Unit 3 – Constitutional Developments and Framing of

Indian Constitution
Accession of Princely States
An immediate challenge for the post-independent India was the territorial and administrative
integration of princely states under the Union of India.

Reasons for the Integration of Princely States

1. During the British period, approximately 40% of the Indian subcontinent was under the
princely states. There were around 521 or 565 small and big princely states. The princes rule
their states with the degree of autonomy under the system of British paramountcy. Under the
principle of paramountcy, the princes were similar to feudal laws paying homage and placed
under the protection of the imperial overlord i.e. the British Crown. This system provided
protection to the princely states from their own people and also from external aggression as
long as the states follow the imperial line and stay loyal to the crown. Most of the princely
states were reactionary, regressive, and repressive.
2. With independence, many princely states aspired for independence. They argued that the
paramountcy couldn't be transferred to the new states of India and Pakistan. Their ambitions
for independence were further encouraged by the then British Prime Minister Clement Attlee's
declaration of 20th February 1947, "His majesty's government do not intent to handover their
power and obligations under paramountcy to any government of British India." As a
consequence, many states started claiming that they would become independent on 15th
August, 1947 when the British rule ended. The princely states were also encouraged by
Jinnah's declaration of 18th June, 1947 wherein he stated that, "The princely states would
independent sovereign states on the determination of paramountcy and they were free to
remain independent if they so desire."
3. However, Attlee's position on princely states changed on the eve of India's independence
when he stated, "It is the hope of his majesty's government that all the states in its due course
will find an appropriate place with one or the other dominion within the British
Commonwealth."
4. The Indian nationalist leaders couldn't accept a large number of autonomous states as they
were apprehensive that it would endanger the unity of free India. Also, the people of the
princely states had participated in India's freedom struggle with a hope of joining free India.
Since the end of the 19th century, Indian nationalist leaders were constantly working to create
national consciousness among the people of India and this process of nation making was
extended to the princely states.
5. The independence of princely states wasn't an option. There were two conditions under
which the princely states could accede either to India or to Pakistan. The two conditions were
the geographical contiguity i.e. the location of its territory and the wishes of its people. The
leaders of the Indian national movement always held an opinion but the political power
belonged to the people of the states and not to its rulers. The nationalist leaders considered the
people of the princely states to be an integral part of the Indian nation.

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6. The people of the princely states were also active in their respective states and they had
created a platform of uniting different political activists from the princely states under the
forum called the State's People's Conference. This forum provided leadership in the princely
states demanding the introduction of the democratic political order and integration with the rest
of the country. The State's People's Association called the Prajamandal first came into
existence in the 1920s under the influence of Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement. Some
of the states where Prajamandals came up were Mysore, Hyderabad, Baroda, Kathiawar States,
Deccan's states, Jamnagar, Indore, and Nawanagar. The State's People's Movement reached its
peak in December 1927 with the convening of the All India State's People's Conference
which was attended by 700 political workers from the princely states. The main leaders of
State's People's Movement were Balwant Rai Mehta, Manik Lal Kothari, and G. R.
Abhyankar. The 1920 Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress passed a resolution to
grant full responsible governments in the princely states. The princely states were politically
backward with no civil liberties and no freedom to form associations. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru
in the Lahore session of Indian National Congress in 1929 declared that the Indian states can't
live apart from the rest of India. He asserted that only people of the princely states have the
right to determine the future of these states. By mid 1930s, there were large scale movements
in the princely states for integration with India. There were two reasons for the movement.
First, the Government of India Act, 1935 proposed a scheme of federation in which the Indian
princely states were to be brought into a direct constitutional relationship with British India.
The states were to send their representatives to the federal legislature but they were not to be
the elected representatives but nominees of the princes. Congress and the Prajamandals rejected
it and they intensified their struggle. Second, in 1937 Congress ministries assumed office which
raised the expectations of the people's movement in the princely states. Further, the Tripuri
session of the Indian National Congress in 1939 linked the movements in Princely States and
British India. The people of the princely states joined the quit India movement in 1942
demanding India's freedom and also wishing to become part of an Indian nation.
7. The negotiation of transfer of power to India and Pakistan brought the problems of states to
the centre. Sardar Vallabhai Patel succeeded in integrating a large number of princely states
within the Indian Union in two stages by great skill and masterful diplomacy. Some states,
showing wisdom, realism and also perhaps a degree of patriotism, joined the constituent
assembly in April 1947. Travancore, Bhopal, and Hyderabad publically announced their desire
to become independent. On 27th June 1947, Sardar Patel assumed the charge of the newly
created ministry for integrating the princely states. Patel knew that the situation was dangerous
and it had to be handled quickly and effectively. As a first step, Patel appealed to the princes
who's territory fell in India to accede to India on three main subjects i.e. foreign affairs,
communication, and defence. Simultaneously, he also gave a subtle threat that he would not be
able to restrain the people of the states and the Government of India's terms and conditions will
change becoming tougher after 15th August. Fearing Patel's reputation for firmness and
ruthlessness and also the people's revolt and the radical congress agenda, the princes agreed to
Patel's appeal and joined India by 15th August, 1947 except Junagarh, Hyderabad, and Jammu
and Kashmir.
Junagarh
Junagarh was a small state on the coast of swarashtra surrounded by Indian Territory but the
nawab announced his decision to join Pakistan though there was no geographical contiguity. It

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had a large Hindu population and they wanted to join India. Nehru and Patel felt that the final
call should be of the people of Junagarh to plebiscite. Pakistan didn't follow this principle and
accepted Junagarh's accession. The people revolted and started a movement against the nawab
forcing the nawab to leave Junagarh and they established a provisional government. The diwan
of Junagarh, Shah Nawaz Bhutto invited the Indian government to intervene and in February
1948, through plebiscite Junagarh became a part of India.
Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir has a strategic geopolitical location. It has a common border with both
India and Pakistan. At the time of independence, Kashmir was ruled by a dogra Hindu ruler
Hari Singh. Kashmir had 75% Muslim population. Hari Singh wanted to be independent as he
didn't wish to join democratic India or communal Pakistan. But the political momentum under
the leadership of Sheikh Abdullah of the National Conference along with the majority of
people wanted to join India. The Indian leaders both Patel and Nehru wanted the people of
Jammu and Kashmir to make a decision but Pakistan refused to accept the principle of
plebiscite. On 22nd October, 1947 with onset of winter several pathan tribesmen led
unofficially by the Pakistan army invaded Kashmir rapidly moving towards Srinagar. The ill-
trained army of the Maharaja was no match and hence on 24th October, he appealed to the
Indian government for military assistance. Nehru didn't favour accession without people's
consent. Lord Mountbatten who was the Governor General of India pointed out that under
international law India can't send its army to a sovereign state without involving international
support. However, India can send its army after the Instrument of Accession is signed. Sheikh
Abdullah and Sardar Patel insisted in signing of the Instrument of Accession. On 26th October
1947, Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession to India and he agreed to install Sheikh
Abdullah as the head. Both Maharaja and the Abdullah wanted the Accession to be permanent
but India in conformity with its democratic traditions and on the advice of Lord Mountbatten
held that a referendum will be held in Kashmir once the law and order problem is settled. Army
was immediately sent to Kashmir and Gandhi told Nehru not to submit to evil and the raiders
were driven out. On 30th December, 1947 fearing the dangers of a full scale war between
Pakistan and India, Lord Mountbatten suggested that the Kashmir issue be taken to the United
Nations Security Council asking for reparations against Pakistan for aggression. Nehru later
regretted this decision as instead of taking note of Pakistan's aggression, the UNSC under the
influence of USA and Britain sided with Pakistan. On 31st December, 1947 ceasefire was
announced dividing the state of Kashmir i.e. area taken by the Pakistan remaining with them
and the rest of Jammu and Kashmir with India. This became the line of control. USA and
Britain played a negative role with Britain being the main villain behind the scene. In 1951, the
UN passed a resolution providing for a referendum under UN supervision. There was a
condition attached that the Pakistan army must withdraw from the Pakistan occupied Kashmir.
The resolution proved infructuous as Pakistan refused to withdraw its army.
Hyderabad
It was the largest princely state of India. It was completely encircled by the Indian Territory
ruled by the Nizam of Hyderabad. He didn't accede to India before 15th August, 1947. He
claimed independent status and encouraged by Pakistan, he began to expand his army. Sardar
Patel felt that the time was on India's side and they would patiently negotiate with Hyderabad.
Mountbatten went to talk to the Nizam and the Nizam entered into a secret commitment not to

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join Pakistan. The British government also refused to give Hyderabad the status of a dominion.
Patel issued a stern warning but India wouldn't tolerate an isolated spot which would destroy
the very union built with blood and toil. In November 1947, the government of India signed a
standstill agreement with the Nizam hoping that while the negotiations were proceedings, the
Nizam would introduce representative government in the state making the integration of
Hyderabad to India easier. The Nizam on the other side hoped to buy time to strengthen himself.
During this period of deadlock, other political activities emerged in Hyderabad. There was a
rise of a militant communal organisation called Itihad ul Muslims and its paramilitary wing
called the Razakars. They were supported by the Nizams. The Hyderabad state congress
opposed this organisation and on 7th August, 1947 they launched a powerful satyagraha. The
Nizam was harsh in supression putting in jail nearly 20,000 satyagrahis. The Nizam started a
reign of terror and as a result thousands of the people left the state taking shelter in camps under
the Indian Territory. The state congress movement also became aggressive taking to arms.
Already, a powerful communist movement was going on in the Telangana region since 1946.
It was a strong anti-zamindari movement led by the peasants since the second half of 1946.
The movement had lost its momentum under state regression but it recovered and the peasantry
organised itself into peasant dalams i.e. defending the people against the attacks by the
razakars. The founder of razakars was Qasim Razvi. The newspaper, The Times of London
described him as the fanatical demagogue. He was a rabble-rouser and an ambitious leader who
wanted to project himself as the Jinnah for the Hyderabad. However unlike Jinnah, he was
more militant. He saw the tension between Delhi and Hyderabad in Hindu - Muslim terms. The
Congress on the other hand saw it as a clash between democracy and autocracy. By 1948,
situation was turning serious in Hyderabad. Peasant dalams were attacking big landlord, taking
away their lands and distributing among the poor peasantry and the landless. There were
allegations against the Nizams for importing guns from Pakistan and from Eastern Europe. In
June 1948, V. P. Menon and the Nizam's representative Laik Ali held a series of meetings in
Delhi. Hyderabad was asked to introduce representative government and plebiscite on
accession. Unfortunately, both sides couldn't agree and Laik Ali threatened to take the matter
to the United Nations. At this time, the former Diwan of Hyderabad Sir Mirza Ismail
attempted to mediate. He advised the Nizam to get out of the clutches of the razakars and not
to take the matter to the United Nations. He realised the weakness of Hyderabad's position and
asked the Nizam to accede to India. Lord Mountbatten also urged the Nizam to be the saviour
of Hyderabad, his dynasty, and his people asking him to be the peacemaker of South India by
going for a compromise. Nizam didn't listen and Sardar Patel was getting impatient.
Meanwhile, Lord Mountbatten resigned on 21st June, 1948. It became easier for Patel to take
decisive actions. On 13th September, 1948 India army was sent into Hyderabad and within 4
days, army had full control of the state. 42 Indian soldiers and 2,000 razakars died. On the night
17th September, the Nizam surrendered and in November 1948 Hyderabad acceded to India.
The Government of India decided to be generous and didn't punish the Nizam. He was
permitted to retain his formal title i.e. Nizam as the ruler of the state. He was also given a privy
purse of 5 million and he was permitted to keep most of his wealth. In the subsequent plebiscite,
people of Hyderabad, Muslims and Hindus voted in favour of India.
8. Second Stage of Integration
The second and the most difficult stage of integration began in December 1947. Sardar Patel
achieved staggering results in a period of one year to integrate numerous and disparate states.

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Between 1947 - 1948, the threat of disintegration of India was real but job was so smoothly
and comprehensively done, that the Indians forgot that this was once not one country but 500.
Smaller states were merged with neighbouring states or merged together to form centrally
administered areas under the Indian Union. A large number of such provinces were
consolidated to form Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Patiala, East Punjab States or PEPSU,
Saurashtra and Travancore, Kochi, Mysore, Hyderabad, and Jammu and Kashmir retained their
original form as the separate states of the Union. All the princes were given privy purses in
perpetuity. They were free from all taxes. In 1949, 4.66 crores were given in privy purses and
they were guaranteed by the Indian constitution. Princes were also allowed succession to their
gaddis, retaining certain privileges such as keeping their titles, flying their personal flags, and
given salutes on ceremonial occasions.
9. There were two other trouble spots for the Indian Union. First was Pondicherry which was
owned by the French and second was Goa which was owned by the Portuguese on the eastern
and the western side of the Indian coast respectively. The people of these two areas were eager
to join India. French were easier to handle and after prolonged negotiations they handed over
Pondicherry and other French possessions in 1954. Portugal was defiant and it was supported
by NATO allies especially by the US and the Britain. The Government of India wanted to settle
the dispute peacefully and hence they were unwilling to take military action. The people of
Goa decided to take the matter in their hands and started a movement seeking freedom from
Portugal. The people's struggle was supressed by the Portuguese. They also supressed brutally
the efforts of the non-violent satyagrahis marching to Goa from India. On the night of 17th
December, 1961 Nehru ordered the India army to March into Goa after waiting patiently for
international opinion to put pressure on Portugal. The Governor General of Goa immediately
surrendered without a fight and with this the territorial and the political integration of India
was completed after 14 years.
In conclusion, not only Patel but Nehru and V. P. Menon (a bureaucrat) also played their roles
in the integration of the princely states.