Introduction to Power Electronics

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 2

 Introduction to Power Electronics

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 3

 Introduction to Power Electronics

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 4

 Course Assessment
Course Credit
Course Name Lec. Tut. Lab. WS Sum
code Hours
Introduction to
ECE202 Power Electronics 2 0 3 0 5 3

Attendance Quizzes Mid-term Practical Final

10% 10% 20% 20% 40%

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 Power Electronic Systems

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 Power Electronic Systems

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 Power Electronic Systems

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 Scope of Power Electronics

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 Interdisciplinary Power Electronics

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 Applications of Power Electronics

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 Example (Photovoltaic System)

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 Example (Laptop computer power
supply system)

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 Example (Electric vehicle power and
drive system)

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 Fundamentals of Electricity

Simple AC
Series Circuit

Simple AC
Parallel Circuit

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 Fundamentals of Electricity
Simple DC
Series Circuit

Requ = R1 + R2 + R3
V = V1 - V2
Simple DC
Parallel Circuit
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝒆𝒒𝒖 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

i = i1 + i2 + i3
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 Fundamentals of Electricity
Three Phase (AC)
Transformer
Configurations

Note:
a = Transformer
Turns Ratio

= Np / Ns

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 Fundamentals of Electricity
Impedance:
• Definition: Impedance is the current resisting and
impeding characteristic of load or conductor in an
AC Circuit.

• Symbol for Impedance: Z

Z = R + jXl - jXc
Where: jXl = Zl and -jXc = Zc

• Unit for Impedance: Ohm or W.

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 Fundamentals of Electricity
Ohms Law:
• Mathematical Statement of the Ohm’s Law:
V = I R for DC circuits
V = I Z for AC Circuits

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 Impedance Calculation

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 Fundamentals of Electricity
Power
• Definition: Power is defined as the capacity of a system
to perform work or Rate of work performed by a system.
• Symbols and Types of Power:
• Pdc= V.I (watts) Note: Pdc= Preal
Papparent = S = Apparent Power (kVA) or AC Power
Preal = P = Real Power Comp. of Apparent Power, in kW
Preactive = Q = Reactive Comp. of App. Power in kVAR
• ½ Pappent½ = Ö (Preal)2 + (Preactive)2 or½S½ = Ö (P)2 +(Q)2
• Magnitude of Total (3 Æ ) Power = ½S½= Ö 3 . VL.IL
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 Fundamentals of Electricity
Power Factor
• Definition: Power Factor is defined as the Ratio of
Real Power (kW) to Apparent Power (kVA). It is also
defined as the quantity cos (q - f).
PF = ½P½/½S½ or
PF = cos(q - f),
• where q is the angle of voltage v, where v = VRMS Ð q
• f is the angle of current i = I RMS Ð f

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 Fundamentals of Electricity
Voltage Regulation:
Definition: Real voltage sources are unable to hold the
voltage constant as they assume a significant amount
of load (Resistance or Impedance).
This results in the difference between Vno load and
Vfull load.
The formula for Voltage Regulation is as follows:

Voltage Reg. = (Vno load - Vfull load) / Vfull load x 100%

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 Fundamentals of Electricity
Service Factor of a Motor:
Definition: Service factor of a motor is the ratio of safe
to standard (nameplate) loads. Service factor is
expressed in decimal. The formula for Service Factor
is as follows:

Service Factor = Safe Load / Nameplate Load

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 Fundamentals of Electricity
Classifications of Motors:
Ø Motor categorization by NEMA, National Electrical
Manufacturers Association:
Ø Speed:
ØConstant Speed
ØAdjustable Speed
ØMultispeed
ØVarying Speed
Ø Service Classification:
ØGeneral
ØDefinite
ØSpecial Purpose
ØVarying Speed
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 Fundamentals of Electricity

Classifications of Motors (cont.):

Ø Motor Class is determined by the maximum
allowable operating temperature of the motor,
which is dependant on the type/grade of
insulation used in the motor:
ØClass A: 105° C
ØClass B: 130° C
ØClass F: 155° C
ØClass H: 180° C

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 Fundamentals of Electricity
Classifications of Motors (cont.):

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 Fundamentals of Electricity
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):
Algebraic sum of voltage drops around any closed
path, within a circuit, is equal to the sum of voltages
presented by all of the voltage sources. The
mathematical representation of KVL is as follows:

S VDrops = S VSource

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 Fundamentals of Electricity

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

Total current flowing into a node is equal to the total
current that flows out of the node. The mathematical
representation of KCL is as follows:

S iin = S iout

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 Fundamentals of Electricity in Industrial
and Commercial Environment
Motor Power – Line Current Calculation:
• Motor Nameplate Information:
Power rating, in HP (Horse Power) = P = 10 HP
Voltage Rating = 480 VAC
No. of Phases = 3; also stated as 3 Æ
Power Factor = PF = 0.8
Efficiency = Eff. = 0.9
Magnitude of Line Current = FLA,
Full Load Current = ½ I ½ = I = ?
Note: 1 HP = 746 Watts = 746 W = 0.746 kW
Formula: I = Power in Watts / PF / Eff./ (Ö3 x VL)
• I = 10HP x 746 W/HP/0.8/0.9/(Ö3 x480VAC)
• I = 12.46 Amps
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 Fundamentals of Electricity
Miscellaneous:
• Demand: This term means the average power (kW)
in a given interval, or demand interval. Electric
utilities charge commercial and industrial customers
for the peak demand set each month.
• Peak demand: This is the maximum demand used in
any demand interval for a given month.
• Load factor: The load factor is the ratio of average
power to peak demand. Utility customers are
sometimes penalized for low load factor that can
occur when large amounts of power are used in short
periods of time, instead of at a steady rate for long
periods of time.
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 PE Semiconductor Devices

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 Power Electronics Semiconductor

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 Power Electronics Basics
• Types of interfaces
• dc-dc: dc-dc converter
• ac-dc: rectifier
• dc-ac: inverter
• ac-ac: cycloconverter (used less often)
• Power electronic converters components
• Semiconductor switches:
• Diodes
• MOSFETs
• IGBTs
• SCRs
• Energy storage elements:
• Inductors
• Capacitors
• Other components:
• Transformer
• Control
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 Rectifiers

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 Rectifiers

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 Converters

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 DC to AC Converters

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 DC to AC Converters

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 DC to DC Converters

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 DC to DC Converters

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 AC to AC Converters

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 AC to AC Converters

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 Power Electronics Basic Concepts
Energy storage
When analyzing the circuit, the state of each energy storage
element contributes to the overall system’s state. Hence, there
is one state variable associated to each energy storage element.
In an electric circuit, energy is stored in two fields:
• Electric fields (created by charges or variable magnetic
fields and related with a voltage difference between two
points in the space)
• Magnetic fields (created by magnetic dipoles or electric
currents)
• Energy storage elements:
C L
Capacitors: Inductors:
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 Power Electronics Basic Concepts

Capacitors
• State variable: voltage
dvC
• Fundamental circuit equation: iC = C
dt
• The capacitance gives an indication of electric inertia. Compare
the above equation with Newton’s  
dv
F =m
dt
• Capacitors will tend to hold its voltage fixed.
• For a limited current with an infinite capacitance, the voltage
must be constant. Hence, capacitors tend to behave like voltage
sources (the larger the capacitance, the closer they resemble a
voltage source) 1
• A capacitor’s energy is WC = Cv 2
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 Power electronics basic concepts
Inductors
• state variable: current
diL
• Fundamental circuit equation: vL = L
dt
• The inductance gives an indication of electric inertia.
• Inductors will tend to hold its current fixed.
• Any attempt to change the current in an inductor will be
answered with an opposing voltage by the inductor. If the
current tends to drop, the voltage generated will tend to act as an
electromotive force. If the current tends to increase, the voltage
across the inductor will drop, like a resistance.
• For a limited voltage with an infinite inductance, the current
must be constant. Hence, inductors tend to behave like current
sources (the larger the inductance, the closer they resemble a
current source)
1 2
• An inductor’s energy is WL = Li
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 Power Electronics Basic Concepts
• Since capacitors behave like constant voltage sources you
shall never connect a switch in parallel with a capacitor.
Any attempt to violate this load will lead to high currents.
• Likewise, you shall never connect a switch in series with
an inductor. Any attempt to violate this rule will lead to
high voltages.
Steady state:
• In between steady states there are transient periods,
• In steady state the energy in each of the energy storage
elements is the same at the beginning and end of the cycle
T. That is, ideally power input = power output
• Of course, during the transient periods (if they could be
called “periods”) there is a difference between the initial
andDAOWD
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 Power Electronics Basic Concepts
• The average voltage across an inductor operating in periodic steady
state is zero.
dW (t ) = 0 P=0
1 2
WL = Li i (T ) = i (0)
2

1 T 1 T L
< vL (t ) >= ò vL (t )dt = ò Ldi = (i (T ) - i (0))
T 0 T 0 T

< vL (t ) >= 0
• Likewise, the average current through a capacitor operating in periodic
steady state is zero.
< iC (t ) >= 0
• Hence, Both KCL and KVL apply in the average sense.
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 Power Electronics Basic Concepts
• Time constants: In power electronics we tend to work in many
circuits with “large” capacitances and inductances which leads to
“large” time constants.
• What does “large” means? Large means time constants much
larger than the period. L
C ® t = RC L ®t =
R

Time constant time scale Period time scale

• If you look close and for a2short time interval, exponentials look
like lines -t t -t
e = 1- t + -  ¾¾¾¾
®e » 1- t
for small t
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 Power Electronics Basic Concepts
• In power electronic circuits, signals usually have harmonics
added to the desired (fundamental) signal.
• Energy storage elements are used to:
• Provide intermediate energy transfer buffers (Storage).
• Filter undesired harmonics.
• There are two approaches:
1. Linear approximation (based on time constants
considerations). I.e., current and voltage ripples)
DI L DVC
V =L IC = C
2. Harmonic superposition L DT DT

»
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 Power Electronics Basics
Additional definitions
1 t +T
• Average < f (t ) >= ò f (t )dt
T t
• RMS value
1 T 2 1 ¥ 2 ¥ ¥
2
f (t ) RMS = ò f (t )dt = c0 + å cn = c0 + å cn , RMS = å cn2, RMS
2

T 0 2 n=1 n =1 n =0

• Instantaneous power
p (t ) = v(t )i (t )
• (Average) power ¥
1 t +T Vn I n
P= òt v (t )i (t ) dt = V0 I 0 + å cos(qVn - q In )
T n =1 2
¥

åc 2
n

• Total harmonic distortion THD = n=2

c12
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 Power Electronics Basics
Additional definitions
• Power factor T

p. f =
Average Power ò
= 0
p (t )dt
1
T

Apparent Power VRMS I RMS

• Line regulation
VOUT (Highest input ) - VOUT (Lowest input )
LiR (%) = 100
VOUT ( Nominal)
• Load regulation
VOUT (Min Load) - VOUT (Full Load)
LoR (%) = 100
VOUT ( Nominal)
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Devices available to circuit designer
Signal processing: avoid magnetics
Power processing: avoid lossy
elements
 Converters in equilibrium
Discontinuous
conduction mode
Transformer isolation

Averaged equivalent circuit

Inductor waveforms Predicted efficiency

 N-Type Material
• At 0°K, each electron is in its lowest
possible energy state.
+4 +4 +4 • If a small electric field is applied, the
electrons will not move → silicon is an
insulator
+4 +5 +4
• If the temperature increases, the
valence electrons will gain some
thermal energy, and breaks free from
+4 +4 +4
the covalent bond. It leaves a positively
charged hole.
Silicon Crystal • When extra valence electrons are
2D diagram introduced into a material such as
silicon an n-type material is produced,
they are Group V elements. The most
commonly used dopant from Group V
are arsenic, antimony and phosphorus.
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 P-Type Material
• P-type material is produced
when the dopant that is
+4 +4 +4
introduced is from Group III.
• This creates a hole (h+), or a
+4 +3 +4 positive charge that can move
around in the material.
Commonly used Group III
+4 +4 +4
dopant are aluminum, boron,
and gallium.
Silicon Crystal
2D diagram

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 P-N Junction formulation
p-n junction formation

p-type material n-type material

Semiconductor material Semiconductor material
doped with acceptors. doped with donors.
Material has high hole Material has high
concentration concentration of free
electrons.
Concentration of free
electrons in p-type material Concentration of holes in
is very low. n-type material is very low.
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 P-N junction
p-n Junction formation
formation

p-type material n-type material

Contains Contains POSITIVELY
NEGATIVELY charged donors
charged acceptors (immovable) and
(immovable) and NEGATIVELY
POSITIVELY charged charged free electrons.
holes (free).
Total charge = 0
Total charge = 0
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 P-N Junction
Metallurgical
Na Junction Nd Steady State
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
When no external
P -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
n
source is connected to
p-n junction, diffusion
Space Charge
ionized
acceptors
Region ionized and drift balance each
donors
E-Field other out for both
_ _

h+ drift
+
==
+
h+ diffusion e- diffusion == e- drift
holes and electrons.
Space Charge Region: Also called the depletion region. It
includes the net positively and negatively charged regions.
The space charge region does not have any free carriers.
Metallurgical Junction: The interface where the p- and n-
type materials meet.
Na & Nd: Represent the amount of negative and positive
doping in number of carriers per centimeter cubed. Usually
in the range of 1015 to 1020.
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 Biased P-N Junction
Metal
Contact
“Ohmic _
Contact” +
(Rs~0)
Applied
P Electric Field n

I Vapplied
_
+

The p-n junction is considered biased when an external

voltage is applied. Types of biasing: Forward bias and
Reverse bias.
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 Biased P-N Junction

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 Biased P-N Junction
Forward Bias: Vapplied > 0 (+ve)
The depletion region shrinks slightly in width. With this shrinking
the energy required for charge carriers to cross the depletion region
decreases exponentially. Therefore, as the applied voltage increases,
current starts to flow across the junction. The barrier potential of the
diode is the voltage at which appreciable current starts to flow
through the diode. The barrier potential varies for different
materials.
Reverse Bias: Vapplied < 0 (-ve)
The depletion region widens. This causes the electric field produced
by the ions to cancel out the applied reverse bias voltage. A small
leakage current, Is (saturation current) flows under reverse bias
conditions. This saturation current is made up of electron-hole pairs
being produced in the depletion region. Saturation current is
sometimes referred to as scale current because of it’s relationship to
junction temperature.
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 Properties of Diodes
ID (mA)

Diode
Transconductance
Curve
IS
VBR

~Vf VD
• VD = Bias Voltage
• ID = Current through Diode.
• ID is Negative for Reverse Bias and
Positive for Forward Bias
• IS = Saturation Current
• VBR = Breakdown Voltage
(nA)
Dr. Mohamed DAOWD • Vf = Barrier Potential Voltage 67
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 Properties of Diodes
The Shockley Equation
• The transconductance curve is characterized by the equation:

ID = IS(eVD/hVT – 1)
• ID is the current through the diode, IS is the saturation current
and VD is the applied biasing voltage.
• VT is the thermal equivalent voltage and is approximately 26 mV
at room temperature. The equation to find VT at various
temperatures is: VT = kTq
k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K T = temperature in Kelvin q = 1.6 x 10-19 C
• h is the emission coefficient for the diode. It is determined by
the way the diode is constructed. It somewhat varies with diode
current. For a silicon diode h is around 2 for low currents and
goes down to about 1 at higher currents
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 Types of Diodes and Applications
PN Junction Are used to allow current to flow in one
Diodes: direction while blocking current flow in the
opposite direction.
A K p n
Schematic Symbol for a Representative Structure
PN Junction Diode for a PN Junction Diode

Zener Diodes: Specifically designed to operate under

reverse breakdown conditions. These
diodes have a very accurate and specific
reverse breakdown voltage.
A K

Schematic Symbol for a

Zener Diode
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 Types of Diodes and Applications
Light-Emitting Are designed with a very large band
Diodes: gap so movement of carriers across their
depletion region emits photons of light
energy. It emits visible light.
Lower band gap LEDs (Light-Emitting
Diodes) emit infrared radiation. stop
lights are now starting to use LEDs
because they are extremely bright and
last longer than regular bulbs for a
relatively low cost.
A K
Arrows in the LED
Schematic Symbol for a representation indicate
Light-Emitting Diode emitted light.
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 Types of Diodes and Applications

Photodiodes: LEDs emit light are sensitive to received

light. They are constructed so their p-n
junction can be exposed to the outside
A K
through a clear window or lens.
In Photoconductive mode the saturation
l current increases in proportion to the
A K intensity of the received light. This type
of diode is used in CD players.
Schematic Symbols
for Photodiodes In Photovoltaic mode, when the p-n
junction is exposed to a certain
wavelength of light, the diode generates
voltage and can be used as an energy
source. it is used in the production of
Dr. Mohamed DAOWD solar power. 72
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 What happens when you feed an AC
voltage/current through a diode?

half-wave rectification
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 Why is there a
missing voltage
in the second
picture?

There is no such
thing as a perfect
diode!
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 • What is the usual value of Vf ?
• Which criteria will determine the
exact value of Vf?

Vf ~ 0.7 V
Exact value determined by:
• temperature
• current
• type of diode

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 Explain four scenarios for HWR

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 How can you predict whether a diode
is going to melt?
• Calculating the power wasted in the diode
Power = Vf * I (watt)
• Forward voltage times the current flowing
through it.

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 Compare these two scenarios and explain
and possible solutions.

• low current • higher current

• low heat • more heat
• OK to use an • better to use a
ordinary silicon bigger diode or a
diode Schottky diode
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 What do these
diagrams tell
us about
diodes?

Placing
diodes in
parallel is not
a reliable
option.
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 Using these two diagrams, explain the
term diode switching speed.

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What are the four important things to keep
in mind about a diode before using it?
• Maximum rated voltage
• Forward voltage
• Current rating
• Switching speed

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 Diodes and Applications

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cyhzpFqXwdA&ab_channel=Afrotechmods
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 Types of Rectifiers

AC-DC
Rectifiers

Half wave Full wave

Rectifier Rectifier

Center-tape Bridge FWR

FWR

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 Diode Applications (Half Wave Rectifier)
A diode is connected to an ac source and to a load
resistor, RL, forming half-wave rectifier.
When the sinusoidal input voltage (Vin) goes positive,
the diode is forward-biased and conducts current
through the load resistor, part (a). The current produces
an output voltage across the load RL, which has the same
shape as the positive half-cycle of the input voltage.
When input voltage goes negative during the second
half of its cycle, the diode is reverse-biased. There is no
current, so the voltage across the load resistor is 0 V,
part (b).
Net result is that only the positive half-cycles of the ac.
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 Half-wave rectifier operation.
The diode is considered to be ideal.

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 Half Wave Rectifier
The input voltage appear across the load. Since the output does
not change polarity, it is a pulsating dc voltage with a
frequency of 50 Hz, as shown in part (c).
Average Value of the Half-Wave Output Voltage
The average value of the half-wave rectified output voltage is
the value you would measure on a dc voltmeter.
Mathematically, it is determined by finding the area under the
curve over a full cycle, as illustrated in Figure 27, and then
dividing by 2pi, the number of radians in a full cycle. The
result of this is expressed in Equation below:
𝑽𝒑
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝝅
Where: Vp is the peak value of the voltage. This equation shows that
VAVG is approximately 31.8% of Vp for a half-wave rectified voltage.
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 Half Wave Rectifier
Example:
What is the average
value of the halfwave
rectified voltage in
Figure?

𝑽𝒑
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈 = = 50/pi = 15.9 V
𝝅

𝑽𝒑
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝟐

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88
 Half Wave Rectifier
Effect of Barrier Potential on the Half Wave Rectifier Output
Previous discussion, the diode was considered ideal.
When the practical diode model is used with the barrier potential of
0.7 V taken into account, this is what happens. During the positive
half-cycle, the input voltage must overcome the barrier potential
before the diode becomes forward-biased. As a result in a half-wave
output with a peak value of the input – 0.7 V. The expression for
the peak output voltage is:

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 Example:
Draw the output voltages of each rectifier for the
indicated input voltages, as shown in the figure. The
1N4001 and 1N4003 are specific rectifier diodes.

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Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 91
 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
The PIV occurs at the peak of each half-cycle of the input
voltage when the diode is reverse-biased. The PIV
equals the peak value of the input voltage, and the diode
must be capable of withstanding this amount of
repetitive reverse voltage. For the diode in Figure 31, the
maximum value of reverse voltage, designated as PIV,
occurs at the peak of each negative alternation of the
input voltage when the diode is reverse-biased.

𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉& ()*)

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 Half-Wave Rectifier with Transformer-
Coupled Input Voltage
A transformer is often used to couple the ac input voltage
from the source to the rectifier:

Transformer coupling provides two advantages.

First, it allows the source voltage to be stepped down.
Second, the ac source is electrically isolated from the
rectifier, thus preventing a shock hazard in the
secondary circuit.
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 Example:
Determine the
peak value of
the output
voltage if the
turns ratio is
0.5.

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Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 95
 Review Questions
1. At what point on the input cycle does the PIV occur?
2. For a half-wave rectifier, there is current through the
load for approximately what percentage of the input
cycle?
3. What is the average of a half-wave rectified voltage
with a peak value of 10 V?
4. What is the peak value of the output voltage of a half-
wave rectifier with a peak sine wave input of 25 V?
5. What PIV rating must a diode have to be used in a
rectifier with a peak output voltage of 50 V?

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 Full-Wave Rectifiers
Although half-wave rectifiers have some applications, the full-wave
rectifier is the most commonly used type in dc power supplies.
A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way) current
through the load during the entire 360° of the input cycle, whereas a
half-wave rectifier allows current through the load only during one-
half of the cycle.
The result of full-wave rectification is an output voltage with a
frequency twice the input frequency and that pulsates every half-
cycle of the input.

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 Full-Wave Rectifiers
The number of positive alternations that make up the full-wave
rectified voltage is twice that of the half-wave voltage for the
same time interval.
The average value, which is the value measured on a dc
voltmeter, for a full-wave rectified sinusoidal voltage is twice
that of the half-wave: 𝟐𝑽𝒑
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝝅

VAVG is approx. 63.7% of Vp for a full-wave rectified voltage.

Example:
Find the average value of the full-wave rectified voltage in Figure
below:

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 Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifiers
A center-tapped rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier
that uses two diodes connected to the secondary of a
center-tapped transformer.

For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the

polarities of the secondary voltages are shown. This
condition forward-biases diode D1 and reverse-biases
diode D2. The current path is through D1 and the load
resistor RL, as indicated.
Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 99
 For a negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the voltage
polarities on the secondary are shown. This condition reverse-
biases D1 and forward-biases D2.

Note that the current through the load resistor is in the same
direction during the entire input cycle, so the output voltage
always has
Dr. Mohamed the same polarity.
DAOWD 100
 Peak Inverse Voltage
Each diode in the full-wave rectifier is alternately
forward-biased and then reverse-biased. Where D2 is
assumed to be reverse-biased (red) and D1 is assumed to
be forward-biased (green).

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 101

 When the total secondary voltage Vsec has the polarity shown,
the maximum anode voltage of D1 is Vp(sec)/ 2 and the
maximum anode voltage of D2 is -Vp(sec)/ 2.
The peak inverse voltage PIV across D2 is:

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 102

Example:
(a) Show the voltage waveforms across each half of the
secondary winding and across RL when a 100 V peak
sine wave is applied to the primary winding in Figure
below.
(b) What minimum PIV rating must the diodes have?

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 103

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 7
104
 Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Operation
The bridge rectifier uses four diodes. When the input cycle is
positive as in part (a), diodes D1 and D2 are forward-biased
and conduct current in the direction shown. A voltage is
developed across RL that looks like the positive half of the
input cycle. During this time, diodes D3 and D4 are reverse-
biased.

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 105

 Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Operation

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 106

 When the input cycle is negative as in (b), diodes D3 and
D4 are forward-biased and conduct current in the same
direction through RL as during the positive half-cycle.
During the negative half-cycle, D1 and D2 are reverse-
biased. A full-wave rectified output voltage appears
across RL as a result of this action.
For ideal diode, the output voltage is:
𝑽𝒑 (𝒐𝒖𝒕) = 𝑽𝒑 (𝒔𝒆𝒄)

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 107

 For practical diode, the output voltage is:
𝑉+ (,-.) = 𝑉+ (/01) - 1.4 V
Peak Inverse Voltage
Let’s assume that D1 and D2 are forward-biased and examine
the reverse voltage across D3 and D4. Visualizing D1 and D2 as
shorts (ideal model), you can see that D3 and D4 have a peak
inverse voltage equal to the peak secondary voltage. Since the
output voltage is ideally equal to the secondary voltage:
𝑷𝑰𝑽 = 𝑽𝒑 (𝒐𝒖𝒕)

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 108

 If the diode drops of the forward-biased diodes are
included the peak inverse voltage across each reverse-
biased diode in terms of Vp(out) is:
𝑷𝑰𝑽 = 𝑽𝒑 (𝒐𝒖𝒕) + 0.7 V
Example:
Determine the peak output voltage for the bridge
rectifier in Figure below. Assuming t practical model,
what PIV rating is required for the diodes? The
transformer is specified to have a 12 V rms secondary
voltage for the standard 120 V across the primary.

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 9

109
Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 110
 Diode Rectification Comparison
1. Half Wave Rectifier 𝑽𝒑 𝑽𝒑
• Simplest. 𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝟐
𝝅
• Hard to filter well.
2. Full Wave Center-Tapped Rectifier
• Easier to filter.
• Requires transformer with center-tap.
• Transformer secondary must be twice required
voltage. 𝟐𝑽𝒑 𝑽𝒑
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝟐
𝝅
3. Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
• Easier to filter (just like full wave).
• Center-tap transformer not required.
• Transformer secondary same as required voltage.
• Higher
Dr. Mohamed parts count.
DAOWD 111
 Review Questions:

1. How does a full-wave voltage differ from a half-wave

voltage?
2. What is the average value of a full-wave rectified
voltage with a peak value of 60 V?
3. Which type of full-wave rectifier has the greater
output voltage for the same input voltage and
transformer turns ratio?
4. For a peak output voltage of 45 V, in which type of
rectifier would you use diodes with a PIV rating of 50
V?

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 11

112
 Special Diodes / Operations

Outputs From
Simple Diode
Circuits

Special
Types of
Diodes

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 113

 Zener Diode Region
Zener Region

The diode is in the reverse bias condition.

At some point the reverse bias voltage is so large the diode breaks down.
The reverse current increases dramatically.
This maximum voltage is called avalanche breakdown voltage and the current
is called avalanche current.
Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 114
49
 Zener Diode Shunt Regulator

Regulated output
voltage
VL

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 115

ee-terminal regulator connections—
itive3-Terminal
and negative regulators
Regulator Connection

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 116

9
 Types of Rectifiers (cont.)

https://mechatrofice.com/circuits/different-types-of-rectifiers-and-working
Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 117
 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 118

 3-Phase Rectifier

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 119

 Filtering
Filtering
• Process used
to smooth out
ed to smooth
the output of
put of the
the rectifier
rcuit. circuit.
most • One of the
mostRC
ilter is the common
filter is the RC
network

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 120

Inductor filter Filter & Vout Waveform
Inductor

Inductor filter output voltage

waveforms

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 121

filter)
Choke input Filter (L-section filter)
and VL Waveform

Choke input filter load

voltage waveforms

8
4

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 122

 π-type filter
𝝅 − Type Filter & Vout waveform

π-type filter output voltage

waveforms

8
6

Dr. Mohamed DAOWD 123

8
Field Effect Transistors (FET)
 FET vs BJT
Collector Drain
Base Gate
Emitter Source
BJT FET
ü 3 terminal device ü 3 terminal device
ü Emitter, Base, Collector ü Source, Gate, Drain
ü Current controlled ü Voltage controlled device
ü Bipolar device (e- & h+) ü Unipolar device (e- or h+)
ü Two types- npn & pnp ü Two types – JFET & MOS FET
ü Emitter to collector e- ü e- current from source to drain
current controlled by controlled by the electric field
the current injected into generated by the gate
the base ü high input impedance for base
 Classification of FET

•
Transistor Operation Modes
 Types of FETs
•carrier type (N or P channel), there are differences in
how the control element is constructed (Junction vs.
Insulated) and those devices must be used differently
npn
Depletion mode junction FETs (JFET)
pnp
npn
Metal oxide semi-conductor FET (MOSFET)
pnp
– depletion/enhancement mode
– enhancement mode

(Insulated Gate FETs, IGFETs, are the same

as MOSFETs)
Physical Structure of N-MOS Transistor

(a) Perspective View; (b) Cross Section.

Typically L = 1 to 10 µm, W = 2 to 500 µm,
and the thickness of the oxide layer is range of 0.02 to 0.1 µm.
Physical Structure of N-MOS Transistor

The enhancement-type NMOS transistor with a

positive voltage applied to the gate.
 iD - vGS Characteristic

• An n-channel
enhancement-type
MOSFET with vGS and
vDS applied.

• iD - vGS characteristic
for an enhancement-
type NMOS transistor
in saturation.
 Bias Circuits 1
- l usually neglected ( 1/ l = VA®¥)
- Q-point most often located in saturation for analog circuits
R2
VG = VDD
VDD R1 + R2 R2
VGS = VDD - RS I D
VS = RS I D R1 + R2
RD
R1

VDS = VDD - (RD + RS )I D

ID

VG
k n' W 2 ( assuming the MOSFET to
ID = (VGS - Vt )
R2 RG 2 L be
RS in the saturation region )
2
k n' W é R2 ù ( two solutions ® only one
ID = ê VDD - Vt - RS I D ú
2 L ë R1 + R2 û is possible )

Ex: VDD = 10 V R1 = 150 kW R2 = 100 kW RS = 10 kW

RD = 50 kW k’n(W/L) = 50 µA/V 2 Vt = 1 V

Solution: ID = 100 µA VDS = 4 V

 Bias Circuits 2
VDD VDD Analysis
k n' W
RD
RG RD
ID = (VGS - Vt )
2

ID
2 L
RG
RS
VGS = VDD - RD I D
k n'
I D = (VDD - Vt - RD I D )
-VSS
2

Two power supplies are 2

available
VGS = VDS \ (I G = 0)
VDD
VDD/ RD
RD
load line
curve VDS= VGS

VGS1
Q
RG
I VGS2
VGS3
-VSS
A simple circuit utilizing VDS = VGS2 VDD
a current source
High-Efficiency Converter
 Power loss in an ideal switch

Switch closed: v(t) = 0

Switch open: i(t) = 0
In either event:
p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 0

Ideal switch consumes zero power

A simple dc-dc converter example

Input source: 100V

Output load: 50V, 10A, 500W

How can this converter be realized?

 Dissipative realization
Resistive voltage divider
 Dissipative Realization
Series pass regulator: transistor operates in
active region
 Use of a SPDT switch

SPDT: single pole double throw

 Switch Changes DC Voltage Level
Input D = switch duty cycle 0 ≤ D ≤ 1
Ts = switching period
fs = switching frequency = 1 / Ts
DC component of vs(t) = average value:
𝟏 𝑻𝒔
𝑽𝒔 = ( 𝒗𝒔 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑫𝑽𝒈
𝑻𝒔 𝟎
 Addition of low pass filter
Addition of (ideally lossless) L-C low-pass filter, for
removal of switching harmonics:

Choose filter cutoff frequency f0 much smaller than

switching frequency fs
This circuit is known as the “buck converter”
 Addition of Control System For
Output Voltage Regulation

Note: Transistor gate drive circuits

Converter dynamics and control

Closed-loop converter system

Converter dynamics and control

Averaging the waveforms

 A single-phase inverter

“H-bridge” Modulate switch duty cycles to obtain

sinusoidal low-frequency component
Steady-State Converter Analysis
 Three basic dc-dc converters
Buck

Boost

Buck-Boost
 Buck Converter
SPDT switch changes
dc component

Switch output
voltage waveform

Duty cycle D:
0≤D≤1
Complement D′:
D′ = 1 - D
 DC component of switch
output voltage

Fourier analysis: Dc
component = average value
Insertion of low-pass filter to remove switching
harmonics and pass only dc component
Inductor volt-second balance, capacitor charge
balance, and the small ripple approximation
Input Buck
converter
containing
practical
low-pass filter

Actual output
voltage
waveform
Buck converter analysis: inductor
current waveform
 Inductor voltage and current
Subinterval 1: switch in position 1

Small ripple approximation:

Inductor current changes with essentially constant slope

 Inductor voltage and current
Subinterval 2: switch in position 2

Small ripple approximation:

Inductor current changes with essentially constant slope

Inductor voltage and current waveforms

diL
vL = L
dt
Determination of inductor current
ripple magnitude
 Boost Converter
Input Boost
converter
with ideal
switch

Realization
using
power MOSFET
and diode
Boost converter analysis
 Subinterval 1: switch in position 1
Inductor voltage and capacitor current
vL = Vg
iC =–v/R

Small ripple approximation:

vL = Vg
iC = – V / R
 Subinterval 2: switch in position 2

Inductor voltage and capacitor current

vL = Vg - v
iC = iL –v/R

Small ripple approximation:

vL = Vg - V
iC = I – V / R
Inductor voltage and capacitor current
waveforms
 Inductor volt-second balance
Net volt-seconds applied to inductor
vL(t) over one switching period:

Equate to zero and collect terms:

The voltage conversion ratio is therefore

Conversion ratio M(D) of the boost
converter
 Inductor Current Ripple
Inductor current slope during subinterval 1:

Inductor current slope

during subinterval 2:

Change in inductor current during subinterval 1 is (slope)

(length of subinterval):

Choose L such that desired ripple magnitude is obtained

 Capacitor Voltage Ripple
Capacitor voltage slope during subinterval 1:

Capacitor voltage slope

during subinterval 2:

Change in capacitor voltage during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of

subinterval):

1. Choose C such that desired voltage ripple magnitude is obtained

2. In practice, capacitor equivalent series resistance (esr) leads to
increased voltage ripple.
 Cuk Converter
Input source