 8f)
Q r Do^ r 0 diag(25/) 0
D =
0 Q r Do^R __ 0 diag(2<5;)
0 ^ r Gq^R
G = (assuming structural damping)
-& r G qQ r 0
& RBf o 0 &RVf0 0

Bf Vf
_ 0 <b'RBf o 0 *'RVf o
Tso^ r 0 Tbo^R 0
\T b
0 Tso<$>r 0 Tbo<&R
The number of the relevant mode shapes depends on the application. At least
all eigenmodes within the operation range have to be considered. Assuming
a linear current controlled AMB actuator characterized by equation 2.9 and
transferring description 5.15 into a state-space representation one obtains
x = A px + Bp u + V w f \ x = (5.16)
zs =C px; Zb — CbX
0 0
Ad= Bp =
—K + Bf K s Tb - ( D + GQ) Bf Ki
Cp =[f s 0]; Cb = \fb 0]
K s =di3.g[ks a kSfb ks a ks b\
Ki =diag[ki a ki^b a ki b\
Figure 34. Mode shapes of the first two bending modes (planar, no gyroscopic
coupling) of a milling spindle rotor (maximum speed = 40’000 rpm) modeled with
finite elements and corrected by a modal analysis.
fi = cOi/2n A i = Si/cot
First bending mode: f\ = 905Hz Ai = 0.0055
Second bending mode: f 2 = l'936Hz A2 = 0.010
In comparison with description 5.9, the matrices of Equation 5.16 are of

higher order (4 x r) and the state space matrix Ap has additional terms for
the ‘inner’ stiffness K and damping D of the rotor.
A typical example of the FE-modeling of a flexible rotor is shown in
Figure 34. In order to obtain an improved set of numerical values for the
mathematical system description 5.15, a comparison and correction with
measured values of the real rotor must often be made. Because the description
5.15 is already in modal representation, it is quite easy to compare eigenvalue,
eigenvectors and damping with the measurements achieved by a modal
analysis of the rotor.
1.5.3. Controllability and Observability
A rotor system can only be controlled efficiently if the sensors and actuators
act are at the right locations along the rotor. A measure of the ‘quality’
of the sensor and actuator location can be found through controllability
and observability. These concepts describe the energy transfer among the
actuators and the modes of motion.
Assuming a flexible rotor as described by equation 5.16 suspended with
very low bearing stiffness (&>i,2 0 3 ... con) and low damping <5;, the
44 R. SIEGWART et al
open-loop system is stabilized by replacing the /^-values in the matrix Ks

by a small negative value. This has no relevant effect on controllability and
observability, but it facilitates the discussion of the system properties.
For a system described by equation 5.16 with a small negative value for
ksj the system matrix A is stable and the observability gramian W Qand the
controllability gramian Wc are defined as follows:
poo
Wo= J e^i’1C'pCpeApt dt = UY?0U'
r°°
Wc = eApt Bp B'peA'p‘dt = V H2CV'
U —[ui L U2r]', U'U = I ; £ 2 = diagCcr^-)

V =l v i L v 2 rV, v'v = l- S c2 = diag(0-2.) (5.17)
The quadratic form rjQ

rj0 =x'0W0xo (5.18a)
represents the total signal ‘energy’ (L2 norm) seen at the system output due
to the initial state xo, whereas r)c
Vc = x 'qW ~1xo (5.18b)
denotes the minimum control energy required to reach state xo. Expressions
5.18a and 5.18bare quantitative measures for observability and controllabil
ity of the statevector x. Eigenvectors ui and in description 5.17 denote
observable and controllable directions with associated energy <rf. for the
observability gramian and cr^ for the controllability gramian.
The so-called condition numbers kq and kc given by
2 2
Ko = ^ raax. ^ = ^ cm ax (5 > 1 9 )
a o mm
• o c mm
■
are quantitative numbers that help to determine the observability and

controllability properties of the rotor system. High condition numbers
correspond to poor conditioning.
For a rotor system in modal state space description 5.16 the eigenvectors
of the observability and controllability gramians U[ and vi are equal to the
i-th (normalized) eigenvector of the system matrix A. Therefore the singular
values <7^. and are equal to the signal energy rj0 and the control energy
T]c respectively for an assumed unit initial state in direction of the i-th
eigenmode.
Observability
10*
4
bearing A
bearing B
10z bearing A +B
11
b 10
II
iou
10-
I
mode 1
r
i
mode 2 mode 3 mode 4
Figure 35. Observability of the AMB milling spindle rotor (Figure 34)
mode 1 and mode 2: rigid body modes
mode 3: first bending mode
mode 4: second bending mode
Controllability
bearing A
bearing B
bearing A +B
mode 1 mode 2 mode 3 mode 4

Figure 36. Controllability of the AMB milling spindle rotor (Figure 34)
mode 1 and mode 2: rigid body modes
mode 3: first bending mode
mode 4: second bending mode
Figures 35 and 36 show the singular values and of the observability

and controllability gramians related to the eigenmodes of the milling spindle
rotor, as seen in Figure 34. The singular values for bearing A and B are plotted
individually to show the influence of each single magnetic bearing on the total
observability and controllability status. For example, the second bending

mode (mode 4) is poorly observable by bearing B and poorly controllable by
bearing A, a fact which is also reflected by the mode shapes of the milling
spindle rotor (Figure 34). As can be seen, the node of the second bending
mode is within the sensor plane of bearing B, disabling bearing B to measure
this mode. There is also a node of the same mode within the bearing plane
of bearing A, disabling bearing A to control (damp) this mode.
The gramians are also a useful tool for model reduction: (stable) eigen-
modes with very poor observability and controllability can be neglected.
The goal of the rotor design is to have good observability and

controllability for the modes which have to be controlled
(operating range) and to have a poor one for modes
above the controller and actuator bandwidth.
For the example in Figures 34-36 with a cut-off frequency of the AMB
actuator around 1 kHz this design rule holds quite well.
1.6. CONTROLLER AND CLOSED LOOP BEHAVIOR
The following discussion is based on a rotor plant according to equation 5.9 or

5.16 with a linear, current controlled AMB actuator. The controller layout for
flux density or voltage controlled actuators are somewhat similar. However,
a PD controller will not suffice to stabilize a system with a voltage controlled
power amplifier.
1.6.1. Control Problem
Basically the feedback controller is used to alter the closed-loop dynamics

of a system appropriately. For a rotor suspended in magnetic bearings this
means (1) stabilizing the magnetic suspension, and (2) achieving adequate
system transient response. In addition, the feedback has to compensate for
uncertainties in the plant (rotor, sensor, actuator) and in the disturbances
acting on the plant.
In an AMB system, feedback is not only a nice tool to control the bearing
force and bearing characteristics, but it is also mandatory to stabilize the
system. An active feedback allows to finetune the system behavior. This is
done by injecting energy to the system through the actuators. However, this
action can excite the system and may even turn it unstable if the controller is
not properly designed.
Figure 37. Feedback: The sensor signal y (in our case zs according to equation
(5.16)) is fed back through the controller (compensator) generating the control signal
u (in our case the bearing force) to change the dynamics of the system.
In today’s industrial AMB applications, mostly the characteristics of well-

known passive control elements such as springs and dampers (PD) are em
ulated. Proportional-Derivative (PD) and Proportional-Integral-Derivative
(PID) controllers are discussed in section 1.6.2 and 1.6.4. Their principles
of control are relatively straightforward. But AMBs are active elements with
a much wider potential when more advanced control concepts are applied
(section 1.6.5). Using additional filters the system can be optimized further
(section 1.6.4).
The feedback control feeds back the sensed values (e.g., displacement)
to the AMB force according to an on-line control law. The plant P and
controller C are assumed to be linear and time-invariant (LTI) according to
the equations shown in Figure 37. Additional signals important for the control
design are shown in Figure 38 where Ga (s) is the transfer matrix of the AMB
actuator, G r(s) the transfer matrix of the rotor plant (suspended body) and
G r(s) that of the sensor and signal filtering. The transfer matrices Ga(s),
Gr (s) and Gp(s) describe the AMB plant P. C(z) is the transfer matrix of
the discrete controller C that has to be designed.
The input to the plant is divided into two vector signals:
- The actuator input vector u, consisting of those inputs to the plant that
can be manipulated by the controller.
- The exogenous input vector w, consisting of all other input quantities
such as noise, excitation forces, etc.
W =i
= Z
u : controller signal
/ . noise
li . U
hold
0'" 'S’—EH ^ ■y 1 xb : bearing displacement
x i : displacements of interest
/ex : excitation force
x* : non-measured state variables
/„ : unbalance force
y : measurement signal
(displacement, flux, current..)
T : sampling time
Figure 38. Block diagram of a typical AMB system with digital control.
The output of the plant consists of two vector signals:
- The m easured output vector y, consisting of those measured signals that

are accessible to the controller.
- The regulated output vector z, consisting of all outputs of interest such
as actuator input, rotor displacements, measured and non measured state
variables.
Control objectives can be given in various forms such as e.g. stiffness

over a given frequency band, force free rotation around the inertial axis,
vibration rejection and robustness against param eter variations or noise.
The challenge of control design is to meet such requirements at minimal
cost.
The task of the AMB engineer is identify the trade-offs and the constraints
to the control design problem in order to meet the requirements. An example
of constraints and objectives for an AMB control problem is shown in Figure
39. Usually the different constraints and objectives oppose each other and it
is therefore not an easy task to find the optimal trade-off for a given control
problem.
1.6.2. Proportional-Derivative Controller
An ‘id e a l’ PD controller with its proportional and derivative feedback can

9stability of the closed loop system

9objective: minimal compliance
9constraints: frequency domain loop shaping
- HI = y/fex
compliance
frequency
- HI = u/ij
noise rejection
frequency
- m = u/fu
vibration isolation V
fo frequency
- HI = u/fex
amplifier
saturation avoidance frequency
- high robustness versus changes AP in the

plant P (sensitivity function, nyquist plot)
Figure 39. Example of an AMB control problem.
fb=-cy - d y
p :
b)
Figure 40. Single degree of freedom magnetic bearing (a) equivalent to a mass
suspended by a spring and a damper (b) (for the most basic control only.
physically be interpreted as a spring-damper element. Its simple interpretation

and implementation makes it the most frequently used control method for
many different applications. Its transfer function is shown in Figure 42.
Let us start with a single degree of freedom system: a mass suspended in
magnetic bearings (Figure 40).
The state space representation 5.8, 5.9 of the single mass system can be
written as
xi xi u -f- / xi = y; x2 = y
*2 *2
X\
y = [10] (6.1)
*2
with x\ equal to the mass displacement y and X2 equal to the velocity of the
mass. By choosing the control law
u = —kpy — kdy = —(kp + kd$)y (s : Laplace operator) (6 .2 )
the magnetic bearing emulates a spring-damper characteristics, which leads

to the following closed-loop system
X\ 1 XI
kjkp ^ kj kL +
m J *2
0 0 1 x\ " 0 "
1 f = _k_ ___d_ + 1_ f
L m m m _ _ m _
XI
y = [10] (6.3)
*2
with the spring constant k — kikp — ks and the damping constant d — kikj.
The two eigenvalues\ \ and X2 of the system described in equation 6.3 are:
—kikd ± V (h kd )2 - 4m(kikp — ks)

h /2 = --------------------2m--------------------
As long as kp > ks/ki and kd > 0 the magnetic bearing system (Figure 40a)
behaves exactly as the system of Figure 40b. By changing the proportional
feedback constant kp (kd = 0) from zero to positive values, the eigenvalues
change as shown in Figure 41a, meeting the origin for kp = ks/ki. If the
derivative feedback constant kd is increased from zero starting with a kp
greater than ks/ki (e.g., kp = 2ks/ki), the eigenvalues are moving into
the negative half plane (Figure 41b), indicating increased stability of the
closed-loop system.
The PD control law can also be used to control an entire rotor system. To
do this, each degree of freedom is controlled independently (decentralized),
emulating a spring-damper characteristic for each bearing as described above.
Im Im
kd=0
kp=ks/ ki
-> double pole = 0
/ _Re
kp=0 r*;
-> poles = +
a) (negative stiffness)
Figure 41. Root Locus for a single mass suspended with a PD-controlled magnetic
bearing.
Figure 42. Bode-plot of an ‘ideal’ PD-controller and a ‘real’ PD-controller: The

‘ideal’ controller is not realizable due to unlimited gain at high frequencies. The ‘real’
PD-controller has limited gain for high frequencies thus avoiding amplifier saturation,
sensitivity to noise and perturbation of high frequency modes.
Figure 43 shows the root locus of a milling spindle rotor suspended

in PD-controlled magnetic bearings. The decentralized control feeds each
sensor signal back to the appropriate bearing. For the milling rotor, the
resulting eigenvalues as a function of the damping coefficient kd are plotted
in Figure 43. The eigenvalues of the rigid body modes show a behavior quite
similar to the single mass example. The first and second bending mode are
also well damped by the controller, however, their maximum negative real
Im / Hz
2000
Re /Hz
-2000
Figure 43. Root Locus of the milling rotor displayed in Figure 34 for different
damping values kd of the decentralized PD-controller. The + mark zeros damping,
the o an intermediate value and the x the optimal damping for the first bending mode.
In this example it is assumed that the AMB actuator and the sensor system have no
bandwidth limitation.
part of their eigenvalues is limited to a certain value (see x-mark for first
bending mode). The maximum damping (negative real part) is dependent
on the controllability and observability of the rotor system (section 1.5.3).
For the results shown in Figure 43 no constraints e.g., bandwidth limitations,
have been made. For a real application, there will always be some constraints,
reducing the system performance considerably.
1.6.3. Effect of Bandwidth Limitation, Noise and Non-Collocation
Three important constraints on AMB controller are:
1: Limited AMB actuator bandwidth

2: High frequency noise, forcing low feedback gains at high frequencies
3: Noncollocation of sensor and actuator
LimitedAMB Actuator Bandwidth

As seen in section 1.2, the AMB actuator (power amplifier and coil) has its
limitation in the bandwidth due to the limited power of the amplifier (Figures
9& 10). For the milling rotor example, the dynamics of AMB actuators can
Figure 44. Transfer function (Bode plot) of a real AMB actuator with a cut-off
frequency around 1.2 kHz. The remaining amplitude and the large phase lag above
the cut-off frequency can lead to instability of high frequency bending modes (Figure
45).
be described by a linear second order transfer function (Figure 44) with a

cut-off frequency around 1.2 kHz. If this actuator dynamics is included in the
plant model, using the same decentralized PD controller as before, the second
bending mode will not be damped by the controller (Figure 45). Worse, due
to the large phase lag of the amplifier at high frequencies, the second bending
mode is destabilized by the controller feedback. With no inner damping of
the rotor structure the second bending mode in the milling spindle example
would immediately turn unstable. To avoid this problem either filters have to
be added to the PD controller or more sophisticated control laws are needed
(e.g., a frequency dependent damping coefficient kd).
High Frequency Noise

High frequency noise is always present in the environment of power electronic
components like AMB actuators or motor drives. If such noise is fed back
through an ‘ideal’ PD controller (Figure 42), it is very strongly amplified
because of the derivative term. Even if the rotor system is not influenced by
high dynamic forces because it has a low pass behavior, the AMB actuator
can be saturated. This saturation can lead to instability and has therefore to be
avoided by filtering the sensor signal or by using a control law with low pass
characteristic. Obviously, such signal filters can also have a major impact on
the closed loop behavior and need to be considered in the controller layout.
Im / Hz
2000
1500
1000
500
0
-500
-1000
-1500
-2000
-300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100
Figure 45. Root Locus of the milling rotor displayed in Figure 34 for different
damping values kci of the decentralized PD-controller. The + marks zero damping,
the o an intermediate value and the x the optimal damping for the first bending mode.
In this example a realistic bandwidth of the AMB actuator is used. As we can see, the
initial damping of the second mode (inner damping of the rotor structure) is reduced
if the damping of the PD controller is increased from zero. For damping values that
would be ideal for the rigid body modes and the first bending mode, the second
bending mode turns unstable.
Their effect on the closed loop eigenvalues is quite similar to that of the
bandwidth limitation of the AMB amplifier.
Noncollocation of Sensor andActuator

Another effect that can severely reduce the system performance is noncol
location. If a sensor is measuring at the exact same location where the
force is acting, the sensor and actuator are collocated, otherwise they are
noncollocated. In AMB systems it is usually not possible to place the sensor
in the center of the ABM actuator (coil) and therefore AMB systems are
usually noncollocated.
The argument for the potentially destabilizing effect of noncollocation is
intuitive. Suppose that the sensor and actuator of an AMB were on opposite
sides of a node point of a particular mode (Figure 46). Then, vibration sensed
at this frequency will be opposite to the motion in the bearing. A PD controller
will react with a force in the same direction as the displacement, thus exciting
the mode instead of damping it. The system will vibrate at lartge amplitudes
or go completely unstable.
Figure 46. Noncollocation of sensor and actuator.
In order to reduce the problems related to noncollocation, one should

design the rotor system assuring that the mode shapes within the
controller bandwidth have no node points between a sensor-actuator
pair. However, more sophisticated controller layout methods are
able to cope with the noncollocation problem.
The feedback of an AMB system can be separated in three different
frequency ranges:
1. Controller bandwidth: Large controller gain to cope with the closed loop
requirements.
2. Transition bandwidth (cut-off range): Large slope to reduce the gain.
3. High frequency band: Low controller gain, neglectable influence on the
plant.
The controller bandwidth is usually limited by the actuator bandwidth. In

the high frequency band low gains are required to avoid excitation of high
frequency modes and amplifier saturation, and to achieved high frequency
noise rejection. Using PD control, this can only be accomplish with additional
filtering as seen in Figure 42. Some more sophisticated controller layout
methods supply tools to cope with such requirements.
1.6.4. AMB Stiffness
In the following additional properties of active systems, integral feedback

and feed-forward control are discussed.
Figure 47. Bode-plot example of an ‘ideal’ PID-controller.
1.6.4J. Integral feedback (PID)

Active control allows to compensate for long term deviations using an integral
feedback. By feeding the integral of the sensor signal back, the bearing force
will keep increasing until there is no deviation between the desired and actual
rotor position. This is often thought of as an infinite stiffness at zero frequency.
Integral feedback compensates for static forces, such as e.g. the rotor weight.
With no integral feedback the rotor weight would lead to a displacement
according to the stiffness given by the proportional term of the PD
controller.
A PID controller has the following transfer function:
u — - ( k py + kdy + j hydt^j = - ( k p + kds + kl

^ ) y
s) J (6.4)
(s : Laplace operator)
For slow integration (£/ small) the integral feedback has a very limited
interference with the proportional feedback and the eigenvalues of the
PD controlled system do not change much, however one additional slow
eigenvalue for each integrator is added to the system. The transfer function
of a PID controller (Figure 47) differs only for low frequencies from the PD
controller (Figure 48).
Figure 48. Feed-forward controller (open loop controller).
1.6.4.2. Feedforward control (open loop control

Unbalance excitation is a major concern in rotating machines. Since the
unbalance forces are well correlated with the rotational speed (i.e. they have
a fixed amplitude and phase angle in reference to the rotor) their effect on
the rotor could in principle be canceled by adding an opposing external force
through the bearing system. Because the displaceihent signal is not used for
this operation, this technique is called open loop or feed forward control.
The same technique can be used in a much more clever way: The
rotor can be made to rotate about its principal (mass-geometric) axis by
compensating for the synchronous component in the displacement signal.
Such feed-forward signals need only a synchronization pulse as input signal
and a (slow) amplitude regulation. They are then simply added to the
closed-loop control signal.
The second technique is often called force free rotation because it can
effectively cancel harmonic forces on the housing. Thus no unbalance
vibration are transmitted to the housing. Force free rotation could also be
achieved by of notch filters, which however have to be turned off while
passing through rotor critical speeds.
A more detailed description on feed forward techniques can be found in
the paper of Herzog [3].
1.6.4.3. Dynamic stiffness

The bearing stiffness of active magnetic bearings is usually five to ten times
smaller than that of conventional bearings. However, AMBs feature high
static stiffness and excellent damping of flexible modes.
Figure 49. Eigenvalues of a rotor system in function of the bearing stiffness:

Magnetic bearings have usually much smaller stiffness than conventional bearings.
Therefore the first two modes can be regarded as the ‘rigid’ body modes. Their
eigenvalues are directly related to the bearing stiffness and damping. The eigenvalues
of the bending modes are not much influenced by the bearing stiffness of AMBs, their
damping however can be significantly improved by the controller.
Due to the lower bearing stiffness ofAMBs, the behavior of the rotor system
is different. Unlike systems with conventional bearings, AMB rotor systems
have two pronounced rigid body modes. They are excellently damped by the
magnetic bearings and are usually well below operating speeds (Figure 49).
In Figure 50 the measured closed loop compliance of a AMB milling
spindle is compared with a ball bearing spindle featuring the same cutting
force kv. In the low frequency range (50-300 Hz), the AMB spindle shows
a higher compliance, i.e. a lower stiffness than the ball bearing spindle.
However, this does not affect the cutting process since cutting forces mainly
contain higher frequency components. On the other hand, we can see that the
AMB spindle reaches much higher cutting power (power density) for similar
cutting forces.
1.6.5. Control Design
A great variety of control design methods can be used. More sophisticated

ones can lead to higher performance. Additional requirements can be met.
However such methods are often not very easy to understand and to handle.
Such controllers will need powerful control processors.
AMB m illing spindle

xFr = 358 N (30 kW, 40'000 rpm, ISO 40 taper)
conventional ball bearing spindle
F, = 371 N (14 kW, 24'00D rpm, ISO 30 taper)
600 lk 1.6k
P„ = cutting pow er
d, = tool holder
Figure 50. Measured spindle compliance at the tool for a ball bearing and a AMB
milling spindle. Unlike rotor systems with ball bearings, there will always be a
frequency range with relatively high bearing compliance, which in this case is between
50 and 300 Hz.
The pros and cons of the commonly used linear control design can be
summarized as follows:
• PD/PID controller
- simple, ‘robust’, straight forward physical understanding,
- stability not inherent, relatively 'poor performance ’
• fixed order controller
- good when processor power is limited, certain additional require
ments possible
- mainly time domain design, absolute ‘optimum ’not guaranteed
• observer based controller (LQR/LQG
- simple, good tools available
- design mainly in the time domain, weak physical interpretation of
weighting matrices
m H°°
- Design in the frequency domain, loop shaping possible
- loop shaping difficult for many given practical requirements. Often

very conservative
Detailed descriptions of these methods can be found in various control

design textbooks.
1.6.6. Implementation of the Controller
Most control layout methods can be used for analog and digital control. Their
representation and implementation are different.
An analog controller is built with operational amplifiers. The gains are
adjusted by potentiometers. A different control algorithm requires a redesign
of the circuit board.
Today, digital implementations are clearly favored (Figure 51). They have
many advantages:
• Complex control algorithms can be easily designed, implemented and

modified indefinitely
9 Parameter and control algorithm change very easy
% high reliability, greater internal noise and drift immunity
Sensor signals are AD converted and the controller computes the control
signal at each sampling time. For linear amplifiers, a D/A converter is
needed. The sampling frequency 1/T has to be about ten times higher than
the controller bandwidth. For high-speed rotors requiring high controller
bandwidth, digital signal processor boards are used. They now allow sampling
rates up to 20 kHz.
1.6.7. Monitoring of the System Behavior
A digital AMB controller is not only a nice tool to adjust the bearing
characteristics, but it can also be an excellent monitoring system. The bearing
force driver enables excitation of the system. The displacement sensors allow
to measure and identify system response. The following monitoring and
diagnostic tools are thus conceivable:
- on-line displacement monitoring

- on-line dynamic force measurement and monitoring
- on-line unbalance measurement and monitoring
- identification of perturbation forces
ky(t)
ACTUATOR \ A ■SENSOR
\y W P \ ' y(t)
Figure 51. Digital controller with associated analog-to-digital (AD) and digital-to-
analog (DA) converters. The sample-hold element before the AD-converter and anti
aliasing filters are not shown on this figure.
- identification and plotting of critical speed maps

- system identification (eigenvalues, mode shapes
- step response, harmonic perturbation response,....
In the case of digital controllers, all this can be realized without additional
hardware, just by <<Cintelligent » software.
1.7. APPLICATIONS
AMBs and their advantages lead to excellent technical solutions. They are
economically justifiable in many high performance systems. In cases where
the limitations of conventional bearings are reached, AMBs often function
very well. AMB performance is determined by the following factors:
- bearing load is dependent on the bearing geometry, the coil layout, the
cooling and maximum current o f the p o w e r amplifier.
- dynamic forces given by the power of the amplifier, the air-gap, the
bearing size, both the controller layout and bandwidth and the dynamics
o f the supported body.
- the stiffness and dam ping o f the AM B rotor system is affected by the
maximum dynamic force, the rotor conditioning and the controller
layout.
A great number of AMB test stands and industry applications already exist
in various fields. For some AMB applications very high reductions in initial
and operating costs have been demonstrated.
AMBfor High Rotational Speed

The power density (power/weight or power/volume) of rotating machines
depends primarily on the peripheral speed at the location where the
forces (motor, fluid) act. Therefore, in many applications, especially in
turbomachinery where high power densities are sought, high rotational speed,
low weight, and small volumes are required. AMBs are suited for high
rotational speeds and they can also reduce the weight and volume because
the equipment for fluid-film bearings is many times heavier and bulkier than
for AMBs.
AMB as a Damper to Pass Critical Speeds

Sometimes, conventional bearings are good enough to support large turbine
rotors but problems arise when crossing critical speeds. For such applications,
an AMB that is used as an active damping element or as a feed forward com
pensator can significantly improve the rotor behavior. The main advantages
of electromagnetic damping are:
- Compatible with high gas temperature

- No contamination
- The AMB needs to operate only while crossing critical speeds
- Maximum displacements accurately monitored, available for further
process control.
AMB in Vacuum Applications

Under high vacuum, the contamination by ball or fluid-film bearings
lubricants often is not acceptable. In such cases, AMBs provide the only
possible solution (Figures 52, 56 and 57).
New Construction Possibilities

With a thorough exploitation of the benefits of AMBs, the design of machines
can change appreciably.
- For many applications some or even all the seals may be omitted
- High speed rotors with large diameters at the bearings, high structural
eigenfrequencies
- Fully compatible with liquid or gas medium in pumps with strict
cleanness requirements
- On line monitoring of the system is inherent
1. High vacuum connection

2. Rotor disk
3. Stator disk
4. Molecular rotors
5. Molecular stators
6. Permanent magnet bearings
7. Active radial bearing
8. Fore vacuum connection
9. Electrical connection
10. Emergency bearing with ceramic balls
11. Position sensors
12. Active axial bearing
Figure 52. Turbo-molecular pump TMP180 of Pfeiffer Vacuum GmbH with an

active thrust bearing and one active radial bearing. The upper radial bearing is realized
with permanent magnets.
1.7.1. Turbo Molecular Pumps
Turbo-Molecular Pumps (Figure 52) are used in various processes where high
vacuum in the range of 10""10 torr is required. AMBs are an optimal choice
for this application. Most TMP manufacturers offer pumps with magnetic
bearings. In some designs only 1 or 3 active bearings are combined with
permanent magnet bearings.
Typical specifications:
• Speed: 30-80.000 rpm

• Bearing diameter: 20 to 50 mm
• Bearing loads: up to couple hundred Newton
• Power: 150-800 Watt
• Pressure: 10“ 10 torr
1.7.2. Milling and Grinding Spindle
High speed cutting requires direct drive spindles with high speed and high
power. Various spindles based on active magnetic bearing are available on
the market (Figure 53). High speed cutting spindles are one of the most
demanding applications for magnetic bearings requiring low compliance
(Figure 54).
• Speed: 30-80.000 rpm (milling), 50-180.000 rpm (grinding)

• Bearing diameter: 20 to 100 mm
• Bearing loads: up to couple thousand N
• Power: 1-50 kW
• Rotor Mass: up to 40 kg
1.7.3. Turbo Expander
Compressors and expanders (Figure 55) for gas have been an early application
for active magnetic bearings. Around 100 systems are already in operation
showing an excellent reliability.
• Speed: 10-40.000 rpm

• Bearing diameter: up to a couple hundred mm
• Bearing loads: over 10.000 N
• Power: up to a couple MW
• Rotor Mass: more than 1.000 kg
1.7.4. Textile Spindle
Low cost AMB concepts are available now. This makes AMBs attractive for
textile spindles or other cost critical large series applications.
Figure 53. HF200-MA milling and grinding spindle for high speed cutting, IBAG
Zurich AG.
Figure 54. Compliance of a milling spindle with 40.000 rpm and 40 kW.
water-cooled rectifier
terminal box
pressure-containing guide blade

cable lead-through adjusting
motor
pressure-containing
machine housing
carbon fibre
synchronous bandage
generator
magnetic bearing unit
(radial and thrust bearing)
auxiliary bearing unit
turbine
gas outlet
Figure 55. Turbo expander for natural gas expansion, Piller GmbH, Germany.
■
vacuum
sealing
Figure 56. Textile spindle for thread manufacturing.
With the AMB textile spindle shown in Figure 56 it is possible to

produce thread at speeds which are five times higher than with spindles
on conventional bearings. The circumferential speed of the rotor is as high
as 980 km/h. To reduce the air drag, the outside of the rotor is running in
vacuum.
The rotor is not laminated. Therefore a homopolar magnetic bearing design
is used to reduce eddy current losses on the rotor. The number of coils and
the fully digital control electronics is reduced to a minimum to reach very
low production costs.
Specifications:
• Speed: 80.000 rpm

• Bearing diameter: 65 mm
• Bearing loads: around 40 N
• Power: 150 Watt
® Rotor Mass: 1.5 kg
axial sensor
thrus bearing
(laminated)
radial
sensor
radial
bearing
vacuum
tank
(Canne)
motor
8000 rpm
radial
bearing
backup
bearing
Figure 57a. Canned epitaxy centrifuge for the Max Planck Institute for Solid State
Physics, Stuttgart, Germany.
Figure 57b. Canned epitaxy centrifuge for the Max Planck Institute for Solid State
Physics, Stuttgart, Germany.
1.7.5. Canned Epitaxy Centrifuge
This type of canned epitaxy centrifuges (Figure 57) are used to fabricate
semiconductor layers of excellent quality and purity. The use of active
magnetic bearings allows to rotate canned rotors in extremely clean vacuum
or hydrogen environment of a crystal growth apparatus. The process, and
therefore the front end of the rotor, is at temperatures as high as 950° C.
Specifications:
• Speed: 8.000 rpm

• Bearing diameter: 107 mm
• Air gap: 1.8 mm
• Bearing loads: radial 300 N, thrust: 500 N
• Power: 2 kW
• Rotor Mass: 28 kg
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Mechatronic Systems

Techniques and Applications

Edited by Cornelius T. Leondes

Books on M echatronic Systems

Volume 1 Industrial Manufacturing

Previously published in this series were volumes 1-6 on

Biomechanical Systems Techniques and Applications

© 2000 by OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V.

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-10: 90-5699-678-9 (Hardcover)

Library o f Congress C ataloging-in-Publication D ata

Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress

T&F informa Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

Series Description and Motivation vii

Industrial Magnetic Bearings — Basics and Applications 1

Many aspects of explosively growing technology are difficult or essen­

1. Will volumes fill important textbook voids in respective areas?

3. Are these technology areas that simply cannot sensibly be treated

Examples of areas requiring important volumes will be carefully defined

1. Medical imaging systems

The field of mechatronics (mechanics/electronics) has evolved as a highly

The first chapter to this volume is “Industrial Magnetic Bearings — Basics

• Magnetic bearings work without any mechanical contact. Therefore,

The next chapter is “Mechatronic Systems Techniques for Real-Time

combinations of these two categories such as optical disc storage systems.

ROLAND SIEGWART1, HANNES BLEULER1, ALFONS TRAXLER2

1EPFL (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology) Lausanne, Switzerland

An Active Magnetic Bearing (AMB) can completely support a body by

• Magnetic bearings work without any mechanical contact. Therefore,

Figure 1. Active Magnetic Bearing.

1.1.1. Basic Principle

Radial Bearing A Radial Bearing B

Figure 2. Rotor in Active Magnetic Bearings.

1.1.2. Components in an AMB System

The components of a magnetic bearing system are now shortly described.

1.2. THE ACTIVE MAGNETIC BEARING (AMB) ACTUATOR

1.2.1. Basic Equations for the AMB Actuator

Figure 3. Electromagnet of an AMB.

The characteristics of an AMB actuator can be deducted from electrical

where jjlq = Atc • 10-7 [Vs/Am]

A = ------ ^ 2 ------ ^ //gA (2.3)

Figure 4. Quadratic force-current characteristic of a single AMB magnet.

Pair of Electromagnets for a Single Mechanical Degree of Freedom

The electromagnets for a radial bearing are usually arranged as shown in

The premagnetization current z‘o results in a fairly linear current-force

Figure 5. Pair of electromagnets for positive and negative force of a single

1.2.2 Linear Relation between Current and Force

For x « v and ix io equation 2.7 can be linearized using a Taylor’s series

The force-displacement coefficient ks is the open-loop stiffness. It is less than

The AMB actuator has an inherent negative stiffness.

Figure 6. Measured current-force characteristics of an AMB actuator (pair of

io dx 3/1 kAS dFt

Figure 7. Maximum bearing force for different geometry of radial bearing.

1.2.3. Maximum Static AMB Force

———= cosa = 1.65 ■106[N/m2] with: cc = 22.5° (2.11a)

force density — [N/cm2]

force density ~ [N /cm 2 ]

The required magnetomotive force is proportional to the root of the force

1.2.4. Dynamics of the AMB Actuator

Fomax is the maximum amplitude of a sinusoidal force with the frequency / .

1.2.5. Behavior of the Magnetic Material

The magnetic field generated around a conductor carrying a current i is called

Figure 9. Cut-off frequency of an AMB actuator as a function of the amplifier power

, limited by the maximum flux density

Many aspects of explosively growing technology are difficult or essen