Solved Questions: 1

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

1 An aircraft is flying at a cruising speed of 250 m/s at an altitude of 5000 m where the atmospheric
pressure is 54.05 kPa and the ambient air temperature is 255.7 K. The ambient air is first decelerated
in a diffuser before it enters the compressor. Approximating both the diffuser and the compressor to
be isentropic, and taking air as being ideal with the constant-pressure specific heat, cp and the specific
heat ratio, k of air at room temperature as 1.005 kJ/kg.K and 1.4 respectively, determine
(i) The stagnation pressure at the compressor inlet (5marks)
(ii) The required compressor work per unit mass if the stagnation pressure ratio of the
compressor is 8 (5 marks)

SOLUTION

(i) Under isentropic conditions, the stagnation pressure at the compressor inlet (diffuser exit) can be
determined from

P0 / P = (T0 / T) k / (k-1) (1 mark)

However, we first need to know the stagnation temperature T 01 at the compressor inlet. Under the stated
assumptions, T01 is determined using
T0 = T1 + V2 / 2cP (1 mark)

= 255.7 K + ( 250 m/s)2 / 2 (1.005 Kj/Kg.K) ( 1 KjKg-1/ 1000m2s-2 ) (1/2 mark)

= 286.8 K (1 mark)
Then,
The stagnation pressure at the compressor inlet is determined as follows
P0 = P (T0 / T) k / (k-1)
= 54.05 kPa ( 286.8 K / 255.7 K)1.4 / (1.4 – 1) (1/2 mark)
= 80.77 kPa (1 mark)
(ii) To determine the work done by the compressor, the stagnation temperature of air at the compressor
exit T02 must be determined.
Assumption : The stagnation pressure ratio across the compressor P02 / P01 = 8 (1/2 mark)
Since the compression process is approximated as isentropic, T02 can be determined from the ideal gas
isentropic relation
 T02 = T01 (P02 / P01) (k-1) / k (1 mark)
= 286.8 K (8) (1.4-1)/1.4
= 519.5 K(1 mark)
Disregarding potential energy changes and heat transfer, the compressor work per unit mass of air is
determined from the relation: (1/2 mark)
Win = cp (T02 – T01) (1 mark)
= 1.005 Kj/Kg. K ( 519.5 K – 286.8 K)
= 233.9 kJ / kg (1 mark)

2 Carbon di oxide flows steadily through a varying cross sectional area duct at a mass flow rate 3.00
kg/s. The carbon di oxide enters the duct at a pressure of 1400 kPa and 200 oC with a low velocity, and it
expands in the nozzle to an exit pressure of 200 kPa. The design of the duct is such that the flow is isentropic
steady and one dimensional. Determine the velocity and the density at the first instance of pressure drop of
200 kPa along the duct. Take the constant-pressure specific heat, cp and the specific heat ratio, k of air at
room temperature as 0.846 kJ/kg.K and 1.289 respectively, and Universal gas constant R is 0.1889 KJ/
Kg.K (8 marks)
SOLUTION

Assumptions: CO2 is an ideal gas with constant specific heat at room temperature
Flow through duct is steady, one dimensional and isentropic
Universal gas constant R is 0.1889 KJ/ Kg.K
T0 ≈ T1 = 2000C = 473 K (1/2 mark)
P0 ≈ P1 = 1400 kPa (1/2 mark)
To illustrate the solution procedure, the desired properties at the location where the pressure is
Thus from T = T0 (P / P0) (k-1) / k (1/2 mark)
= 473 K ( 1200 kPa / 1400 kPa) (1.2891-1)/1.289
= 457 K (1/2 mark)
But V = √ 2cp (T0 – T) (1/2 mark)
= √2 ( 0.846 kJ / kg.K) (473 K- 457 K) ( 1000 m2s-2 / 1 kJ/Kg) (1/2 mark)
= 164.5 ≈165 m/s (2 marks)
To calculate the density, recall that from ideal gas relation,
ρ = P / RT (1/2 mark)
 = 1200kPa/ (0.1889 kPa.m3/ Kg. K)(475 K) (1/2 mark)
= 13.9 kg/m3 (2 marks)

3 Differentiate between isentropic and isothermal compressibility (2 marks)

In order to be more precise, the compression process for a gas involves increase in temperature
depending on the amount of heat added or taken away from the gas. If the temperature of the gas
remains constant, the definition is refined as isothermal compressibility (κ T) (1 mark). On the other
hand, when no heat is added/taken away from the gases and in the absence of any dissipative
mechanisms, the compression takes place isentropically. It is then, called as isentropic
compressibility (κ s ). (1 mark)

4 Differentiate between isentropic and isothermal compressibility (4marks) (SAME QUESTION

DIFFERENT APPROACH)
In isothermal compressibility, Compression in gas is associated with increase in gas, the magnitude is
determined by amount of heat added or taken away (1mark) the temperature of the gas being compressed
remains constant (1mark)
Isentropic Compressibility involves no addition or loss of heat to the gas, (1mark) and this occurs in the
absence of any dissipative mechanisms (1mark).

5 Write short notes on the following terms

i. Hypersonic Flow
ii. Supersonic Flow
iii. Transonic Flow
iv. Subsonic Flow
v. Mach Number
vi. Stagnation Enthalpy (6marks)

i. Hypersonic Flow: When the free stream Mach number is increased to higher
supersonic speeds, the oblique shock moves closer to the body surface. At the same
time, the pressure, temperature, and density across the shock increase explosively.
So, the flow field between the shock and body becomes hot enough to ionize the
gas. These effects of thin shock layer, hot and chemically reacting gases and many
other complicated flow features are the characteristics of hypersonic flow. These
 special characteristics associated with hypersonic flows appear gradually as the free
stream Mach numbers is increased beyond 5. (1mark)

ii. Supersonic Flow: In a flow field, if the Mach number is more than 1 everywhere in the
domain, then it is defined as supersonic flow. To minimize the drag, all aerodynamic bodies
in a supersonic flow, are generally considered to be sharp edged tip. Here, the flow field is
characterized by straight, oblique shock. The streamlines ahead of the shock are straight,
parallel, and horizontal. Behind the oblique shock, the streamlines remain straight and
parallel but take the direction of wedge surface. (1mark)

iii. Transonic Flow: If the free stream Mach number increases but remains in the subsonic
range close to 1, then the flow expansion over the air foil leads to supersonic region locally
on its surface. If the free stream Mach number is slightly above unity, the shock pattern
will move towards the trailing edge and a second shock wave appears in the leading edge
which is called bow shock. After passing through the bow shock, the flow becomes
subsonic close to the free stream value. Eventually, it further expands over the airfoil
surface to supersonic values and finally terminates with trailing edge shock in the
downstream. The mixed flow patterns is defined as the transonic regime. (1mark)

iv. Subsonic Flow: It is a case in which an airfoil is placed in a free stream flow and the local
Mach number is less than unity everywhere in the flow field. The flow is characterized by
smooth streamlines with continuous varying properties. Initially, the streamlines are
straight in the free stream, but begin to deflect as they approach the body. The flow expands
as it passed over the airfoil and the local Mach number on the top surface of the body is
more than the free stream value. Moreover, the local Mach number (M) in the surface of
the airfoil remains always less than 1, when the free stream Mach number (M∞) is
sufficiently less than 1. This regime is defined as subsonic flow which falls in the range of
free stream Mach number less than 0.8 i.e. M∞ ≤ 0.8. (1mark)

v. Mach Number: The ratio of the actual speed of fluid or an object in still fluid, to the speed
of sound in the same fluid at the same state. (1mark)

vi. Stagnation Enthalpy: Stagnation enthalpy of a fluid at a point is the enthalpy of the
fluid at its stagnation point. It represents the enthalpy (the sum of the system's
internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume) of a fluid when it is
brought to rest from velocity isentropically (thermodynamic process that is both
adiabatic [no heat or mass loss] and reversibly. The work transfers of the system
are frictionless, and there is no transfer of heat or matter). When the potential
energy of the fluid is negligible, the stagnation enthalpy represents the total energy
of a flowing fluid stream per unit mass. Stagnation enthalpy is the sum of the
enthalpy associated with the temperature at each point plus the enthalpy associated
with the dynamic pressure at each point (1mark)
 6 Differentiate between compressible and incompressible flows (2marks)
Incompressible flow refers to the fluid flow in which the fluid's density is constant. For density to remain
constant, the control volume has to remain constant. Even though the pressure changes, the density will be
constant for an incompressible flow. Incompressible flow means flow with variation of density due to
pressure changes is negligible or infinitesimal. All the liquids at constant temperature are
incompressible(1mark).

Compressible flow means a flow that undergoes a notable variation in density with trending pressure.
Density r (x, y, z) is considered as a field variable for the flow dynamics. When the value of Mach number
crosses above 0.3, density begins to vary and the amplitude of variation spikes when Mach number reaches
and exceeds unity (1mark).

7 Differentiate between Static and Stagnant States (2marks)

Static state refers to when an object is at a total rest (not moving). (1mark)
Stagnation Point: In fluid dynamics, a stagnation point is a point in a flow field where the local
velocity of the fluid is zero. At this instant all the properties of the corresponding fluid are known
as stagnation properties (1mark)
8 Describe the phenomenon of shock waves in compressible flow (3marks)
From thermodynamic point of view, shock wave is “the instantaneous compression of the gas” (1/2mark).
The energy for compressing the medium, through a shock wave is obtained from the kinetic energy of the
flow upstream the shock wave (1/2mark). The reduction in kinetic energy is accounted as heating of the
gas to a static temperature above that corresponding to the isentropic compression value (1/2mark)

Shock wave is a strong pressure wave in any elastic medium such as air, water, or a solid substance,
produced by supersonic effects such as aircraft, explosions, lightning, or other phenomena that
create violent changes in pressure (1/2mark). Shock waves differ from sound waves in that the wave
front, in which compression takes place, is a region of sudden and violent change in stress, density,
and temperature (1/2mark). Because of this, shock waves propagate in a manner different from that
of ordinary acoustic waves. In particular, shock waves travel faster than sound, and their speed
increases as the amplitude is raised; but the intensity of a shock wave also decreases faster than
does that of a sound wave (1/2mark), because some of the energy of the shock wave is expended to
heat the medium in which it travels. The amplitude of a strong shock wave, as created in air by an
explosion, decreases almost as the inverse square of the distance until the wave has become so
weak that it obeys the laws of acoustic waves (1/2mark). Shock waves alter the mechanical,
electrical, and thermal properties of solids and, thus, can be used to study the equation of state (a
relation between pressure, temperature, and volume) of any material (1/2mark). Like an ordinary
wave, a shock wave carries energy and can propagate through a medium but is characterized by
an abrupt, nearly discontinuous, change in pressure, temperature, and density of the medium
(1/2mark). The passage of a strong shock wave through the human body, for example, causes severe
damage owing to the large instantaneous pressure change (1/2mark). Close to an explosion, a shock
wave can travel at several times the speed of sound and reach pressures of ten or more atmospheres,
producing devastating effects (1/2mark). There is a possibility of surviving a shock wave. It
depends on location, type, force and proximity to the shockwave (1/2mark). Since the flow across
a shock wave is irreversible, the downstream state must have the higher entropy (1/2mark). The
upstream state is supersonic and the downstream state is subsonic. Thus, shock waves can happen
only in supersonic flow and the flow becomes subsonic once it crosses a shock wave (1/2mark).
Any 6 out of the above points

9 Water at 150C flows through a 200m long galvanized steel pipe of diameter 250 mm and
at 0.225 m3/s. Note that kinematic viscosity of water at 150C = 1.14×10-5 m2/s and average
surface roughness for galvanized steel=0.15 mm. Estimating the frictional factor from the
Moody Chart (Fig. 1), determine :

(i) Loss of head due to friction (7 marks).

(ii) Pumping power required to maintain the above flow (3 marks)

(i) Average flow velocity is given as (1 mark)

Therefore, Reynolds number (1 mark)

Relative roughness , (1 mark)

From Moody’s chart, the frictional factor f = 0.02 (1 mark)

But Head Loss in terms of Energy Loss per unit weight is expressed as :

(1 mark)

where for circular pipes

Hence Head Loss =

(2 marks)
(ii) Power required to maintain a flow at the rate of Q under a loss of head of is given by

(1 mark)

Where ρ is the fluid density, g is the gravity pull, hf is head loss and Q is the volumetric flow
rate of the fluid in the pipe

Therefore;

= 37.77 KW (2 marks)

10 Relate the terms Chocking and Divergent-convergent Nozzle taking into consideration
subsonic, sonic and supersonic streams (5 marks)

When a nozzle is used to obtain a supersonic (at a speed greater than the speed of sound) stream
starting from low speeds at the inlet. The Mach number increases from Ma=0 near the inlet to Ma>1
at the exit. It is clear that the nozzle must converge in the subsonic portion and diverge in the
supersonic portion. Such a nozzle is called a convergent-divergent nozzle. At the throat of the
Nozzle, the surface area is neither increasing nor decreasing which indicates that the Mach number
is unity i.e. Ma = 1 (Sonic stream).This condition; Ma=1 can occur only at the throat and
nowhere else, and this happens only when the discharge is maximum. When Ma = 1 , the
discharge is maximum and the nozzle is said to undergo Chocking at that instant. (5 marks)

11 Differentiate between Normal Shocks and Oblique Shocks. (Use of pictorial

sketches/diagram is essential) (5 marks)

Normal shocks are substantially perpendicular to the flow and oblique shocks are inclined at any
angle (1 mark)
(4 marks)