COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &

ARCHITECTURE
(KCS-302)

COMPUTER GENERATION &

CLASSIFICATION

Sanjay Kumar Nayak

 Evolution of Computers
FIRST GENERATION (1946 – 1959)

 Program and data reside in the same memory (stored

program concepts – John von Neumann)
 ALP was made used to write programs
 Vacuum tubes were used to implement the functions
(ALU & CU design)
 Magnetic core and magnetic tape storage devices are
used
 Using electronic vacuum tubes, as the switching
components
SECOND GENERATION (1959 – 1965)

 Transistor were used to design ALU & CU

 HLL is used (FORTRAN)
 To convert HLL to MLL compiler were used
 Separate I/O processor were developed to operate in
parallel with CPU, thus improving the performance
 Invention of the transistor which was faster, smaller and
required considerably less power to operate
 THIRD GENERATION (1965-1971)

 IC technology improved
 Improved IC technology helped in designing low cost, high
speed processor and memory modules
 Multiprogramming, pipelining concepts were incorporated
 DOS allowed efficient and coordinate operation of computer
system with multiple users
 Cache and virtual memory concepts were developed
 More than one circuit on a single silicon chip became
available
FOURTH GENERATION (1971-1980)

 INTEL, MOTOROLA, TEXAS,NATIONAL

semiconductors started developing microprocessor
 CPU – Termed as microprocessor
 Workstations, microprocessor (PC) & Notebook
computers were developed
 Interconnection of different computer for better
communication LAN,MAN,WAN
 Computational speed increased by 1000 times
 Specialized processors like Digital Signal Processor
were also developed
BEYOND THE FOURTH GENERATION
(1980 – TILL DATE)

 E-Commerce, E- banking, home office

 ARM, AMD, INTEL, MOTOROLA
 High speed processor - GHz speed
 Because of submicron IC technology lot of added features in
small size
CLASSIFICATION OF
COMPUTER
Classification of Computers

Types of Computers
1. Analog Computers

Analog computers are used to process continuous data. Analog computers

represent variables by physical quantities.
 An analog computer measures continuously. Analog computers are very much
speedy. They produce their results very fast.
 But their results are approximately correct. All the analog computers are
special purpose computers.
2. Digital Computers

• Digital computer represents physical quantities with the help of digits or

numbers.
• These numbers are used to perform Arithmetic calculations and also make
logical decision to reach a conclusion, depending on, the data they receive from
the user.
3. Hybrid Computers

•Various specifically designed computers are with both digital and analog
characteristics combining the advantages of analog and digital computers when
working as a system.
• Hybrid computers are being used extensively in process control system where
it is necessary to have a close representation with the physical world.

The hybrid system provides the good precision that can be attained with analog
computers and the greater control that is possible with digital computers, plus
the ability to accept the input data in either form.
1. Super Computers

• Large scientific and research laboratories as well as the government

organizations have extra ordinary demand for processing data which required
tremendous processing speed, memory and other services which may not be
provided with any other category to meet their needs.
•Therefore very large computers used are called Super Computers. These
computers are extremely expensive and the speed is measured in billions of
instructions per seconds.Example-Aaditya, Anupam, PARAM Yuva II
Vikram-100
2.Mainframe computer
•Large expensive computer capable of simultaneously processing data
for hundreds or thousands of users.

•Used to store, manage, and process large amounts of data that need to
be reliable, secure, and centralized.Usually housed in a closet sized
cabinet. Example: ISP providers use mainframe computers to process
information about millions of internet users.
Example-IBM zSeries, System z9 and System z10 servers.
3. Mini Computers

•Mini computers are smaller than mainframes, both in size and other facilities
such as speed, storage capacity and other services. They are versatile that they
can be fitted where ever they are needed.
Minicomputers are mid-sized computer used in universities,research labs and
small corporations. They are expensive and larger than microcomputer.
Minicomputer is a multi-user computer. Examples are- IBM 9375,
Motorola 68040 etc.
4. Micro Computers

. A microcomputer is a standard desktop computer used at a home and in

business. Microcomputer is a single-user computer.
•They are cheap, compact and can be easily accommodated on a study table.
Examples are- Modern computers like desktop, laptop etc.
FUNCTIONAL UNITS OF A
COMPUTER
Interconnections of Functional Units
 BUS
•A bus is a common pathway through which information flows from one component
to another.
•This pathway is used for communication purpose and can be established between two
or more computer components.

Functions of Buses in Computers

The functions of buses can be summarized as below:
1. Data sharing:All types of buses found on a computer must be able to transfer data
between the computer peripherals connected to it.

2. Addressing :bus has address lines, which match those of the processor. This allows
data to be sent to or from specific memory locations.

3. Power :A bus supplies power to various peripherals that are connected to it.

4. Timing:The bus provides a system clock signal to synchronize the peripherals

attached to it with the rest of the system.
What do buses look like?
 BUS STRUCTURE
Connecting CPU and memory
The CPU and memory are normally connected by three groups of
connections, each called a bus: data bus, address bus and control bus

Connecting CPU and memory using three buses

BUS STRUCTURE
•Group of wires which carries information form CPU to peripherals or vice –
versa

•Single bus structure: Common bus used to communicate between peripherals

and microprocessor

INPUT MEMORY PROCESSOR OUTPUT

SINGLE BUS STRUCTURE

 Two Bus Architecture

•Various units are connected through two independent buses

•I/O units are connected to the processor though an I/O bus and
Memory is connected to the processor through the memory bus
 Synchronous & Asynchronous Bus
Synchronous Bus:
• Includes a clock in the control lines
• A fixed protocol for communication that is relative to the clock
• Advantage: involves very little logic and can run very fast
• Disadvantages:
• Every device on the bus must run at the same clock rate
Asynchronous Bus:
• It is not clocked
• It can accommodate a wide range of devices
• It can be lengthened without worrying about clock skew
• It requires a handshaking protocol
Continued:-

• To improve performance multibus structure can be used

•In two – bus structure : One bus can be used to fetch instruction other
can be used to fetch data, required for execution.

•Thus improving the performance ,but cost increases

 Disadvantages of Buses

I/O I/O I/O

Processor Device Device Device Memory

• It creates a communication bottleneck

• The bandwidth of that bus can limit the maximum I/O
throughput
• The maximum bus speed is largely limited by:
• The length of the bus
• The number of devices on the bus
 Advantages of Buses

I/O I/O I/O

Processor Device Device Device Memory

• New devices can be added easily

• Peripherals can be moved between computer systems that use the
same bus standard
• Low Cost
• A single set of wires is shared in multiple ways
 Types of Bus
Computer's BUS can be divided into two types :

1. Internal Bus
2. External Bus

Internal Bus:
A BUS or set of wires which connects the various components inside a computer, is
known as Internal Bus. As it is used for internal communication purposes.
• It connects various components inside the cabinet, like as CPU, Memory and Motherboard.
• It is also known as System Bus.

External Bus:
A Bus or set of wires which is used to connect outer peripherals or components to
computer , is known as External Bus.
• It allows different external devices to be connected to computer. It is slower than Internal or
System Bus. It is also known as Expansion Bus.
System Bus
 Data Lines

 Provide a path for moving data between system

modules.
 These lines, collectively, are called the data bus
 The data bus typically consists of 8,16 or 32 separate
lines, the numbers of lines being transferred to as the
width of the data bus.
 Each line carry only 1 bit at a time, the number of lines
determines how many bits can transferred at a time -
overall system performance.
 The Address Lines

 Used to designate the source or destination of the data

on the data bus
 The width of the address bus determines the maximum
possible memory capacity of the system.
 Ex. 8080 has 16 bit address bus giving 64k address
space
 The Control Lines

 Used to control the access to and the use of the data and
address lines.
 Typical control lines include
 Memory write
 Memory read  Bus request
 I/O write  Bus grant
 I/O read  Interrupt request
 Clock  Interrupt ACK
 Reset  Transfer ACK