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INDEX
S. No Topic Page No
Week 1
1 Introduction to Continuous Casting Process 1
2 Role of Tundish in Continuous Casting 15
3 Types of Continuous Casting Machine 29
4 Components of Continuous Casting Unit 44
5 Tundish Metallurgy 61
6 Introduction to Physical Modeling 76
7 Concept of Similarity in Physical Modeling 90
8 Dimensional analysis 103
9 Physical Modeling of Isothermal and Non-Isothermal system 116
Week 2
10 Consideration in Aqueous Modeling 129
11 Introduction to Stimulus Response Techniques 143
12 Characterization of Flow 155
13 Characterization of Flow in Actual Systems 169
14 Analysis of RTD Curves 182
Week 3
15 Plug, Mixed and Dead Regions in Tundish 193
16 Fluid Flow Fundamentals 204
17 Mass Conservation Equation 218
18 Momentum Conservation Equation 228
Week 4
19 Energy Conservation Equation 239
20 Navier Stokes Equations for Newtonian Fluid 249
21 Introduction to Turbulence in Fluid Flow 260
22 Characteristics of Turbulent Flow 272
23 RANS Equations 287
Week 5
24 Turbulent Flow Calculations 300
25 Turbulence Modeling Using k-É› Model 312
26 Introduction to Heat Transfer Phenomena 324
27 Numerical Methods for Solving Governing Equation 339
Week 6
28 Finite Volume Method for Convection and Diffusion Problems 354
29 Different Discretization Schemes 366
30 Assessment of Discretization Schemes 380
31 Elements of Mathematical Modeling in Tundish Steelmaking 390
32 Boundary Conditions 401
Week 7
33 Flow Analysis in Tundish 416
34 Analysis of Fluid Flow and Mixing in Tundish 435
35 Non-isothermal Flow Considerations in Tundish 457
36 Intermixing in Tundish 468
Week 8
37 Modeling Consideration For Inclusion Removal in Tundish 487
38 Modeling Consideration For Inclusion Removal in Tundish-ll 499
39 Case Studies in Modeling of Tundish Steelmaking-1 511
40 Case Studies in Modeling of Tundish Steelmaking-2 532
Modeling of Tundish Steelmaking Process in Continuous Casting
Prof. Pradeep K. Jha
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture – 01
Introduction to Continuous Casting Process
Hello friends welcome to these MOOCs online course on Modeling of Tundish

Steelmaking Process in Continuous Casting. Let me introduce myself I am Pradeep Kumar
Jha associate professor in the department of mechanical and industrial engineering at IIT
Roorkee. So, we will be there together for these 20 hour course on Modeling of Tundish
Steelmaking Process in Continuous Casting. Coming to the introductory lecture and the
lecture number 1, first of all we should talk about the terminologies related to this course
that is modeling of tundish steel making process in continuous casting.
So, as you know modeling means we will be talking about the modeling aspects especially
the physical modeling as well as the numerical modeling aspects, then you have tundish
steelmaking. So, we will talk about the role of tundish and how you know the there is flow
inside the tundish and how it is role will be there towards the different metallurgical
operations during the continuous casting process and I hope that you are conversant with
this term continuous casting.
So, coming to the continuous casting first as you know that the casting in casting process
you have the solidification of liquid metal in a mold and in conventional casting when you
cast in a sand mold or in a suppose metal mold. So, in sand mold as you know that the
cooling rate is smaller one so, you have you know the limitation of having the very fine
grains of the casting.
So, and accordingly the there is reflection of those things on the properties of the casting.
So, for even better properties we go to the metallic mold that we known call it as the dye
casting you have gravity dye casting or you have the pressure dye casting. So, these are
the normal casting processes and you must have the idea about the different types of
casting processes like you have the investment casting, you have lost form casting.
So, there are numerous you know types of casting processes, but why continuous casting
is very much in demand, why the continuous casting is so important nowadays? If you
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look at the you know the scenario today most of the modern steel makers they have
continuous casting unit and most of the products are you know made using that continuous
casting cast product you know made like we make these slabs blooms or billets from
continuous casting and then they are further converted.
Now, why this continuous casting why there was need to go for the continuous casting and
what are the traits about the continuous casting process, in this lecture we are going to
discuss about those things.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:54)
So, for well over a century, the traditional method for the conversion of steel from the
liquid phase to the solid phase was by the use of ingot molds. So, as we discussed that in
normal you know casting process, you have a conventional mold, you have a finite sized
mold you know small size mold and you try to pour you know by from the furnace with
some mechanism you pour the liquid metal into that mold and then you allow it to solidify.
So, in case of sand mold you are allowing it to solidify in normal conditions and in case
of metallic mold you are applying. So, in a in case of metal molds is the thermal
conductivity of the mold is higher. So, it will solidify fast further some we also use pressure
to you know to assist that solidification process. So, this is done in the case of normal
process.
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If you talk about the industries in industries you have to make larger slabs. So, in earlier
times you had the process of making ingot molds. So, ingot molds where of larger
dimension if you talk about the ingot mold. So, it will be something like larger sized you
know molds are there so, they are ingot molds. So, the metal will be poured into it and
then the ingot will basically so, this will be solidified.
Now, once solidified once it is a so, there are solidification will start from all the sides this
way and then this ingot will be taken for the further processing this ingot will be taken to
the slabbing mill, that it will be going to the rolling mill, you have hot rolling then you
have cold rolling. So, there are many processes which it has to undergo.
And if you talk about the production of a thin sheet of steel then you know all these
processes have to be done. So, this ingot is to be taken out it is further to be heated then it
is cross sectional it is dimension is to be reduced, you know in the different types of mills
and for that there is you know there is quite intensive requirement of the energy you have
to heat it you have to you know and if during some process if the heating process is not
complete you have to further heat it. So, all these things are to be done and it is a quite a
time consuming and energy intensive process.
Now, this was, but we had we did not have any way out and this was only the way by
which you have to make you know the flat products like slabs or seats or so, that was the
you know earlier process. So, that was for well over century this was the traditional method
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for the conversion of a steel from the liquid phase to the solid phase and there are many
challenges basically in that process because what happens that you had to go to these mills
you have to take these ingots to those mills because of many reasons because what happens
that you know because of the very large sizes you have you know different types of grain
structures not very much always preferred you know grain shapes and sizes and
orientations too.
And also you are likely to have you know centerline maybe shrinkage towards the
centerline maybe also there is you know solute registration kind of defect also is likely to
be there. So, and also there will be certain other kind of casting defects so, you have to get
rid of these. So, you are going to apply the forming pressure you have to apply the
compressive forces and then you have to ensure that all these defects are gone when while
you are making these cast products.
So, you know for that and also since it was very much you know there was very much
requirement of the energy for that process. So, you know in the nineteenth century the
attraction of solidifying steel using more continuous method was recognized by sellers in
1840 Laing in 1843 and Bessemer 1846 and even others later on. So, basically this was
you know that was in a continuous method they devised some means to you know to do
the solidification of a steel well you know.
And initially basically process was applied to the casting of non ferrous metals with low
melting points you know because of certain obvious reasons like you know the temperature
was larger in case of ferrous castings and also the conductivity issues in case of ferrous
materials. So, initially it was you know limited to the non ferrous materials especially they
are lighter.
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Now, the possibility of solidifying liquid steel using a water cooled mold opened at the top
and bottom was pursued by the Daelen. So, in 1887 if you if you look at then it was seen
that this was you know exploited that whether there is an impossibility of solidifying liquid
steel is there.
So, in that what happened that you have a mold which is you know water cooled and this
is also open at the top and the bottom and this was done by the Daelen and that is basically
the working principle of continuous casting. Where you have a mold basically which is
made of normally copper and you are allowing the liquid metal to flow from the top and
this liquid metal goes from the bottom and then there is a cooling of this mold from all the
sides by water. So, that was basically the this was done by the Daelen in 1887.
Now, when this method was devised so, in that case there are many challenges initially
and one thing was sure that once you are you know putting the liquid metal from the top
and if the mold is cooled by water from outside then certainly there is will be immediate
solidification taking place from the sides. However there were challenges related to you
know the sticking and other things.
So, for that you know in 1933 Junghans he developed and patented his mold oscillation
system. So, you know their challenges was that one is that the strip you know the solidified
cell which is there on the sides. So, what is happening is that, you have the open you know
top and bottom and you are pouring the liquid metal. So, what will be happening, it will
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go and get solidified. Now, the thing is that this is solidified layer and basically it has to
leave it has to come continuously downwards otherwise there will be constant you know
layer. So, this will be fixed only and it cannot go further.
So, you had to do something so that it should come down. So, you should leave also this.
So, for that the oscillation system was there and also you know there was another
mechanisms that there should be something in between these 2 interfaces so, that it should
not allow it to you know get stuck.
So, basically they thought that you should have the oscillation system and that was the that
was the time when the foundations were laid for the large scale application of the process
for the continuous casting. So, in that basically from there you can say that it was full
fledged type of you know design of the continuous casting system which was into the
world.
Then you know in so, coming to now the definition of the continuous casting. So, in turn
continuous casting melt is transferred from the ladle via a tundish into the mold and further
solidified as slabs blooms or billet us. So, what happens that in the case of continuous
casting you have a ladle. So, this will be the ladle which will be getting the liquid steel.
Now, from this ladle the liquid metal will go into a vessel that is known as tundish this is
tundish and in tundish has again different outlets. So, these are the outlets and from here
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they go into the mold and from this mold you know from here we have one attached you
know this molded. So, this is coming completely liquid and here they will try and comment
they start getting solidified. So, at one point of time they will come and get solidified here.
So, basically this length is the man known as also the metallurgical length. So, basically
the liquid metal will be first received by ladle, ladle will be bringing that liquid metal and
this ladle liquid metal is team to the tundish. Now, tundish basically is an open reservoir
which has you know a large surface area. So, this you know tundish will take the liquid
metal from ladle and then it will be from all it is outlet port you know there is mold attached
and this mold basically is the copper mold in most of the cases and this is basically water
cooled.
So, this is water cooled copper mold and you know then. So, this is known as the primary
cooling zone of the continuous casting unit and then you have the cooling zones this here.
So, you have the secondary cooling zone. So, this is not completely solidified some part
solidifies it is further getting solidified by having the water sprays or. So, you have the
secondary cooling zone. So, this is normally the schematic of a continuous casting process
and you know in this way so, it will be solidified as the slabs blooms or billets. So,
whatever you are getting the end product is either slab or it is bloom or the billet.
So, depending upon the different dimensions you define it as the you know billet if it is
having a small cross square cross section, usually up to 150 mm square and up to 150 mm
diameter round. So, if it is a square cross section of this dimension it is known as the billets.
Blooms are the square or rectangular cross section which is greater than 150 mm square
to as large as 800 mm by 400 mm usually with an aspect ratio of less than 2. So, it will be
aspect ratio having less than 2, but it may go from 150 you know mm square to as long a
large as 800 by 400.
And slabs are basically larger than blooms and they have normally the aspect ratio which
is more than 2. So, they will have the you know that that dimension which is having more
aspect ratio than even the blooms. So, this way these are the normally the end products of
a continuous casting system now. So, what is happening, once ever since this continuous
casting process has come into picture in the last 3 decades continuous casting has are all
you can say in last 4 decades or.
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So, it has become a mature technology for the solidification of a steel and it has today
almost completely replaced this ingot casting except for very large castings there we go
for it, but otherwise we have completely replaced this process with continuous casting.
It offers many advantages including better premium cast metal yield, chemical
homogeneity and better inclusion cleanliness. So, as far as the terminologies like the better
premium cast metal yield. So, as you know that when we talk about the normal
conventional casting you have a casting yield not very high because of the removal of
gates and risers and other things, even if you take about the you know ingots also there
also from the top certain portion has to be removed.
So, you know in most of the cases except the continuous casting you have the casting yield
you cannot get as close to 100 percent whereas, if you talk about the continuous casting
there is no you know wastage. So, the metal will is coming out and completely going out.
So, there is no metal wastage so, you have a complete perfect yield you are getting.
Chemical homogeneity is there you know in this case the cooling rate is quite high and the
solidification is complete in a very less time and you have many other you know
technological advancement in continuous casting which is making the process even more
chemically homogenous the composition more chemically homogeneous and also you
have many ways to basically clean the steel by removing the inclusions and also do many
things that we will see during the process of our study.
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In continuous casting process the tundish plays an important role in linking the ladle with
the continuous casting machine. So, as we have studied that the tundish is playing a very
important role in the case of you know continuous casting because it is linking the ladle
on one side and the caster on the other side or mold on the other side. So, that way tundish
plays a very important role and that is why in this course we are going to have the
discussion about the role of tundish and how you know the tundish flow or the phenomena
which occurs inside the tundish is going to be important as far as the clean steelmaking is
concerned.
Basic principle of continuous casting is based on ah the teeming liquid steel vertically into
a water cooled copper mold which is often which is open at the bottom. So, as we have
discussed that in this case you have a mold and that mold is receiving the liquid metal from
the top that is from the tundish at the top and the bottom is open. So, the metal which is
coming downwards it is going to flow you know down itself, so you know and also the
mold is made of copper.
So, heat transfer to the water cooled copper mold that is this is a mold basically
immediately solidifies the you know liquid steel and solid skin is formed which increases
in thickness down the length of the copper mold. So, we discussed in this case that the
liquid from here we will come down and since this is a copper mold and it is externally
cooled way by water.
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So, immediately it starts solidifying you know from this point because the thermal
superheat will be arrested and once you go you know below the liquidous temperature then
the solidification will start. So, first of all the skin will be formed very small fine skin will
be formed initially and that thickness of that cell will go on you know increasing further.
So, another principle which is required to avoid the sticking of the solidifying skin to the
copper molds we discussed about this issue, that this is a challenge that how this solidifying
skin and you know has to leave. So, the solidifying skin which is formed it must leave that
and for that you know there are certain ways by which this is achieved one is that the mold
is reciprocated since widely at a frequency which provides negative strips. So, basically it
will be oscillating at a you know frequency which will be providing that negative strip that
is mold will move downward faster than the solidifying skin for a percentage of the
oscillating cycle.
So, in that case it will now we basically you know not be you know it will be do you have
a negative strip that is known as. So, that helps avoiding the sticking of the solidifying skin
to the copper mold and another thing what we do is that we also apply the lubricant at the
interface between the solidifying skin and the mold that is made of copper. So, if there is
a lubricating you know agent which is applied in that case it will not have you know the it
will not have the chain tendency to get you know stuck or you know it will not be pasted
to it so, it will go down.
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So, these 2 are basically the basic principle which are you know used I mean which are
which are required to be known to us that why there is no sticking of you know the
solidifying skin to that copper mold. So, this is the basic principle of the continuous
casting.
And if you look at this you know figure what you see as, we have seen that you have the
liquid steel which is coming from here from the tundish now this is known as the
submerged entry nozzle. So, this nozzle will be you know entered into the you know this
mold.
Now, this mold is as we see that this is a copper plate mold and this is copper plate and
this is what you see, this is the cooling water. So, this cooling water will be basically
provided. So, that because coppers melting point is less than my 1100 degree centigrade
pure copper is melts at 1083 degree centigrade and steels melting temperature is more than
1500 degree centigrade so, normally. So, in that case it has to be cooled externally with
water. So, that is why you have the cooling water channel which is here and then it is
supported by the steel backing plate because it leave it is a the strength and rigidity.
Then what you see that your liquid steel stream will be coming up it will be coming and
then you have this is known as the primary cooling zone. So, in this case here there is
development of solidifying cell up to this point. Now, it is further going down and then
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you know you have the rollers which will be supporting them. So it has to basically move
downwards.
So, these support rollers are there and then also you have the spray you know use of spray
water sprays are used basically to cool this you know strip. So, that basically this is your
end product which is coming down. So, you are applying these water sprays from here and
slowly your this thickness of the solidified cell will go on increasing as it is moving you
know on the rollers and it is moving towards the exit.
So, this is basically the principle of the continuous casting and as it will move further then
at some point of time you have to cut it. So, and that has to be ensured that where it is
completely solidified so that length from there it will known as metallurgical length. So,
after that you have a torch cutter and with the help of torch cutter you are going to further
cut it so, of suitable length. So, that way you know you are getting the end products.
So, and also this mold this will be oscillated. So, as we have discussed that there will be
oscillation of this and on the downward side it will be going at a faster rate. So, that there
is a condition of negative strip that is maintained and also you before providing that you
know lubrication what we do is, we provide a powder on that surface so, that is the flux
powder is there.
So, this powder after melting it will go in between these you know here is the mold and
this is the you know liquid steel. So, in between it will go and it will pass through it. So, it
will ensure that there is no sticking of this liquid steel you know to the copper mold. So,
to ensure that basically you are providing you know there are certain agents and you
normally rapeseed oil has been seen to be used in earlier days and even now. So, that is
that is not which avoids the you know sticking of that mold with the metal.
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Now, if you look at the typical continuous casting unit as we were discussing about. So,
you have the ladle and as you see this ladle will be making bringing the liquid metal then
you have this is the tundish. So, you have shrouding is there and then it will bring this
liquid steel to this tundish then from the tundish it will go to the mold. So, depending upon
the number of outlets this tundish has you will have the different strand tundish. So, multi
strand tundish or single strand tundish, 2 strand tundish or so, depending upon how many
strands you have.
So, accordingly that we will have mold and this is the submerged entry nozzle. So, it will
be going into the mold, then this will be solidifying inside the mold this and then normally
you have a curved strand and you have the vertical type of continuous casting, you have
horizontal type of continuous casting also, then what you do is you provide a you know
bend. So, this will be a sub in the form of this, support rollers so this solidified you know
cell along with the liquid metal will move.
So, the external part is still solidified an internal part is still liquid. So, that will be moving
on to this with the help of these rollers the rollers will be moving. So, it will be moving in
this direction and then it will once it comes here you have a bent, because ultimately you
need if you go for the completely vertical size you require very large vertical space which
is many a times troublesome on many grounds like there will be a space requirement
problem and also handling issues and all that. So, what you do is, you take vertically the
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liquid metal into the mold and after that you are a taking a bringing that into a horizontal
form. So, for that you are providing this you know bend and then once it is bend so, you
have to make it straight and so, for that you further straighten it with the help of these
rollers.
So, you have strand straightening going on and after that once. So, that is that is completely
solidified and completely straightened then with the help of flame cut off you are you
know cutting. So, whatever length you require you can have it and then you can cut and
then further you can send it for the further use.
So, this is the normally the continuous casting you know a schematic you know and it
involves all the you know processes which take place. So, what we have seen in this class
about in this lecture about the usefulness of continuous casting process it is traits. We will
be talking more about the tundish and other allied devices in the process of continuous
casting.
Thank you very much.
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Lecture - 02
Role of Tundish in Continuous Casting
Welcome to the lecture on Role of Tundish in Continuous Casting. So, in the last lecture
we talked about the introduction about the continuous casting process and we discussed
about the various components of the continuous casting process; which starts from the
ladle, then you come to tundish, then further you are going to the mold, so you have strand
portion. Now we are going to have the introduction about the role of the tundish in
continuous casting process.
So, as you know that tundish is between the ladle and the mold. So, it is an intermediate
vessel to transfer the finished steel melt from a ladle to the mold in a continuous casting
machine.
So, it’s job is you know that it receives the liquid metal from the ladle and it has to supply
the liquid metal to the mold. So, it is an intermediate vessel between the ladle and the
mold. Normally it is a rectangular big end up refractory lined vessel which may have a
refractory lined lid on the top also.
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So, if you talk about a typical tundish; so it is a normally refractory lined and rectangular
type of you know vessel. And on the sides, so you have the refractory lining, because you
know the steel molten steel is going into it. And certainly it is a metallic structure, because
it has to have the rigidity; but then you will have to have the refractory lining, because for
sustaining that much high temperature refractory lining is required.
This refractory lining will be basically lost after certain use; so again you have to put the
lining or relining is to be done at certain intervals. And also many a times we may have
the refractory lined lid also on the top, because from the top you have the transfer of heat
to the surroundings. So, many a times we also give the refractory lined you know lid or a
cover on the top of the tundish. So, this way your tundish is designed.
Tundish bottom has one or more nozzle ports with slide gates or stopper rods for
controlling the metal flow. So, you have the liquid metal going into the tundish from the
and you know ladle; but after that you know this liquid metal will be flowing out of the
tundish and going into the mold. So, you may have one or more nozzle port with slide
gates or stopper rods for controlling the metal flow. Now the thing is that you know, when
the there is a outlet portion of at the outlet portion of the tundish; you will have from that
portion you will have metal coming out.
Now, the thing is that, when you have a particular bath height in the tundish of the liquid
metal, you will have a particular velocity. As this bath height goes on decreasing, as the
liquid metal is teemed from the tundish and it is discharged from the tundish to the mold;
then depending upon the bath height or the metal head the velocity also may change,
velocity will decrease if that level comes down.
So, for you know controlling that metal flow, you have the provision of you know slide
gate or stopper rods. So, if you use those rods, you can increase or decrease the metal flow,
you know from that nozzle into the mold. So, that is basically to ensure that, there is
constant amount of liquid metal which is supplied to the you know mold. So, for ensuring
that, you have these you know nozzle ports which are you know provided with these slide
gates or stopper rods in the tundish.
So, the job of tundish is also to have basically the uniform distribution of you know liquid
metal. So, that will be ensured because of the outlet us being at the same level. And also
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uniform flow rate through the you know nozzle and for that you will have the use of these
slide gates or stopper rods.
So, a typically if you look at the schematic of these tundish as we discussed; it will be
looking like this that you have this is the ladle which will be bringing the liquid steel, you
know from your ever steel has melted and you will may have the you know treatment
inside the ladle also. Then this is the ladle shroud; so this liquid metal through the shroud
it will be coming and it will be going into the you know tundish.
So, this shroud, this is known as shroud immersion; basically this we do it to ensure that
there is no you know direct contact of atmospheric you know gases with these steel which
is coming out. So, there may be chances of having a certain kind of oxidation or
accordingly you may have the formation of inclusion particles in that case when you have
the direct contact of these steel. So, that will be falling into the tundish.
Now once it comes there. So, as you see this is a impact plate or you have a impact pad.
Now what happens that, since it is falling and there is a ferrous metal being of very high
specific gravity and velocity also. So, it is likely to erode at a very fast rate at these
positions. So, what you do is normally in the tundish; you provide there is a impact plate,
so that will reduce the you know erosion from these places.
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Now what is happening is you may have the you know; now this is your tundish lining.
So, this on these sides what you see the yellow structure part, now here also. So, these
things are the refractory lining on all the sides. So, the liquid metal which will be coming,
it will not be in touch with this the metallic frame; because that will be melted you know
in a very less time.
So, you know this refractory lining is done and you know when the tundish lining is
seemed to be over; then you have to remove the lining, you have to put the fresh lining.
So, that is a continuous process which is going in the case of you know tundish. Then you
have apart from that, you have also what happens that you have many flow modifiers in
that.
So, the flow modifiers are in the shape of the weir; weir is something which will be coming
from the top and the dam will be something which will be coming from the bottom. So,
these are basically the flow modifiers or you know they are used basically to alter the fluid
flow inside the tundish.
Now we will talk about the role of flow modifiers; one of the role also is to have proper
you know fluid flow inside the tundish to ensure many things. And among them the
important things are like you should have proper homogenization of the temperature inside
the whole tundish.
So, for that you know you use these flow modifiers, because in otherwise if the metal will
go. So, it will go towards the bottom directed flow will be there. So, may be that the flow,
you will may have a stagnant regions in certain region of the tundish and that fault the
dead volume. So, that effectively reduces the volume of the effective volume of the tundish
and basically that will also reduce lead to the cold you know regions which will be further
detrimental as regards the productivity of the tundish concerned.
So, you have many kind of flow modifiers are there inside the tundish. And among them
you have weir which is from the top and you have the dam which is placed on the bottom
side and it will be going. Then you have the use of baffles also, so you will have the holes
you know; so through that the metal will pass. So, these are the flow modifiers which are
used inside the tundish.
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Then you may have the use of turbo stoppers which is normally used in the case of tundish.
So, these turbo stops are there just at the point where the you know there is heating of the
you know liquid stream, metal stream on the tundish bottom. So, that way you have the
submerged entry, nozzle which will go in and going into the mold; so that way you have
these are the different type of you know components in a typical tundish.
So, as we discussed that you will have the various flow control devices like dams, weirs,
baffles with holes which will be arranged along the length of the tundish. And they are
basically controlling the flow inside the tundish and you know you can understand it by
you know process like if suppose you have a tundish.
So, if the liquid metal will come, so liquid metal will come and it will heat and then it will,
it may go like this. So, that may be you know and then; so in those regions or larger
portions you may have certain regions where there is not much of the circulation of the hot
metal. So, that may lead to the dead regions.
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So, what you do is, if you apply you know these you know; so once it hits the liquid metal
here and if you apply a dam. So, suppose the metal goes and then it goes like this. So, it
may go into this region. So, this region otherwise which was you know dead, which was
not very active that becomes active because of these flow modifiers. So, normally we use
these flow modifiers, we use also the weirs from the top or we use the you know turbo stop
is there at the, this place itself, so the metal will go and moving in this fashion. So, this is
how the different type of flow modifiers are used inside the tundish.
The tundish in is intended to deliver the molten metal to the mold evenly and at a design
throughput rate and temperature without causing contamination by inclusions. So, as we
were discussing that this is the prime role of the tundish; that you know it should deliver
the liquid metal to the molds evenly. So, there is a metal should go equally from all the
you know outlets of the tundish into the mold; because all the molds are synchronized and
they will be oscillating at accordingly and then you will have the dimensions also, normally
equal of all these those you know. So, accordingly you can have the variation if required
so but; otherwise they are all of equal dimensions.
So, what you need to do is you need to ensure that you are getting even you know, at even
rate these molten metal to all the molds at a designed rate throughput rate. And also we
and should ensure that the temperature should be you know uniform. So, inside the you
know tundish the, there should not be much of the temperature drop you know at two
20
places. So, this I mean that may lead to other kind of you know flow inside the tundish.
And if there is a large temperature drop that is that may lead to solidification in certain
results and that will be affecting the space which we you are going to use; that are affecting
the you know the utility or the productivity you know as far as the tundish utilization is
concerned.
So, and also another important thing is the contamination of inclusions. So, you will have
to do something, so that the inclusions contamination is that chance is reduced. So, this is
one of the prime rule of the tundish also that it will try to remove the inclusions. Inclusion
may come into the tundish or it may be generated inside the tundish. Now the tundish is
normally flat, it has a large surface area.
And the flow has to be such by the use of these even sometimes the use of flow modifiers
or maybe you may have the design of the tundish in such a manner that; the contamination
by the inclusions is minimum the inclusions which are going inside the tundish if any.
They must have the tendency to float, to go towards the top surface; where they will be
you know they will be there at the top and from in the end you can remove them.
So, that is one of the you know prime you know requirement when we use the tundish.
Number of molds may be varying; 1 or 2 it may be there for the slab caster; 2 to 4 for the
bloom caster and maybe; 4 to 8 for even the billet caster. So, normally when you have the
two molds attached, it will be calling a twin slab caster; we have 2 to 4, so 4 strand or 4 to
8, so 4 strand or 6 strand or 8 strand billet caster. So, this is normally the terminology
which we use when we talk about the continuous casting unit in which the tundish outlet
is attached to the mold.
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The melt delivery rate in into the mold is held constant by keeping the melt depth in the
tundish constant. So, that is what we discussed that we will have to keep in mind that the
melt delivery rate should be constant; otherwise it may lead into the you know sometimes
over flowing from the mold or maybe your mold becomes dry and the continuous supply
is gone. So, that may lead to numerous kinds of defects.
So, you will have to have you know and for that as you know that you have this slide gates
or you have the stopper rods available. So, that and to the maximum possible you should
try to see that the you know, the surface, free surface level height is nearly constant in that
case. If there is no clogging or so, in that case you know it will always be you know the
equal delivery rate will be maintained.
Any additional delivery rate is exerted by these slide gates or stopper rods placed at the
exit ports of the outlet compartment. We have already discussed that you can have the use
of these slide gates or stopper rods. If you feel ever to increase or decrease the delivery
rate, you want to control the delivery rate in those cases. Tundish acts as a reservoir during
the ladle change periods and continues to supply steel melt to the mold when coming,
incoming melt is stop; making sequential casting by a number of ladles possible.
Now, this is where the main role of the tundish is; that it is making the possibility of the
sequential casting as we call it as a continuous casting. So, it is because of the tundish that
your continuous flowing is flowing of the liquid metal to the mold is ascertained. So, as
22
you know that the ladle will be receiving the liquid metal from the melting units. And then
it will be coming up; so ladle will be pouring the liquid metal into the, you know tundish.
Now once ladle finishes it is liquid metal. Now, in that case this there will be discontinuity.
So, and at that particular time there is no, you know supply of liquid metal to the tundish;
but in between the even if there is no ladle which is supplying the liquid metal to tundish,
tundish is still delivering the liquid metal into the you know mold. So, basically that makes
this process a continuous process.
And, because of that only you are calling it as a continuous casting process; because
otherwise you will have to stop the process, there is no continuous formation you have to
further restart the process and restarting takes you know a lot of time and resources. So,
and it is not very easy you know, it certainly it is not impossible; but then it will lead to
the decrease of the in the productivity of the unit.
So, basically you know you. So, that is basically known as the ladle changeover. So, when
you have the replacement of ladle 1; ladle will go and another ladle will come, so that is
process is known as the ladle changeover. So, during the ladle changeover process also;
the tundish is you know becoming very very you know effective in ensuring that the there
is a sequential casting possible, the power casting still goes on even if there is no supply
of the liquid metal. So, that is basically the main purpose of, one of the main purpose of
the tundish.
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The main causes for inclusion formation and contamination of the melt include reoxidation
of the melt by air and carried over oxidizing ladle slag entrainment of tundish and ladle
slag and emulsification of these slags into the mold into the melt. So, what we mean by
this point is that; what happens that there is large amount of chances of the contamination
of the melt, you know and you will have to do something you know. So, that these you
know contaminations or this inclusions, so that may be you know by the there may be
reoxidation of the melt by the air or there may be you know tundish and ladle slag
entrainment is there.
So, there are many possibilities by which you may have the formation of inclusions, you
may have deoxidization products or you have the reoxidation; many a times you have the
erosion of you know the tundish refractory linings or something is coming from there or
something is inside formed also. So, the inclusions may be formed because in the melt
itself.
So, you have you know exogenous and indigenous type of inclusions which are formed.
So, these you know. So, this is a role of the tundish in that cases to ensure that your these
inclusions are basically not going further into the mold; because the tundish is the last
reservoir from where I mean after that if the metal or I mean if the liquid metal is carrying
any kind of inclusion into the mold, then the situation becomes more severe.
Because in the tundish since being a you know component of very large surface area, free
surface area and large vessel. So, you have the chance of having a quiescent type of flow
in such a case; you have the chance that the inclusions will be settling and going towards
the up, because inclusions are normally lighter. So, although there are chances that they
may go you know along with the melt to the mold also; but there are chances if the proper
flow is maintained. In that case it will be floating towards the top and then you can further
remove these things from there.
So, basically one of the main reason is, one of the main you know function of these tundish
is that; you know these inclusions which are there, now these inclusions should you know
be separated at that stage itself. Because once it goes into the mold then there are more
likelihood of the final product having inclusions and then you will have the rejections of
the end product. So, this is the last reservoir where any kind of you know; you where you
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can afford to have any kind of inclusion and you can do something, so that these inclusions
can further you know be floated.
So, these inclusions should be float out of the melt during it is flow through the tundish
before being teemed into the mold; because if it goes further into the mold, then you know
that will be the degradation of the quality of the liquid steel melt. And in many cases it can
even be you know rejected, so that further you know that will lead to the loss or the
decrease of the productivity of the steel maker.
So, that way you know this is the usefulness of this, so you have to design this tundish in
such a manner that; the inclusions if there are any the flow control should be such that, if
there are any inclusion they should come and float up and most of them should be going
at the top where the vessel slag layer. So, they will be captured by them and then you have
the you know you have a the, clean steel which is going into the mold and very less chances
will be there to have these inclusions further into your final product.
So, that is one of the major you know a function of the tundish. When ladler metallurgy;
example the ladler furnace that is LF which was not earlier a fully developed. So, earlier
you had the ladle metallurgy or ladler furnace which was not developed; you have a ladle
simply it will be bringing and then it will be pouring the liquid metal into the tundish. But
when it was not there, there is no ladle furnace, ladle metallurgy was not there, in those
cases the tundish role was even more critical.
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In that case tundish was also expected to function as a refiner of the deoxidized melt
transferred from the ladle where inclusions are not fully removed. As we discussed that
nowadays you have ladle metallurgy which is coming into picture you have the heating
arrangement and then you have the many kind of methods like you have blowing and all
that.
By which you try to ensure that there is removal of the inclusions, there is a making of
come clean steel into the tundish. But earlier when this was not the practice in those cases
you know; the tundish role was more critical. So, it is job was also at the refiner of the
deoxidized melt. So, it was you know, so whatever is coming from the ladle or whatever
inclusions are coming from the ladle that time the tundish had the additional responsibility
of further you know removing those inclusions. So, you know, then they are you are
ensuring that it should be removed fully.
Without the ladle furnace processing the deoxidized melt had a macro inclusions and a
large number of micro inclusions of indigenous origin which will be formed inside and
that can agglomerate. So, that also happens that you have many small inclusions, macro
based indigenous inclusions and they will be they have the tendency to agglomerate to you
know they have the tendency to segregate. And they will be forming the macro inclusions
you know during that melt transfer; and then that will be further you know detrimental,
because that will try to have the to go into the melt and they will try to decrease the quality
of the product.
So, basically what we mean to say that, you know we discussed that there are different
rules of the tundish; one is that you have to control the you know the different aspects. So,
if you look at the tundish aspects. So, one will be that it will be transferring the liquid metal
then proper you know flow of metal, and then removal of inclusions. In this case you need
to ascertain that you have constant delivery, constant you know rate of metal delivery.
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Also what happens that we will be discussing about this that when we have the ladle
changeover in those cases also you have the different grades being cached; so there are
many aspects which need to be looked into.
Proper flow of metal which is important, because you know many a times what we see that
the temperature homogenization is not there; so at one point temperature is less or so, that
may lead to you know some other you know kind of flow configuration. And so, proper
flow configuration should be there inside; we should see that there is chemical
homogeneity inside, there is proper temperature homogenization inside the you know
tundish. So, this for proper flow you we use the flow modifiers.
And then for the removal of inclusions, also again here also we try to have the use of flow
modifiers or so; but you know in some cases you feel that there should be proper you know
mixing of liquid metal you know. So, that there is when especially in the case of ladle
changeover, the temperature may be different of the liquid state which is coming from the
two ladles.
So, in those cases, it should uniform quickly. And in case of inclusion removal we feel that
the flow should be such that there should not be you know more of the mixing kind of
things. So, there should be a quiescent type of flow or a flow which is you know which
should allow the inclusions to float up.
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So, you know. So, we use the different kinds of flow modifiers. And ultimately depending
upon what we need basically we try to see that, you know the aim with which this tundish
is used, it is basically met. So, all these things are required to be kept in mind. So, with
what you know earlier when we had you know the tundish and when we used to have the
ladle changeover, so many a times what we used to do is that; we require to stop the caster,
because there is another grade of steel which is coming out into the tundish.
So, we thought of or we are going till the last you know levels; level we are decreasing
and then next ladle will be going, this is happening when you have the grades of a steel
are changing. So, in those cases it becomes you know to understand it is; it is also you
know important to see that when you have the different grades of steel coming up how you
know the grade which is going inside, how they are going to have a proper mixing in
quickly.
So, that has bearing on the quality of a steel which is coming out. So, and also many a
times we feel that, the steel which is coming from the next ladle; so it should be pushing
of the existing steel into the liquid and then it should have the tendency to come out of the
liquid.
So, these are the, you know depending upon that; so tundish has several roles, it is very
important part of these continuous casting and it is one must say that, it is one of the most
important part of this continuous casting unit. And you must have the proper knowledge
of the technology which is there it because of the tundish; that is not unknown as tundish
technology. And what way it is affecting the overall quality, overall you know a cleanliness
of the steel by you know properly you know managing the fluid flow inside the tundish.
You know and also ensuring that, the melt quality or melt temperature is uniform all
together all this. So, this is about the, you know role of tundish in continuous casting. We
will be talking more on the, you know tundish in our coming lectures.
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Lecture - 03
Types of Continuous Casting Machine
Welcome to the lecture on Types of Continuous Casting Machine. So, in the last lecture
we had the discussion about the role of tundish in continuous casting machine; but coming
forward from the lecture one where we had discussed about the continuous casting
machine or its introduction.
So, in this lecture we are going to have some more discussions on the types of you know
continuous casting machine, types of tundishes which are used and also certain essential
details.
So, coming to the you know content in this lecture; I must tell you that this is we are going
to discuss about the types of continuous casting machines. So, they are normally vertical
type or vertical mold with horizontal discharge and also curved type.
And then we have will talk about the essential details what are those components which
are there in the continuous casting setup and their roles. And we will further discuss about
the different types of tundish.
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So, you know when we talk about the continuous casting machine; so as you know, we
have already discussed that in this case the ladle will be feeding the liquid metal to the
tundish and then from tundish it will come to the caster. Now, you know when it passes
through the mold.
So, in the mold which is made of copper and which is externally cooled with water. So,
they are basically you are you will see that the solidification starts; so you have the skin
freezing at that point and then further it comes down. And then you know as it will come
down, it is further to be cooled from the sites with the help of water sprays; and in that
case the thickness of the solidified cell will go on increasing.
So, basically you know what happens that you have the, this is your tundish; so you have
tundish outlet and from there you know with the help of this SEN, so it will go into the
mold.
Now, after the mold, so it has to go further you know down. So, when we talk about the
vertical type; it means the mold is also vertical and the discharge also is vertical. So, this
mold which is you know externally cooled with water and this is copper mold; so the some
certain amount of thickness of the solid shell will be developed towards this end. And then
it has to go you know finally, you know slowly it will go on increasing.
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Now, in initial days this was devised and at that time it was a vertical machine itself. So,
your mold is also completely vertical. And then further you are you know cooling, so you
will be you know cooling through the water sprays as you come downwards. So, it will go
on increasing it is you know, text thickness of this solidified shell this is the solidified
shell.
So, and then once it is completely solidified, then after that you are you know cutting; so
cutting with the help of torch. So, this is basically known as the vertical type of continuous
casting machine, because the mold is also completely vertical and the discharge also what
we take is in the vertical direction.
Now, what is important in this case is that, you know you have any way to start this work
at a height. So, and then since the you know the product is coming in the vertical direction.
So, actually you need a vertical space.
So, basically the height will be too high and that is why you need to have a tall kind of
machine and you need a tall shop or a large pit to accommodate the equipment. So, either
you have the tall shop; so you need to have the equipments which can handle it, you need
to have the tundish at a higher level, you need to have the caster at the mold at the higher
level. Then further it will come down and then you have to ensure that it was solidified.
So, it will have the you know, you will have the cutting facilities; so you can cut it at a
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particular point. So, and then it has to be taken out. So, basically you need a space where
which is tall enough, so that the equipment can be accommodated.
Now, this is used for large and medium sections and also for slabs where bending is
avoided. We will see later on that in many case you know, when we go for the other design
of the caster. So, in that case there is bending or wherever bending is to be avoided, you
go for these things; because in this case, it is coming vertically down.
So, normally it is used for large and medium sections and why we you it is suitable for
large and medium sections because; when there is bending involved, so that is very
difficult for the large and you know large sections especially or heavy sections. So, the
large sections if you are casting in those cases, you preferred to have these kind of
equipments that is your vertical type of equipment.
So, you have the roller arrangement; so and in between the lots of ones rollers in bit, once
you move from the mold you know mold region downwards you will have the rollers. And
in between you will have to accommodate you know in such a manner these are all
distances in between the rollers also the distance and also you have to do cooling, so that
you know there is a sufficient amount of cooling optimum amount of cooling. So, that
there is proper solidification goes on.
And then ultimately after you know once you feel that it is completely solidified, you can
cut with the torch and you can remove it. So, you know that also is one very important
point which needs to be looked into. And then you have pinch rollers after that and then
for that you go and cut it. So, it is good for slabs where bending is avoided.
Easy to repair and restart the machine in the event of breakdown, so that is another
advantage of this type of machine; because here you will have the easy in repairing and as
well as the starting, because it is all vertical and you do not have the bending involved. So,
it is simple kind of construction. So, it is relatively easier and to start this machine also.
Whenever there is a breakdown whenever there is you know interruption in the casting
because of many reasons; so in that case it is relatively easier as compared to the you know
other types of machines which we will talk about, so in those cases.
Then they are simple in construct, this is simple in construction and also reliable to operate.
So, they are normally, because you do not have much of the design component involved
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what should be the bending or so. So, in those cases you have it is normally simple in
construction and it is also reliable to operate.
Coming forward you have another kind of you know design of the you know mold or the
strand. So, that is a vertical mold and the horizontal discharge type. So, what we do in
these cases; we have the vertical mold, but discharge is taken in the horizontal direction.
So, cutting will be taken, cutting will be done you know when the slab or the billet is
moving in the horizontal direction. So, you are cutting it.
Now, what we have seen in the earlier case when we have the vertical type of machine.
So, you need the vertical space, it has to come down then you have to cut it and further
you have to go. So, you need a very large space and handling basically is certainly an issue.
So, whenever we feel that we should think of reducing the overall height or the height or
handling is an issue; in those cases we go for the you know modification in the vertical
type of machine which we have discussed. So, what we do is that, when the product will
be emerging out of the pinch rolls; then it is bent to have horizontal discharge leading to
saving of height.
So, what is happening? So, this is your vertical type and here what is happening you have
you know after this you have the again pinch rollers are there. Now, in that case, in the
case of these type of you know a vertical type, so it is all completely vertical. Whereas,
what we do in the case of you know the vertical type mold; but then discharge is horizontal,
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so mold will be you know, it will be mold will be vertical and then you will have roller.
So, you know and then after that you will have in the end you have the you know pinch
roller here.
And then you know once it will come out of that, then you are giving a bend. So, you will
have the support also on the sides. So, you are giving a bend and then after bend it will
come in the horizontal fashion and by the time it gets solidified and then you are cutting
it. So, basically you have the vertical mold only; but then after the pinch rollers you are
you giving a bend, so that from vertical movement slowly it will have a movement in the
horizontal direction; and then after that at one point of time you are cutting it. So, and then
you are taking it from this off floor.
So, it is basically relatively easier to handle when you have a horizontal movement or
horizontal discharge. So, you can use the crane and further you can load it or you can send
it to other sections or so. So, you can you know on a horizontal platform you can directly
you know load it. So, these are the you know horizontal type of mold with vertical
discharge type. So, after the pinch rolls it will be bent. More requirement of floor space;
now in the earlier case you need the more kind of vertical space, because the you know
product is coming in the vertically downward direction.
But in this case the product will be bent and then after that it becomes horizontal. So, you
will have to have the horizontal space requirement you know larger. Now, in this case
heavy section cannot be cast. Now, the problem with the heavy section is that, the bending
is a problem in those cases; there may be you know defects or in fact, bending requires
you know larger forces and in that process it may there may be a lot of errors.
So, whenever you have heavy section which is difficult to be bent; now they are advised
not to be cast using this you know process, because the bending is a challenge in those
cases. And this kind of you know machine is more suitable for the small and medium size
cross section elements. So, normally whenever we have to you know cast the small and
medium size cross section elements like billets or so; in those cases we go for and the
vertical mold and horizontal discharge type continuous casting machines.
It is difficult to repair and also restart the machine in the event of breakdown. So, in this
case as we know that you know, after the you know vertically down portion in the mold
and up to the pinch rollers you have a bend and then further it will be going further. So,
34
straightening and then you have to cut it. So, because of that it becomes a complex
geometry and whenever there will be repair requirement or if there is a breakdown and
you have to further start.
In that case it is somewhat difficult; because you know you need to have all those design
aspects in mind you know, because it is getting bent at certain angle. So, any kind of you
know defect; what we feel that it may be likely to come that should be avoided. So, you
have to have the extra care for that purpose.
Next is the latest you know trend of the mold type which is used in the case of continuous
casting; so that is your curved mold type. So, what you see that in this case now, the there
will be curve mold rather than the straight one. In the last two cases you have seen that,
you will have the straight mold and then after a certain point you need to have the bending.
Now, in the case of this curved mold type which is the advancement in this you know
design of the continuous casting unit, the mold itself is curved.
35
So, when you go for the equipment; so you will have this is your submerged entry nozzle
and then after that the you know; from here the mold itself, so there will be some kind of
you know bend will be there. So, some curvature will be given here itself.
And then finally, you are coming and then it becomes horizontal and then you are cutting
it. So, from there itself you are a giving certain kind of curvature and that is known as the
curved mold. So, strand come out of curved mold in a curvilinear fashion with a fixed
radius. So, you have a particular radius. So, what we do is you know; in these cases the
radius which is defined, so you will have certain you know radius from here or so. So, we
many a times it is a variable also.
So, you will have the radius and based on that radius basically you design that curvilinear
portion, so that you have the proper you know flow and a heat transfer taking place. And
you have ultimately to see that the solidification is complete up to a certain point and then
you are cutting it at this reason, because it is difficult further straighten. So, you will have
the rolls whose job will be to further straighten is, because it is all curved. So, you are
straightening it and then you are cutting at that particular portion. So, this is the, you know
schematic of the curved mold or as type of mold many a times we call it as.
So, bent before the entire section is solidified and curved strand is straight and after it is
fully solidified and cool to the desired extent. So, what we do as we see in these cases that,
you have the curved strand which is because of the curvilinear you know profile. So, they
36
need to be straightened, so with the help of pressure. So, because when you are cutting;
the cutting has to be at that particular point when the you know product is moving in the
horizontal direction.
So, it is ensured that it is fully solidified and also cooled to the desired extent. So, those
are the situations where you know. So, all these parameters of design and all these are. So,
what should be the radius, how much should be obtained the radius in the optimum
manner; all these things are to be looked into in such cases. And you know this is the latest
design which is normally opted in most of the industries which uses the continuous casting
process as a popular one. So, these are the different types of you know continuous casting
machine.
Now, if you talk about the essential details of the continuous casting machine. So, here
what you see is you have the hot metal handling system as a source of molten finished
steel. So, one is that that system which is handling this hot metal, so you will have the
ladle which will be bringing that you know liquid metal from the furnace or from that you
know steel melting place. The now then you have a tundish; that is as we have already
discussed the tundish that is the actual reservoir which is there as an intermediate reservoir
which will be feeding the liquid steel to the you know mold.
Then you will have mold to freeze the skin of the casting. So, you have. So, liquid metal
will be coming to the mold and as we know that this mold is normally made of copper and
37
then it is externally cooled with the water. So, you will have the freezing process initiated
and then you will have the freezing skin of formation.
Then after that once we move down, so you will have the water sprays which will be
ensured to complete the solidification and also the required cooling. So, for that you have
to adjust the you know what way you are you know spraying and what should be, how
much you should you know do the cooling you know. So, that there is proper solidification,
complete solidification and proper cooling taking place.
Then you have the drive system to withdraw the strands. So, that is another part and then
so, you will have the rollers and then the rollers will be rotating around that it will be
moving towards the final zone where it has to be cut. So, you will have to cut off you
know, so you will do the cutting process with the help of a machine and the when you cut
it will be a completely you know solidified piece which will be coming out.
So, these are the details and every you know, component has its essential characteristics.
So, you will have to have proper balance, proper you know monitoring of these all these
issues to have a defect free you know a product in the case of a continuous casting; right
from the liquid metal going into the mold and then taking the metal passing through that,
having the oscillation in the mold.
Then further stripping of many putting the negative strip, then it the skin will be leaving
that mold and then they coming out; when they are coming out you know only a small
thickness of the solidified cell is solidified of the whole cross section. And then further
that is increasing as it moves through the secondary cooling zones. So, all these things you
know these are the essential details of the machine.
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Coming to the different types of tundish; so as we know that you have the tundish which
is the intermediate reservoir. So, depending upon you know the requirement of the product
which you are making type of product or the shape of the product; you know we can have
the different tundish design.
So, one is that you will have a single tundish, single strand tundish and this is your multiple
strand tundish. So, we get call it as a tundish with one outlet, so that is your single strand
tundish. And if this is, if there are many outlets; then you call it as the multiple strands.
So, this is four strand tundish, this is a single strand tundish. So, this will have inflow of
the liquid metal, you will have the tundish; this is a liquid metal in it will go.
Now, what happens that many a times when you are, you can certainly work with only one
caster only one strand; but then that certainly will not lead to very high productive system,
because you are getting only one you know billet or slab or so. But you can have a you
know mold; you can have a tundish where there are different outlets. So, these are used
when you need to have; so here you will be four molds, and four products will be coming
out at one point of time.
So, basically you are economizing the process, you are having you are getting these
process I mean in lesser time you are getting more number of parts. So, the time in which
it you will get one part; you will get here the, you know four parts. Another aspects are the
cost, because you know with one tundish itself you are anyway learning you have to do
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after some time. So, this becomes more and more you know beneficial when you go for
this multi strand type of tundish.
Coming to the different tundish types; so the earlier tundish type, this is the this tundish is
the very simple in shape and they are known as the boat shaped tundish. So, in that case
what you see that it may have the some design changes; like you may have the walls which
may not be inclined that may be straight and the inflow may be at this place or it may be
towards the middle. So, accordingly you may have the changes in that, you know the
parameters of the tundish design. Now, if you come to the requirement point of view, so
you need to have the multi strand, so you are going for this.
Now, what we mean to say is that, in this case many a times when the metal will go; in
normal simple boat shaped tundish, the metal which will go towards these regions they
will be try to they will be likely to be getting trapped. So, there are certain zones which are
basically not the active zones and that is why we call it as a dead zone. So, dead zone
formation is there. So, many a times we have the use of outflow modifiers; but dead zones
in certain tundishes, you know certain shapes of tundishes are there you know normal traits
or characteristics that we have to understand.
Now, for the requirement of the quantity also that you should get larger, you know number
of strands and more amount of metal should be teeming out. So, for that also and from
other point of view; like to increase the you know to ensure the increasing the quality, we
go for different designs of the tundish.
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Now, this is another you know tundish design, which is this is known as the T shaped
tundish. So, this shape which is in the T shape this is known as the T shaped tundish. Now
these tundish is they can be studied and what you see this is shown by; so the metal which
will come, this is a plan views a metal will come and then it has to you know move in this
fashion. So, you will have outlets here and it should be passing through these outles; that
is what normally happens in the case of the T shaped tundish.
Now, in this case the one of the challenge which is there, because what you see these zones
which is shown they are DZ; DZ means the dead zones. Now, in any tundish when we talk
about the volume of the tundish; so you have, we will talk later that you have the plug zone
or mixed zone or dead zone. So, now, we should confine only to dead zone; and dead zone
are those regions where basically it does not remain so active and the metal which is there
in that part that becomes stagnant.
So, you know for that matter it is not advantageous. So, what you see that in these type of
tundishes there are likely, it is likely that there will be dead zones are formed in certain
these regions. We just look at the T shaped tundish, so it will be moving at this place and
then it is moving to outlet. So, what you see this portion is not in the loop metal; but also
does not go towards that region, because and the mattress velocity becomes too small also
in those cases. So, basically these formation of dead zones may be there; but there has been
studies on the tundish and certainly the designs which we are seeing they are, you know
accepted many of the companies use it.
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Now, if you look at the another design which is normally used by many steel makers is the
delta shaped tundish. So, in that case what we see is you will have such kind of the
structure. So, you will have the inlet here and then it will move to the outlet. So, you will
have the likelihood of certain dead zones; but then these dead zones are not in those
regions. So, as you see that in this zone, because of the you know inertia of the fluid, it
will move like this towards the outlet.
Now, in this case it is going, so because streamlining effects; so it will go and directly go
into outlets. So, dead zones which were likely to be formed in this; here in these zones,
here it is not. So, in the case of delta shaped tundish, these dead zones are avoided in these
regions; however, there is likelihood of formation of these dead zones.
Now, on these tundishes, you can certainly use the tundish signatures or the flow modifiers
to have the effect on the formation of these dead zones, the dead zones can be reduced. So,
for that we use the different kinds of flow modifiers like dams or weirs or baffles or so
they are the different studies which are being carried on, on these you know tundishes.
Now another design which is also popular in the case of a tundish is the V shaped tundish.
So, you have a tundish which is of V shape, so it will come and then you have an angle.
So, this angle, on this angle this shape is there.
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So, liquid metal will come and then it will move through. What we have seen may be an
extension to these two designs where you are getting the dead zones in this opposite side.
So, maybe you know Rhalender has again given this design apart from the t shape also.
So, you have seen that it is made here narrow, so it will the move in that fashion.
And accordingly you can also place, you know these; so these flow modifiers in these
cases. So, there will be you know used and, you know for the altering the flow into this
tundish. So, this is this design is provided by the Rhalender who is who has worked on it;
who has divides these tundish a different designs on this tundish. So, the T shape as well
as V shape, so it has been by the one of the researchers, so that is by the Rhalender.
So, these are the different you know types of tundishes which are normally used in the
case of you know continuous casting units. And so, you have boat shape, T shape, delta
shape and the V shape; many a times we have also you can come across the tundishes
which come and there you have also certain kind of this kind of a structure also you see,
that you have you know the bottom is not at all at the same level.
So, then we have different designs depending upon the requirement, you can have the
different designs of the tundish which serve to function as the buffer vessel; and which
will be supplying the liquid metal to these strands when wherever especially when there is
a you know discontinuity in terms of the ladle changeover or so. So, we should, so we will
talk more about now that aspects in our next lecture.
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Lecture - 04
Components of Continuous Casting Unit
Welcome to the lecture on Components of Continuous Casting Unit. So, we will be talking
about the different essential details and the components of the continuous casting unit and
we will be talking also about its significance in the continuous casting process.
So, as we move on we will talk about these following components like a hot metal handling
system, then you have tundish, mold, water sprays, drive system and then cutoff machine.
So, all these you know system , all these components make one continuous casting unit
and a hot metal handling system is it will start from the you know that system which will
be handling that hot metal, it will be bringing that hot metals that is especially the ladle.
Then, the ladle as we know that ladle, from ladle the metal will be transferred to tundish
and then to the mold and after mold, you have the you know spray zone. Water spraying
is done, then you have the driving system and then further and the end you are cutting off.
So, you have a cutoff machine. So, we will be talking one by one about these systems.
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Coming to the hot metal handling system. So, as you know that it brings the hot metal and
it its job is to pour it into the tundish. So, earlier the lip poured or the stoppered teeming
ladles were used. So, that was the practice earlier , but now most of in most of the cases
bottom poured with a slide gate system you know ladles are used.
So, you will have the metal coming from the bottom and then, you will have the slide gate
for controlling that flow of the liquid metal. So, you will have a slide gate and by operating
that you can allow the liquid metal to fall from the ladle into the tundish.
Now, a small capacity ladles are used for the smaller units and there will be larger capacity
ladles will be there for the multiple strand systems like when you have a the single strand
tundish. Then, you need the small capacity ladles which will be a smaller in sizes.
However, if you have the you know multi strand tundish; multi strand you know six-strand,
four-strand or so or eight-strand even in those cases you know we use the larger capacity
ladles.
Now, presently what we do is we normally use these dolomite line ladles you know to
control the dissolved oxygen. So, what has been seen that you know you may have the
lining with dolomite or you may have the lining with bauxite, you may have even the lining
with the silica and it has been seen that the ppm of the oxygen which is observed in the
case of a dolomite lined ladles or even the bauxite line ladles, they are lesser when the and
the observation has been found by Tata steel.
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So, it was that it was about 2 to 6 ppm of oxygen was observed in the case of dolomite you
know lined ladles and then, it may go a little bit higher when you go with other you know
like silica lined. Then, you know the oxygen level. So, what has been shown this is a
typical you know it is about 10 to 20 ppm in the case of silica line ladles.
Now, steel will be treated with the calcium for the deoxidation and desulphurization. So,
in most of the cases, we tried to have the minimum amount of oxygen as well as sulphur
is also deleterious for the quality steel. So, we also try to treat with the calcium for the
deoxidation and the desulphurization. So, that is what is normally the practice for the you
know in the industries by using the calcium.
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Common practice to use the ladle furnace for secondary refining. Now, what we have
earlier seen that nowadays it is a very common practice to use the ladle furnace. So, that
is a very important tool for the secondary refining process and in that basically you have
these ladle, with the bottom gas purging. So, you will have the purging from the you know
bottom the gas purging is done and that acts as the teeming ladle.
Now, it is generally lined with carbonaceous you know magnesia bricks. So, that is the
normal practice. Now, when we tried to have even the smaller amount of carbon or so; so
you know for that for the decarbonization, many a times we use the VOD process also.
And you know while also using the magnesia brick lining of the ladle, then also we can
ensure the low level of carbon you know that is what is found to be.
So, that is a the part you know so that is the first part. So, because the ladle will be bringing
and then, ladle you have the that taken also be used as ladle furnace. So, you will have the
ladle which is also lined. You can have you know the you know the lining with different
materials and you know earlier the practice was that many type of treatments were done
in the tundish also. But now tundish will be simply acting as the reservoir.
So, normally this you know this is about the hot metal handling system. Now, we come to
the next stage that is your you know tundish. Now, in the tundish as you see that tundish
will be that vessel which will be after that you know ladle. So, the tundish will be receiving
the liquid metal from the ladle and then, it will be distributing it or it will be passing that
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liquid metal to the mold. So, as you see that the tundish will be necessary to team the steel
from the ladle to the mold.
It acts as a buffer vessel between mold and the ladle. Buffer vessel as we have already
discussed that will be the vessel which will be supplying the liquid metal whenever even
in the case of ladle changeover. So, one ladle when gets emptied, then when the that ladle
is removed and the next ladle comes to supply the liquid metal to the tundish. So, in that
situation, even the continuity of the liquid steel from the tundish with a mold is maintained.
So, that is why it is known as a buffer vessel between the mold and the ladle. Now, it
maintains the casting continuity. So, as we have already discussed that even if there is no
ladle, it will go on a you know having the there is will be continuity in getting the liquid
supplied from tundish to the mold.
So, the casting continuity will be maintained. It improves the yield because you know from
there it is going directly to the mold and where you are getting the finished product. So,
that way you know many a times now in most of the cases what you would normally do
is we try to preheat the tundish because the tundish which is there at room temperature and
if you are initially supplying the liquid metal to the tundish, then they are maybe
temperature drop in the liquid steel and that may affect the quality of the steel. So, in most
of the cases you are preheating so that the heat loss which will normally take place that
will be minimized you know in those cases.
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Then, the tundish will control the steel flow more accurately because you have the you
know controlling mechanism and you are basically you know you are controlling that so
that the constant amount of liquid steel should fall into the ladle.
So, also because it has a very large surface area and in that case normally you know during
the changeover also, there will be very small decrease in the height of the free surface of
liquid metal in the tundish. So, they change in the velocity will be very very small.
So, basically the steel flow will be controlled more accurately because of the tundish. Now,
this tundish also will be subdividing the flow into several streams. So, what happens that
when the liquid metal will be going.
So, when as you see that in the case of. So, you have a initially you have the you know
ladle and then, you will have a tundish. So, this will be your tundish in fact.
And in the tundish you know this is, so this will be. So, there will be entry of liquid metal
from the ladle into the tundish and then, you have these are the you know outlets. So, these
are the exit ports of the tundish. Now, in normal case you know you have you know this
is this is how one stopper rod is also there.
So, this is a known as a stopper rod. So, this is stopper rod basically as we had discussing
that this will be controlling. So, you can put this stopper rod in this zone. So, that will
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regulate the flow of the liquid steel to the mold. So, here from it is going to the mold, it is
going to the mold here.
So, basically you have you know this way it controls that you know the I mean quantity of
metal which is flowing into the mold. Now, coming to talk about the dividing the flow into
several stream. So, what happens that when the flow will be coming here and when it will
be striking; so metal will be going from here like this and it will be going like this from
here. So, this way it will be moving to in the different streams, the metal will be going.
Now, you have the you may have two-strand, you may have four-strand or six-strand. So,
this metal is divided into different streams in different directions depending upon the even
the configuration of the tundish also. If you have a tundish suppose you have a you know
tundish and you have the inlet here only and your outlet is only here, in that case anyway
liquid metal with the heat here and then, it has to move in this case. So, there will be some
movement this side also.
But otherwise if you are hitting in the middle portion, in that case you know it will be
divided into different streams and then, it will be moving towards the different outlets on
the on both the sides of the you know inlet stream, where it is striking the tundish bottom.
So, that is the job of you know the tundish also that it will be dividing that stream. Now,
it will be deflecting the metal streams as the same thing because once it will come and then
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you know it is going towards the wall and because of the wall of the tundish, it will be
deflecting from there and it will move towards the outlet. The ultimate is that in an optimal
manner with a proper flow configuration, the metal which is entering into the tundish, it
has to move towards the outlet.
Single large mold can be teemed with number of streams. So, you know that is possible
because you may have different streams and by that if you have a large mold, then it can
be teemed with the number of streams.
Metal level in the tundish can be altered you know because I mean it is altered in the case
of you know ladle change over normally and which seems that you know the level you
know whenever many a times our job is also to I mean in earlier times in our earlier times,
when we are talking about initial days when you have to cast different grades and you have
only one tundish. So, in that in those cases you have to you know decrease the level of the
material in the tundish and then, for that you have to start filling it.
So, so that way you know you can do that in the tundish. So, it will go to certain lesser
height and then, further you will start filling it with the ladle. So the next grade will be
started filling.
Then, you have also the possibility of you know the cleaning of a steel in the tundish. So,
many you know in the past also it has been seen that there are sometimes the cleaning
operation is also done in the tundish, you have and even now because we think of having
the tundish to act in such a manner that if there are any inclusions, they must float. So, the
inclusions must be removed from the steel in the tundish.
So, it also works as the reservoir which will be looking towards you know minimizing the
inclusion content in the steel. So, that we will see you know later. Now, it will also help in
removing the slag because you know a slag if the there are. So, they will be floating at the
top.
So, if the slags are a you know entrained. So, because of the flow quiescent flow inside
which can be maintained, you can allow the slags also to normally in the normal
circumstances, the slag will be at the top and these. So, beneath that there will be molten
liquid so that way, it will be you know we also have the you know get the help in removing
the slag also.
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So, because it will be at the top portion and the we are taking the liquid, you know so slag
will be towards this stop portion and and liquid metal is teemed from here. So, it will be
delivered to the mold from here. So, anyway that that slag does not cause any harm and it
will be delivered to the mold.
So, then you know the metal comes towards the mold. Now, we all have already discussed
that we these mold is made of the drawn copper tube or machined out of a solid block or
is a welded plate construction of high conductivity electrolytic grade copper.
So, the mold in the case of a continuous casting is made with the high grade electrolytic
grade copper and copper is chosen for the obvious reason that it has very high conductivity
and it can you know remove the heat of the molten metal very fast.
So,, but then as you discussed that since the melting temperature of copper is small, I mean
smaller as compared to us less as compared to that of steel. So, we need to have the invest
other cooling mechanism constantly so that it can take the heat away quickly and it should
not melt also and for that, it is normally water cooled and has open bottom and hence
closed by a dummy plug bar in the beginnings.
So, essentially in the beginning we close it. It is a dummy plug bar and then, normally it
will be have open bottom and then, water will be coming and flowing. And during that
process, that water will be absorbing the heat which will be released by the liquid metal in
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the mold and then, it will be that. So, the water takes the heat and then, thats why you will
have the change in the temperature of the incoming water and the outgoing water because
that water will be taking that heat which is being released by the mold.
Length of the mold depends on the cooling conditions that formed adequate skin before
ingot emerges out of it. So, this is very important that what should be the length of the
mold and that will be depending upon the cooling conditions. The cooling conditions has
to be such that you know the adequate skin is formed before the ingot emerges out of it.
So, as we have a you know seeing that in the case of a mold when the liquid metal will be
you know poured through it. So, it will be started you know forming the skin and this skin
you know thickness, the shell thickness will go on increasing on both the sides. Now, the
thing is that when your what should be the height of this mold?
So, it has to have you know at such a place so that to ensure that there is a skin you know
freezed of certain thickness and then because it has to further come and then, it has to move
on the rollers and further, it has to you know move you know and finally, it has to be in
horizontal direction.
So, there is a lot is a amount of pressure of the liquid steel for a static pressure is there. So,
you ensure that cooling. So, that a skin of adequate thickness is you know developed at
the end of the mold. So, that has to be ensured. So, that is what it will be the requirement
in the case of a mold. Also it will be avoiding the transverse cracking; you know it is
oscillated at the rate of 30 to 60 oscillations per minute.
So, what is happening we have already seen that you are giving that oscillation; for a
certain region you have you are giving the negative strip. So, it has to leave that mold and
then. So, yeah that oscillation and also in the mold, we are giving the you know lubrication.
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So, if you talk about the function of the mold, it is to obtain the enough shell thickness of
solidified shell to stand bending stresses and ferro static pressure of liquid steel from
inside. So, what we see nowadays we have seen that also you are mold is from there itself,
it is somewhat curved. So, you will have the bending stresses and also you have the ferro
static pressure of the liquid steel.
So, the you know the shell thickness which should be achieved at the exit point of the mold
that is your primary cooling zone, it must be adequate to bear you know to strand these
bending stresses as well as the ferro static pressure of the liquid from insight. Then, it is
also job is to equalize the temperature all through the liquid steel mass.
So, it must ensure that there is a proper temperature, otherwise there may be different
structures on different sites and that also ensures internal and surface quality of the product.
Because there are likely to have the and generation of cracks or other kind of defects
because of the improper cooling conditions in the mold. So, there also it is ensured.
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So, you have earlier vertical molds, then you we get nowadays the curved molds which
are complicated and modern molds are tapered to narrow down towards the bottom and its
basically to account for the shrinkage. Because when we know that you know there is
tapering which is done because the metal which is getting solidified and it has a higher
density. So, there will be shrinking of the metal and to account for that there is some taper
which is given you know the in the mold to account for that.
So, that is another you know since your calculation which needs to be done, you know to
avoid any kind of defect in the case of continuous casting. They are invariably mold is also
invariably lubricated to assist the stripping. So, as we have discussed that there will be
some lubricating mechanism, which should be there in between the mold wall and the
liquid metal which we get’s solidified in the skin. So, that they are should not be sticking
and then, there is a proper stripping of that product from the mold so that also is ensured
by having the choice of proper mold lubricants.
Next comes in the line will be the Submerged Entry Nozzle. Now, the submerged entry
nozzle is the ceramic tube which has a closed bottom and it is connected to the tundish at
one end, while the other end is a dipped in the molten pool in the concast mold.
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So, that is basically you know if you to talk about the tundish, so from here this will go
and this will be submerged entry nozzle and then, it will go into the mold and here, it is
closed and you have opening on these sides. So, this way you have this is your submerged
entry nozzle.
So, in the slab casting this SEN has two openings in the opposite direction and in blooms
it may have four openings to distribute the steel uniformly. So, it may have a you know
depending upon what you are casting, you may have either two openings or four openings
to distribute in the steel because from there it will come.
So, normally when you if you look at the you know liquid. So, it will go and then it moves
like this; it will strike here some will go up and then some will go down. So, like that liquid
metal will come and so, you will have a loop also farmed here in many cases.
So, that is you know because of the submerged entry nozzle which is there which is a
closed from one end and another end will be you know from the tundish it will be coming
down. So, it is on the one end on tundish, another is in the mold..
Now, coming to the submerged entry nozzle, you know organ gas is used to prevent the
sticking of a steel to the SEN surface and aspiration of air through the tube pores and joints
so that is normally the practice that you are using this argon gas so that the SEN surface is
not stuck to the steel and also the there is a you know a aspiration of air.
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Mainly, Al2O3 and C is used as the base material for making the SEN and also you may
have the zirconium oxide carbon is also in many case it is used. The main problem of using
the SEN is that it gets clogged due to the accumulation of alumina from inside. So, many
a times the alumina which is coming you know because of that there may be clogging in
the SEN and that will be leading to decreasing the flow rate causing problems in
solidification of a steel in the concast mold.
So, that is a really a challenge because if there is clogging, then there will be decreasing
the flow rate of the steel which is coming through that SEN ports. So, that is another
challenge and that is because of the inclusions or alumina which is you know accumulated.
Mold lubrication; so, mold lubrication is you know earlier you had the moisture free
rapeseed oil was used as the more lubrication, as we had discussed that you have to have
something a lubrication so that there is no sticking.
Now, we have mold fluxes are used to have these smooth casting operation and it will be
added as the powder in the mold over the liquid steel surface. So, we. So, there is a normal
practice you have a powder which will be given out the surface.
And when it will be coming in contact with the liquid surface, it will be melted and then,
it will be going in between the mold wall and. So, there will be a layer of that lubricant
and that will allow you know that will ensure that there is no sticking of this surface. And
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also the another advantage is that it will be preventing the you know oxidation to take
place from atmospheric air. So, this is the example of these mold flux powders.
Then, the function of these mold flux are that there will be lubrication of the strand. Then,
you have transfer heat from the strand to the mold wall and then, thermally insulate the
top steel surface. That is what we have discussed.
Protecting the surface from atmospheric oxidation and many a times, it will be absorbing
the inclusions because inclusion if they go up so that powder, they will be attracting those
inclusions, that is another advantage of these more lubrication mechanism.
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And they are in different forms, we use it like fly ash based powder, synthetic mixture, pre
fused and ground powders and then, granulated powders also. So, that way we give these
more lubrication.
After that you have the secondary cooling of the solid product and it will be accomplished
by quenching using high pressure water sprays. So, we are using those hotter water sprays
and then, require the cooling is done.
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So, 90 percent of total heat is the to be extracted in that secondary cooling zone after the
mold that zone starts and spray design in the curved mold is a far too critical because the
ingot has to be bent continuously. So, there also it is bending, so it is a another challenge
that it is bending. So, you will have less area here more area.
So, properly you have to have the cooling so that you know the uniform structure and
uniform properties are to be ascertained and then finally, it will go and then ultimately, we
are cutting it once we ensure that it is completely solidified. So, you will have a cutting
torch and that will be cutting it.
So, these are basically the you know the components of the continuous casting units and
you can study more from the reference and textbooks to have more understanding which
will help us to discuss you know more on the issues in our coming lectures.
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Lecture – 05
Tundish Metullergy
Welcome to the lecture on Tundish Metallurgy. So, we have already discussed about the
role of tundish in continuous casting and we know that the tundish is acting as a
metallurgical reactor. And, you know because this steel is coming from the ladle and then
going from the tundish to the mold. So, some of the you know treatments are even done
before the metal enters into the tundish and of them includes like there may be treatments
to the melts. So, that certain kind of inclusions are you know or inclusions are basically
filtered out or for controlling the composition of the steel also.
However, you know we must know that what are those aspects also which needs to be
studied regarding the treatment which is done in the tundish also which has basically the
bearing on the metallurgical behaviour of the product and what are those capabilities which
affect that way. So, that you know basically will be covered under the aspect of this topic
that is a tundish metallurgy. And, especially we will talk about you know those
phenomenas which are take place inside like we can have certain treatments related to the
modification or treatment so, that the inclusion removal is more or you know other you
know aspects like the vortex formation or so.
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So, we will have the light on these aspects. So, what we see that normally as a metallurgical
reactor, we feel that in the tundish you know there should be I mean the tundish should be
working in such a manner that there should be you know even you know heat throughout
the domain in the tundish. Then there should be proper you know flow, configuration
inside the tundish.
So, that there is proper use of the space which is there or proper use of the volume of the
tundish, then you know you have to do something also your flow control has to be such
that there has to be you know minimum of the inclusions which should further go down
the tundish from I mean from the tundish outlet towards the mold. And, also we need to
see that how you have to see that the there is no vortex formation when there is decrease
in the level of the tundish, then there should not vortexing phenomena and all that.
So, one of that process is that you may have certain additions like inclusion modifiers like
calcium or calcium silicon at the very last minute in the tundish itself. So, what happens
that although we do certain treatment so, that inclusions are you know we try to trap them,
we try to see that minimum of the inclusions come into the tundish.
But, still if the inclusions are coming inside the tundish, then we need to you know have
certain treatment and maybe sometimes we add like inclusion modifiers like calcium or
calcium silicon; you know at the very last minute in the tundish. So, you know so this so,
that basically will help in the control of the inclusions or you know that it will help in the
treatment of the inclusions so, that inclusions either float or inclusions are modified.
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There are modifications to those shape and size of those inclusions or their properties. So,
that ultimatum is that these inclusion should be you know minimum in the melt. Other
aspect is also about the temperature adjustment in the tundish you know because from the
tundish, it is directly going to the mold. And, if the temperature becomes very less so, in
those cases that may affect the quality of the cast because it has to go into the either a mold
and then further it has to be you know it has to get solidified.
So, many a times what we do is we do the heating. We have the heating arrangement also
in the tundish. So, that you see that the proper you know temperature is maintained
throughout the tundish volume. You know we have already talked that there may be you
know change in the flow pattern because of these temperature differences, there may be
formation of the convection loops, there may be you know thermal current which may be
there inside that and this so, that may alter the you know flow configuration inside the
tundish.
And many a times if the temperature is becoming you know very very small in certain
areas which is most likely a dead region inside the tundish. In those cases, you need to
have the you know temperature adjustment mechanism, you need to heat the tundish also
in those you know the liquid in the tundish in those areas. So, that the temperature is well
above you know ice melting point so, that you know there is no undesirable thing happen
like solidification inside the tundish itself.
So, we do the plasma or induction heating especially when we wish to cast with very low
superheat. So, especially when we are trying to cast with very low superheat and if there
is a temperature drop undesirable temperature drop in certain region, they that may be
producing some undesirable you know outcomes. So, in those cases, we have to go for a
certain kind of heating mechanism like plasma or induction heating. So, that is also you
know done.
So, ultimate aim our ultimate aim to in the tundish will be to have the clean steel and you
know that is because you know this requirement for the steel has been increasing over the
years. So, it is because you know that they are used for critical applications and the
presence of these inclusions make the properties of the steel inferior you know. So, what
has been the practice that we try to improvise those technologies we are working on the
better technologies so that we can get rid of the inclusions. And in fact, our effort is to go
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for the inclusions because there are mechanisms to filter out the larger size inclusions, but
then we have to see that these size inclusions critical size inclusion pie you know sizes
become less and less which must be removed.
So, it is because all these properties like strength, ductility, durability, corrosion resistance.
So, they we are working on it to have the its you know improved properties over the years.
And also that is possible normally if you are making the steel cleaner you know of the non
metallic inclusions which are most likely deteriorating these properties for which we
normally use steel. Like if the inclusions are there, the strength may go down ductility may
go down and durability as well as corrosion resistance all these things are impaired; all
these properties are impaired if you have the presence of these non-metallic inclusions.
If you talk about the non metallic inclusions in steel normally they are of two type: one is
the indigenous oxide inclusions. So, they normally are formed by the de oxidation of the
steel melt and then you have exogenous you know inclusions. So, there are basically these
are the two types of these inclusions.
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So, if you talk about these indigenous oxide inclusions so, they are basically removed
during the refining and degassing of melt in the ladle itself as we discussed that we do
certain treatment in the ladle itself. We try to you know remove these indigenous oxide
inclusions you know by during that refining as well as the degassing of the melt in the
ladle. But some of these non-metallic oxide inclusions of a small size still remain
suspended in the melt.
So, they will be coming to the tundish and then if you have the then you have the second
variety of inclusions that is your exogenous inclusions. So, they are formed by the
reoxidation of deoxidized steel melt by air or by the entrained slag into the melt during the
melt transfer from the ladle to the mold. So, that basically is because of the reoxidation of
these deoxidized steel melt which we have done. So, that there is further you know chances
of reoxidation and also because of these slag which is you know these that slag into the
melt which you know may pass down.
So, what happens that these inclusions which are of the exogenous origin so which is
formed because of the reoxidations. So, they are normally much you know larger than the
indigenous ones and they are very very harmful. So, larger inclusions will be harmful than
the you know smaller ones.
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So, you know how they are harmful because these inclusions you know what they do is
they will be causing the problems during the casting rolling and heat treating processes.
So, you know as you know that if there are inclusions, they will be as the defect in the cast
product. If they are in the rolling so, rolling also they make difficult and also during the
heat treatment process.
So, in all these processes because when there are inclusions their properties not as same as
that of the parent metal; it has not the ductility same normally, they are brittle. So, what
happens that the result in the failure of the steel during its application. So, that is why you
know these in inclusions are you know said to be removed mostly. We try to remove these
inclusions as to the extent as we can.
So, you know steels with more demanding processing and applications require inclusions
which are smaller in size and number density. So, it means that if you have to have steel
of better quality. So, there are the requirement is that the inclusion size should be smaller
and similarly the number density also should be is less number of inclusions should be
there as well as this smaller you know inclusions you try to have that.
So, that is why you are more demand you demanding processing and applications are
required nowadays and critical inclusion size decreases as demands become more and
more stringent. So, you say that the inclusion size should be you know not more than this
size whenever, we talk about those you know very demanding steels or wherever you have
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to use the steel for the critical applications or so. So, the end user will specify that the
critical inclusion size should be this one. It means you should not have any inclusion which
is of larger size than a particular size that is your critical size of the you know inclusions.
So, what happens that you know these larger inclusions are there?
So, they will be elongated the in the steel matrix as thin stringers along the rolling
direction. So, what happens that when you have larger inclusions and when you roll these
slabs or boule billet us or ingots itself when you are you know further going for the rolling
operation so, you know they are likely to be elongated you know and they will be like is a
thin stringers in the rolling direction.
So, if you have the rolling direction like rolls are moving. So, like this upper roll like this,
lower roll is moving in that way. So, it will be taking the you know strip in forward
direction and your you know larger inclusions. So, they will be elongated in that direction.
So, they will be if this size, they will be flattened and it will be in that you know in the
rolling direction they will be elongated.
Now, further when the hot rolled, these steels are further subjected to the cold rolling then
what happens that you know as the temperature comes down so, they become brittle. And,
then when you are doing the cold rolling so, they will be breaking into the pieces of small
size because they will be brittle to the these cold rolling temperature and that will be
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affecting the homogeneity of the you know component, they will be affecting the
properties of the material and then there may fail also you know at those points.
So, what we do is you know harmful effect of these large inclusions which we get they can
be reduced by modifying the chemical composition of the inclusions to lower their melting
temperature and to make the inclusions deformable during hot rolling. So, as you see that
if you have the larger inclusions so, the one way is that you can use these chemical modify
the chemical composition of the inclusion.
So, that you can lower their melting temperature and then you know the inclusions can be
made deformable during the hot rolling. So, one of the way you can have their effect you
know less and less harmful will be by making these treatments.
Then impurities which are dissolving in the melt and form precipitates during solidification
so, you have also impurities which may be dissolving in which would like to dissolve in
the melt and you would like to form precipitates during the solidification. So, you also
need to minimize them as well. So, that also needs to be done. So, that your steel becomes
cleaner and cleaner.
If you look at those impurities, typically you have phosphorus and sulfur. So, these
elements will form phosphides or sulfides. So, these phosphates, they will be at the
austenite grain boundaries and sulfides will be in and around the austenite grains. So,
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normally you know they are making these formability of the steel you know they challenge
that property of the steel.
So, as you know, it is difficult to remove these impurities in the tundish because so, if they
have to be minimized this will be minimized during the hot metal treatment, the BOF
process and the ladle furnace processing before bringing the melt to the continuous casting
station. So, you know once they are coming to the you know tundish, it is very difficult
you know further to remove them because they have to be removed through through the
treatment through certain reactions chemical reactions or so.
So, your effort should be you know there so, that you know during the hot metal treatment
like the in the BOF process or the in the ladle furnace processing. Before you are bringing
to the tundish itself, you try to remove you know try to have minimum of these phosphorus
and sulfur and their and the formation of the phosphides or sulfides at the grain boundaries.
So, this you know needs to be ensured. So, that you know the chances of having those
compounds formed at the grain boundaries or in and around these austenitic grain
boundaries is minimum.
So, you know what we do is normally we go for the flotation of inclusions. So, one of the
way is that you try to have the flow structure in the tundish in such a way that the inclusions
have the tendency to float up. So, even with the best ladle metallurgy practice, some
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inclusions particles will be retained in the melt. So, as we discussed that we try to you
know do the treatment in the ladle. So, that most of the inclusions we are trying to you
know remove from there itself. But still as we had seen you know, the some of the
inclusions they are likely to still come in the tundish and you know we try to we have now
tried we have to try to remove the inclusions.
So, there cannot be any such treatment you know as we can do earlier to the ladle or in the
lateral itself. But then by altering that flow pattern you know we can think of doing
something so that these inclusions can be removed. And, one of the way is that you know
by managing the residence time of these particles or the flow you know of the melt in the
tundish.
So, if the adequate residence time is being provided in the tundish, there will be
opportunity for at least the larger of these inclusion particles to float out. So, as we had
talked about these role of these tundishes in the casting. So, there also we had talked that
you know these steels which are going you know steel which is coming inside the tundish.
Now these fluid particles as spend certain time inside the tundish.
So, it has some time before it comes out of the tundish outlet. Now this time that is your
residence time. So, if it is very very small, these inclusions particles which are coming
inside the tundish,, so, it will have a smaller and smaller chances you know to come out of
it.
So, you know the way is that you give adequate residence time. So, you should have the
flow structure in such a manner that once the you know liquid steel comes there so, you
should have the flow in such a manner that you have the time sufficient time for these
inclusions especially the larger inclusions to float out because the larger inclusions
inclusions are having a smaller density as compared to the melt.
So, once you are they are settled and they have some time, then in that time basically they
will be subjected to the bouncy forces because of the you know smaller density and then
slowly they will be floating up. So, that is known as the floatation of the inclusions. So,
that is a natural phenomena which has to occur because of the density difference and
normally you know density difference will be about 0.5 to 0.6 times or maybe when go up
to 0.67 times also.
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So, you know they will have the chance to float up, but for that as we talked that the
residence time has to be adequate and if that residence time is less we can do something
by which the residence time can be increased in the tundish. So, those are the means why
you know there are many means like you may use certain flow modifiers or and mostly by
that or by you can have a tundish design where inlet and outlet us are positioned in such a
manner that your residence time you know becomes maximum for a particular
configuration or for a particular you know geometry of the tundish or with the use of flow
modifiers.
If the resistance time is short or that tundish is poorly designed so, that short circuiting or
bypassing occurs their inclusions will be retained resulting in poor quality finished
product. So, what happens that if your tundish is such that the inclusions you know
residance time is very very small? In that case the inclusion which is coming inside the
tundish, most likely they will try to go directly towards the outlet and they will be going
towards from the tundish outlet to the mold.
And, once they have entered into the mold, certainly there will be more you know likely
that these inclusions become part of your product and then when they are coming going
inside the solidified regions. So, they are trapped and then you know that becomes a part
of your product. So, they are likely to be you know further rejected. So, your you have to
see that you avoid these short circuiting or bypassing.
So, and mostly it you know occurs because of very poor sometimes, poor design of the
tundish or you know you have not used the proper you know properly these flow modifiers
in the tundish. So, all these concerns need to be addressed before you know and you must
check that what is the average residence time. So, that you can be sure that if the residence
time is larger, then the if that the there is inclusion you know they are likely to be you
know going at the top of the you know on the tundish you know surface so, and there they
will be trapped. So, that is how these inclusions are removed
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Then comes another aspect which needs to be understood is in in the case of tundish is the
vortexing. So, this phenomena is of concern when your vessels or containers are being
emptied as you know that, the ladle will be bringing the liquid steel from the shop and then
they will be emptying that into the you know tundish. And, the tundish will be delivering
the melt to the mold.
Now one ladle when it is emptied then another ladle comes and if there is if you need to
you know siphon out all the liquid metal in the tundish so, that your next you know cast
grade is of a very dissimilar type. In that case, you need to lower down and then further
you are you know pouring in the another grid of steel into the tundish.
Now, while emptying when the level will come down to a certain height, then there may
be a vortex formation at the outlet particularly when the liquid level will fall below a
critical value. So, what happens that when the liquid level will come down so, that can be
understood like you have the this is the tundish. And, if suppose you have the outlet here.
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Now, what happens that when this is your inlet and liquid metal will come out. Now, what
happens that when we use the you may use the flee modifiers or so. Now, these this is the
level and it will be coming down and once you come to certain level down, then you may
have the formation of the these vortexes and this vortex formation is nothing, but because
it will be happening when the level will be falling down to a certain you know you know
level.
So, that is critical level and these vortexing is nothing, but what it does is it will try to
entrap the you know air and that air bubbles will be appearing and then that will be going
inside that may try to oxidize the steel. So, that is harmful. So, we do not want the level to
go down below a certain limit that is vortexing.
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So, particularly when the liquid level will be falling below, the critical value and such
vortexing is basically undesirable for both ladle as well as the tundishes both. In both the
cases if the vortexing occurs, it may lead to the air as well as the slag interim entrapment
because at the top you have the slag layer.
And, if there is vortexing occurring in that case, the air or the slag may be entrapped and
it may go inside and once it goes inside, then that will be man that may be likely to have
the there is likely to have the slag inclusions or there may be you know oxidation and there
may be formation of inclusions there maybe oxidation of the melt also.
So, basically you will have to see that these vortexings is avoided. So, this vortexing we
can you know minimize through the correct tundish design and in particular to the
appropriate placement of weirs and baffles. So, these vortexing can be minimized by if we
have proper tundish design as well as tundish furniture, we use that is your weirs or the
baffles or dams.
So, you must have the appropriate placement of these weirs and baffles. So, that it basically
helps in ensuring that there is no vortexing in the tundish. So, that is another part which
you know has to be taken care of while we try to see you know that what should be you
know those mechanism by which you can you know avoid these vortexing.
Apart from that, we also talked about other mechanisms are there like you have the heating
mechanism. You can use the plasma torch who you do we do the other heating mechanism.
So, that the temperature are you know kept homogeneous inside the tundish you know
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because and in many cases as we have studied in most of the cases its challenging when
we are using the steel of which is to be used with very low superheat. So, there are some
ways by which all these plasma heating or with other mechanism, you can have you know
those you have plasma torch so, that is being used nor normally for maintaining that
temperature.
So, all these you know aspects are needs to be studied and we will be talking about them
in the lectures to come.
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Lecture – 06
Introduction to Physical Modeling
Welcome to the lecture on Introduction to Physical Modeling. So, in this lecture, we are
going to talk about the principles of modeling in what different way the modeling is to be
carried out you know for the Tundish Steelmaking Process.
(Refer Slide Time 00:51)
So, if we talk about the modeling term as we know that modeling is a well-established
scientific technique with widespread application in engineering process analysis, design,
control, and optimization. So, as we know you know modeling is very much known term
nowadays most of the processes being modelled, and you know we use different scientific
techniques, and its use is in the different areas. So, it is used for ascertaining the you know
characteristics of the system.
Many a times we do the modeling first and then we try to have the plan for further
execution of the processes. So, in the case of you know modeling, now normally when we
talk about the model, so in the case of steelmaking, you have either the physical model or
the mathematical model.
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So, physical model will be something in which we make a physical setup. And in
mathematical model, we are making a model which will be set of equations or expressions,
and it will be talking about the behaviour of the system and that is used for the prediction
of you know the parameters and its effect on the flow characteristics or other related you
know processes. So, it implies scientific representation either physical or mathematical of
a process or a phenomenon.
In physical modeling, a given phenomena is investigated in a replica of the actual industrial

unit while in mathematical modeling, given phenomena is investigated by a mathematical
expressions. So, as we discussed that normally whatever we try to model, many a times
you know we make the small model of that particular you know experimental setup or you
know often you process, and there certainly there are many kind of changes, because there
is another term that is the pilot skill experiments. There also you do the experiment and
there again you have the scaling done.
So, in the case of physical model basically when we talk about the steelmaking process, in
the case of physical modeling not necessarily and in fact, not at all I mean we normally
use the different working fluid, because it is very difficult to work with you know
experimentally on the working fluid as molten steel itself. So, what we do is we take the
different kind of working fluid, normally we take water as the working fluid. And if we
talk about the material of the tundish or the ladle, so that material is also not the actual one
which is normally you know a refractory lined vessel or so.
So, here we use it use the Perspex sheet as the tundish or the ladle, so that is your physical
model. And if we talk of the mathematical model, so mathematical modeling will be
carried out by representation with the different set of equations. These equations will be
the governing equations and they will be you know talking about the processes
conservation of you know either mass, momentum or chemical species.
So, this way you have different set of equations, and this involves the knowledge of
mathematics or science and engineering to have those you know expressions which truly
represent the processes which are occurring. So, that is your mathematical model. So, in
that case, you have mathematical expressions which are used for the modeling. So, if you
talk about the need of the model, if you look at the model, so you have the physical model,
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and then you have the mathematical model and in physical model you have normally scale
up or you can scale down.
So, normally you go for a scale down, so you can go for the you know scale up or scale
down. Then in physical model you can have the cold model as well as the.
So, if you try to have the classification of the model, so if suppose you have basically you
have one is prototype. So, prototype is the you know actual size. Now, in that you may
have you will make a model. So, from here you will make a model, and that model may
be by scaling up or by scaling down. So, you can go by scaling up or you can go by scaling
down, so that way a model is made. Now, that model, so this model further will be one is
physical model and another is mathematical model.
So, you know we will be talking about the physical model in this lecture and this week.
And we will talk about mathematical modeling part further you know as we move forward
in this course. Now, in physical model, you can go for the cold model studies, and
otherwise you can also go for the high temperature model. So, that way you know you can
go for the so cold model means the working fluid will be at a room temperature it a you
because it is very difficult many a times to work with the working fluids which is actual
that its temperature is more than 1500 degree centigrade.
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Now, in that there has been working fluids which are being used. And either you can use
water as the working fluid or even many a times some people have worked and taken the
mercury also as the working fluid, so that way your physical modeling is carried out, and
mostly we do go for the cold model.
If you go to you know high temperature model, so there are they are also done with some
different kinds of you know metal and in that basically you may have you know the use of
metallic melt or what we talked earlier that you have pilot-scale experimentation which go
on, so they are you know part of this.
Then if you come to mathematical, so in mathematical model certainly you are making
different type of you know equations you know these are conservation equations, and then
we apply the boundary conditions which are subjected to the domain, and accordingly we
try to predict the output parameters which are of interest to us. So, that is how these you
know the you can have the idea about the development of model either physical or
mathematical.
So, coming to physical modeling, modeling with a physical model to represent the system,
in majority of cases by changing the scale or size. So, in fact, you have a physical model
which is in front of you and you work with it and that is used for representation of the
system. In most of the cases, we are changing the scale or size. So, normally we are
reducing in most of the cases.
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So, if suppose in industry you have a tundish of say 2 meters of or 3 meters of length, so
you can have a reduced scale model physical model of 1 meter length, so that is because
the handling of the larger vessel that will be problematic. So, we make the smaller you
know models, but certainly necessary I mean accordingly you will have to change many
things that we will discuss later.
In steelmaking, so we are normally we are using physical models with Perspex sheet and
water is used to represent the molten steel. So, normally the models are made with the
Perspex sheet which is transparent and that is strong also you can have the tundish made
by the Perspex sheet and that can be fabricated by the fabrication techniques using glues
and so. And since they are opaque I mean transparent, so you can see from outside also,
and study the flow behaviour which is going on inside the Perspex tundish.
Then we use water to represent the molten steel and there are reasons for that. One is that
you know water if you talk about the kinematic viscosity of water at room temperature and
that of the steel at its own melting temperature they are somewhat similar, they are very
much closer. So, you know when we talk about those similarities in that case when we talk
about the fluid flow another analysis. So, in those cases we can go with that, so that is why
water is mostly used and also water is easily available.
So, and in water also this is being transparent. So, when we do the tracer dispersal studies,
you can have the visualization in a more transparent you know you can see it properly
visualize it, so that is why water is used. So, objective is to measure and visualize
characteristics of the real system. So, studies of high-temperature steelmaking provide
useful insight into the system, which is impossible otherwise, because you cannot have the
visualization on the actual system where the steel is flowing.
So, because of the very high temperature and also it is not transparent. So, what is
happening when you know any kind of diffusion is taking place or any kind of alloying
elements go into it or there are inclusions how they are going to float so or in which zone
the steel is still showing stagnation or so.
So, these things can be seen by visualizing the flow behaviour when you have a colour
contrast when we put the tracer inside and by that we can have an insight of that using the
physical model, so that is why physical modeling becomes very important when we talk
about the tundish steelmaking. It is used to validate also a valid mathematical model.
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Many a times this physical modeling is used for the validation purpose, because as we
discussed that either you will have to go for the actual plant readings or you will have to
go for the pilot-scale experimentations, then only you can have the actual data, and you
can have a you know prediction about the behaviour of the system. So, many a times what
we do is we work on the physical model, and from there we are getting certain results, and
from there we try to validate it.
So, if you we are getting the accordingly the similar kind of results for the actual cases
also for certain parameter, in that case we say that the model is validated and then further
the predictions of many kind can be made by using these mathematical models, so that is
the you know beauty of the or usefulness of the physical model. Physical modeling and
mathematical modeling are frequently applied in conjunction.
So, many a times when we are going for mathematical modeling, we do the physical
modeling, so that there is you know more of the faith in the scientific you know manner
can be put in onto the mathematical model. And when we do the physical modeling, so
there can be infinite number of experimentation you know permutation and combinations.
So maybe we can do it using the mathematical model, and then be accordingly we can you
know limit those set of experimentations to have the you know prediction the to have the
prediction of these input parameters on the output performance measures. So, most of the
time when we go for physical modeling, we also do the mathematical modeling; or if we
have to go for mathematical modeling, we also make the physical models.
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If we talk about the mathematical modeling, so as we know it is a mathematical model is

a set of equations algebraic or differential to represent and predict certain phenomena, so
that is how the mathematical models are made. And these equations are you know the
equations which govern which are governed by certain principles just like if you go for the
flow in the tundish, so it will be governed.
So, since the molten steel is a fluid and is flowing inside, so for that you will have certain
conservation equations. So, they are used. So, you will have you know continuity equation
or you may have the momentum conservation equation or so. Reliability of the
mathematical model largely depends on how rigorously the model has been made. So, how
rigorous the model is or how rigorously you have made the model, because many times
when we are making the model.
If we try to replicate the true conditions, so many a times these conditions are very very
complex and it may be also very difficult, and many a times impossible also to take the
complete whole set of actual conditions. So, there are many compromises also made, there
are some assumptions made and accordingly the model is made.
So, but if you the larger to the larger extent you make you know to take the account of you
are taking the account of these you know realistic conditions, the more rigorous the model
is and more reliable it will be, so that is about the reliability of that model.
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You can have the you know use of modeling in steelmaking involving which will be
involving complex processes which are like multi-phase turbulent flow, heat and mass
transfer, chemical reaction, so these are the different domains you know where the
modeling is being carried out like you have the modeling of the turbulent flow. So, flow
of the liquid in the tundish is turbulent.
So, there you will have to have those turbulence quantities it taken into account, you will
have to have different type of turbulence models taking into account, we should be
predicting the close to the values of actual like velocities or turbulence quantities or
pressure or so. Like similarly the heat and mass transfer because heat is being transferred
towards the wall and towards the surroundings.
Similarly, there is mass transfer diffusion taking place or chemical reactions are also taking
place, then relatedly you have the different you know domains inside the tundish and all
that. So, all these you know are the areas where the mathematical modeling is being used.
Numerous idealizations are applied to formulate reasonably realistic process models in

steelmaking, so that is what we discussed that you will have to have many kind of you
know you will have to make certain adjustments, you will have to you know take the
assumptions and all that and then you I mean you get some process models in a realistic
manner. So, many kinds of added relations are applied.
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And nowadays the mathematical modeling is a very good tool it is very much popular, it
is because of the efficient solution algorithms, and also you have very good computational
solvers. So, because of these things nowadays we have the freedom to go for the
mathematical modeling, we do it in a very small time, we try to reach to the actual results.
So, basically that is you know because when we talk about mathematical models, in that
case there will be errors. These errors will be depending upon you know a certain kind of
assumptions, we take or certain round of errors will be there because of the you know
truncations which we do in all the truncation errors are there in those governing equations.
So, based on that there will be certainly certain errors.
So, you know so many at times we make the grids very very smallers that takes more
computational time. So, because of the you know evolution of very good solvers as well
as very good machines computers which are extremely fast nowadays, we are in a position
to do good you know modeling studies of the real systems.
Mathematical modeling will be offering many advantages like low cost. So, if you are
comparing with a system of the actual experimentation, then the these cost on those
mathematical modeling where you need one computation system, and then there may be
certain programming softwares or programming tools. So, they are actually very very
small as compared to what we do actually in actual cases the experiments with actual
system. So, you will have very low cost, good speed.
In normal case, if you want to do the experiments, it will take large amount of time to set
up the experiment and then getting the results properly it will take large amount of time.
Whereas, in the mathematical modeling you can do it very quickly I mean as compared to
that. Then you can have the simulation also of real conditions you can give all the inform,
you can get most of the information whatever you feel from the mathematical model by
changing your programs, you can have the informations about the output parameters, so
that way these are the advantages of the mathematical modeling.
We talked about another kind of you know trials or models which are made, so that with
pilot-scale trials. So, as we discussed that many times you have to use the similar fluid.
So, in the case of physical model we do not use the same fluid. So, we are making a
physical setup normally a scaled down up you know models, and we do with water.
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However, you know we do the real scale experimentation, so but then I mean real scale
experimentation is not done, but we do on a smaller scale, so that is known as pilot-scale.
So, they will be normally smaller, but then the working fluid or the you know material of
the equipments or so, they will be actual like they will be normally if you 5 to 15 percent
of the full scale system, but then the actual tundish will also be a refractory lined vessel
similarly ladle will also be refractory lined vessel or so. So, you will have the material
which is used will be the same as those in the full scale system, but it is smaller.
So, the handling is somewhat easier, the cost involved is somewhat less as compared to
the actual system on which we have to get the details. Pilot-scale systems are inexpensive
to build and operate. So, basically as their sizes are smaller. So, you will have you know
to invest less amount of you know money or less amount of resources for building these
pilot-scales. And you can have the feel of the actual system running.
So, you will be looking at the you know those looking into those aspects also which you
are not able to see in the physical model using suppose water as the working fluid. So,
suppose about the heat transfer, you can have the actual data in the pilot-scale
experimentations. However you cannot get it for the you know physical models.
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If we talk about the physical modeling in the tundish, so as we discussed that we are using
water as the working fluid for the realistic representation of tundish melt flow, so when
we use this water, so we can use it for studying the various aspect of the melt flow. So,
these various aspects are namely like you have a liquid splashing from the plunging jet
during early stages of tundish filling. So, you will have the plunging jet and then it will be
coming and then there will be liquid splashing, so that can be studied.
Effect of open stream pouring on air or gas entrainment, slag emulsification and
entrainment, and their effects on fluid flow pattern, so this is another area on which you
can have the physical model preparation. Similarly, on the free surface of the tundish you
can have the wave formation. So, these you know can be studied. And even there is surface
turbulence, so they can be seen using the physical models.
You may have the flow visualization in different areas of the tundish. So, you know in the
different areas whether you have the different dome like you have different volumes like
come can be computed by the proper flow visualization, whether the domain is active or
not the tracer which has gone which is going to the certain section or not. So, that can be
seen using the flow visualization. And also we have nowadays tools by which you can
even see the velocity vectors in different plains or so.
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Velocity and turbulence measurements in the liquid using probe, so as the flow inside the
liquid is normally turbulent I mean inside the tundish is normally turbulent. So, you can
even measure these velocity and turbulence quantities in the tundish or in any vessel using
the proper probes like you have Laser Doppler velocimeter so the or you have a hot
filament anemometer. So, these are basically the turbulence measuring you know
instruments that can be used.
You can do the RTD study of the fluid. So, RTD is the residence time distributional study.
So, basically that we do by the tracer dispersal studies, and by that you can have the feel
of the time for which the individual you know fluid particles are trying to stay or on an
average what will be the stay time of the fluid inside the tundish, so that is your residence
time distribution. So, you can have that at a different points inside the tundish.
Simulation of inclusion transport and flotation, so that also can be done using the physical
models, you can make a model and you can have inclusions of different shapes and sizes
of different material which can float inside the liquids, accordingly you will have to have
the density of that inclusion also been taken, how they are transported to different reasons
of the regimes of the tundish, and how they are floating up. So, they these can also be
predicted.
Vortex formation and tundish slag entrainment during draining of the melt from the
tundish. So, many a times when we are draining the liquid metal from the tundish, you
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know to the mold, so the there are many vortex formation as we had discussed earlier. So,
when it will reach below certain level, then the vortexing may occur.
So, and in that case there may be slag which may go from the tundish toward the mold or
for that matter from any you know vessel if you if it goes you know into the nest vessel,
so that also can be physically modeled. So, you can have a slag kind of layer at the top of
the water and then you can do the experiment and you will see the emergence of these
vortex as the level goes below certain critical value critical height.
So, these all things basically can be modeled using the you know physical models. So,
physical modeling that way is very very you know efficient efficiently you can do with the
proper experimentation and you can further predict. So, when we make the physical
models, at that time you will have to have certain concentrations to be kept in mind and
these are about the similarity issues.
So, you will have the four different states of similarity I mean normally what we try to you
know maintain. And they are basically defined as the you know you have the geometric
similarity, you have the kinematic similarity, you have the dynamic similarity, you have
the thermal similarity. So, basically this would be similar I mean if you talk about the
geometric parameter geometric similarity, so, the ratio of these you know geometric
dimensions of the model and the actual, so they should be same. So, it should be a constant
value.
Similarly, when we talk about the you static or you have the dynamic similarity where the
forces are taken into account, thermal similarity where the heat transfer issues at any point
between the in the model as well as in the actual system. So, all these so we will discuss it
about it in our coming lectures that these are the different similarities which we need to
keep in mind while talking about the you know making the physical models.
So, these should be satisfied, then only we can ensure that there is you know proper more
I mean physical model is there and the prediction which is made by the physical model it
will be representing. And the in actual the you know the process parameters or output
parameters which will be taking place in the industries that will help the steel makers to
decide about the choose of proper you know process parameters. So, the about this we are
going to have the discussion in our coming lectures.
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Lecture - 07
Concept of similarity in Physical Modeling
Welcome, to the lecture on Concept of similarity in Physical Modeling. So, in the last
lecture we talked about the physical modelling principles. So, as we discussed that there
the similarity principle, or its concept is important to be kept in mind when we are making
the physical models.
Which is normally a reduced scale model and because the model most in most of the cases
the system involves the flow of species, flow of the fluid you have chemical reactions
taking place heat transfer taking place. So, how you know I mean to predict you know
properly you need to have the similarity principle you know similarity satisfied.
So, you have as you have seen that, for the faithful representation of flow in the model
tundish, there should be constant ratios between corresponding quantities in the model in
the actual and in the actual tundish. So, you will have the you know quantities like you
have the velocity or the geometric dimensions or the velocity or the heat transfer. Values
suppose which is there in the actual tundish and the in the model tundish.
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All needs to have a ratio so, that is that should be you know maintained for the model and
the actual tundish. So, for melt flow in the tundish is the states of similarity which we
normally include is the geometric similarity, kinematic similarity, dynamic similarity and
thermal similarity.
So, many a times we call it as a geometric similarity or even mechanical similarity thermal
similarity apart from that also we have the chemical similarity that may also be there
wherever the chemical reaction is taking place. So, but in normal case when we talk about
these similarities, we normally talk about geometric, kinematic dynamic and the thermal
similarities so, we will talk about these similarities. Now the geometric similarity is you
know it tells that the actual tundish and its model must be geometrically similar.
So, when we are making the model tundish in which the flow has to be there. So, this
would be geometrically similar, means; that the ratio of their geometrical parameters this
would remain constant. Like, if you have a tundish of 3 meter length and if you are making
the model tundish of 1 meter length it means the ratio of the 2, you know will be you know
3.
If you take the ratio of the prototype to the model or if you take the ratio of the model to
prototype it will be less than 1 that is 1/3. Now, this 1 by 3 is basically so, it is a 1/3 model.
So, we can say like that so, 1/3 will be that scale factor length scale factor. So, this has to
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be maintained in all the geometric dimensions like your width also should be accordingly
you have to adjust.
Which should have a ratio of 1/3. Similarly for the height also so, it is telling that so, this
is how all the length dimension of the model tundish should be are a constant relationship
with the corresponding length dimension in the actual tundish. So, that is how we try to
you know represent it, like 𝐿𝑚 will be 𝐿𝑝 ∗ 𝜆. So, m refers to the model and p refers to the
𝐿𝑚
I mean prototype. So, you know 𝜆 will be .
𝐿𝑝
So, 𝜆 is known as the scale factor length scale factor and you know it is if you are taking
a reduced scale model in that case it will be less than 1, if you are going for the scale up
model it will be more than 1. So, that way you know in most of the cases in tundish flow
or so, in the steelmaking we normally make the reduced scale model. So, the value of 𝜆
will be less than 1.
So, if you try to see that you will have suppose, in the case of your actual tundish may be
like this. So, you will have in this case you have the molten steel here and you will have
the level of steel suppose here and then inlet is from this side so, your molten steel is
flowing. So, you will have inlet stream from ladle.
Now, this is your you know normal, you know as a normal scale you can have a physical
scale so, you will make suppose about 60 percent or so, it will go like this so, this way you
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can have a physical model here. So, you can have. So, this dimension to this so, this ratio
to this ratio dimension or this ratio to this ratio dimension like that. So, that should be a
constant value that is your so, this length by this length or its width or so.
So, these values have to be similar so, you will have this is your model tundish, this is your
actual tundish that is your prototype tundish. So, you will have molten steel and here you
will have water. So, but the ratio has to be same so, that is what is the meaning of the you
know geometric similarity. So, similarly is on the dimensions like you have the diameter
in case of suppose your outlet is in cylindrical, you know in the circular type cross section.
So, there the diameter will come into picture.
Now, the next you know type of similarity next is the kinematic similarity. Now kinematic
similarity will be indicating that each corresponding fluid element in the two system,
should follow a geometrically similar path and the time interval between the corresponding
events should bear a constant ratio that is your you know scale factor.
So, that is your you know kinematic similarity. So, then, so here they should have the
similar you know time interval velocity and all that they will be taking into account in
these cases and they should have the you know same value if you talk about the x
component velocity ratio or y component velocity ratio or z component velocity ratio.
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So, there you know you will have a constant ratio so, that will be talking about the
kinematic similarity. Then comes the dynamic similarity. Now dynamic similarity will be
talking about the forces acting in the two system so, it will in kinematic similarity we are
not talking about the forces; however, in the dynamic similarity we will be talking about
the forces.
So, it will be dealing with the forces which act in the two system which accelerate or retard
the moving element in the system. So, as we talk about any system we will have different
kind of forces which will be acting inside the system, and forces acting at a corresponding
time at a corresponding location in a model tundish should bear a fixed ratio with the forces
in an actual tundish. So, this will be the dynamics similarity
So, if you talk about the different type of forces if you go to the you know dynamic
similarity. So, when we talk about the flow in the steel making. So, you will have different,
normally you have some special you know some common type of forces. So, suppose you
have the inertia force so, inertia force will be normally denoted by 𝐹𝑖 and it will be 𝜌 ∗
𝑣 2 ∗ 𝐿2 .
So, that is your Inertia force, and similarly if you talk about the viscous force. So, normally
you have the three kind of forces which are you know commonly seen inertia force, viscous
force and gravitational force. So, viscous force will be you know 𝐹𝜂 so, we call it as the
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you know 𝜂𝑣𝑙. So, that is your viscous force, similarly you have gravitational force. So,
gravitational force is the 𝐹𝑔 and it is defined as the 𝜌 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝐿3 .
So, these are the different forces which are you know commonly you know they are
coming to the analysis, in the case of the flow in the steelmaking applications like in
tundish or so. So, what, we this dynamic similarity condition says, that
(𝐹𝑖 )𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 (𝐹𝑖 )𝑝 so, there should be same as the
(𝐹𝜂 )𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 (𝐹𝜂 )𝑝 . Or the (𝐹𝑔 )𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 (𝐹𝑔 )𝑝 , and there should be
some constant that should be 𝜆𝐹 so, that is for force.
So, the similarity condition tells of the for the dynamic similarity, it tells that these values
should be you know same. So, if you talk about the you know this condition
(𝐹𝑖 )𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 (𝐹𝑖 )𝑝 and that should be equal to (𝐹𝜂 )𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 (𝐹𝜂 )𝑝 .
So, if you know try to go further into it so, what you did see is (𝐹𝑖 )𝑚 is 𝜌 ∗ 𝑣 2 ∗ 𝐿2 , and
that is for the model so, if (𝐹𝜂 )𝑚 will be 𝜂𝑣𝑙.
So, it will be and that is 𝜂𝑣𝑙 so, this is 𝜂𝑣𝑙. So, if you take this for the model it will be same
as you know 𝜌 ∗ 𝑣 2 ∗ 𝐿2 /𝜂𝑣𝑙. So, from here what you see, if you further go you know to
from this point. So, what you see you can cut these terms so, it will be you know rho.
So, this will be coming to a term you know you must have come across this term that is
your Reynolds number term. So, it will be Reynolds number of the model this should be.
So, here so, you need not go there so, it will be Reynolds number of the, model should be
same as the Reynolds number of the prototype.
So, this is the ratio of you know basically the two kind of forces that tells you the value
of the Reynolds number for the model, it should be same as the that of the prototype. So,
that you know talks about these you know conditions which is governed by this dynamic
similarity, and the Reynolds number which is found in the you know model physical model
it should be same as that which is there inside the actual prototype model.
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Similarly, if you talk about the ratio of the inertial to gravitational force, so, if you go to
you know this (𝐹𝑖 )𝑚 /(𝐹𝑖 )𝑝 , for the prototype and if you take the ratio for the
(𝐹𝑔 )𝑚 /(𝐹𝑔 )𝑝 . So, they will lead to you know another kind of the non dimensional number.
𝑉2 𝑉2
So, what you see here is you get (𝑔𝐿)𝑚 = (𝑔𝐿)𝑝 . So, you get the another number that is
your Froude number and so, you get the Froude number for the model should be equal to
Froude number for the prototype. So, these conditions emerge out you know when we talk
about these you know similarity conditions, as you know especially maintaining the
dynamic similarity in the case of fluid flow.
So, if you so, what we see that these conditions need to be checked, when we are you know
further predicting the values and then we say that it is dynamically similar the model as
well as the prototype is dynamically similar. Then comes the you know thermal similarity
now thermal similarity, you know is something where we deal with the heat losses.
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So, when we talk about the water modeling so, normally in water modeling you know
when we do for the tundish. So, with that the heat loss you know which is taking place at
that high temperature so, its very difficult to correlate. But then we will have we can have
this thermal similarity and what we can do is here also whatever the temperature difference
is there suppose, if they are in the same ratio then we can say that the systems are thermally
similar.
So, the similarity indicates that dictates that corresponding temperature differences should
bear the same ratio of the model and the actual tundish. So, suppose at some point you
have the temperature in the model tundish and same point you have temperature in the you
know in the actual tundish. So, if the ratio if you are taking at different point this would be
similar. So, that is what the thermal similarity means.
Thermal similarity also requires that the rates of heat transfer by conduction convection
and radiation at a given location at a given time in the model, should have a constant ratio
with the corresponding rate of heat loss in actual tundish. So, similar to the temperature it
also applies for the you know heat transfer which is taking place.
So, heat transfer is taking place by the conduction convection or radiation. So, they also
should have the you know same ratio as in the case of model or in the case of prototype.
So, that is what the you know thermal similarity means.
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So, we can have the discussion about the similarity criteria by even working with the
equations and that is another way of looking at it. So, suppose we are talking about the you
know Navier Stokes equation. So, you know I mean there also you can have the you know
terms we can go for individual terms and we can have with the help of the dimensionless
numbers we do the analysis.
𝐷𝑣
So, the Navier Stokes equation, which is normally you can you express it 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 = −∇𝑝 +
𝜂∇2 𝑣 + 𝜌𝑔. So, this is your another term that is a source term
So, now in this case what we do is we non dimensionalize these terms. So, using a Non
dimensional quantities we are making the 𝑣 ∗ . So, suppose 𝑣 ∗ = 𝑣/𝑉 or we take 𝑥 ∗ = 𝑥/𝐿.
So, a statistic length of the tundish you further non dimensionalize 𝑡 ∗ = 𝑡𝑣/𝐿.
𝑃−𝑃0
So, it will be t with a certain time we are dividing, then you 𝑃∗ = So, this is how 𝑃∗
𝜌𝑣 2
is defined, you define ∇∗ as L*∇ and then you have . So, ∇∗ square term will also come
which is here so, that will be you know 𝐿2 ∇2.
So, that way if you use these non dimensional terms, so, you know if you substitute these
non dimensional numbers into this equation you get, you know the further the term that is
𝐷𝑣 ∗ 𝜂 𝑔𝑙
= −∇∗ 𝑝∗ + (𝐿𝑉𝜌)∇∗ 2 𝑣 + 𝑣2 .
𝐷𝑡 ∗
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So, what you see in these cases you have you know in this term under the in the parentheses
you have two terms which are coming up, and they are basically this is the inverse of the
𝜂
Reynolds number this is . So, and then you have this is the inverse of the you know
𝐿𝜌𝑣
Froude number so, these terms you know are coming and basically you know these are the
important forces which are governing inside the tundish.
So, this is coming because of these inertial you know gravitational and viscous forces. So,
there has to be a constant ratio of these forces. Now, if you imply the inertial forces which
should be you know the if you talk about the Reynolds similarity. So, that is why you have
the Reynolds similarity as well as the Froude similarity which is coming up and you have
to maintain that.
𝑣𝑙𝜌
So, if you try to you know see the Reynolds similarity. So, in that case you have( )𝑚 =
𝜂
𝑣𝑙𝜌
( )𝑝 . So, you know what we see that normally, the kinematic viscosity of the molten
𝜂
steel and the water at room temperature they are somewhat similar. So, they are somewhat
𝜂
equal so, eta by so, this ratio becomes 1. So, in that case what you get is so, your of
𝜌
water, at room temperature and that of steel at 1600 degree centigrade. So, they are nearly
same.
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So, what we get out of this similarity principle that this 𝑣𝑚 and you know this is your 𝑣𝑝 and
similarly this 𝐿𝑚 and 𝐿𝑃 . So, if you lambda eta by rho that will be you know cancelled. So,
𝑣𝑚 /𝑣𝑝 will be 𝐿𝑝 /𝐿𝑚 . So, basically you will have the inverse of the scale factor. So, what
1 1
you see is 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑣𝑝 ∗ (𝜆) that is what you get. So, because its ratio will be that is your
𝜆
geometric scale factor. So, lambda is the length scale factor. So, the Reynolds similarity
gives you this condition.
Now, if you go to the Froude similarity, if you further use the Froude similarity. So, using
the Froude similarity what you see. So, you can further do the same you know calculation.
𝑣2 𝑣2
So, you have ( 𝑔𝑙 )𝑚 = ( 𝑔𝑙 )𝑝 .
Now, from here as g will be same so, what you see is that v square of v of model by v of
the prototype so, basically you will have a square term. So, you will have 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑣𝑝 √𝜆
because it is 𝐿𝑚 upon 𝐿𝑃 it is going on this side so, 𝐿𝑚 /𝐿𝑃 = 𝜆. So, 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑣𝑝 √𝜆. So, that is
you can see that this is V m and this g term will be cancelling.
Now, what you see that you are getting 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑣𝑝 √𝜆. in this case using the Froude
1
similarity, and using the Reynolds similarity you are getting 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑣𝑝 ∗ (𝜆). So, you know
you are getting the different values you know different you know proportionality factor in
these two cases.
Now, if you try to have you know the , you know the try to ensure that both these you
know condition, similarity conditions are satisfied that is only possible when you have
lambda that is equal to 1. So, that is you know when you are making the model of the same
scale as that of the prototype then only these two can be satisfied.
So, you know, both these conditions can be only met when you have lambda equal to 1 so,
that is your scale factor is one itself so, you are having the model as well as the prototype
of these same you know dimension. So, that is of that cannot be you know said to be a
feasible solution. So, now if you look at this Reynolds similarity. So, in that case what you
see is that the velocity of the model so, when you are making a you know scaled down
model in that case lambda value is less than 1. So, in that case the 1 by lambda value will
be more than 1. So, in that case your velocity in the model has to be more than that is what
it is there in the case of prototype.
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Whereas, if you take the Froude similarity criteria here the velocity in the model will be
less than the velocity in the prototype so, it is because it is the under root term. So, normally
what we use. So, basically that is this value will be less than 1. So, that way model will
this value will be lesser. So, normally the whenever we do the physical modeling we do
this by assuming the Froude similarity criteria.
So, that is the normal practice in the case of you know physical modeling. Apart from this
as we had discussed that apart from that this geometric similarities, dynamic similarity or
kinematic similarity and thermal similarity, many a times we also come across the term
known as the chemical similarity. So, when we talk about, because many a times these this
there are many type of chemical reactions which are taking place.
So, you will have to deal with the concentration profiles you know in the full scale system.
So, you will have the discussion about the chemical you know similarity in which you will
be talking about the concentration differences you know at the corresponding locations in
the model and in the tundish.
So, if you have the concentration difference between two positions in the model certain
value, and similarly the same value in the tundish I mean in the actual case in the prototype.
So, this would be a you know the same value so, this may be because of the diffusion you
will have the mass transfer taking place, you will have the mass transfer by convection
maybe by diffusion or maybe many a times you have the generation of the species or
dissipation there through the chemical reaction.
So, these quantities also need to be bearing a certain ratio and that is taking into
considerations by taking this chemical similarity condition. So, in this case what we tell is
that you have the, suppose you are talking about the diffusion so, and diffusion in the you
know model and if you talk we take the ratio of diffusion that is in prototype.
So, that ratio should be suppose you are talking about the, using the convection in the
model and ratio by for convection in the prototype. So, similarly if you are talking about
the you know radiation quantity. So, these all these values this should be having a constant
value that ratio should be same. So, this means the there is chemical similarity. So, these
are the you know different kinds of you know similarity principles which are need to be
you know addressed into and which must be satisfied when we are talking about the
physical modeling.
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And altogether when we talk about the static or dynamic similarity they are also known as
the mechanical similarity so, many a times we talk about the mechanical similarity as a
whole. So, these different kind of you know similarities are there which needs to be you
know seen and many a times this chemical similarity is very difficult to be achieved,
because of their strong dependence on the temperature.
So, in many cases it will not be you know feasible to have these similarities; however, you
we must know that what the chemical similarity means, because when we do the you know
suppose we are talking about the chemical similarities in two systems. Now in those cases
the temperature being higher many things you know change by orders of magnitude quite
high you know because of the temperature.
So, that may not have the similar ratios, but then many parameters may be you know
checked like the diffusion of certain things which is not temperature dependent or when
we do the cold modelling studies in those cases the chemical similarity holds certain
meaning. So, we will talk about you know other aspects of the physical modeling like use
of dimensional numbers or so in our coming lectures.
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Lecture - 08
Dimensional Analysis
Welcome to the lecture on Dimensional Analysis. So, we talked about the similarities.
Now, what we do normally in the case of dimensional analysis. It is frequently used in the
process engineering to represent the physical phenomena in terms of mathematical
equation that is essentially dimensionless.
So, basically, if we have these equations we talked if you know the equations governing
the fluid flow or heat transfer or. So, in those cases what we do is normally we try to you
know have this equation in the dimensionless form for example, if you talk about the fluid
flow equation. So, what we do normally is you have v.
So, we are expressing it by dividing with a characteristic velocity. Similarly, 𝑝∗ will be;
𝑃−𝑝0 𝑡𝑣
you know that is . So, this way you get you know you have again 𝑡 ∗ . So, 𝑡 ∗will be 𝐿 .
𝑝𝑣 2
So, you have a characteristic length, you have a reference velocity.
So, similarly, you know 𝑥 ∗ will be, 𝑥/𝐿, then you have 𝑦 ∗ again, 𝑦/𝐿 or 𝑧 ∗ will be 𝑧/𝐿.
Then you get you have you know the operators you know this they also need to be; you
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know express. So, that ∇∗ that will be you know 𝐿∇. So, that will be again you will be
using. So, you will have delta 1 times.
𝜕
Similarly, you will have ∇∗ 2 . So, that will be 𝐿2 ∇2. So, you will have like that. So,
𝜕𝑥 ∗
𝜕2 𝜕2
you will have 𝜕𝑥 ∗2; in this case, you will have 𝜕𝑥 ∗2and delta 1 multiplied by that.
So, that way, you do and then once you put them into the equation for the continuity and
also the momentum conservation. So, in that case also if you must have done that and in
that case; you get you know the two kind of you know number, dimensionless numbers
𝐿𝑉𝜌
and that is one you are getting as Reynolds number that is and then you are also getting
𝜇
𝑣2
the Froude number, that is 𝑔𝐿.
So, this is how you know; that is used for that is the use of these non dimensionalizing and
then on both these sides when you do. So, you get, you know you will be having the
𝐷𝑣 ∗ 𝜇 𝑔𝐿
expression coming up like 𝐷𝑡 ∗ . So, that will be coming as −∇∗ 𝑝∗ + 𝐿𝑣𝜌 ∇2 𝑣 ∗ + 𝑣2 .
So, 𝑔∗ is coming. So, basically what you see you are getting these two terms. So, that is
what it is coming you get these non dimensional quantities that is what you are getting.
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What I mean to say that; normally, we try to convert these equations that is essentially
dimensionless. Now, this technique which is generally applied it is to work out relationship
between the various measurable quantities in a system. So, what we is there that if you talk
about any system. So, you will have one variable that will be represented in terms of other,
you know; parameters or the variables.
So, you will have to have a particular relationship and you determine the minimum
possible number of variables required to define the geometry and also operating conditions
in the system and then you go for scaling down or scaling up of the system. So, that is the
you know; the way you that there is the technique which is normally applied. So, the first
method which is used for such approach is the you know, Raleigh’s method of indices.
Now, what Raleigh’s method of indices say that; in this case the dimensional analysis will
be based on the method of indices. So, you know what happens that the relationship
between different physical quantities can be expressed as the product of power functions.
So, what you do here that you have 𝑥0 , suppose; this is a dependent variable and that is
expressed in terms of 𝐶1 (𝑥1 )𝑎 (𝑥2 )𝑏 (𝑥3 )𝑐 . . . . . . . . . ..and.
So, suppose 𝐶1 is expressed you know; 𝐶1 (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐), all these are the constraints. So, you
know; if you try to have the dimensionless groups. So, if you see further; if you have the
you know, from this place onwards again you can have the 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 and a 𝑥3 . So, they can
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even be expressed, you know you can have these you know; dimensionless groups defined
that is 𝑥0 .
Similarly, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 and a 𝑥3 . So, they also can have with the different constants A,B,C , you
can express them. So, you can further you know express like if you have non dimensional
group.
So, that is 𝑋0 = 𝐶1 ′ (𝑋1 ) 𝐴 (𝑋2 )𝐵 (𝑋3 )𝐶 and you have the you know (𝑋1 )𝐴 and similarly,
(𝑋2 )𝐵 similarly (𝑋3 )𝐶 . So, these are the non dimensional groups that can also be expressed
you know, in terms of these indices and that will be going on.
So, here again 𝐶1 ′ then A B and C they are again the constants. So, and then you are you
know, we will see that; they will be further equated on both the sides and you can have the
you the you know, evaluation of these constants and you can see that how they can be
expressed. Another method which is also used is the you know Buckingham pi theorem.
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So, now in this case, it is normally used in the dimensional analysis to determine the
number of dimensionless groups that one can expect in the analysis of any given physical
phenomena. So, here what you do is normally, you are having the number of the
dimensionless groups you are trying to determine and that will be depending upon you
know the value that will be equivalent to the 𝐸 − 𝐹.
So, you have basically, F; that will be representing the total number of primary quantities
the which is required for you know, the expressing. And then the E value is will be
representing the total number of independent and dependent variables which will be
governing the process. So, 𝐸 − 𝐹 will be basically telling you the number of those pi you
know groups.
And then this way, you can have those dimensionless you know; numbers coming into
existence. So, that can be found out. So, what you do in this case you have 𝐹(𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , 𝜋3 ).
So, in the case of pi theorem you will have the 𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , 𝜋3 . So, they will be equal to 0.
So, they will be basically, they are the independent you know, products of the you know
arguments that is there which is dimensionless. And you know, you find these you know;
common numbers will be there that will be equal to 𝐸 − 𝐹. So, this way, you try to have
you know the calculation of these you know pi groups.
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So, for example, if you look at one of the problem like you have to have the you know
rising velocity you have to have this for this problem rising velocity of spherical shaped
particle, a spherical shaped inclusion in a stationary fluid. So, suppose you have to have
the you know calculation of the dimensionless, you know these groups.
So, what you do, you can have the use of this Buckingham pi theorem and, what we see
that; normally, if you talk about the rising velocity which is there because the this is a
problem in the case of steelmaking where the inclusion, if it there they are there they are
normally lighter and they have the tendency to float you know towards the upper side
So, normally, your V rise, so this V rise will be function of the weight of the particle, then
you have the density of the particle, you have the coefficient of viscosity of the medium
and also the density of the medium. So, normally, it is a function of you know 𝑣𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 =
𝑓(𝑤𝑝 , 𝑑𝑝 𝜇, 𝜌)..
Now, if you use this Raleigh’s method of indices; so you can write a functional relationship
of the type. So, you will have 𝑣𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 𝐶1 (𝑤𝑝 𝑎 , 𝑑𝑝 𝑏 𝜇 𝑐 , 𝜌𝑑 )..
So, that way you can have you know; you can these are the indices which are you know
these. So, you will have the to know the what are the dimension of these you know
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variables. Suppose, your variable is your raise velocity. So, you are you know symbol is
you have 𝑣𝑟 and its unit is as it is velocity. So, it will be meter per second and if you have
the to know the dimension. So, it will be 𝐿 𝑇 −1 .
Similarly, you have the weight of the particle. And weight of the particle you do it by 𝑤𝑝 .
So, it will be you know normally, 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑠 2 and you will have 𝑀𝐿 𝑇 −2 . Then you
have the density. So, if you talk about the density of fluid. So, you have that is 𝜌. So, you
will have kg you know per meter cube and it will be 𝑀 𝐿−3 .
So, then comes your after density you have the diameter of the particle. So, you have 𝑑 𝑃
so, diameter will be in terms of meter only. So, you will have M. I know this is L and then
last is your 𝜇. So, that is coefficient of viscosity. And you know, that is 𝜇 and that will be
𝐾𝑔
you know kg you know; that is if you look at that will be 𝑚 𝑠and you will have 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1.
So, once you know you must have the idea about these dimensions and you have to you
know equate or known on this side you have to find the number of pi; which is required
you know in that case, now in this case if you look at the number of you know primary
quantity is 3. So, number of primary quantity will be 3. And, if you look at the independent
and dependent variable that is 𝑤𝑝 , 𝑑𝑝 𝜇 , 𝜌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 so, that is your 5. So, E is 5 and F
is 3.
So, in that case, if you go for 𝐸 − 𝐹 = 2. So, you will have to have, you will have to you
know independent pi groups that you can form. So, you will have two independent pi
groups. And that will be required for the representation you know you know; that is in the
dimensionless form.
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So, you can write you know that; 𝑓 ′ (𝜋1 , 𝜋2 ) = 0. Now, what you see is that; if you equate
on both these sides. So, you have to have the dimensions on both the sides. So, you have
you know in earlier k this is 𝐿𝑇 −1 . So, you will have 𝑀0 𝐿𝑇 −1. So, that is and that will be
that we have seen that; you will have the four parameters and that to that have the indices
a b c and d.
So, those values are 𝑤𝑝 𝑎 , 𝑑𝑝 𝑏 , 𝜇 𝑐 𝜌𝑑 . So, you will have those expressions. So, you will
have [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ]𝑎 .. Similarly, you will have [𝐿]𝑏 , similarly you will have 𝑀𝐿−1 . So, you will
have those values. So, you will have then 𝜇; 𝜇 will be 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1. So, on that so, we have
taken [𝜌]𝑑 . So, 𝜌 is your 𝑀𝐿−3 .. So, you will have 𝑀𝐿−3 and you will have the 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1.
𝑘𝑔
So, 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑀𝐿−3 . So, and then you will have 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1and that rise to be c and d. So,
𝑚3
basically, you can have you know you can do the equation can be equated. So, this side it
is 1 and if you look at here it will be 1. So, that is 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 + 𝑑 . So, that will be 1. So,
1 will be 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 + 𝑑. So, similarly, you have T is you know M is 0. So, 0 will be
equal to if you look at the M. So, it will be 𝑎 + 𝑐 + 𝑑.
So, this way and if you go for T. So, it will be T is minus 1 on this side and on this side if
you look at it be you know T is here it is minus 2 a and similarly, you will have T as minus
d. So, you know ML. So, that way you will have the equation. So, that you can come and
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if you equate you know these equations. So, you will have that is minus 2 a and you will
have further minus d.
So, you can have you know you can find these a b c and you may have d. So, if you
manipulate these equations, then you can have you can find the value of b as minus 1 and
that you can have the expression of, you know; c and d are expressly in terms of a because
your three equations and four unknowns. So, you c and d can be expressed in terms of a.
So, you have c as a minus 1 and d as 2𝑎 + 1. So, we can have that minus 1 as 2 minus 2 a
minus d. So, you get b as minus 1 that by some manipulation and then you get the c and d
expression in terms of a. And you can have you know further; you can express, you know
𝜌𝑣𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑝 𝑤𝑝 ,𝜌
the in terms of the two quantities; that will be 𝑓( , )=0
𝜇 𝜇2
So, basically, you are in a position to devise two kind of you know non dimensional
numbers that is for these inclusions when you do the inclusion analysis. And the two
𝜌𝑣𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑝
groups which you get will be that will be and the another group which you get 𝜋2
𝜇
𝑤𝑝 ,𝜌
it will be .
𝜇2
So, what you see; now, if you look at these numbers what you see this is nothing but, this
𝜌𝑣𝑑
is the number which is an analogous to the Reynolds number which we have studied .
𝜇
So, and this is another you know dimensionless group which you are having in that case.
So, this way you try to have the solution of these you know equations. So, you have to first
write down these two equations on both the sides, you have to have the indices you know
being equated. You have to solve and then you get these expressions and further; you are
having, you know these values of these two pi groups.
So, that is how, you get these non dimensional you know numbers and they have their
significance when you are trying to you know analyze that system that time you try to have
the use of these numbers. So, you may have different types of you know you know
dimensionless groups which are used in the case of tundish modeling and you know like
when you go for the fluid flow type of you know cases.
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So, in the case of fluid flow; you have the group is your Reynolds number and that is by
𝜌𝑈𝐿
. So, that is how you have these you know dimensionless number group that is. So, this
𝜇
is your application and that is how you define. So, this is your definition and this is the
group.
Similarly, if you go for the wave and surface behaviour. So, in that case you know what
you do or when you are going to use for the pouring stream. So, in that case, you have that
𝑈2
value is and that is your Froude number. So, we have seen this number you know we
𝑔𝐿
have talked about, we have dealt with this number earlier. So, that is your Froude number.
Similarly, you go for you know the force convection of mass transfer. So, in those cases
𝑈𝐿
you have a number that is your Peclet number and the Peclet number will be you know 𝛼
𝑈𝐿
or . So, that way you know it is basically the ratio between convection and diffusion.
𝑑
So, that way you get these Peclet number defined.
Similarly, you know when you have the atomization of liquid jets in those cases you come
across the number that is your Weber number. So, there you have the surface tension term
coming into picture. Then many a times in the case of force and free convection. You come
𝜌𝑐𝑝
across the group and that is your Prandtl number and the Prandtl number is defined as .
𝑘
And in a case of mass transfer when you will deal with the you know concentration
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equation or solving for the scalar you know transport equations. In the those cases you
have Schmidt number.
𝜇
So, that is Schmidt number and you know that is the group is 𝜌𝐷. So, that is you know that
is also uses. So, normally you have certain value assigned to it we assume. So, basically,
these are the different type of you know groups which you normally come across. So, you
also will also come across other numbers like you come to for the tundish Richardson
number, when we talk about the convection or natural convection specially when we deal
with the heat transfer cases.
So, in those cases, those numbers also or you know coming into picture and these are you
know the groups. So, that is you are you know they are going to be dealt with, when we
you know deal with these cases. Then you know their you know that is normally used now,
these values also it has been reported that.
When you use these various dimensionless numbers or groups. So, normally, you go for
the water modeling in the case of the tundish system. So, the steel is basically replaced
with water because, their kinematic viscosity is same at the melting temperature of steel
and at the normal temperatures in case of water. So, normally, you have when you go for
the full minus scale model.
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So, when you have this if you talk about these numbers and you have a you have the steel
system. So, and if you go for the full scale you know; water model. So, if you see that
when you talk about this Reynolds number. So, you do the Reynolds similarity. So, in that
case if it is 1. So, normally, it is reported you know in the you know by exactly that
normally, we should report it to be 1.1 for the Reynolds number. In steel system it is 1, so
full scale water modeling you can have 1.1.
Similarly, you can have for the Froude number. So, if it is 1. So, you here also you keep
1. So, that Froude you know Froude similarity is normally you know it kept in mind. So,
that is you know in the steel system which is 1, then full scale water model also you keep
it as 1. So, similarly, for the you know Weber number; if you talk for Weber you know it
is if it is 1. So, in that case it is will be 3.1.
So, similar to that you have you know; other numbers like, you have sometimes the motor
number. So, motor number is the 1; which is used for the velocity of bubbles in the liquids
and that is normally, used for the two phase flows a multi phase flows when we do in the
tundish.
So, in those cases, for the this is the dimensionless group is the motor number. And that is
you know g mu you know. So, you have expression for that and for that the for the full
scale water model that ratio becomes close to if it is 1 in steel system; it is coming close
to 45 in the water model. So, these, you know these numbers. So, that needs to be kept in
mind; when you are doing the water modeling and how you know that full scale water
model.
How these you know numbers now; how these for the steel as well as full scale model,
what numbers you know should be there. So, that you need to know. So, that can be taken
as a reference from the literature also and this is how typically the vary. So, this is about
you know; the dimensionless you know, doing the dimensional analysis in the case of this
tundish system.
And we will, when we will be doing that discussing about these water modeling or this
scaling. So, at that time we will have the introduction to these numbers specially Reynolds
and the Froude. So, you will have the similarity based on these two that is what we have
already discussed and also their you know significance in those cases.
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Lecture – 09
Physical Modeling of Isothermal and Non- Isothermal System
Welcome to the lecture on Physical Modeling of Isothermal and Non Isothermal System.
So, we talked about the Reynolds as well as the Froude similarity. And in this class we
will talk about the aspects of physical modeling, when we talk about the isothermal as well
as a non isothermal system. So, when we do the aqueous modeling so, we will also discuss
about it in our later classes.
So, in that case, we take the water as the common fluid. And if you talk about the modeling
so, it can be done either in an isothermal manner or you have to take when the thermal
considerations. So, in that case the thermal similarity has to be kept in mind. So, how you
know which type of dimensionless numbers are going to come in these cases.
So, in this lecture we are going to have, the brief discussion about those aspects. So, as we
know that you may have the counter with the either the isothermal system or the non
isothermal system. Isothermal system means, when we are not taking into account the
temperature difference we are just ignoring the effect of you know the buoyancy forces or
we are ignoring the effect of any kind of temperature gradient in the melt. So, that kind of
system is basically the isothermal system.
116
And in these cases, you know the importance and validity of Reynolds and Froude
modeling criteria can be examined by considering the relevant forces acting in tundish
model system with isothermal flow. So, basically you will have to examine, you know
these Reynolds as well as the Froude modeling criteria.
So, you know as you know that the forces which are normally, you know taken into
consideration in these you know cases or the inertial forces, viscous forces and the
gravitational forces.
117
So, we know that we are basically also certainly ones must be knowing about these you
know role of these forces. So, if you talk about the inertial force. So, they give rise to the
convective flow or the convective momentum transfer. So, basically these things take place
because of the inertial forces. Then you have the viscous force; so, viscous force which
will lead to the viscous or diffusive momentum transfer.
So, that is how you know these viscous force role becomes. Now, what happens that you
may have either the laminar flow or maybe the turbulent flow.
So, as you know that in the laminar flow, the molecular viscosity of the fluid causes the
exchange between the adjacent fluid layers and result in the diffusive momentum transfer.
So, that is what the trait off the laminar flow is and in that you talk about the molecular
you know viscosity also so that comes into picture in the case of laminar flow.
Whereas, in the case of turbulent flows, if you recall then here the diffusive momentum
transfer is not only because of the you know molecular at the molecular level or exchange
of the molecules but, it will be also because of the exchange of eddies. So, eddy the eddies
are of different length. And they are exchanging that over the relatively large distances
known as the eddy lengths. So, that basically is of very very you know large value. So,
that is what is you know happening in the case of the turbulent flows.
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So, in the turbulent flow, the diffusive momentum transfer depends upon the effective
viscosity and not on the molecular viscosity. So, basically what happens that, when we
talk about the effective viscosity. So, it will be nothing but the summation of the molecular
viscosity and the turbulent viscosity.
So, the diffusion momentum transfer which will be you know calculated, it will be
basically based on these both these factors like you have molecular you know viscosity as
well as the turbulent viscosity and both taking into account. So, the Reynolds number
similarity is very important in the laminar flows but, becomes less important in the
turbulent flow modeling; because as you know that in that case the well molecular
viscosity which is there.
So, that is not only the sole criteria for having the determination of the parameters like for
the of the calculation of the momentum transfer or. So, in that case it becomes less
important in the case of the you know a turbulent flow. So, Froude number is important
where both inertial and gravitational forces are acting on the fluid. So, if you look at the
other you know number the Froude number; so, in that we know that its a ratio of inertial
to gravitational force.
So, in that you have you know this is becoming important when both these you know
forces are acting on the liquid so, that time your Froude number becomes important. And
it becomes important in those cases especially it’s use is there in the case of inclusion
floatation; because in the case of inclusion floatation the particle shape you know which
we take it and the particle which is their inside the melt. So, that is you know that will be
subjected to these forces and they will try to you know collide or they may try to float.
So, this Froude number that this a Froude number similarity that is to be taken into account.
When you have both inertial as well as the gravitational forces are acting and mostly they
are you know useful; when we talk about the inclusion flow or modeling. So, if you talk
about the you know momentum balance equation if you recall. So, your momentum
balance you know for the turbulent flow, in the tundish because, in the tundish normally
the flow is considered to be turbulent itself.
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𝜕(𝜌𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑗 )
So, your momentum balance equation will be you know it will be like . So, this is
𝜕𝑥𝑗
your steady state you know momentum balance equation. So, it takes this form so you will
𝜕𝑝
have the pressure term. So, you will have 𝜕𝑥 and then your term comes these convective
𝑖
𝜕
terms; so that it will be your . And then you have you for if you talk about the turbulent
𝜕𝑥𝑗
flow situation, in that case you will have the effective viscosity coming to picture in place
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
of the molecular viscosity. And then you have the term that is 𝜕𝑥𝑖 +.𝜕𝑥𝑗
𝑗 𝑖
So, that is how your momentum balance equation for the turbulent flow looks like. And if
you try to analyze you know this you know if you go for the dimensionless form of this
equation, then it will yield the dimensionless number and that will be you know in the
laminar case you are getting the Reynolds number. And in the case of the turbulent flow,
you have the origination of the turbulent Reynolds number and that is denoted by 𝑅𝑒𝑇 .
𝜌𝑣𝐿
So, that is your turbulent Reynolds number that is found and it becomes . So, that is
𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓
how you know this number is this dimensionless number ah, this dimensionless number is
defined. And for you know for having the for maintaining that similarity you know
between two tundishes which have the turbulent flows.
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So, you will have to see that you know this they must have they are must be similarity you
know, each term in the dimensionless form should have you know the same value in both
the system. So, in the model as well as in the actual system each term must be same. And
you know it is assumed that when you are talking about though thus that kind of system in
that case apart from the you know geometric similarity your turbulent Reynolds number
also should be same.
So, that has been you know found by many authors, it has been there has been you know
modeling studies, water modeling studies, carried out by many researchers specially by
Sahai and Emmi. And then apart from that there are many researchers who have worked
on this and then they have found it that this Reynold number turbulent Reynolds number
you know, that also should be you know the similarity in the value of this turbulent
Reynolds number should also be maintained.
Coming to the non isothermal system; so, in most of the cases the system becomes non
isothermal because the temperature cannot be said to be uniform. So, in actual practice the
system is non isothermal because the temperature is varying. So, in actual continuous
casting practice the melt flow conditions may become non isothermal because of many
reasons like heat losses. So, heat loss may take place either from the you know top surface
or from the walls.
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So, there may be heat loss you know, from these you know places that will lead to the
change in the temperature. So, the situation cannot be said to be completely an isothermal
case. So, then other you know cases may be like temperature of the inlet stream into the
tundish it is different from the ladle. So, you know you know whatever is you know
entering so that is different from that ladle. So, that you know or there may be the
temperature variation or the tundish inlet stream and at the at some of the corners inside
the tundish.
So, because of these temperature differences, the buoyancy you know comes into picture
and it has been seen that when you know when such is the case. So, when we talk about
the such cases, in that case you know the non isothermal aspects are to be taken into
account. So, you will have to see that you will have different you know kind of
dimensionless groups will be coming whose you know considerations well be there for
having the similarity analysis.
So, you know so it would be useful if water modeling could account for the non isothermal
aspects of fluid flow phenomena. So, you will have to have the you know considerations
of these non isothermal behaviors, you know which remains in practice.
So, if you go to the you know non isothermal system, so, in that case if you talk about the
you know momentum balance equation. So, the momentum balance equation for the
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turbulent for turbulent non isothermal flow, your you know your momentum balance
equation will go like this.
𝜕(𝜌𝑣𝑖 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑗 ) 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝
So, it will be + = 𝜕𝑥 (𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝜕𝑥 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑥𝑗 ) − 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑖 𝑖
And in here you will have another term is coming because of the difference in the density.
So, it will be (𝜌 − 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 )𝑔𝑖 So, this is you know taking that buoyancy force into account.
So, this term is basically taken into account for the buoyancy force per unit volume.
So, now this is because of the difference in the density which is arising you know you
know throughout the fluid body so that is why if it is coming. Now, if you take the beta as
the coefficient of thermal expansion so in that case, so if 𝛽 is coefficient of thermal
expansion of the fluid; now in that case you know you can write that 𝛽 is nothing, but
1 𝜕𝑝
minus − 𝜌 [𝜕𝑇] 𝑝 at pressure so at constant pressure.
𝑟𝑒𝑓
So, this is how the 𝛽 is defined. So, if you take very small you know variation in if you
take that density variation to be very very small so, that will be 𝜌 − 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 . So, in that case
this will be 𝛽 ∗ (𝜌 − 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 )∆𝑇. . So, for small variation in density, you can write that
is 𝜌 − 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 .
So, that will be equal to −𝛽 ∗ 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∗ ∆𝑇. So, rho reference is the reference density and in
that case the this Navier Stroke equation can be further rewritten. So, your r 𝜌 − 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 is
defined as −𝛽 ∗ 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∗ ∆𝑇. So, that term will come here.
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So, if you go to the you know to this Navier Stroke equation. So, that can be further written
𝜕(𝜌𝑣𝑖 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑗 ) 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝
as + = 𝜕𝑥 (𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝜕𝑥 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑥𝑗) − 𝜕𝑥 − 𝛽 ∗ 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∗ ∆𝑇𝑔𝑖 .
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑖 𝑖
So, this term is you know coming I am you know once you have the buoyancy which is
there in the case of turbulent flow when you are taking the non isothermal conditions.
Now, if you talk about the when we talk about the non isothermal conditions then we also
talk about the conservation of energy equation. So, your equation for conservation of
𝜕(𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑇) 𝜕(𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑣𝑗 )
energy so, that will have its own form and it will be like + =
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗
𝜕 𝜕𝑇
(𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝜕𝑥 ). .
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑗
So, if you look at these terms so, you will have a 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 is nothing, but the effective thermal
conductivity which is there in the case of the turbulent flow. So, in the case of turbulent
flow, you will have the effective thermal conductivity that will be because of molecular as
well the turbulent part.
So, that is how these you know it will be the summation of the molecular and the turbulent
thermal conductivities. So, these together they will be governing these you know flow
dynamics in the system. So, and also you will have the temperature at the inlets you will
have boundary conditions at the inlet. So, if you talk about the boundary condition at inlet
so, it will be T will be 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 . So, it will be; it will be the ladle stream temperature.
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Now, now if you talk about this equation and if this equation is you know we try to write
in the case of in a non dimensional form. So, you will have the non dimensional forms like
rho v star rho star v star. So, you are a non dimensional analyzing it every term is non
dimensionalized.
So, if you non dimensionalize these Navier Stroke equation. So, non dimensionalizing
𝜕(𝜌∗ 𝑣𝑖 ∗ ) 𝜕(𝜌∗ 𝑣𝑖 ∗ 𝑣𝑗 ∗ )
what you get is you will be getting these terms like you will have + =
𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝜕𝑥𝑗 ∗
𝜕 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑝∗ 𝛽∗∆𝑇𝐿𝑔𝑖

∗ [𝜌 ( 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑥𝑗∗ ] − 𝜕𝑥 ∗ − .
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑟𝑒𝑓. 𝑣𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗
𝑗 𝑖 𝑖 𝑣2
So, this is the you know when you write the these this equation in the non dimensional
form, then this comes into this shape. And if you write the non dimensional form of the
𝜕(𝜌∗ 𝑇 ∗ ) 𝜕(𝜌∗ 𝑇 ∗ 𝑣𝑗 ∗ )
thermal energy conservation equation, that can further be written as + =
𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝜕𝑥𝑗 ∗
𝜕 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝑇 ∗
(𝜌 ( )..
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑟𝑒𝑓.𝑐𝑝 𝑣𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝑗
So, your these terms are coming and in that case you will have these non dimensional
number which is defined here. And your non dimensional temperature which is defined
𝑇 −𝑇0 𝑇 −𝑇0
𝑇 ∗ . So, that is defined by 𝑇 . So, it will be . So, this is how you are you know
𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 −𝑇0 ∆𝑇0
having the definition and this is how you are getting those forms. Now, what you see this
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term if you may refer to this you know term what you see from here, you are finding certain
dimensionless groups.
1 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓
Now, that dimensionless group which is coming up that is 𝑅𝑒 and that is becoming 𝜌
𝑇 𝑟𝑒𝑓. 𝑣𝐿
𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓
that is what is you are getting . So, this number you are getting and this is nothing
𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓. 𝑣𝐿
but the inverse of the turbulent Reynolds number. Then next is you are getting the you
know one number which you are which is defined as the tundish Richardson number.
This is coming from here this is a you know this number which is coming this is known as
the that the tundish Richardson number which is because of the buoyancy. So, we will talk
𝛽∆𝑇0 𝐿𝑔𝑖
about how this is defined. So, this is nothing but . And one more you know number
𝑉2
which is coming here. So, if you look at this is nothing but the inverse of the product of
the Prandtl turbulent; Prandtl number and turbulent Reynolds number.
1
So, this is nothing but 𝑃𝑟 . So, this comes as so, this is this term this is k effective upon
𝑇 𝑅𝑒𝑇
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓
rho effective. So, you will have 𝜌 .
𝑟𝑒𝑓.𝑐𝑝 𝑣𝐿
𝜇𝑐𝑝
So, what you see is that, ; that is your Prandtl. So, this is one this is the you know inverse
𝑘
of these product of these two numbers that is Prandtl turbulent Prandtl number and the
turbulent Reynolds number. So, these are the you know dimensionless groups which are
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coming when we talk about the non isothermal system and they need to be you know
constant.
And it is coming when we talk you know which we when we derive these thermal energy
balance equation. So, you know already we have seen that the Reynold similarity has to
be there. So, and if you see that if the Prandtl number is assumed to be constant in that
case that similarities also you know maintained so that is also satisfied.
The only number which it needs to be satisfied is the this number 𝑇𝑈 that is tundish
Richardson number. Now, if you look at this number so, it is nothing but it can be related
to somewhere it is related to the Froude numbers or Froude number is V square this you.
So, if you take this term. So, you have only these term extra.
So, basically it has certain similarity, with the Froude number. So, you know if you look
at this tundish number. So, if you see this tundish number is nothing but you can write it
𝐺𝑟
as . So, this is this number is you know given that Richardson number tundish
𝑅𝑒 2
𝛽∆𝑇0 𝐿𝑔
Richardson number. So, if it is nothing but it is coming as .
𝑉2
So, it is nothing but the ratio of the buoyancy force and that will be divided by the inertial
force. So, you know this buoyancy force is resulting from the non uniform and temperature
distribution inside the tundish and this basically causes the flow profiles to be changed
many a times.
So, it has been seen that because of this the flow profile in the tundish will be changed as
compared to what is being seen in the case of the isothermal system. And so, you know
you know you it is said that if this is satisfied. So, this needs to be satisfied if the similarity
has to be maintained.
So, it can be concluded that, if you maintain the constancy of these tundish Richardson
number; then the you know it means the ratio of the buoyancy force and the inertial force
is you know is satisfied. So, that will be you know of the two system will be same the ratio
of these two forces. And it will be satisfying the dynamic similarity of the model as well
as the prototype.
So, this when we talk about these non isothermal system, this is there is I mean additional
this type of one more dimensionless form a number is you know coming into picture that
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is your Richardson number. So, we can see its effect how it affects. So, when we talk about
the studies on the heat transfer studies inside the tundish, then we will have a view of its
effect.
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Lecture – 10
Consideration in Aqueous Modeling
Welcome to the lecture on Considerations in Aqueous Modeling. So, we will talk about
the issues and which are considerations, which are required in the case of aqueous
modeling or water modeling. So, we will talk about the different aspects in this lecture.
So, coming to the issues or considerations which are required as we have discussed in the
past that the first thing is the consideration about the scale factor.
So, as you know that you need to have the selection of proper scale, you have seen that if
you try to have the similarity criteria using the Reynolds similarity or the Froude similarity,
we have the different you know many a times you get if you talk about you know velocity
of the model. So, as compared to velocity in the actual case, you will have that in the
1
function of either 𝜆 or √𝜆, so either 𝜆, either scale factor.
So, you know now the thing is that many a times the both can be satisfied only when the
𝜆 is 1, so that becomes you know very, very expensive means your model has to be of the
same size as that of the prototype. So, it will become very, very expensive.
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So, you know, so basically in the starting point in a in a physical model investigation is
the choice of the appropriate you know geometric scale factor, and you will have that
basically determines the size of the model vessel. You know for turbulent flows this fill
factor has not to be very small.
Now, as we see that the full scale models, if you try to have the try to satisfy both the
similarity Reynolds as well as Froude, so you will have to have the 𝜆 is 1, and then that
case you will have the very large model and that will be very very expensive. Then you
know when you are talking about the turbulent flow. So, if you take very, very small, you
know scale factor, in that case it may not represent actually the flow which is taking place,
so that is because that is you know not going to create the you know turbulence enough
turbulence inside the Tundish.
So, because as the vessel size is you know decreasing, the importance of Reynolds number
relative to Froude number is increasing, and that is why you will have to have you know
the properly you will have to see that what should be the actually the scale factor. So, you
know once you come to decide about the scale factor, then next comes the choice of the
working fluid.
Now, if you talk about the working fluid, so this is a very important you know
consideration, because there are many kind of fluid, but then you will have to look into
those aspects that which is readily available and which satisfies those conditions. So, you
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know you know water at 298 K now it has been found that when you take water and which
is at 298 K or about 25 degree Celsius that is your normal room temperature. And if you
take the molten steel at 1873 K, so what has been seen that they have nearly the similar
𝜇
kinematic viscosity that is 𝜌, and that is why it very much you know you know helps you
know ensure that you have the similar flow regime you know established in both the model
as well as in the actual Tundish. Then also flow phenomena and steel making systems are
that is why they are frequently investigated through these water models.
So, so water is taken as a very you know most acceptable kind of fluid, which is used for
the modeling studies in case of the steelmaking operations. So, there are many reasons for
water being selected as the fluid working fluid.
And those reasons are that water is cheap and also it is readily available. So, you can have
water at all the places, so you know that is why it gives you a very good choice to have the
water; otherwise other things will be costly. It is convenient to work with water, because
it is non-corrosive it is also neutral, and it has many you know of the qualities which make
it very very you know good for handling.
So, you know you can use it with much of ease and that is why it has lot of advantage over
other fluid. It has low capital and operating cost of the model. So, if you are making the
model with working fluid as water, then certainly you have the requirement of low capital
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cost as far as the working fluid is concerned and also you will have a low operating cost
of the model.
Also this is also one of the very important you know property of the water that you because
being the transparent; if you keep that system, if you make the you know physical model
with the Perspex sheet, in that case you know you can have easy visualization of the flow
if a water flowing inside the vessel. So, that you know that is further giving you another
added advantage and that is why these are the reasons because of which you are you are
taking the water as the most popular you know working fluid.
So, in isothermal flow modeling, the operating parameters are determined solely from the
dynamic similarity criterion, while both dynamic and thermal similarity criterion are
considered for the non-isothermal situations you have already we have discussed that when
we talk about the isothermal system. In that case you have the dynamic similarity criterion
solely to be you know taken into account, but when we talk about the non-isothermal
situations in those situations, what we see is that you will have to have the thermal
similarity you have to whether you whether you know non-dimensional numbers coming
into picture and they also that condition also need to be met you know in those situations.
So, you know what we see is that normally what we see that when we talk about the Froude
number, so it is a function of the velocity and length. So, you know that the Froude number
which is nothing but the ratio of the inertial to the you know, the gravitational force. So,
you will have the velocity and length you will be there. And you will have the thermo
physical properties which are they are like velocity or density.
So, you know so they are expected to exert a lot of you know effect you know on the flow
which is Froude dominated, so that is why you know we what we see is that you know that
any liquid in principle can be used to represent these molten steel flow in that Froude
dominated flow regime.
Now, many a times as we as we have discussed that we are taking the water as the most
acceptable you know working fluid. So, we what we do is we do the scaling, and then you
know we do make the models, the physical models built on those scaling factors. So, for
example, you know if you see that you may be having you know situation like you are told
that you are to make a physical model, and you are given the scale factor also.
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1
So, suppose you are given the scale factor, and you are you are going to make a 3 model.
1
So, means 0.33 is the scaling. So, suppose you have you have to make one you know
3
industrial ladle. So, for the ladle if you know if the for that industrial sized ladle, you know
if the height of the ladle is given as 3.1meter. Similarly, if you are you know filled liquid
depth, so that is given as suppose say 2.7 meter, so that will be total height is 3.1, and the
height up to which the liquid has been filled that is your 2.7 meter. Then if you say it is
given that if you dia at the base it is given as 3.58 meter, similarly dia at the top so it is
given as the 4 meter.
So, and then you have the gas flow rate. So, that is in case of that is Newton meters cube
per second and that is given as 1.1𝑥10−2 , then you have a porous plug dia which is there
in this case, so that is given as 140 you know and mm. So, this is in terms of millimeter.
2
And also you have dimensionless plug location porous plug location, so that is 3𝑅.
So, now if you talk about the making the model, in that case if you take these scaling
factors, you can have the you know height as height of the model ladle, it will be something
like you will have 𝜆 ∗ 𝐻𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 . So, it will be 0.33 multiplied by 3.10.. So, it will be so
1
you will have or 3, you can have or if you multiply with point 3.1 ∗ 0.33, so it will be
1.023 something like meter.
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So, if you go to the diameter of the diameter at the base of the model, so you will calculate
as again 𝜆 ∗ 𝐷𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 at the base. So, diameter at the base of the prototype is given as 3.58.
So, it will be 0.33 ∗ 3.58, so it will be 1.18 meter. Similarly, you will have calculation of
other you know parameters like you have with the diameter at the top of the model, it will
be a 𝜆 ∗ 𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝐷𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 . So, diameter at the top of the prototype, they will be 4 meters, it
will be 0.33 ∗ 4, so it will be 1.23 meter.
Similarly, the liquid filled in the up to white up to what height in the model it will be again
𝜆 ∗ 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 .. So, this way you can calculate. So, it will be liquid filled is up
to the height of 2.7, so it will be 0.33 ∗ 2.7 Newton, so it will be 0.891 meter. So, this way
you can have the value of these model. What you see that in this case the location will be
2
still maintained at 3𝑅, because you are anyway changing.
However, these porous plug this diameter, so the you know this need not be changed
because the this is basically you know if this diameter of that injection gas injection device
that need not be changed, because you know what happens that these stud ladles are
normally the potential energy driven. So, we can have the there you know value as the
same one.
And what you can see that you can have the calculation of the you know Froude similarity,
so you can have the Froude similarity criteria and you can see that how they are matching,
so that is the use of these scaling factors in finding and if you try to have the value of you
know other parameters also you can calculate like even calculate for the you know Q also.
So, you also can be calculated and even the isothermal and non-isothermal you know
conditions may also be taken into account. So, so this way the use of these scaling factors
is there in the case of modeling.
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Now, coming to the limitation of the aqueous modeling so, now there are certain
limitations to these water modeling also, because many a times we are taking, so as we
discussed that on many accounts we have to have certain compromises. So, small scale
factor flow idealization in terms of Froude number, Prandtl number difference between
water and liquid steel etc. are inherent in case of water modeling and they create the
uncertainties. Because, if you look at the physical properties of water and steel, so you will
have the differences in these number values, and they are going to inherently cause certain
kind of uncertainties in the case of aqueous modeling when we are taking water as the
working fluid.
Inability to realistically represent the multi phase nature of a steelmaking system. So, as
we see that when we talk about the you know steelmaking system, so what we see there
that you have the molten steel at the bottom, and then you will have the presence of the
slag, and then you have the air also and they will be interacting. So, if they will have
interfaces in between them, so it is basically a multi phase system kind of you know
environment which is there.
Now, you cannot realistically you cannot go very close to the actual system, because it is
very difficult to have the similar kind of system because that is at a very high temperature
where you will have the molten steel, and then above the steel you will have the molten
slag. So, you know you cannot realistically represent these you know multiphase nature of
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the steel making system in a very realistic manner, so that is basically one challenge which
is there or one you know concern, so that is the limitation.
So, many people have tried to even you know take into consideration you know things like
a you give certain wood floor or so at the you know at the surface of the water. So, that
may represent you know the slag which is there in the steel making vessel like Tundish or
ladle, but that is not the true representation that will not truly represent the situation which
will be there inside the Tundish, so that becomes you know a challenge in the case of the
aqueous modeling.
In many water model investigations, the presence of an upper slag phase is entirely
ignored. So, what we do normally that we are ignoring this slag level. So, when we are
going for the solution, because when we do the physical modeling, so based on the physical
modeling results and we also so these results are used to validate first, and then we try to
have the results from the numerical investigation.
Now, as in the normal case you will have the slag present above the molten steel and that
is basically ignored in most of the cases. So, so ignoring this slag phase is the only way by
which you can you know ease the computational method or solution methodology when
you at modeling through the numerical you know means. So, so, so in many water model
because you do not have actually that kind of you know material which should represent,
in fact, the slag which would very much replicate the kind of you know event or the kind
of activity which is you know done by the slag at the top level of the steel.
So, that is many investigators have try to do it through the use of either you know wood
floors or so, but then in most of the cases we try to ignore it. So, so that certainly leads to
certain kind of error and that is one of the limitation of this aqueous modeling which is
seen you know which is a still researchers are trying to have the you know they have cases
by which they can replicate these you know slag flow also, it is like can be taken into
account, so that is one challenge.
136
Physical processes occurring in a high temperature steel making system involving metal
slag gas are impossible to be recreated in water models. So, as we discussed that it is very
difficult to have the recreation of that system which is in actual present in the steelmaking
case like you have the metal, then you have the slag and also you have the gas. So, it
becomes a three phase kind of system which is nothing but the multi phase system, and
you cannot make in water models.
Because you know that the gas system is anyway impossible you know in such cases, so
that is becoming one of the you know limitation of the aqueous modeling. You have results
of actual steel making process drawn solely from water model studies with or without
buoyant, buoyant phase are likely to be largely inadequate.
So, many a times we go for the isothermal analysis, we are not taking the thermal analysis
into account, because when we if we talk about the actual system, so when the ladle
basically is supposed ladle when ladle is there is ladle change over the steel which the
other ladle has given or the temperature which is there of the still in the Tundish, and the
steel temperature of the coming ladle they may be entirely different. And that may result
into the buoyancy forces, and these buoyancy forces they affect the fluid flow which occurs
inside the vessel.
So, when we are talking about the water modeling, so in most of the cases, we talk about
the isothermal analysis and in those cases we are neglecting these buoyancy forces and
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that may not be truly representing the kind of phenomena which is going you know to take
place inside the Tundish. So, that is another you know limitation of this water modeling
when we do in the case of these aqueous modeling. So, these are the limitations in the case
of water modeling.
So, introduction to the experimental techniques which are you know used to study you
know in the aqueous modeling. And you have many experimental techniques which are
used for studying these flow modeling is the flow visualization, then you have
measurement of velocity, you have turbulence and phases in two-phase flows and then you
have heat and mass transport. So, these are the things which you need to study using the
experimental techniques.
138
So, if you come to the flow visualization, so you know what happens that in the if the flow
visualization, it will be providing you the snapshot of the flow field and it will be
representing a useful tool for studying the instantaneous flow characteristics. So, what we
do is that we normally make the Tundish model or the ladle model using a Perspex sheet
which is transparent, so that you can visualize the flow. And what we do is normally we
put the tracer so and then the tracer method is most widely used and for that there are
different procedures. So, you have the different way.
So, one is the injection method. So, what we do is that in this case we inject certain tracer,
and this tracer once injected it will go and it will be dispersed inside the vessel, so that
vessel is you know either it is Tundish or ladle. So, it will be going inside, and it will you
know dispersed will diffuse inside the Tundish, and it is concentration will be monitored
you know at different points inside the vessel or at the outlet of the vessel the Tundish or
the ladle.
139
So, normally when we talk about the you know this injection method, so in that we use
certain tracer and this you know tracer is normally a dye, so that is you know this we use
a tracer or a dye. So, this typically it is a dye that is 𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑜4 . So, this is 𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑜4 solution or
you have you know other you know neutral kind of buoyant fine particles which are used
as the, you know these tracer particles. So, there will be you know it may be silver coated
you know glass bubbles also, so that will be going into it, and there will be there will be
floating. So, they will be injected into the flow and then they are you know flow is
observed. So, and you know that is being traced.
Then you have the suspension method. So, here you will have the suitable you know
suspended particle is there. So, you will have suitable tracers like small pieces of silk, so
its movement will be you know traced, so that is also another one by suspension you can
have its trace, so by that you can have the study of the flow.
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So, apart from that you will have the different flow measurement devices are applied to
measure the velocity and turbulence. And in that you have pitot tube, you have hot wire
anemometer, laser doppler velocimeter, the PIV is very much used in the case of physical
modeling, where you try to have the you know velocity profile at certain section, so drag
probe. So, these are the different you know ways by which you measure these you know
velocity and flow profile.
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So, this is how your velocity and turbulence and PIV setup looks like. So, in that case you
find the, you know the velocity profiles inside the vessel. So, this is about the, you know
physical modeling aspects, the issues and challenges with that. And when we talk about
the case studies and when we talk about other aspects, then we will have further you know
discussion about these topics and we will have a more clarity in our, you know
understanding.
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Lecture – 11
Introduction to Stimulus Response Techniques
Welcome to the lecture on Introduction to Stimulus Response Techniques. So, we talked

about the continuous casting unit and in that we talked about the role of tundish. And, in
this lecture we are going to have the discussion about those techniques by which we will
be knowing about the flow behavior inside the tundish. So, that we can quantify in
quantifiable terms we can have the idea that how good some tundish is or how good the
flow is for obtaining certain you know output or certain results.
So, coming to the you know genesis of this. So, first of all let us know that why you know
we need to have certain approach. So, that we can understand you know the flow behavior
inside the tundish and then we can know the methods by which you can you know
quantitatively understand or interpret the things which is happening inside the tundish.
So, we know that the tundish is very important in the continuous casting setup and mainly
it has many roles and first is that it is a batch type of vessel. So, it is a link between the
ladle and mold. So, it will have the role as a buffer vessel. So, the ladle will be emptying
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the you know steel into the tundish and then the tundish will be supplying to the mold. So,
you know the so, the mold which is getting the metal it is directly getting from the tundish.
So, ladle from ladle it will be entering into the mold and then depending upon the tundish
geometry the metal which is coming into the tundish so that has to flow through the tundish
outlets and then it has to go into the mold. So, you know that way it is important that how
which type of flow is there inside the tundish because ultimately the mold is receiving
those metal which is ultimately going to solidify and you are going to have the cast billets
or slabs whatever to be.
Then it is also as working as a reservoir and distributor. So, it is collecting the liquid metal
from the ladle and then it is distributing to the strands to the molds. So, its function is like
a reservoir and then it is distributing to the different strands or different molds. Then
another more important you know why tundish becomes important is the fact that it is a
last reservoir you know before the mold before the metal enters into the mold.
So, after that the metal which is going to the mold it has to solidify and if the liquid has
any kind of issues then that issue will not be you know cannot be addressed. So, whatever
issues are to be addressed like inclusions need to be floated or the temperature you know
has to be adequate and all that is to be seen in the tundish itself. Otherwise, you know after
that once it leaves into the molds of there if something is there some external entity is there
inside the liquid melt or so.
So, it does not have any chance further you know to be skimmed off although there may
be somewhat, but then you know this is the last vessel before the metal goes into the mold
for solidification. So, you need to have you know the considerations for the liquid metal
to have the desired composition when it is going to enter into the mold or it is free from
any kind of defect like you know it is a clean. There is no you know inclusion of any you
know type inside the tundish, and also the metal which is being you know which is going
out of the tundish outlet they are of adequate temperature.
So, there should not be you know unnecessary temperature drop inside the tundish because
that will also be hampering the quality of the you know cast product. So, the thing is that
tundish becomes very important and you need to have the you know proper flow you know
flow characteristic proper flow pattern inside the tundish. So, that the requisite properties
or requisite quality of the cast product be ascertained.
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And so, the efficiency and optimization of these processes require close control of the
molten steel flow characteristics within the tundish. So, that is why the tundish becomes
very important you need to have you know proper control of the flow inside the tundish.
So, basically the characterization of flow is important you need to understand the flow,
what way the flow is there inside the tundish, the metal, which is coming inside the ladle,
how it is flowing out of the tundish. So, where it is striking the wall or whether it is going
into all the corners of the tundish, whether any reason of the tundish is there, where the
metal has gone in it and it is a dead region which is getting cold or so.
So, all these things need to be you know understood and for that there should be proper
methodology, proper way of experimentation even by which you should understand that.
So, for that you know for the detailed characterization of the fluid flow. So, for the detailed
characterization of metal flow in the tundish or in any flow system requires knowledge of
the complete fluid flow pattern. So, you need to have the understanding of the complete
fluid flow for the detailed characterization of that metal flow inside the tundish.
Now, for that there are may be many approaches and one of the approach is that you should
have the knowledge of how long different elements of fluid remain in the tundish.
Basically, you know that the high temperature molten metal will be coming from the ladle
and it will be staying for sometime in the tundish and then it will be leaving to the mold.
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So, once it goes into the mold. So, there you will have the solidification starting and then
from the mold continuously the metal getting solidified will be taken out. So, the thing is
one of the approach you know to study that how it will behave inside the tundish. So, is to
also in by taking in the way that you should know that how long the different elements of
these fluid you know. So, they are remaining inside the tundish, some of the elements may
stay longer some of elements may you know stay very less amount of time.
So, that approach so, for that we have an experimental technique which is used for finding
this desired distribution of residence times of the fluid in the vessel. So, what we do is that
in that we normally try to have the definition of one property like residence time. So, for
how much time the fluid particle is residing inside any vessel that is your residence time.
So, we have certain experimental techniques by which we try to find the distribution of the
residence time of the fluid in the vessel and this is known as the stimulus response
technique. So, what this stimulus response technique means? So, stimulus or the input
basically it is nothing, but it is simply an addition of the tracer material.
So, normally what we do is we put a tracer material that tracer will be in the form of a dye
or it may be a salt or acid all are radioactive material or a metal solute it may be anything.
So, that is basically added into the fluid stream you know and that will be entering into the
vessel so that is and its responses taken.
So, you are basically you know adding this tracer material that is that will be in the form
of any you know of these materials, it will be going into the stream and then you know its
output is basically recorded. So, that will be its information about its stay inside the vessel
that will be you know recorded. So, that is how its response is taken.
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So, the response or output signal once there of you have injected these tracer inside the
vessel as the input. So, once you have put that then the response or output signal is then
the detection of the tracer leaving the vessel. So, the vessel will go into the tracer will go
into the vessel, it will stay for some time and then it will leaving the vessel.
So, the output signal or the response that will be so, that will be measured. So, that it will
be detected that when the it is leaving the vessel. So, that is the basically the stimulus
response technique. So, we are basically injecting something and then we are seeing that
how long it is staying, where it is going, how it is flowing. So, these are the stimulus you
know this is known as the stimulus response technique.
Now, what happens that this response is plotted as a dimensionless concentration time
curve which is known as the residence time distribution curve of the fluid. So, which will
be representing. So, what happens that when you are putting these tracers? So, it will be
going and then you are monitoring its stay inside the vessel and then you are plotting a
graph. And, in the graph you will have on the x axis you will have the time and on the y
axis you have the concentration of that tracer.
So, and that is dimensionalized sorry, that is made dimensionless by certain ways. So, that
we will discuss and then basically this curve which you get. So, in that you know it tells it
represents the time spent by the fluid particle inside the vessel; so, how the concentration
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will be changing with time. So, you know that the curve which you get that curve is known
as the residence time distribution.
So, you know if you look at in a normal way. So, for the incompressible fluid the average
time spent will be nothing, but the ratio of the volume to volumetric flow rate. So, as you
know that the you have a volumetric flow in the tundishes Q and if the V is the volume.
So, t will be the average time which is spent by the fluid in the reactor so on. On an average
the fluid particle is going to spend this much some of the particle will spend less time than
this, some of the particle will spend more than this.
So, you know that defines again the different trades off the vessel also. So, that will be that
we will be discussing that they will be representing, different cases different types of
regions inside the vessel or so. So, then so, if you talk about the residence time distribution.
𝑉
So, this 𝑡̅ which we have seen here 𝑡̅ = 𝑄; V is the volume of the flow, I mean fluid in the
tundish and the Q is the volumetric flow in the tundish.
So, this 𝑡̅ which you get this 𝑡̅ is known as the theoretical average residence time or the
nominal holding time of the fluid in the tundish. So, we call it as the theoretical average
residence time. This is a theoretical value in actual and the fluid particle some of the fluid
particle may stay long, some of the fluid particle may be spending less time than this. But,
if you take the average it will be coming closer to this is basically the ideal kind of value.
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Then the residence time distribution of the fluid in a vessel is plotted as dimensionless
time against dimensionless concentration. Now, the as we have already discussed, now the
dimensionless time that is θ. So, that is indicated by θ, this θ is indication of the fractional
residence that is and this is obtained by dividing any time by the theoretical average
residence time. So, the time which you are representing on the x axis.
So, the time it will be divided by the you know theoretical average residence time. So, that
way you get the you know x axis that is your you know dimensionless time, then you also
have the dimensionless concentration on the y axis.
And on the y axis basically you get the concentration also by dividing with certain
concentration. So, that way you get the dimensionless concentration. Now, the thing is that
there are two types of input of this tracer inside the tundish. So, you know one is the step
input and another is the pulse input.
So, in the step input what we do is we are constantly applying this tracer and it will be
going into the tundish constantly; so, continuously. So, that is your step input and that is
also known as the F curve the curve which you get.
𝑐
So, the dimensionless concentration for the step input of tracer F; 𝐹 = 𝑐 . So, as you know
𝑖
that c will be the any concentration of tracer in the fluid at the exit of the vessel. So, that
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is your you know c, and then 𝑐𝑖 with which you will be dividing that c it will be the tracer
concentration in the upcoming incoming fluid.
So, the you are dividing that c which you are getting with the tracer concentration in the
incoming fluid. So, that way you will get one you know dimensionless value of the
concentration and that will be F you know in that case. So, that is your giving you the step
input.
Then, if you go to the you know so, if you have try to understand we will see that how this
F curve looks like; similarly, the when you go talk about the dimensionless concentration
for the pulse input. So, pulse input means you are giving the tracer only for in a in a pulse
manner. So, you are just giving some tracer some amount and then you are living.
So, this tracer which is going into very small amount, it will be going inside the tundish
and then it will have its path inside the tundish. So, with the bulk flow of the steel or
whatever you are allowing to flow inside the tundish. This tracer will move and then its
concentration will be also monitored at the outlet. So, that is known as the pulse input of
tracer.
So, pulse input of tracer in that case the dimensionless concentration which is on the
𝑐
ordinate you know that is y axis. So, that will be c and it will be by 𝑄 . So, what we do is
⁄𝑉
𝑄
in that whatever concentration you are getting it will be divided by ⁄𝑉. So, Q you have
you know quantity of tracer which you have supplied and V is the volume. So, that is you
𝑄
know ⁄𝑉 is the average concentration tracer when dissolved in tundish volume V.
𝑐
So, that way you are trying to you know have a ratio of 𝑄 . So, that will give you the you
⁄𝑉
know dimensionless concentration and dimensionless time as you see that will be same
thing like time will be divided by the average theoretical mean residence time; so, that will
be your you know x axis. So, that way you can have the you know the c curve.
So, in this case the curve is like inverted c type so this way; so, that will be as far it is
known as a c, it is represented by a c and in this case it is going like this. So, normally we
call it as a F curve or you know a step input or F the quantity which we try to see. So, if
you try to see that how these curve looks like.
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So, suppose if you are talking about the step input. So, you know in the case of step input
what happens that you know you have you know initially you give the tracer and then that
tracer will be continuously given.
So, at the outlet the tracer concentration will go on increasing. So, its value goes on
increasing and you know and when you draw these you know curve for the step input. So,
that comes like you have the value so, which will be increasing and then you will be going
like this. So, this way you know when you do the you know step input.
So, in the case of step input you know so, this is your time and this is your tracer
concentration. So, this concentrate tracer is basically continuously supplied and you know
so, it is concentration will go on increasing at an at one point of time. It will approach you
know so, it will be approaching you know unity you know at some time. So, you know
you will have θ. So, this is if you take this is a dimensionless. So, it will be close to one or
so.
So, if you go to more than you know twice the residence time, in that case critical residence
time in that case it will be approaching one. So, basically its nothing, but you know many
are there are many you know examples of such systems like if you talk about the flow of
liquid steel in the tundish.
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So, is in that case you can think of that case where the tundish has certain grade of steel
and then you are having another steel which is coming from the different ladle. So, that
will be coming and then it will be going through the inlet.
So, now that will be continuous. So, in that case, the next grade steel which is coming
through the ladle and going into the tundish that is a tracer. So, this tracer initially if it goes
inside its concentration at the outlet will be very small, but as the time progresses the new
steel will be its concentration will go on increasing.
And after some time its concentration will be maximum as it will be coming through the
outlet you know mostly it will be new grade tundish; I mean steel which will be coming
through the tundish outlet. So, that is the example of the step input and normally when we
do the grade transition analysis.
So, many a times you know we try to see that after how much time what fraction of the
old grade and what fraction of new grade steel is coming out. So, these analysis can be
done using these F curve. So, that is your you know step input.
Then we are talking about the you know c curve that is your pulse input. Now, in the case
of pulse input what happens that you are just giving the pulse or certain input of the tracer.
So, if you come to the you know pulse input. So, in the case of pulse input you are just
giving some amount of tracer. So, you are giving for short pulse thats why it is tracer will
be injected as a short pulse; so, that is why it is known as the pulse input.
Now, in this case what is happening is that you know the tracer will start appearing you
know so, it will start appearing after some time and then it will reach to a maximum and
then its concentration will go on decreasing. So, that will be you know that that will go.
So, this way you know what is seen is that it is it is normally seen that is sum over θ is
somewhere close to one here, and then as you move ahead with time so, the concentration
further goes on decreasing. So, the tracer concentration is seen to initially increase and
then it will reach to a maximum and then further it will go on decreasing and then it will
come asymptotically it will decrease to 0. So, you will have you know the you know
dimensionless concentration on this side. So, you may have and this is dimensionless time.
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So, your it will go 2 or 2.5 and in this case maybe 1 2 or so; so, it may be more than even
1 many a times. So, as you know that in this case this is how the curve looks like in this
case. Now, what is happening in this case this is also known as the delta function.
So, the output concentration will be reaching to certain value and then it will be decreasing
to you know to 0. So, that you know that 0 case will come when all the tracer has exited
the tundish; so, that is the case of 0.
Now, if you plot on the dimensionless scale then in that case the area under this curve is
always going to be unity. So, we normally represent as if you take the area under the curve.
∞
So, ∫0 𝑐𝑑𝜃 = 1 so, that is how we try to show these you know pulse input cases. Now,
this pulse input will be useful for those cases when we try to you know find out the different
tundish you know regions like suppose you have you may have the tundish.
So, if suppose you have a tundish like this and in one case you have put in the tundish so,
this is your inlet. So, this is from where the liquid steel is coming. Now, in this case and
this is your outlet so, suppose this is the outlet, now the thing is that when you are basically
giving the pulse you know that is tracer from here.
So, in this case the it will come and then it may go like and it will come. So, maybe after
the time of 30 second or 50 second or 40 second it has come out of this tundish outlet. So,
you will have you will have some it will go like this.
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Now, what is happen what happens that in some case you can have some kind of dam here.
So, then liquid metal will come and then it will go here and then it will come after and then
remove. So, in that case it may lead to the change. So, the tracer may appear late and it
may go and then it may come like this. So, the thing is that you know this wave the c
curves will be changed.
So, now this is used you know now what we do in this case with the help of c curve, we
also know that you know the fluid particle is coming in how much time when the
concentration has there is no concentration coming out. And based on that basically we
also we will you know study that we try to have the characterization of the you know space
inside the tundish. We divide them into like maybe like different tundish volumes like
dead regions or mixed regions or plug regions or plug flow or mixed flow or you know
dead region.
So, the thing is that it will all depend upon how, so, this will be found out using these you
know pulsed input. So, if something has gone depending upon the flow pattern inside the
tundish, how that is going to flow and when its you know concentration at the outlet can
be monitored properly. So, that can be understood with the help of these c curves. So, this
is basically these are the you know uses of the F and the c curve which is used for the flow
characterization in the tundish.
So, in the coming my lectures, we will be talking about you know how to represent these
different kind of regions inside the tundish, what are the different types of flows which
normally take place you know without interacting or how well it mixes inside and all that.
So, that we will be able to you know study in our coming lectures.
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Lecture – 12
Characterization of Flow
Welcome to the lecture on Characterization of Flow. So, we talked about the stimulus
response techniques, in that we talked about the pulse input and step input. So, just having
an overview of that. So, as we see that if you go for the step input then we get the F-curve.
And the F-curve is nothing but the concentration time curve that is obtained at the outlet
stream plotted on a dimensionless scale. So, then it is known as the F-curve. So, you have
on the y axis you have dimensionless concentration and on the x-axis you have
dimensionless time. So, in the case of F-curve what we, how we go with it is that at a given
time t equal to 0 we are starting the adding or the tracer into the inlet stream, at a rate that
is maintained constant throughout the experiment.
So, you have the tundish and you are giving that you know tracer into the tundish
constantly at a constant you know rate. So, that way and its concentration at the outlet will
be you know you know monitors. At the same time we sample the exit stream continuously
and plot the exit concentration of tracer as a function of time.
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So, we allow the tracer to go into it, it will go inside the tundish and it will flow as per the
path which is available to it depending upon the you know configurations inside the vessel
and then it will coming out. And then at there, we have the instrument by which we
measure the concentration of the tracer at the outlet of the tundish. So, this way the curve
which we get that is known as the F-curve.
And a typical F-curve you know for the plug and mixing flow will be like this; so that we
will talk about what is that plug and mixing flow. But then you can see that you are you
know once you look at the F-curve; so this is where you know. From here the concentration
starts appearing at the exit.
So, up to this much of time there is no tracer concentration being appeared at the you know
turn this outlet. So, the tracer which has gone inside the tundish, it has come all through
without you know going to the outlet. And then after that the part has started appearing at
the outlet. So, it will start appearing and then slowly it will go on increasing.
So, you have a plug component, we have a mixed component, so the mixing taking place
and then this curve is you know. So, this is your dimensionless concentration. And
basically if you look at so this is 1. So, if you go for larger values it will go and touch
nearly 1, so that will be you know that will be the F-curve. Now, use of the step tracer
input may not be practical because of extensive contamination of the product and the cost
of tracer.
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So, its not very much you know in practice except you know we can certainly go for the
numerical analysis of these processes, where we do not require these expensive tracers and
its use. But you know you do not prefer that because, if the tracer you know is going
continuously into the molten steel you know so that may even contaminate the steel.
So, you may like to have the concentration analysis at the exit, but then you have a you
know that will certainly contaminate the whole steel. So, that is one issue. Another issue
is that since you are continuously supplying, so it also adds to the cost factor. So, the cost
of tracer will be another burden. So, because of that you tried not to use it practically, you
better go for the other kind of analysis like C-curve or pulse input. So, we have already
studied that in the C-curve your injection of tracer is made as a short pulse.
And the resulting dimensionless, so that results into dimensionless concentration. And
time curve at the outlet stream and the curve which you plot for the dimensionless
concentration and the dimensionless time that is C-curve and it will rise to some value and
then drop again to 0 when the entire extra cell has exited the vessel.
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So, we already had discussed about it. Now this is how the C-curve looks like for the plug
and missed flow. So, know what happens that this is you know it starts appearing from
here and then it has reached to a peak value and then further it has started decreasing.
And if you increase this dimensionless time you have access to larger value. Slowly it will
be coming towards approaching towards 0. So, this is basically the C-curve. Now you
know that we had already seen in our lecture. Now, the thing is that when we talk about
these flow systems.
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So, if you talk about the continuous flow systems they can be classified by the type of flow
they are exhibiting. So, you have two extreme cases of possible fluid flow. And these two
extreme cases are like you have plug flow and you have well mixed flow. So, they are
normally considered as the ideal flow.
So, you know in actual case you will have certainly variation from these limiting or ideal
cases. And though there will be non ideal cases, because in actual this a plug flow that is
your ideal plug flow or ideal mixed flow that does not exist. But so, you will have the non
ideal flows they are normally you know present which is practically seen inside the
tundish. Now, coming to the discussion about the plug flow.
So, plug flow is; so in this type of limiting type of ideal flow system, the longitudinal
missing is non-existent. So, what you see that normally you know we define as the metal
which is the tracer which has gone. So, the plug flow means, the longitudinal mixing will
be non-existent. So, the mixing in the longitudinal direction that is not at all there. So, it
will have will be maintaining its identity and it will flow in you know on its path.
There may be some amount of transverse mixing to certain extent you know in the in that
case in the case of plug flow. So, the necessary and sufficient condition for the plug flow
system is that, all fluid element have identical residence time in the vessel. So, what we
see that normally you have all the fluid element which is there.
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So, it will go and it will exit the vessel at the time which will be same as the mean residence
time inside the vessels. Everybody has every fluid element which has which is flowing in
that plug manner, so it will have the same you know mean residence time. So, what you
see here is that, you know the flow is going and it will come and it will be out. So, this is
the example of the plug flow.
So, if you talk about plug flow system and if you talk about the C-curve. So, in the C-curve
how can you schematically represent? So, what you see in the C-curve what you have seen
that in the C-curve what you do is you give the sort pulse of tracer, it will go into the
tundish and then it will come it will go inside the tundish at different location and then it
will come to the outlet.
Now, in the case of ideal plug flow system if you talk about the C-curve what you see is,
that the tracer which you have added and all the fluid element will be spending a time that
is equal to θ equal to 1. So, θ equal to 1 means it is the mean residence time, actual
theoretical mean residence time. So, at the theoretical mean residence time all the tracer
has come out, so you see a long peak and then here itself it vanishes.
So, all the you know tracer has come out of the tundish outlet at this time that is the time
of actual you know I mean theoretical mean residence time. So, this is known as the ideal
plug flow, the tracer which has you know entered.
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So, into the vessel and it has come and slowly it has gone and it has come out of the outlet.
So, it has spent the ideal time. So, it has not interacted with you know with other fluid, so
in longitudinal or in transverse manner ideally. And then it has come out and it will be or
wherever it has gone it is basically volume by volumetric flow rate that is your theoretical
mean residence time.
So, it has gone out, it has not it has maintained its identity and then it has come out without
mixing. So, that is your you know plug flow in the case of the pulse input system. If you
talk about the step input systems or that F-curve. For F-curve if you see, the plug flow will
be represented by this curve. So, where it tells that the metal I mean the tracer which has
gone into the metal, so this tracer has not you know interacted anywhere.
And then when it has spent time of the theoretical mean residence time inside the vessel
that is tundish, then all the tracer has started exiting. So, basically tracer has been is
continuously being put in and all the tracer is flowing. And then it will stay you know
together in the tundish for the theoretical mean residence time period, and then after that
they will start exiting. So, once they start exiting then their concentration will go on
increasing.
So, I mean not increasing basically it has directly reached. So, its they are all coming out.
So, the concentration is dimensionless concentration is 1 itself. So, this is the you know
representation for the plug flow. Either be it when you talk it in terms of the C-curve or
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you talk in terms of the F-curve. So, you can represent these you know plug flow on these
two systems like these two curves.
Now, next will be your mixed flow. So, the mixed flow will be the type of ideal flow that
will be representing the other extreme of the missing. That is you know the maximum
possible mixing of the fluid you know inside the vessel. So, to talk about the mixed flow,
so in that case what we assume is that in a plug flow they are maintaining its identity
whereas, in the mixed fluid is assumed that once that tracer has gone inside the vessel it
has completely mixed inside.
So, you know. So, its like a system, like you know once you have any system. So, if you
have you just have an impeller and you know and then you are rotating it, so you know all
these things will be moving like you know everywhere. So, this will be completely mixing
into it. So, this k wave you will have a completely mixed flow.
So, you have sometimes something flow in and then if you have some flow out. So, that
way you will have complete mixing if you have a mixer with a stirrer or so. So this is the
example of a completely you know mixed flow. Now what we know by this you know if
you try to analyze these mix flow systems.
So, if you see the you know considering consider the mass balance of tracer in the system,
where you have put the you know tracer into the system. So, in that case you can write that
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rate of tracer input minus rate of tracer output that will be nothing but the rate of tracer
𝑑
accumulation. So, what you write is that you can have the 𝑄0 − 𝑄𝑐 , so that will be 𝑑𝑡 (𝑣𝑐 )
And accordingly so you can from here what you can see that if you write this you know
𝑑
𝑄0 − 𝑄𝑐 . So, that will be you know 𝑄𝑐 it will be the accumulations, so (𝑣𝑐 ). So, what
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑐 𝑄
you from here you get . So, that will be you know − 𝑉 dv and that will be dt. So, this is
𝐶
𝑑𝑐 𝑄
𝑄𝑐 , so this C you know this side you will have , so this will go and − 𝑉 and then that dt
𝐶
will go this side.
So, you can integrate it and you can integrate it you know by having a certain boundary
condition. So, if you integrate suppose and if you are giving the boundary condition like
𝑞 𝑞
you have you know you take 𝑐 = ⁄𝑣 . So, you will have 𝑐 = ⁄𝑣 at t=0 and then you have
c=c at t=t. So, this being the boundary condition you can you know. So, for t you have
taken the two time and what will be the concentration.
𝑑𝑐
So, based on that you can further integrate. So, , so it will be log 𝑐 and for the different
𝐶
𝑞
values you will have a 𝑐 log 𝑐upon you know ⁄𝑣. So, that will be equal to you know
𝑞
− ⁄𝑣 𝑑𝑡. So, that will be you know. So, even in this case you will have, so this is log c
that will be -θ. So, you will have if you look at this C value it will be 𝑒.−𝜃
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So, that way you get you know this curve this RTD curve for the well mixed flow, if you
take the completely mixed flow ideally mixed flow so it will have the concentration it will
go like that. And if you take theta as 0, so initially at time 0 you will have concentration
as 1. And as you move with time, so you will have the you know if you try to plot so your
plot will be.
So, you what you see is, this is an exponential decay type of curve is being seen. So, you
will have this way your, so this is being c and this is being θ. So, in the case of well mixed
flow ideally mixed flow your 𝑐 = 𝑒.−𝜃 . So, this being 1 and your θ is you know increasing
this will 1 this will be 1.5 and then in this way it will be decreasing. So, this will be 0.5.
So, you will have 0 and 0 values on the sides. So, this curve this. So, C-curve for the well
mixed flow now you know in the case of you know when we talk about analyzing the C-
curve. Now if you try to go for analyzing the F-curve.
So, suppose we are talking about the step input. So, you have seen that in the case of step
input for the plug flow it has there is nothing till t=θ=1 and then your concentration value
is dimensionless concentration value is 1, altogether. Whereas, if you talk about the step
input case you know for the well mixed flow. Now, in that case you know again you can
have the analysis like you have the rate of tracer input and minus rate of tracer output. So,
that will be rate of tracer accumulation.
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So, this is normally now what is we have seen also in the case of you know, pulse input
also where we found the well mixed flow expression. So, here also this conservation
principle. So, this is the top tracer input minus top tracer output that will be rate of tracer
accumulation.
𝑑
Now in this case what will be happening you will have a 𝑄𝑐𝑖 − 𝑄𝑐 = 𝑑𝑡. So, that will be
𝑑
(𝑉𝑐 ). So, that is your conservation principle this will lead to this value. Now what we
𝑑𝑡
get to we get the my parameter dθ. So, this d theta will be nothing but it will be you know
𝑑𝐹
.
1−𝐹
So, if you try to you know integrate now for these cases, so you will have the boundary
conditions. So, if you apply the boundary condition you know in these cases. So, boundary
condition will be that you will have F=0 at θ=0. So, at time of 0 your F becomes 0
obviously. Then your F becomes F at θ= θ. So, if you try to have the you know the
integration, so what you see is you get the integration, by integration you get 𝐹 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝜃 .
So, this curve which you get that we will be you know giving you the F-curve for the well
mixed flow. So, if you draw the well mixed flow you know curve. So, that curve will be
looking 1 − 𝑒 −𝜃 . So, its nothing but 1 minus there, so this will be exponential curve. So,
you will have if you draw the F-curve for the well mixed flow, so you will have F here and
this is your θ. So, it goes like this.
So, certainly this will be approaching to here it would be 1 and this will be 0.5. Similarly,
you will have 0.5, 1, 1.5 like that it will be moving. So, this RTD curve that will be you
know that will be given by this expression it will be represented by this line. So, the thing
is that what you see from this curve and the F-curve which you have seen for the plug
flow. Now, in the case of plug flow, what you see is that there is no increase in this pressure
concentration till this point. And then here directly you have this value coming, horizontal
value coming.
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So, what you see is that in the idealized plug flow you will have simply at this point θ=1,
so here you will have increase. Now in this case you are seeing that it is in the well mixed
flow it is simply increasing from here. So, the thing is that as soon as it has entered, the
tracer has entered it has started mixing with the flow. So, its idealized mixing and that is
why the pattern is like this.
Now what happens in actual case if you talk about the actual case? The actual path curve
will move like this. So, you know as you see that this part is basically the reason which is
talking about deep and the plug flow conditions. And then you know you have the then the
mixing has started. So, ideally you are mixing has; so if I had it been 1 here that theta have
had it been this θ=1 here, so ideally that it has to start from here.
But in actual case there is no flow which is ideally plug flow or ideally the mixed flow.
So, this part will be represented by the plug listen. And accordingly, we will also you know
study that you will have the plug volume also will be you know a component inside the
vessel. So, you will have this plug component and then you will have the you know mixed
component. So, that we you have plug flow and mixed flow.
Now, the thing is that when you have the plug zone and also you have the mixed zone then
what are the other zones inside the tundish. So, as we have discussed, as we see that when
we talk about these curves, so it will be 2 and then we go to 2.5 or so. Now, if you talk
about the normal RTD curves you know inside the tundish or in any system, so what we
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see that you know when we talk about you know the C-curves where you have C and this
is your θ
So, what you see that this is going and you may go you know to a very large time. So, till
that time that is somewhat coming out or so. It means that some part you know it is taking
very this staying very long time inside the tundish. So, you know we have to have certain
reason; where if the metal goes from there while coming you know it takes a long time to
come out of it. So, apart from this plug flow.
And so plug flow will talk about the plug volume and mixed flow will be representing later
on we will be studying, that we will be talking about the mixed you know volume inside
the tundish. Apart from that you will have another zone that will be dead zone. So, that
zone normally in the vessel we try to have a three kind of zones.
So, you will have plugs zone, you have mixed zone. And then apart from that, so in plug
it is not able it has not you know mixed it is has maintained its identity. So, it has not
mixed longitudinally or so. Now, in mixed zone means it has completely mixed. But then
there are certain zone which has which is staying for very long time. So, that is basically
representative of certain zones inside the tundish, where if the metal gets trapped or the
tracer getting trapped it will be having very you know large time retaining inside and it
will be coming after a very long time.
So, that is basically the dead regions you know they are represented by the dead regions
inside the tundish. And in that case you will have the calculation of the plug volume, you
have calculation of mixed volume and the rest volume. So, that will be dead volume. And
that will be basically you know we will be calculating it. So, you have the way to calculate
and there are different ways to calculate and different you know θ is also considered for
that.
So, you may define that those particles which are taking you know more than twice the
mean residence time that you may bring into that category, or sometimes maybe three
times you know staying more than the theoretical mean residence time, that may fall into
that category of the you know dead region.
So, accordingly, we try to you know define the different you know type of volume zones
inside the tundish based on you know these analysis. So, you will have we discussed about
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you know these you know plug and the mixture you know flow which is happening inside
the tundish.
So, what is meant to be said that the to these two you know extremes, that is idealized plug
flow idealized mixed flow there are the two extremes, but the actual flow will be staying
in between these two kind of flows. And you know, so the actual flow needs also to be
characterized. And for that you have the different kind of models are developed to
characterize basically the actual flow conditions; actual flow which is you know occurring
inside the tundish which will be the combination of the plug as well as the mixed flow.
So, you have the plug component as well as the mixed component. And based on that you
know we further we try to analyze these reactor or the vessel you know and judge its
effectiveness; how well it is going to you know be used or to respond to the metallurgy as
a metallurgical reactor or as a batch reactor or a batch vessel when we are using it in the
continuous casting tundish. So, that we are going to study in our coming lectures.
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Lecture - 13
Characterization of Flow in Actual Systems
Welcome to the lecture on Characterization of Flow in Actual Systems. So, we talked

about the idealized systems and we talked about the plug flow ideal plug flow and also the
ideal mixed flow purely mixed flow, but then actually in actual system you know the flow
is in between these 2 extremes and we must have the models you know which needs to be
followed.
So, the longitudinal mixing is non existence as we discussed in the plug flow system ideal
system we have seen that it is though that system in which there is no longitudinal mixing.
And in the case of well mixed system it is mixing is the maximum and these 2 are basically
the 2 extremes and the actual flow systems that lie between these 2 limits.
So, you will have the models with parameters and you will have to have the adjustments.
So, that when you do the experimental analysis then the prediction of that model will
should match with the experimental data. So, how to develop you know those models and
how to do the adjustments you know that needs to be seen.
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Now for that there are different models and you know certainly we will be talking about
the values of the best fitting parameter which will be most accurately describing the mixing
in the vessels. So, that is regarding the you know output characteristics. So, in that we are
going to have the study of the longitudinal dispersion model.
So, in actual there will be dispersion even in the longitudinal direction whereas, in plug
flow we have assume that there is no longitudinal dispersion. So, that tracer which is you
know coming at the inlet. So, you will have after sometime it will go appearing at the outlet
there is no longitudinal mixing.
Whereas, when we talk about the dispersion model so, in the longitudinal dispersion model
you know in that the tracer will flow through the system with certain longitudinal mixing.
So, in plug flow there is no longitudinal mixing and travel some distance in time 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 .
So, as you see that it will be you know it may t=0.
So, it is here and that 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 also the it is maintaining it is identity so, that is basically
the plug flow ideal plug flow. However, when we talk about the actual case so, in that you
know you will have the dispersion when there is dispersion in the longitudinal direction.
So, it is also known as dispersed plug flow.
So, it will be assuming that there will be certainly some extent of turbulent eddy dispersion
which will be occurring in the plug flow in this case. So, what you see that, you see at 𝑡 =
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0 this is how the tracer was and at 𝑡 = 𝑡1 you see that there is certainly some dispersion in
the longitudinal direction and at 𝑡 = 𝑡2 when it has gone.
So, you will have again the dispersion so, it will the tracer will be looking like this you
know. So, it is because of the longitudinal dispersion you know that is occurring you know
in the actual case. So, similarly if you go for even the step input.
So, that was the case in the case of pulse input, but if you go for the step input also. So, in
the case of step input if you see if you are you know you know flow is like going here. So,
this will be flow in and this you will have the flow out. So, in that case also if you.
So, you will have 𝑡 = 0 here and I mean ideally you know you will have after so, when
you have the normal you know ideal plug flow in that case when you go for step inputs
after some time you know that is your residence time. So, you will have automatically the
concentration will rise.
So, your dimensionless concentration will come to 1 whereas, if you go for the dispersed
plug flow. So, in the will disperse plug flow if you come to 𝑡 = 𝑡1. So, at t equal to there
will be certain dispersion. So, this will be 𝑡 = 𝑡1 similarly you will have a 𝑡 = 𝑡2you will
have this way the case.
So, accordingly it will move even in the case of step input. So, what happens that when
we talk about these models. So, here you have the longitudinal mixing and that can be
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represented you know that will be the model will characterized this longitudinal mixing
you know that it will be characterized by one dimensional you know equation similar to
the fixed law of diffusion.
So, there will be diffusion that is going on in the longitudinal direction. So, it will be
similar to that you know 1 dimensional fixed law of diffusion. So, here there will be again
and you will have the constant of proportionality and this constant of proportionality will
be known as the eddy diffusivity.
So, you will have so, this model which we will be using. So, that will be the model
characterizing the longitudinal you know dispersion or longitudinal mixing and this is by
the 1-D, 1 dimensional fixed law of diffusion 1 dimensional equation that is similar to the
fixed law of diffusion.
So, as you know you will have in the fixed law of diffusion also you have the diffusion
constant. So, here also you will have a proportionality constant and the proportionality
constant will be known as the eddy diffusivity or we also call it as the dispersion coefficient
that is 𝐷𝑒 . So, in this case whatever you know constant of proportionality we use that is
known as the you know dispersion coefficient and is this dispersion of this tracer which is
there in the continuous flow system.
So, that will be resulting because of this eddy diffusivity eddy diffusion as well as the bulk
flow. So, if you talk about the unsteady state you know concentration. So, that equation;
𝜕𝑐
so, that equation can be written as the 𝜕𝑡 . So, that will be change of the concentration, that
𝜕2𝑐 𝜕𝑐
will be 𝐷𝑒 𝜕𝑥 2 − 𝑈 𝜕𝑥. So, that is you know the unsteady state equation for the
concentration that can be written.
So, that 𝐷𝑒 is basically the dispersion coefficient. So, here U is the basically bulk flow
velocity. So, this is bulk flow velocity of the fluid and x is certainly the you know distance
in that x coordinate. So, x will be you know distance and it will be varying from 0 to the
length. So, that is L. So, it will be 0 to L, L is the vessel length. So, this way you will have
these terms.
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So, if you try to further write this equation in the dimensionless form. So, t should be
written in terms of θ and similarly you can have x will be replaced by the term y. So, y can
be taken as something x divided by the characteristic length or length of the vessel L.
So, if you find. So, if you rewrite this equation. So, you can rewrite in dimensionless form.
So, in that case you can you know dimensionless terms you can see you know term. So,
𝜕𝑐
you can write 𝜕𝜃where the theta will be you know dimensionless time.
𝐷𝑒 𝜕2 𝑐 𝜕𝑐
So, then you will have − 𝑈 𝜕𝑦 . So, here you are what you have done is you have
𝑈𝐿 𝜕𝑦 2
non dimensionalized. So, you have non - dimensionalized by you know in the so, y will
𝑥
be the dimensionless distance and that will be equal to 𝐿 .
𝑡
So, you have divided x by the vessel length. So, that is y and θ is certainly 𝑡̅ . So, that will
𝑡𝑈
be 𝐿 . So, this way you know you can have the equation that is you know the in the non
dimensional form. Now if you see this equation in this equation you have the term that is
𝐷𝑒 𝐷𝑒
. So, this it is a term that is dimensionless group and this term is known as the
𝑈𝐿 𝑈𝐿
dispersion number or vessel dispersion numbers.
So, we call, so call it sometimes as the dispersion number or the vessel dispersion number.
So, if you look at this term this is nothing, but this is the inverse of the Peclet number term.
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So, you know in Peclet number you have the convection ratio of convection term to
diffusion term whereas, in this case you have diffusion term to convection term.
So, this is basically so, the inverse of the you know Peclet number term and you know this
is. So, it will be talking about the extent of longitudinal dispersion. So, it will be talking
about the longitudinal dispersion in the sense that if this it is value is more so, longitudinal
dispersion is more. So, accordingly your values will be you know coming.
So, it is not the molecular property of the system basically, but it will be depending upon
𝐷
the flow condition of the system so, depending upon the flow condition this 𝑈𝐿𝑒 that will be
changing. Now if you talk about you know the this value of this dispersion number. So,
depending upon the different value of the dispersion number you will have the different
you know shape of the F or the C curve.
So, that can be seen and more you know it is more pronounced effect can be seen in the
𝐷
case of C curve instead of F curve. So, when your 𝑈𝐿𝑒 that will be approaching to 0. So, it
will be limiting case that will be towards the plug flow whereas, if it is approaching
towards infinity then it will be representing the well mixed flow. So, that is how the
𝐷
significance of these 2 you know these 2 extreme values of 𝑈𝐿𝑒 carries.
𝐷
So, you know if you. So, when your 𝑈𝐿𝑒 when this is approaching towards 0 it means the
dispersion is negligible. So, 𝐷𝑒 term is you know that is a negligible. So, in this case you
know so, once it is negligible, you will have the prevalence of the plug flow. So, plug flow
𝐷
prevails on the other hand if your 𝑈𝐿𝑒 is very very large.
𝐷
So, if the 𝑈𝐿𝑒 is approaching towards infinity it means dispersion is very very high and the
maximum possible. So, maximum dispersion and that will lead to the well mixed flow
𝐷
conditions. So, that is how you know your there is the significance of this number 𝑈𝐿𝑒 that
is your dispersion number. And you can we can have we will see that how the by changing
this dispersion number your there will be change in the shape of the F curve or the C curve.
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So, if you talk about the F curve. So, if you take the step input or F curve. So, the equation
which we have seen earlier this was the equation. So, this was the concentration equation
now this equation you know can be solved and you will have to have the initial as well as
the boundary condition.
So, this equation if you solve using the initial as well as the boundary condition. So, solving
equation using initial condition and boundary condition. So, if you have the initial
condition so, you will have initial conditions are like at t=0 you will have c=0 at x>0 and
you will have 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑖 at x=0. So, initially you will have that condition because you have
you are putting the tracer there.
So, and then if you have the boundary conditions also and the boundary condition will be
like you will have 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑖 at x=0 and then if you go to x=L. So, that will be c at x=L. So,
if you solve I mean in this with this initial and boundary condition that particular equation
𝑐
then you are getting the solution of that equation as 𝐹 = 𝑐 s that is your F value and this
𝑖
1 1−𝜃
value will be 2 [1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓[ 𝐷 ]].
2( 𝑒 )1/2
𝑈𝐿
So, this is how you know if you take this as. So, this you know becomes the value of F
𝜕𝑐 𝜕2𝑐
when you solve that concentration equation that was will be you know that was −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑐
𝑈 𝜕𝑥. So, this now if you see.
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So, this is nothing, but the equation which will be relating to the dimensionless time with
the dimensionless concentration F and if you plot for the different you know the for the
𝐷𝑒
different that is dispersion numbers. So, what you see is that if your there is no
𝑈𝐿
dispersion we had seen that when you have no dispersion in that case it leads to the ideal
plug flow.
So, what will happen this is theta and this is value of 1. So, your it will be coming like this.
So, it will come here and then at this point itself it will go. So, this value is 1 this is F and
this is θ So, this is θ, this is 1, this is 0.5, this is 0 points this is 1.5 and this is 2 like that.
𝐷 𝐷
So, this flow will be showing. So, here if it goes like this is 𝑈𝐿𝑒 is 0, now if as the 𝑈𝐿𝑒 will
𝐷𝑒
be increasing now the error extreme value will be as completely you know for
𝑈𝐿
𝐷
completely well mixed flow. So, that is for 𝑈𝐿𝑒 infinity and that will be that model will be
𝐷𝑒
going like this. So, this is the equation for equal to infinity, now you will have the
𝑈𝐿
equations. So, you will have one extreme at the plug flow, another is the well mixed flow.
So, otherwise you get the you know the like curves like this or you get the curves like this.
So, you know as the so, from 0 it will be increasing. So, it will be 0.00. So, for this it will
𝐷 𝐷
be 𝑈𝐿𝑒 it will be 0.002, here 𝑈𝐿𝑒 will be 0.02. So, this is by the researchers they have found
𝐷
experimentally that for the different values of the 𝑈𝐿𝑒 as it is 0 it will be the plug flow and
as it is going towards infinity you will have the value that is for the well mixed flow it was
shows like this.
Because dispersion has just started here itself whereas, for 0 it has not happened and at the
mean residence time of θ equal to 1 that is a theoretical mean residence time all has come
out and with concentration of 1. So, that is what the meaning of the you know dispersion
number or the vessel dispersion number is significance is.
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Now if we try to see for the pulse input so, if you go for the pulse input or you analyze the
𝜕𝑐 𝜕2𝑐 𝜕𝑐
C curve. So, we have to further solve that equation that is = 𝐷𝑒 𝜕𝑥 2 − 𝑈 𝜕𝑥so, that was
𝜕𝑡
this equation.
So, if you solve this equation so, you will have again for the pulse input you will have the
different boundary conditions and you will have to solve. So, when we talk about the pulse
input so, we are talking about the different you know cases and if we take suppose the
closed vessel.
So, you may have the case of closed vessel or the open vessel, now in the closed vessel
you will have the input from at the input as well as the are the output is no dispersion. So,
the tracer will come it will go out where there will be a dispersion going on in the vessel
whereas, in the open vessel means you will have the you know these stream which is open.
So, dispersion taking placed here also at the inlet as well as at the outlet also. So, if you
look at the you know in a closed vessel. So, in the closed vessel you will have again. So,
continuous casting operation the tundish can be taken as the closed vessel because your
tracer inlet is from one side that is from ladle it is entering into the tundish and then the
die is coming out through the tundish outlet.
So, the closed vessel by definition we must know that in the case of closed vessel which
has a finite length of L and in which there is you know no tracer movement no tracer
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material moves in to or out of the vessel boundaries by dispersion. So, that is the definition
of the closed vessel.
Now in this case the eddy diffusivity which will be there at the inlet and outlet that will be
0. So, your eddy diffusivity at inlet and outlet is 0. So, what we do is again you solve that
concentration equation with the you know boundary condition in the closed vessel and in
that case you get you know you get the mean as well as the you know variance of the
curve. So, you what you see is you get the family of curve.
So, you know you get mean 𝜃̅ as 1 and the you know variance 𝜎 2 of this family of curve
𝐷 𝐷
which you get. So, you if you solve it numerically so, you get the 𝜎 2 as 2 𝑈𝐿𝑒 − 2(𝑈𝐿𝑒 )2 [1 −
𝑈𝐿
𝑒𝑥𝑝(− 𝐷 )]. So, that is you know the numerical solution that has been reported for when
𝑒
you solve for in the closed vessel.
So, closed vessel will be characterized by this kind of system. So, you will have the vessel
here and you will have inlet here and then you will have outlet here. So, from here you
will have inlet and from here you will have outlet. So, you will have tracer output signal
from here.
So, at this point you will have tracer output signal and this is your input single signal. So,
this is your you know tracer input signal and this is your tracer output signal. So, that is
how you see that you know in this case what you see that your mean residence time that is
𝜃̅ = 1.
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Now, if you take for the open vessel so, in the case of open vessel so, you know it has no
discontinuity you know at the location of the tracer injection or the tracer concentration
measurement. Now in this case you will have the experimental selected experimental
length you know so that will be your open vessel.
So, in that in basically in the infinite vessel so, what you do. So, in the case of open vessel
1 (1−𝜃)2
you know where the C curve has been found this is found to be 𝑒𝑥𝑝[− 𝐷 ].
𝐷
2√𝜋𝜃( 𝑒 ) 4𝜃( 𝑒 )
𝑈𝐿
𝑈𝐿
So, this is by the researches that and that is reported by Sahai and Emi.
So, this is the solution of that equation 4.13. And in this case if you try to find the mean
and variance of the family of the curve. So, the mean and variance will be coming as 1 +
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
2(𝑈𝐿𝑒 ) and the variance is coming as 2(𝑈𝐿𝑒 ) + 8(𝑈𝐿𝑒 )2.
So, you know this is how you know the family of curves can be drawn for the you know
pulse input and if you look at the dispersive model with a small amount of dispersion
which is that consideration being taken away. So, if you consider the case I mean we are
going to have the case for the dispersion model where for the dispersion number value is
small.
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So, dispersion model for small extent of dispersion. So, where there is a small dispersion
so, in that case what happens and for a closed vessel so, the closed vessel which is normally
for the case of tundish flow. So, in that case the C curve is normally having a Gaussian
type of you know profile. So, Gaussian type of RTD will be there when you have a low
dispersion and small dispersion in the.
So, your C profile will be like the Gaussian dispersion I mean Gaussian type of profile and
in that case if you do the solution of that concentration equation. So, that equation if you
1 (1−𝜃)2
solve it that has been found to be as C equal to 𝑒𝑥𝑝[− 𝐷 ]..
𝐷
2√𝜋𝜃( 𝑒 ) 4( 𝑒 )
𝑈𝐿
𝑈𝐿
So, that is what has been reported I mean found out that this is how your concentration
you know a family curve looks like and for that your mean and variance. So, if you find a
𝐷
mean and variance that mean becomes 1 and variance becomes 2(𝑈𝐿𝑒 ). So, if you try to you
𝐷
know draw the these family of curves and for the different value of2(𝑈𝐿𝑒 ).
So, you know for the large and small value of the dispersion in a closed system. So, once
you draw then your C curves look like looks somewhat like this as you know. So, as you
know that when you have you if you might have you can recall that in the case of well
mixed flow. So, completely ideal mixed flow your curve starts from here. So, if you have
this is as 1 and this is 2 and, so in the case of a well mixed flow it will go like this.
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𝐷 𝐷
So, this is for the you know maximum 𝑈𝐿𝑒 . So, your so, for this case 𝑈𝐿𝑒 will be infinity. So,
that is representing the well mixed flow, now if you have the plug flow so, now, in this
case this is theta. So, this is 0.5 this is 1, this is 1.5 and this is 2. So, in the case of you
know the plug flow as you know. So, this it will move like this.
𝐷 𝐷
So, this will be 𝑈𝐿𝑒 that is 0. So, this do dispersion. So, that is your 𝑈𝐿𝑒 is 0; however, you
will have the curves coming like this. So, and you have also curves in going like this. So,
𝐷
if you see here this curve is corresponding to where this curve will be 𝑈𝐿𝑒 that will be equal
to 0.2 and if you look at the another curve so, you will have you may go like this. So, this
𝐷
will be 𝑈𝐿𝑒 will be 0.002 or so.
So, like that you will have the variation in the family of these curves and as you go towards
𝐷
the 𝑈𝐿𝑒 values smaller and smaller. So, you will have the confinement and for the 0 value
your you know value your curve comes at θ that value equal to 1.
So, this different values you know represent the different kind of dispersion different
extent of dispersion and the family of these C curves can be drawn. So, this is about you
know the actual you know flow characterization which takes place. We will be talking
about the other aspects like about the calculation of the mean residence time and then it is
mean and as well as the variances in our coming lectures.
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Lecture – 14
Analysis of RTD Curves
Welcome to the lecture on Analysis of RTD Curves. So, in the past lectures we talked
about different aspects during the physical modeling. So, how we have seen that the tracer
is injected then you have to draw these using the stimulus response techniques so you have
to draw, to trace the concentration maybe in the pulse manner, the tracer is added or it may
be added in the step manner.
So, by that you are getting the RTD curve. And we must understand try to understand that
how these you know RTD curves are to be you know understood. So, what does it signify,
specially we will talk about you know finding the mean residence time then also the mean
and you know variance of these residence time, so from these RTD curves. So, that is what
our aim will be in this lecture.
So, what we saw? So, once you get the you know RTD curve, so you have to get the mean
of the RTD curve.
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And the mean of the RTD curve, so that can be found by the expression so that we will be
∞
∫0 𝑡𝑐𝑑𝑡.
writing as 𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 . So, 𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 will be you know ∞ . So, as you know that you are having
∫0 𝑐𝑑𝑡.
on the abscissa, you have the time axis on the ordinate you have the concentration axis.
∞
∫0 𝑡𝑐𝑑𝑡.
So, as you know with time so you will have these ∞ . So, if you can see the analyze
∫0 𝑐𝑑𝑡.
even by dimension wise it will be something in terms of time. So, this time basically will
be known as the you know 𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 . So, mean residence time. Then if the concentration is
measured in the equal time in intervals, so, if concentration is measured in equal time
intervals, now in that case you will have equal time interval of ∆𝑡, so that is of ∆𝑡.
In that case you will have to have the expression for the 𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 and this 𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 in that case
∑ 𝑡𝑖 𝑐𝑖 ∆𝑡
will be ∑ 𝑐𝑖 ∆𝑡
. So, if it the equal time interval is there that is ∆𝑡 in that case that will cancel,
∑ 𝑡𝑖 𝑐𝑖
so it will be summation of ∑ 𝑐𝑖
..
So, this is going to tell you this by this, so once you have these concentration data with
time then we can find the mean residence time inside the tundish. So, that is done by this
formula. You can find the variance of this quantity.
So, this variance so that will be statistical variance, so that talks about the spread you know
spread of the this residence time about the mean. So, that variance is calculated that is
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spread of the you know residence time distribution about the mean. So, that is found by
𝜎𝑡2 .
So, as we know we have to take the difference of the individual value with the mean value,
and then it taking the square, and then further you are taking the I mean we are further you
∞
∫0 (𝑡−𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 )2 𝑐𝑑𝑡
know taking the ratio. So, that will be ∞ . So, 𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 what you calculate using
∫0 𝑐𝑑𝑡
the you know earlier expression. So, this way you calculate the variance of the residence
time distribution about the mean.
Now, here also if you have the equal time interval, so, for concentration measurement at
equal time interval; so, in that case again you give the term ∆𝑡, so that will be 𝜎𝑡2 it will be
∑(𝑡𝑖 −𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 )2 𝑐𝑖 ∆𝑡
again ∑ 𝑐𝑖 ∆𝑡
. So, that way you know as ∆𝑡 is equal so, that will be anyway
cancelled, so it will be ∑ 𝑐𝑖
.
So, that is what we have seen. So, this is the 𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 and this is your so that was mean time
and in this case you have this as the you know the variance that is computed here. So, that
you have the square term. And this way you compute these mean and variance of the RTD
curve, when you get these values experimentally or by you know any other means like
simulation or so.
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Then if you are talking about the C-curve, so in the case of C-curve, so, from C-curve, so,
in that you will have the dimensionless you know mean of residence time distribution. So,
you can calculate the dimensionless mean of residence time distribution. So, in that case
you have dimensionless term which will be coming to picture.
∞
∫ 𝜃𝑐𝑑𝜃 .
So, that will be defined by 𝜃̅, and that you will be calculating as 0∞ So, same way in
∫0 𝑐𝑑𝜃 .
that case you have C dt and here you have capital C so that is your dimensionless turn. So,
then you calculate these as 𝜃𝑐𝑑𝜃. So, that will be the dimensionless mean.
Similarly you have the calculation of the you know variance so, dimensionless variance.
So, dimensionless variance basically will be again based on the relation. So, that will be
∞ ̅ )2 𝑐𝑑𝜃
∫0 (𝜃−𝜃
sigma square, so it will be ∞ , so this will be 0 to infinity. So, that ways you
∫0 𝑐𝑑𝜃
know for the continuous function.
Now if you take for the equal time interval, so, for measurement at equal time interval.
∑ 𝑡𝑖 𝜃𝑖
So, in that case your you know equation will be like you have 𝜃̅. So, that will ∑ 𝑐𝑖
. So,
that way you will have the 𝜃̅, theta average. And similarly you will have the variance. So,
∑ 𝜃𝑖2 𝑐𝑖
that will be ∑ 𝑐𝑖
− 𝜃̅ 2 .
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So, this way you know we calculate these you know mean as well as the variance quantities
in the case of the RTD curves. So, so we can understand it using one example. So, suppose
you have one example where there is concentration measurement, so that you can
understand using that example.
So, the concentration readings are plotted for you know continuous response to a pulse
input into a closed vessel. So, you know for that one which is used as a chemical reactor,
so for that there are readings. And you will have the reading of the concentration at
different times. So, you have time you know t that is in minutes and then you have the you
know tracer output that is given. So, there is a tracer output concentration that is C pulse.
That is in the term of gram per liter fluids.
So, suppose you have the values which are given to you. So, suppose at you are taking at
interval of 5 units: 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35. Suppose this way you are monitoring
these tracer output concentration at these times and the values which you are getting is at
0 it is 0, then you have 3, 5, 5, then you have 4, 2, 1, and 0. So, this way suppose your
concentration readings are coming when you are measuring it, so there are many
measuring devices, you have conductivity meters are there by which you can measure.
And there are many wet data stick is there, so there are many devices which are used for
measuring these output concentration. So, you can find the mean residence time.
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So, the mean residence time so that will be in a 𝑡̅ . So, it will be you have as you know that
∑ 𝑡𝑖 𝑐𝑖 ∆𝑡𝑖
you have the ∆𝑡 of 5 minutes. So, you have ∑ 𝑐𝑖 ∆𝑡𝑖
. So, as ∆𝑡 is constant. So, you will be
writing a ∑ 𝑐𝑖
.
So, now you will be multiplying these and then you will be adding. So, if you know add,
so that way 𝑡𝑖 𝑐𝑖 . So, you are adding, so that will be first will be you know 0 then you have
you know 15 plus so you will have 0 plus 15; so that is 15. Then you have 50, then you
have 75, 80, then you have 50 plus 30. So, this is coming and then you have 0; and if you
add the concentration.
So, so that is 𝑡𝑖 𝑐𝑖 . And then you are having the concentration you know summation, so that
is 3 plus 5 plus 5 plus 4. So, this will be 3 plus 5 plus 5 plus 4 plus 2 plus 1. So, it will be
65 plus 75 you know 140, 220, 270 and this is 300. And if you this is 13 for you know 17,
so this is 0, this is 300 by 20. So, you know you are getting the value of you know 15. So,
15 minute; 15 minute is you know the mean residence time that is what you are calculating.
This 15 minute time is the mean residence time when you have you know such are the
readings. So, 15 minute will be the mean residence time.
Now what we see in this case? Normally, you also can find the variance of also the mean
residence time; variance about the means the variance of the RTD curves can be drawn
you know in this case. And also you can plot the RTD. So, you have at 0 it is 0, then at 5
you will have 3. So, you can have that value also. And what you see that you will get some
similar kind of curve you will be getting. So, at the different times you will have the values
coming. And this way you can have the value of the, you can have the plot of the RTD
curve.
So, depending upon, so what happens that when you do the experiment? In that case you
have you can either you can measure manually or you have the you can connect it with the
computer you get the readings. These readings are basically you know stored in computers.
So, you can have it in store in excel or in any you know graph plotting software. And then
from there you can draw the curves. So, that is how you know you draw. So, you can
further calculate the variance over this you know the mean then you will be taking the
difference of the value from the mean. So, that way and accordingly you can have the
calculation of variance also.
187
Then we will talk about the other model which is a conceptual model and that is also used
for the analysis of these response techniques. So, that is you know that is known as the
tank series tank in series model. So, many a times we feel that it is like tanks which are
you know which are the where the mixing is taking place and they are connected in series.
So, in that case the response of the tracer which is there at the different you know places.
So, that you know, how that response will be coming, how they will be responding to the
changes in the concentration. So, that is to be seen.
So, if you talk about this tank in series model.
So, your tank in series model is there. Now in that case what we talked is that you can have
the tanks connected in series and you have these you know tanks as the well mixed tanks.
So, they will be giving you know, they will be giving the tracer responses. And they are
similar to that is given by the dispersion model. So, you know any type of such model can
be used to correlate the experimental data you know which is obtained.
So, you will have these some model results and then you will guess see that they expand
from the experiments also you get that kind of RTD curves, when you have the you know
outlets which are far away. So, when you have a vessel where the input is coming at one
place and then you have different places where you have to measure the output. So, it is
like you can it is like the tanks which are connected in series. So, in those that number of
tank that numbered tank you will have the tracer response in a different manner.
188
So, if you recall for a for one tank. So, this is the if you recall that if you go for the C-
curve, so C-curve for one well mixed tank. So, as you know that you recall that the for the
well mixed flow the exponential you know that curve was seen. So, in that case then mean
that will be represented by C equal to 𝑒 −𝜃 .
Similarly, if you have you know n well mixture tank and they are in series connected
together. So, for those n well mixed tanks you know in series, so for those n well tanks in
series so C-curve again will be given by will be given by the equation. So, for that you
𝑛𝑛 𝜃 𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑛𝜃
have C equal to (𝑛−1)!
So, this is you know for when you have to have n well mixed tanks in series. You can
predict the value of the concentration you know according to this and if you take the
variance of these curves. So, variance of the curves say if you know determine it will be
1/𝑛. So, you know these experimental data which you get. And you have the you know
critical C-curve. So, you both can be matched and your results can be validated for the
different tanks. And can be even said that and may be an non integer also.
So, this is you know one parameter model. And here the parameter is that the number of
tanks; so, based on that n and now if you go for the large number of n. So, if you take c
equal to 1 it will lead to the same value, if you take c as I mean n as 1 if you take n as 2,
so it will have a different value. What we see that as you go, as you increase the value of
n; so as the value of n is increasing it becomes more and more symmetrical in shape.
189
So, it as it is found that for a large number of tanks that is n. So, C-curves become
increasingly symmetrical.
So, you know if you see the first curve will be just like exponential one, so it will starting
from 1 and it will go for well mixed flow. But as the n is increasing, so that tends to be
more and more symmetrical. So, that can be seen. And for the closed vessel you know it
if you try to see that, if you that can be understood by having the analysis of these plots.
So, what is seen is that if you have c as this and if you have a 𝜃 on this line. So, for n equal
to 1 it will go like this. So, this is for n equal 1. Now the thing is that if you have n equal
to 2, so that will move like this. Similarly if you have you know for example, if you have
n equal to 6, so it may go like this. And if you have n equal to 20, so it will move like this.
So, this is n equal to 2, this is equal to 6, this is n equal to 20. So, this has been reported in
the literature.
So, you know what happens that if you see this when it is n equal to 1 this is basically this
is how it starts from here, that is 1 and you have 0.5 and then this will go as 1.5. Similarly,
you have theta as some where 1 here, and then you will have this side you have 0.5 and
this side you have point 1.5 or so.
Now this both these tank and series model as well as we have studied about the dispersion
models where we have got the expression for the you know for c. So, depending upon the
190
values dispersion numbers and all that d by u l and all, if you compare so if you see both
these models they give rise to similar type of curve that is C-curve. And if you compare
these two models so you can have you know, after comparison you can see that you will
1 𝐷 𝐷 𝑈𝐿
get 𝑛 = 2(𝑈𝐿𝑒 ) − 2(𝑈𝐿𝑒 )−2 [1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝(− 𝐷 ].
𝑒
So, this is how you for the closed vessel. So, this is you know for closed vessel, this is the
correlation which is you know which is coming you know once you compare once you
take into consideration the models of the tank and series model; tank and series model and
all these other dispersion models. So, the you know and that also. So, we will also see that
how these you know what these indicate.
So, basically when you have connected in series when your tanks are basically connected
in series. So, basically you have this is the first tank. So, you will have this tank here, so
this is having mixing here and this is mixing then, you know it is connected to the second
tank. So, here again this is this is also rotating. So, you will have first this will have second,
so that where you will have the third one. So, all these are connecting. And then that way
it will go to the n-th tank. So, you will have n tank which is connected in series and you
know.
So, if you see that for this tank you know here the mixing is more. So, mixing has a
dispersion has dispersion is more so your it starts from here. However, if you go to this
tank, so in this tank it has started it has gone like this. For the third one it will it will be
delayed from here. And it will go on delaying as you go towards the larger value of n.
So, that is indicative of the other things also like you have different reasons. If you see
here you have completely well mix joined starting, whereas if you go to the other regions
so in this there is no dispersion so you have a certain component like the plug component.
So, you have mix component as well as plug component. So, those things you know they
are can be analyzed using these curves and they have certain meaning.
So, as you move you see that it is getting delayed. So, this plug and the part is you know
getting apparent here, whereas in this part plug part is not seen, because here is pure mixing
I mean well mixed flow is more prominent in this case. So, so that way you can have the
analysis of the curves in different manners.
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So, we will talk about the other models also you have the combined or mixed models so,
that with that model also we can analyze these RTD curves. And in the coming lecture we
will talk about, so the analysis of these RTD curves for you know by taking into account
the different zones inside the tundish. So, you will have the; so this way you have you are
seeing the plug zone. So, you will have the mixed zone and similarly you will have dead
zones. So, all these things will be discussed as we. So, we will have another you know
apart from this tank in series model also you have combined models, so that we will discuss
in our coming lectures.
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Lecture – 15
Plug, Mixed and Dead Regions in Tundish
Welcome to the lecture on Plug, Mixed and Dead Regions in Tundish. So, we talked about
the tank in series model. So, tank in series model.
And apart from that we also have, so in that tank in series model we have seen in the last
class that it is for the case that the series of well-mixed tanks will be giving the response
curves, and it will be similar to the dispersion model. Then you will have the C-curve well-
mixed you know for the well-mixed tank. And you know variance of the curve is taken as
1/𝑛.
So, it is what similar to somewhat in the for the dispersion models. And when you take the
large number of tanks, then in that case the C-curve become increasingly symmetrical, so
that is what you have seen for the tank in series model.
Now, apart from that you have the you know combined or mixed models also. So, in that
case, what you see what you do is that you are getting basically the different zones in the
Tundish.
193
So, there are models that is combined or mixed models in which the fluid volume in the
vessel is assumed to be consisting of interconnected flow regions, so that will be you know
in that case you are thinking that this at a tank which is in interconnected in series, but in
this case what we see that you will have the interconnected flow regions in the vessel. So,
you know mostly it was it has been seen that you will have a three kind of flow regions
which will be present inside the vessel one is the plug flow region, region, another is well-
mixed region and third is the dead region.
So, plug flow region and the well-mixed region, they are known as the active region also
and if you talk about the other region that will be dead region, which is not active in one
sense. So, you know what happens that plug flow you can we can have the idea about these
plug flow.
194
So, what happens that when you have the if you have the concentration here and this is
your θ. So, this is concentration and this is θ. So, what happens that if there is no mixing
taking place up to certain time of dispersal taking place, and then after that the mixing has
become you know effective.
So, in that case you know if you if your mixer starts from here. So, in that case this region
is the is the representative of the plug region, so and then this becomes the mixed region
that is well-mixed region. So, as you see that here there is a it is a straight jump you know
and then it is coming here. So, it becomes like a well-mixed zone and this becomes the
plug zone. So, plug zone is there, and then you have the well-mixed zone, then also you
have the definition about the even the dead zone. So, the plug zone and the well-mixed
zone they are normally known as the active you know zones.
So, what happens that if you if you draw you know the C-curve for the combined model
where you have we have the combined zones which are available. So, what happens you
have here from here it will go like that. So, this is the maximum concentration that is 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
So, this is what you are getting you know that is 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 . and the 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 . is the inverse of the
𝑉
mix you know a volume component. So, that is normally we will be 𝑉 . And this amount
𝑚
this will be basically indicative of the plug zone. So, this is known as the 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 ; this
is the time at which there is a first appearance of the tracer is seems.
195
So, what happens that when you have you know a Tundish, and suppose you have a
different outlets on both the sides, and this is your inlet suppose. So, inlet after coming
here it will, will go like this. So, it will come here, and then it will come here. So, it
similarly, it will go here first and then it will go here. So, it will be going first to these two
on these two sides on these two outlets, and then later on it will be going on these two
outlets. So, you know the appearance of tracer suppose for this outlet may be after only 5
seconds, whereas the appearance of this tracer at this outlet will be maybe 25 seconds, so
that 5 second and 25 second will talk about you know the plug zones or so.
So when more appropriately you can say that when you have only one outlet then in that
case you can say that when it is first appearing at the Tundish outlet, so that way you will
have this is as the 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 that is the time at which it is first appearing and you know as we
know that the integral of the 𝐶𝑑𝜃 will be normally 1. So, your area becomes you know one
𝑉
here in this case. So, and this is time 𝜃 and this is your C. So, 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 is 𝑉 .
𝑚
And what you see is that this line can be having we will be having that expression. So, this
𝑉 𝑉 𝑣𝑝
will be having a can be represented by this function that 𝑒𝑥𝑝[− 𝑉 (𝜃 − )], so that
𝑉𝑚 𝑚 𝑣
way this is how this you know this you know graph can be represented. Now, coming to
the these two regions basically you can define them as the two reasons like you have the
active region as well as the dead region.
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So, you know the once you talk about the active regions. So, active region will be the
region which will be represented by the plug region as well as the well-mixed region. So,
combination of plug region, so plug flow that is you know or plug flow you can write plug
the flow where is taking place plus you have well-mixed flow regions. So, this gives give
rise to the active region.
Now, active region is basically that region where fluid particle you know is going and
through that region it is passing. And if there is any region where the fluid particle is not
going, or if it is going and it is getting you know its appearance from there is at a very late
time, so in that case those regions are said to be you know the dead region.
So, as we see that you will have this plug region and you will have the well-mixed flow
region and the plug flow zone that will be related to the time at which the tracer of first
appears. So, and then you will have the peak that will be inverse of that you know well-
mixed volume. So, that way you will have the representation of these two plug flow as
well as the well-mixed flow.
If you come to the dead region, so apart from these two regions, you will have the dead
regions. So, if you take the tundish volume, so if you say plug volume and if you have the
well-mixed volume, so the difference of the whole tundish volume, and if you take the
subtract these summation of the plug and mix, so that will give you the dead region. So,
the in the dead region means that the metal I mean it is not participative that region is not
participative. So, you will have, you may have two types of dead regions. Now, there may
be region which is a completely stagnant. So, you may have the completely stagnant
region. So, you know fluid will you know will be moving very slowly, and the fluid
remains in that vessel in that vessel for a very much longer time.
So, what happens that you will have to have one you know criteria that what should be the
time if the liquid is stays if the particle stays for more than that time, then it may be called
as the dead region. So, normally some of the authors have taken 2 times the theoretical
mean residence time, some of them may you may take even on the 3 times the mean
residence time.
So, accordingly you measure the you know the dead volume, and you classify the dead
results based on you know that volume component when where the time is spent by the
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fluid particle is more than suppose say 2 times the theoretical mean residence time. So,
that way we compute these dead regions.
So, you can have also in the definition like when the fluid particle is stays for more than
twice the theoretical mean residence time, so they accordingly you can have the definition
of these you know dead region. So, if you look at a typical C-curve, so suppose you have
you have such kind of the you know C-curve, so this is C and this is your θ. So, suppose
this is your this becomes the so θ is here suppose 1 and this is your 2. So, the liquid particle
which is staying more than this two times, so this region can be said to be the dead region.
So, and you will have, so you will have active region as well as dead region. So, this region
becomes the active region, whereas this region will be as soon as the dead region. So, if
you have suppose if you see that your, if you are taking the two times the value as the one
after which you are categorizing as the dead region.
So, suppose the mean of the C-curve up to cutoff point of theta equal to 2 be 𝜃𝑐 . So,
suppose it is you know 𝜃𝑐 , in that case theta c will be, so this will be measured 𝑡𝑐 , so that
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡̅𝑐 𝑡̅𝑐
is what you have a . So, that way you measure this 𝜃𝑐 . So, 𝜃𝑐 will be ..
𝑡̅ 𝑡̅
𝑡̅𝑐
So, if you take the 𝜃𝑐 it will be .., so it will be you know 𝑉𝑎 you know 𝑉𝑎 /𝑄𝑎 , and this
𝑡̅
that will be divided by 𝑉/𝑄. So, that is a is for the active region, and Q is the flow rate.
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So, you will have the active volume and this is the Q for the you know flow rate. So,
accordingly you will have, so it will be having 𝑉𝑎 𝑄/𝑄𝑎 𝑉.
So, 𝑉𝑎 /𝑉 can be you know (𝑄𝑎 /𝑄) ∗ 𝜃̅𝑐 ). So, you can have the calculation of the dead
volume. So, dead volume will be nothing but the 1 minus the active volume component
that is 𝑉𝑎 /𝑉. So, if you have the to find the dead volume fraction, so dead volume fraction
will be you know 𝑉𝑑 /𝑉, and 𝑉𝑑 /𝑉 will be 1 − (𝑉𝑎 /𝑉). So, it will be 1 − (𝑄𝑎 /𝑄)𝜃̅𝑐 .. So,
that way you will have you can calculate the fraction of the dead volume in if you have the
RTD curves you know with you.
Now this 𝑄𝑎 /𝑄 term this will be you know the this will be representing, so it represents
area under C-curve from θ equal to 0 to θ equal to 2 that is you have taken as the active
region. So, that will be from θ equal to 0 to θ equal to 2. So, you know if you have, so after
that region will be you know the dead region. So, for them you know, if your dead region
is completely stagnant, so because there may be dead region where the fluid is not at all
flowing, so that will be completely stagnant, then your volume is basically effectively the
volume is you know reduced.
So, you will have the effectively the volume will be reduced to 𝑉𝑎 only effective vessel
volume will be only 𝑉𝑎 . So, that 𝑉𝑑 part is completely unutilized. So, if you have suppose
a tundish and your this region is completely you know this is here which is completely
stagnant, in that case effectively you have only this is the, so this is only the you know 𝑉𝑎 ,
so, that is another you know aspect of the dead region. So, that tells that, so that is why we
try to have the minimization in the dead regions in the tundish so, because that will be a
loss to the productivity of the tundish.
So, dead volume fraction with you know if you talk about the for the tundish, so the dead
volume fraction you can also have you know you can, so 𝑄𝑎 /𝑄 if you look at, so in that
case 𝑄𝑎 /𝑄 will be normally equal to unity, so that can be 𝑉𝑑 /𝑉 will be 1 − 𝜃𝑐̅ . So, in the
case of stagnant system, you will have 1 − 𝜃𝑐̅ . , so that way you will have the calculation
of the 𝑉𝑑 /𝑉 in such cases.
So, you can have you know the different kind of you know tundish furnitures. So, you can
have there may be use of flow modifiers to alter the flow behavior in the tundish, so that
you can decrease the dead region, so that is what the aim is in the tundish that you should
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have the minimum of the you know dead region inside the tundish. So, one is, so that can
be if you look at the C-curve you will have a long tail that is going on. So, that also is a
one of the representative of the dead zone, whereas you know so some of the zones where
it does not go even and that is completely stagnant. So, that is also, but, so the anyway that
volume itself is not being utilized.
So, for that what we what is being done is normally you have if you look at the situations
like, if suppose you have an inlet from here and you have outlet from here. So, what is
done if, so in normal case when in normal case when the flow will come, so it may go
like and it will be coming like this. So, basically all these zones they all these all zones
become sort of you know dead zone. So, either they do not take part or if they it goes it
comes very slowly. So, once it will go this will have very small velocity. So, slowly it will
come, and it will have a very long residence time inside the tundish, and then it will be
coming out.
So, what we do normally that we use these tundish furnitures. So, many a times what we
do you have inlet from here. So, we use the different tundish furnitures like here then you
may use the dam here. So, what happens that the metal which goes so it will be coming up
and then it will be moving in this direction.
Now, from here it will move like this and if suppose it is of this, so from here it will go to
in into even this direction, and then from here it will come out and you have outlet here.
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So, if you what you see you have in this case you have many zones all these zones which
are like a dead zone. And when this zone comes like a dead zone, now you can see the by
that by the use of these tundish furnitures like dams or weirs which we use you are
effectively utilizing all these places.
Now, what may happen because of the these dead regions? So, in those cases if it is not
the fresh steel is not going that may give rise to the decrease of temperature, and many a
times become stagnant and then there may be the solidification also taking place in those
regions, so that may be harmful you know in such cases. And if you look at these two
situations, what you see that the whole of the volume of the tundish is being utilized for
the metal to flow.
Now, in this case also your 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 , so in this case it is, so the theta min that is appearing, so
that also is you know being you know increased, so your plug volume also is basically
increasing that way. So, you can have you know some equations you can use for the
calculation of these volumes like you have the plug volume, so 𝑉𝑝 /𝑉 that will be 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 ,.
So, what you do is normally when you get the time and concentration values.
So, you will draw the time concentration plot, you will be getting the theoretical mean
residence time that will be volume by volumetric flow rate, so that will be used for finding
the dimensionless time. So, the all the time will be divided by that dimensionless time. So,
you will have that in mean residence time. So, you will have the dimensionless time theta
on the x-axis; and on the y-axis as you see you will have the 𝑄/𝑉, so that way you are
dividing and then you are getting the concentration dimensionless concentration value on
the y-axis.
So, the 𝑉𝑝 /𝑉 will be theta min. So, wherever you are getting the 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 value wherever the
so suppose here it is coming, and if suppose 𝜃 is this is 𝜃 and this value is point zero or
suppose say 5, so it may come like that. So, it means 5 percent we call it as the plug volume.
Then you will have the calculation of the dead volume. So, dead volume as you see that
you calculate by seeing that which of the how many where the theta is more than 2, so that
you will have the calculation of the dead volume. And once you have the calculation of
the dead volume, then you have the well-mixed volume and that will be 1 minus 1 −
𝑉𝑝 /𝑉 − 𝑉𝑑 /𝑉..
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So, that way you know you calculate. So, you will have the you know mean residence time
coming in actual, and based on that basically so for the 2𝜃 values you can calculate the
residence time and then you can have the fraction of the dead volume. So, that will be dead
region and you know the plug region, so accordingly you can have the calculation of the
well-mixed zone in that case. So, that way you are a different you know different
component of the you know plug the region, then mixed well mix region as well as the
dead region is being found out.
So, you can we can understand you know like if suppose you if you try to have the solution
of certain problem. So, what you do is you have a typical you know you may have typical
residence time so and then you know one is that you have the area under the this curve is
has to be unity. So, your area under the curve has to be unity. So, what happens that, so
you have ∑∞
𝜃=0 𝐶𝑖 ∆𝜃 = 1.
So, you will be calculating the mean residence time of the whole you know curve. So,
mean residence time for the whole curve that has to be you know, so theta bar, so that you
∑∞
𝜃=0 𝐶𝑖 ∆𝜃
will we will have theta equal ∑∞
= 1 so that has to be basically 1.
𝜃=0 𝐶𝑖
So, we are calculating the mean residence time up to 𝜃 = 2, so for that you will have the
𝜃𝑐 . So, suppose you are taking the mean residence time up to theta equal to 2, so you will
∑2𝜃=0 𝐶𝑖 ∆𝜃
have 𝜃𝑐 , so that will be a computed and that will be ∑2𝜃=0 𝐶𝑖
. Now, the thing is that if you,
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so that is done for the curve which we had earlier seen where you had the data that was
there where we have suppose you get the curve like this. So, you will have the C values
and then you will have like 0.2, 0.4 you know 0.6, 0.8 and so, and then on this side you
will have you know 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, so this will be. So, at this it will be that is taken for
calculating the actually the dead volume calculation.
So, if you know if it is, so for this problem when you computed this sigma C i delta theta
upon sigma C i, So, it came as 0.857. So, 0.857 is coming as the theta c prime and that is
why your you know if you neglect this 𝑄/𝑄 term in that case the dead volume will be
1 − 0.857. Suppose for this problem it is coming as, so that can be computed when you
have the C and 𝜃 value. So, suppose it is coming at 0.857, so in that case it will be coming
as about 14.3 percent as the dead volume.
And if suppose you are having the area of the curve, so if you take that curve and if you
take the area of the curve up to theta equal to 2, so you will have the based on that also
𝑄𝑎
you can calculate these values and that may have some different value. So, and then you
𝑄
𝑉𝑑
can also calculate the dead region maybe , so that will be again 1 − 𝜃𝐶 . So, if you take
𝑉
𝑄𝑎
into account, so in that case that may be even later, so that can be understood when we
𝑄
solve the problems when we take one example.
So, suppose you do the experiment and you have these data, so based on that you can
calculate you know these different volume values of the suppose say plug volume mixed
volume as well as the dead volume of the tundish. So, this is about you know the you know
calculation, and we can we can further discuss in our when we will talk about you know
the analysis of the cases in that case we will be seeing that how the different kind of curves
are generated, and how these curves are different when we use the flow modifiers and how
we calculate these different tundish volumes.
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Lecture – 16
Fluid Flow Fundamentals
Welcome to the lecture on Fluid Flow Fundamentals. So, as we know that we will be
dealing with the flow inside the tundish and this flow is of the molten steel. So, we need
to have the proper understanding of the flow behavior inside the tundish, molten steel will
be flowing and then accordingly I mean, when it is flowing inside the tundish.
So, there will be many phenomena which will be occurring inside, there will be you know
flow around the corner in the tundish then during that process. There may be floatation of
inclusions, then you will be associated phenomena like there will be heat transfer from the
walls and from the top.
So, we need to have the proper understanding of the fluid flow as well as the heat transfer
phenomena. We should have some basic understanding about the fluid flow phenomena
and how to model it. So, what are the different terms which we need to know, what are the
fundamental principles, what are the governing equations, all is needed to study the
behavior of different processes inside the tundish.
So, in that line initially we need to have the understanding about the fluid flow
fundamentals, and in this lecture we will have some light over the initial you know
fundamental understanding about the fluid flow phenomena.
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So, you know laws of the fluid mechanics govern the flow of metal and entrainment of gas
and slag, the movement and flotation of non-metallic inclusions etc. So, as we discussed
that here in all these cases the laws of fluid mechanics which will be governing the flow
of metal they will be important. And that is why we need to understand the fluid flow
behavior especially if you talk about the tundish.
So, in the tundish you have different regions. Now, there is a region where the liquid metal
is coming from the ladle and then you have the remote regions also. So, in most of the
cases generally the tundish flow is considered to be turbulent. So, we need to also have the
understanding about the laminar as well as the turbulent regions; what are the laminar
regions, how there is turbulence region you know defined.
We need to have understanding about the you know characteristics of the laminar flow as
well as the turbulent flow because there will be mixing which will be going inside the
tundish, there may be you know different kind of processes heat transfer there may be 1
phase, 2 phase or so.
So, actually we know we need to know about the fluid flow, turbulence, heat transfer and
all that. So, during this week we will be talking about the fundamentals about the fluid
flow. So, coming to the fluid flow regimes so, as you know that when we talk about the
fluid flow.
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Then, the flow regimes are basically classified as either the laminar or the turbulent flow
regime. So, as we see that when we talk about the laminar flow, in that the layers of fluid
will be sliding over one another without any macroscopic mixing or even the intermingling
of fluid, in the direction perpendicular to the fluid flow.
So, that is normally the laminar flows, in the laminar flow if you talk in a very rough sense.
So, you have the layers which will be moving over one another. So, there will not be any
kind of vortexing, they will not be intermingling of fluid in the direction perpendicular to
the fluid flow like when you have suppose you have the concrete; so, the layers move one
over other.
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So, this is a kind of flow that is you are laminar flow; whereas, you know and in this case
you know there will not be intermingling as definition tells that they will not be
intermingling of the layer which is one of others, they will not you know by intermingle
with one another. Whereas, in the case of turbulent flow that is not the case. In the case of
turbulent flow, macroscopic mixing will be taking place between fluid layers or portions
of fluid over relatively you know long distances.
So, in this case you will have the macroscopic mixing, you know taking place and that will
be also taking place between the fluid layers or portions of fluid over large distances. So,
you will be talking about those distances or length scales or so. So, in that we need to
understand about you know different type of models which should you know be talking
about these turbulence behavior and then it is associated effect on the on predicting the
you know output parameter.
So, we will have the discussion about the turbulence itself in the coming week. So, there
we will be talking about these you know over a relatively long distances. So, how these
layers are interacting you know how there is intermingling and how these distances are
taken into account. So, these things are discussed as you know that the demarcation
between the turbulent flow and the laminar flow it was done by then it is done by a very
Reynold number that is Reynolds number and it is by the very renowned researcher
scientists Osborn Reynolds.
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So, he you know devised or he has given this number that is known as the Reynolds
number. So, this is the criteria for you know for differentiating the laminar flow from the
𝐿𝑉𝜌
turbulent flow and Reynolds number will be defined as . So, you know many a times
𝜂
𝐿𝑉𝜌
we write 𝜇/𝜌whatever. So, in this basically we take this you know L as the characteristic
length of the system.
So, it is normally like the diameter of pipe when we are talking about the pipe flow
similarly you have v. So, v is the average velocity of the fluid, then you have 𝜌 and 𝜂 is
there. So, 𝜌 is the density of the fluid and 𝜂 is the viscosity of the fluid.
So, you know depending upon so, once you have any you know geometry or container in
which the it is flow going on. So, using this correlationship you will find the Reynold
number and if this Reynold number is more than certain critical value for a particular
configuration of vessel. In that case, it is said to be you know turbulent or an if it is less
than that so, it will be laminar.
So, there will be transition from laminar to turbulent you know and that will be defined by
that will be at a limit to that number that is known as the Reynolds number. So, certain
resource for the pipe flow it is given by 2100. So, that may be different for the different
type of you know cases and similarly, you know we can have surface flows so, and there
the this number will be different.
So, similar; so, that way when we talk about the flow of molten metal even in the tundish
also. So, in that case we can very much find whether the flow is turbulent or laminar
depending upon the value of these Reynold numbers; so, Reynolds number.
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Now, next thing which will be you know further required to know to us. So, you will have
the transition from laminar to turbulent is characterized by dimensionless quantity known
as the Reynolds number that is what we have seen and this will be this transition will be
dependent on the boundary geometry of the system.
So, they will be basically partly to the arbitrary nature of the characteristic length L and
partly to the inherent differences in the flow pattern; so, they will be you know dependent
upon that way. So, depending upon the geometry you will have the maybe the different
value of the Reynolds number which will be demarcating the place; I mean, and the point
at which there will be transition from the laminar to the turbulent region.
So, then we need to know also a very important property of the material that is viscosity
and that is basically defined by the law. So, this law is the Newton’s law of viscosity. So,
you will have you know as we see that there will be a velocity gradient and that will be
creating the you know shear stress.
So, what was seen that the you know the shear stress which was plotted against the velocity
gradient. So, you know it was seen to pass through the origin and a that was you know by
an experiment and this experiment was basically that you had a you know stationary plate.
So, this was the stationary plate and you have you know fluid in between and this is a plate
which is you know this is allowed to move.
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So, this is a moving plate and similarly you have this as the stationary plate. So, initially
you know upper plate is this is a stationary so, you will have if you see that this is your x-
direction and this is your y-direction. So, here you have y=Y and you have v=0, and here
you have y= 0 and v=V actually you are moving this plate with velocity V.
So, you know and if you assume that there is no slip in this case. So, what will happen that
the layer of fluid which will you know this will start you know that moving with the
velocity V; so, that this is a in between there is fluid.
So, once you are moving it the fluid which is in connection with in contact with this
moving plate, it will also start moving with a velocity V. So, this is a stationary so, you
will it will have you know the same it will be stationary itself, but the fluid which is here
they will be, they will start moving with the velocity V. So, you will have you will be
seeing the a kind of velocity gradient as we see as we move in this direction.
Now, here; so, the lowermost this you know this lowermost this fluid layer it will be
gradually transferring, this momentum to the upper fluid layers to the upper fluid layer
although it is in you know contact. So, they will this because of the movement it will be
transferring this momentum to the upper fluid layers.
And, you know initially there will be some unsteady kind of situation, and then you will
have after a sufficient time you will have a steady state which is reached, and then you can
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have this velocity profile and you know at that time the fluid velocity will not change with
time. So, this kind of velocity profile you will be getting it.
Now, in this experiment what is observed that you will have when you have the attainment
of a steady state, in that case a force you know must be exerted on the lower plate. So, to
keep it in motion; so, you will have to have this a force it needs to be exerted. And, Newton
has found that this force you know per unit area of the plate that was found to be
proportional to the velocity and inversely proportional to the spacing y.
So, what was seen that the force per unit area. So, force per unit area of the plate is
proportional to velocity V and inversely proportional to the spacing between the plates;
so, that is what was found by Newton. So, so, what we he found that 𝐹/𝐴. So, this is a
proportional to 𝑣/𝑦.
Now, you will have to give so, A is basically the surface area of the plate, V is the velocity,
y the distance in y direction. So, now so, if you put the constant of proportionality 𝐹/𝐴
will be 𝜂𝑣/𝑦. So, this 𝜂 that is; so, 𝐹/𝐴 if you look at force per unit areas that we will be
talking about the shear stress. So, this is the shear stress; so, 𝐹/𝐴 will be a shear stress at
the interface. So, this is known as the shear stress you know that will be at the interface
between lower plate and adjacent fluid layer.
So, accordingly you what you see that the shear stress that is basically what you see, so,
you can express it as the velocity gradient. So, if you talk in terms of the velocity gradients
a change of velocity with respect to the y. So, what we see that if you denote this as the
𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝜏𝑦𝑥 and this is as .
𝑑𝑦
So, form by 𝑑𝑦 basically change in distance that is y. So, you can write if you write in the
𝑑𝑣
differential form. So, you can write in the differential form as 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜂 . So, as because
𝑑𝑦
as you are increasing y the change in velocity is negative that is why, when you are writing
you know in the case of differential in differential form.
𝑑𝑣
So, you see that this is 𝜏𝑦𝑥 that is known as −𝜂 𝑑𝑦. So, this you know rule is known as the
Newton’s law of viscosity because it is defining this term 𝜂 that is your viscosity.
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Now, in this term you see 𝜏𝑦𝑥 . So, this 𝜏𝑦𝑥 if you see so, your 𝜏𝑦𝑥 becomes minus of 𝜂
𝑑𝑣𝑥
. So, your you have y as well as x. So, this will be in 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , the y will be in the direction
𝑑𝑦
of momentum transfer. So, in 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , y is the direction of momentum transfer and x is the
direction of fluid velocity.
So, so that way we are writing this 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , then 𝜂 is known as the coefficient of molecular
𝑑𝑣𝑥
viscosity or we also call it as simply the viscosity of the fluid, then you know and .. So,
𝑑𝑦
this is known as the velocity gradient as because the eta has to be always positive.
So, this term we are putting one negative sign and that will be having certain meaning
because that has to be having the you know positive value always, the viscosity value
cannot be negative. So, what we see that this viscosity that is the molecular viscosity and
it is because of the molecular exchange of the momentum should taking place you know
in this kind of flow.
Now, this is normally in the case of laminar flow where we assume that there is you know
movement of layer one over other in a in laminar manner. Now, without the liquids which
obey these law where the shear stress will be proportional to the velocity gradient. So, they
will be known as the Newtonian fluid and these fluids like water or so, or molten steel or.
So, they are at that temperature molten steel.
So, they are considered to be the Newtonian fluid. Whereas, there are fluids which do not
obey this law. So, in those cases there is no linear you know relationship or there may be
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different relationship then what is being observed by this kind of by these fluids Newtonian
fluids. So, they are known as the non-Newtonian fluids. So, the aim is basically to have
the prediction of the shear stresses and because you know so, that is why now in the case
of our analysis mostly we will be dealing with the Newtonian fluid only.
So, mostly we will have the dealing with these principles. Now, when we will see that we
do not only concerned with only these molecular viscosity, but as the flow in the tundish
is turbulent.
So, in that case you are not assured only and you are bound to have the intermingling of
the fluid layers. So, you will have not only the momentum exchange across the layers only
so, that maybe over the large distances. So, you will have you know other viscosity
component also because of the turbulence and that is known as turbulent viscosity, and
then you will have the effective viscosity as the sum of these two. So, that is what some
idea we had got in the earlier lectures also.
So, in those cases we will have the prediction of that turbulent viscosity and that we will
study when we talk about the turbulence how that is taken into account. So, that will be
seen in our coming lectures.
So, if you talk about the viscosity. So, viscosity has a unit and that is you have many kind
of either you have SI unit or you have the you know in CGS system also you may have the
poise or stokes or so. So, if you talk about the unit of viscosity. So, what we do is in SI
unit τ has the unit of Newton/m2 and then you will have this is meter and this way you
have m/s.
So, accordingly you can have the unit of viscosity and that is kg/m-s. So, that is your unit
in the for the viscosity and if you go for the CGS system then it is the poise. So, 1 poise
will be 1 gram/centimeter-second. So, you will have either you know unit of kg/m-s or you
may have the gram/centimeter-second. So, that is you know 1 poise and this is 1 Pascal
second.
So, if you; so, this is you know Pascal second and this is you will have the poise. So, if
you see that 1P, 1 poise will be 0.1 Pascal second. So, that way this relationship also is
coming up you know for the unit of viscosity, and unit of viscosity you know it has some
standard value at some standard you know temperature and pressure.
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Now, we have another term you know with viscosity. So, in that case of engineering
analysis, what we do is we normally define the viscosity also in terms of viscosity to
density ratio. So, for a fluid when we take the ratio of the viscosity to it is density. So, that
is known as the kinematic viscosity, and this kinematic viscosity is represented by the term
𝜈 and it is unit is actually m2/s.
So, in the case of SI units, it will be m2/s and in CGS system it is cm2/s; so, that is the
stock. So, that way you have the other units you know for the you know viscosity itself
that is known as the kinematic viscosity. So, this is about that property of the fluid.
Now, coming to the dimensionality of the flow. So, if you talk about the present case so,
the if you see that the velocity will be changing in one coordinate direction as you are
moving in the y direction. So, your velocity seems to be changing, so, that is basically a
one-dimensional flow.
So, velocity if changes in any one coordinate direction only then it is considered the one-
dimensional flow; similarly, if the velocity is function of x and y coordinates both then the
flow is said to be two-dimensional.
So, if you talk about the boundary layer; so, if you see the momentum boundary layer. So,
in that what you see that velocity will be changing and if you look at the; so, what you see
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that in this case earlier case what you have seen that velocity is only changing in the y
direction.
So, this is as you by changing, so that is why it is in a said to be one-dimensional. Now, if

you talk about a velocity boundary layer. Now, in that case what happens that in the case
of boundary layer? You might have experienced that your velocity profile goes like this in
the in the boundary layer, it will be you know changing.
So, your if you see the velocity it will be changing in because of the x and the y in both
the directions as you moved here so, your you know it is changing. So, in those cases what
you see that your velocity will be function of the x and y coordinates that will be changing.
So, that is why the flow is said to be the two-dimensional.
Similarly, if it is dependent upon the all the three coordinate directions, then it is said to
be the 3 dimensional flow. And, normally when we talk about the flow inside the tundish,
then it is the you know three-dimensional flow. So, while analyzing we will have to have
this in mind that it is to one-dimensional, two-dimensional or three-dimensional you know
flow anyway and accordingly we will have to do the analysis of the flow, then comes you
know the mode of momentum transport.
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So, basically there are two modes of the transport momentum transport. One is momentum
you know convective transport and another is the diffusive transport. .Now, when the
momentum transport is in the direction from higher velocity layer to a lower velocity layer
so, as we have seen in the earlier case. In the earlier case your you know the momentum
transport is from the lower layer to the higher layer. So, you will have the velocity at lower
layer you have higher velocity and at upper layer you have lower velocity.
So, when you have the momentum transport from the higher velocity layer to lower
velocity layer. So, in that case you know your momentum transport is because of the
diffusive diffusion. So, that is known as the because of the viscous effect, so, you have
your viscosity coming into picture.
So, with this because of that mechanism so, that is why we call it as the viscous or diffusive
momentum transport. Now, when your momentum transport so, that is your you know the
convective; I mean, viscous or diffusing momentum transport. Now, if your momentum
transport is due to the motion of the fluid itself in the flow direction, then it is known as
the convective you know momentum transport.
So, if you look at the you know this viscous or diffusive momentum transports in that.
Basically, the molecules will be crossing the you know layers that will be you know as per
you have the molecules, like you have the top layer molecule is there, same below that you
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have the molecules. So, this way you have layer of molecules and you will have the
momentum transport will be using you know this mechanism.
So, that is there in the case of you know; so, this is because of the viscous you know
property. So, that is why it is viscous momentum transport; whereas, if you see that when
you had the two plates and one is in motion. And when you are so, your if you see that
when your this was the you know velocity profile which was seen in the in the in the case
which we studied..
So, the viscous momentum will be in this direction so, that will be transferring the
momentum or momentum transferred will be in this direction. Now, if the it is because of
the velocity so, if it is because of that velocity. So, the velocity is in this direction so, that
is known as the convective momentum transport. So, the rate of convective momentum
transport that will be you know mass boom into velocity by time.
So, if you look at the rate of moment convective momentum transport it will be 𝜌𝑣𝑥2 𝐴. So,
you are you know that a is the cross sectional area. So, here this is the cross sectional area
perpendicular to the flow direction through which the density the fluid of density rho is
flowing. So, that way we are finding the rate of convective momentum transport. So,
accordingly you can you know you can have the understanding about these property you
can have the study of other fluid properties also like surface tension and other things which
will be used in our lectures to come.
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Lecture – 17
Mass Conservation Equation
Welcome to the lecture on Mass Conservation Equation. So, we will talking about the
governing equations especially the Conservation Equation of Mass in this lecture. And we
talked about the certain points related to the fluid fundamentals. And now we will be
talking about the conservation equation for mass.
So, there are certain assumptions in that we take the fluid as the continuum.
So, basically for the analysis of fluid flow at the microscopic length scale so, when it is 1
micrometer or larger, the molecular structure of matter and molecular motions we have to
ignore for this analysis. Then we are also having the behavior of the fluid which we will
try to describe in terms of the macroscopic properties. Like, velocity pressure, density,
temperature, and they are space and time derivatives. So, we are going to have these
properties and in that turn we are going to have the discussion about the flow behavior or
fluid behavior.
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Now, fluid particle or a point in a fluid will be the smallest possible element of fluid whose
macroscopic properties are not influenced by individual molecules. So, the with these we
are going to have the analysis of the flow behavior. And when we are going to talking
about the conservative conservation properties you know, conservative principles for
certain you know things like mass or momentum.
So, in this lecture we are going to talk about the mass.
Now, if you talk about the properties of the fluids. So, suppose you have a point x, y, z
where you are defining, now in that case the all the fluid properties are function of the
space and time. So, you have properties like density, pressure, temperature, or velocity
they are all said to be a function of a space as well as times. So, we define it as ρ, x, y, z,
t. So, there will be a function of this space coordinate as well as the time co-ordinate.
Similarly pressure of also functions of the space and time co-ordinate then you have the
temperature that is also function of space and time and similarly the velocity.
So, if you try to have in the properties of to be found at the faces. So this is at the, suppose
you are taking a cubical element now in that this x, y at x, y, z point you have these
properties like you know these density or pressure or temperature or velocity. So, if you
have define at the face, so that can be done by the Taylor series expansion and in that
assuming it to be very small you can ignore the turns which are coming after the first two
turns.
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So, if you take this face, so that will be your West face on this side. So, on this face you
will have if you take the pressure, so if the pressure p is at this point x, y, z. So, at this face
𝜕𝑝 1
it will be 𝑝 − 𝜕𝑥 2 𝛿𝑥. So, 𝛿𝑥 is the, you know the length of this whole you know face;
whole length is 𝛿𝑥. And this point has the distance of 𝛿𝑥/2 from this west face. So, it will
𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝑝 1
be 𝑝 − 𝜕𝑥 2 𝛿𝑥. Similarly pressure at the east face will be 𝑝 − 𝜕𝑥 2 𝛿𝑥.
So, that way you are going to have the, you have to go to define these you know properties
of the fluids at the different you know faces. So, similar when you go to the you know this
𝜕𝑝 1
north face so you will have a 𝑝 − 𝛿𝑦 y; so this direction is your z so this will be 𝑝 −
𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝑝 1
𝛿𝑧.
𝜕𝑧 2
So, that way accordingly you will have the value of these you know properties across these
faces. And that will be used when we talk about the conservation principle of the mass.
Now, coming to the mass conservation principle. Mass conservation principle tells that
you will have the, you know rate of increase of mass in fluid element. It will be as same
as the net rate of mass into the fluid elements. So, whatever net rate of mass flow there
into the element it will be same as the rate of increase of mass in the fluid and any elements;
so what we see.
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As you have seen that you will have at this point if the these properties are ρ, t, u, v and
all that, so p. So, that will be you will have the values on all these sides. And we will have
the expression for this you know you know accordingly we will be trying to find so, the
rate of increase of mass in the fluid element.
𝜕
So, rate of increase of mass in fluid element. So, it will be 𝜕𝑡; that is rate of increase with
respect to time and mass will be density into volume. So, volume will be 𝛿𝑥, 𝛿𝑦 and 𝛿𝑧
that is cubical element. So, density will be ρ and then you will have 𝛿𝑥, 𝛿𝑦 and 𝛿𝑧. So, it
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
will be 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧, so that is being a constant so that will be coming out. So, 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Now we need to have the value of the mass flow rate across the, you know faces of the
element. So, you will have the six different faces. And we need to find out the mass flow
rate across these faces. And it will be given by: so mass flow rate across the face. So, that
will be the product of the you know density, so that will be ρ. Then you will have the area
and that will be further multiplied with the velocity component normal to the face. So, you
will you will have the velocity component which is normal to the face, and then you have
density and the area.
So, if you take you know along the boundaries, so you will have the values and if you see
it will be ρu. So, if you say you are taking the east face or so. So, it will be {𝜌𝑢 −
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝛿𝑥
}𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. And then it will be, so one is this and another is on the right hand side. So,
𝜕𝑥 2
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𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝛿𝑥
it will be {𝜌𝑢 + }𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. So, if you take that in the x directions so you have one flow
𝜕𝑥 2
from here another flow on this side. So, that is what you are getting this these two faces;
taking into account this terminologies coming.
Similarly, you will have if you take the you know v components. So, you will have {𝜌𝑣 −
𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝛿𝑦 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝛿𝑦
}𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧. And that will be further minus of {𝜌𝑣 + }𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧. So, that will be for
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2
the y component.
And then you have the z component. So, that is z component will be again w will be
𝜕(𝜌𝑤) 𝛿𝑧 𝜕(𝜌𝑤) 𝛿𝑧
coming. So, we will have {𝜌𝑤 − }𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦, similarly you have {𝜌𝑤 + }𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦.
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2
So, this is the basically net mass flow rate that is across the faces. So, you have the rate of
that is net rate of mass flow into the fluid element. That is what you are seen from here.
So, one is coming and other is going. So, net rate of mass flow into the fluid element will
be this particular you know value. So, if you are taking, so in that what you see you will
be getting these terminologies cancelled and you will get certain terminology. So, here you
𝜕𝜌
are getting 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧.
𝜕𝑡
𝜕(𝑢) 𝛿𝑥 𝜕(𝑢) 𝛿𝑥
Now in this case, what you say this is − }𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 and that will be − }𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. So,
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕(𝑢) 𝛿𝑥
these two terms will be you know added and they will be negative term of {− }𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧.
𝜕𝑥 2
So, that is what you are getting. so And this will be term you know ultimately together and
that will be equated to these term.
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𝜕𝜌
So, what you get is that you are getting this term 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧, that will be equal to this term
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌 𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤)
𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧,. So, it will equal to a − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑤
So, that is coming as the negative term when you add all these terms of this. So, it will be
𝛿𝑥
minus and minus, so it will be that 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧.
2
Now, this with you can write. So, 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 can be cancelled on both the sides. So, you can
𝜕𝜌 𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤)
write 𝜕𝑡 + + + = 0. So, this is what you get. So, this equation that is what
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
you are getting that is known as the conservation of mass. This is known as the mass
conservation equation.
Now what you see, so this if you try to you know right in a compact vectorial form. So, in
𝜕𝜌
upcoming vector notation you can write this as + 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝑈) = 0. So, that is also this is
𝜕𝑡
also known as the mass conservation equation.
Now, this is known as the three dimensional mass conservation equation or we can also
call it as the continuity equation. So, normally that is generally defined for the
compressible fluid. However, if you have the incompressible fluid where density does not
vary, so in that case ρ will be constant.
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So, for incompressible fluid so, when we talk about the fluid flow like water or steel or so
they are incompressible nature. So, in that case the ρ is basically constant. So, as the ρ
becomes constant so your term become 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝑈) = 0. So, this is the, you know equation
that is known as the continuity equation for the compressible flow.
So, you simply write in that case the rho becomes constant, so rho will come out so
𝜕(𝑢) 𝜕(𝑣) 𝜕(𝑤)
𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝑈) = 0. So, it will be + + = 0. So, that is what the continuity equation
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
you know is defined as.
Now, next thing what we will; so next will be studying about the momentum conservation.
And before that we need to know something about the rate of change of the, you know
𝐷
following the fluid particle and for a fluid element. So, that is capital 𝐷𝑡 so, 𝐷𝜑 additive
for any fluid property.
So, that will be the rate of change that is total derivative basically. So, that is the follow in
a fluid particle and for a fluid element. So, you will have the changes in the properties of
the fluid particle and for that Lagrangian approach is you know used. And each property
will be the function of the position and the time so, the all the properties being the function
of the position and time; so x, y, z and t.
So, we normally you have any property per unit mass which we define; so we define. So,
supposed let we the value of a property per unit mass be 𝜑. So, if you are seeing that 𝜑, so
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it will be depending upon. So, its value will be depending value will be depending upon x,
y, z and t.
𝐷
And if you talk about the total derivative or the substantial derivative that is capital 𝐷𝑡, so
𝐷𝜑
total or substantial derivative. So, that is basically represented by of any property. So,
𝐷𝑡
𝐷𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑧
that will be you know represented that will be equal to + 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 + 𝜕𝑦 + . So,
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡
this is the expression for the substantial derivative and this will be used when we will talk
about the conservation of properties like momentum or temperature in that those cases.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Now, for a fluid particle you know which is in the flow. So, your 𝑑𝑡 will be u and will v
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑧
and will be you know w. So, this will be your u, this will be v, and this will be w. So,
𝑑𝑡
𝐷𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
you can write you know = + 𝜕𝑥 𝑢 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑣 + 𝑤.
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜑
So, you can further write this you know as: my first is the transient term that is +
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜑
𝑈. 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝜑. so it will be the, you have three components u v w. So, accordingly you 𝜕𝑥 𝑢 +
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝑣+ 𝑤. So, this basically it will be defining the rate of change of the property 𝜑
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
per unit mass. And that way we are going to use it for you know for expressing you know
when we are going to have the definition for the for the conservation of mass equation or
for the conservation of momentum equation.
So, in that case we are going to have the use of these property 𝜑 in the different manner.
So, if you talk about the mass conservation equation; so you if you talk about the mass
conservation equation, you will have mass per unit volume is basically ρ. So, that is the
conserved quantity. So, in that case you know if you talk about change of the densities. So
some of the rate of change of the density you know in time and the convective term and
you know in that mass consecutive term.
So, if you talk about the conservation equation for the mass which we have derived earlier
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜑
that was the . So, your this 𝜑 will be basically replaced by a 𝜌. So, it will be +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑈. 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝜑. And since 𝜌 will be will not be changing. So, so accordingly you can see here
that was 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝑈).
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So, that is what you can get it you know from that particular equation itself.
So, if you try to have the this you know for the for the you know arbitrary conserved
𝜕(𝜌𝜑)
property you can write the generalized you know term that will be: + 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝜑𝑈).
𝜕𝑡
So, you know if you try to derive the conservation equation for either the mass or the
momentum you can directly get from here.
𝜕(𝜌𝜑)
Now, if you see that, you know if you look at the expression the + 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝜑𝑈) So,
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜌
that will be if you see it will be 𝜌[ 𝜕𝑡 + 𝑢. 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝜑] + 𝜑[ 𝜕𝑡 + 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝑢)]So, that becomes
𝐷𝜑
equal to 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 .
𝜕𝜌
Now, in this case what you see that, the term that is 𝜑 𝜕𝑡 . Now this term is 0 because the
density is constant. So, that term becomes 0 and also plus 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝑢) so that this term
becomes 0.
So, what is coming out of this expression is that you when you see the rate of increase of
𝐷𝜑
you know any property 𝜑 of a fluid element, so that is your substantial derivative. That
𝐷𝑡
will be you know net rate of flow of 𝜑 out of the fluid element plus rate of increase of 𝜑
for a fluid particle. So, accordingly you can have. So, if you look at the momentum
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equation which we will try to you know derive in that you will have the term for x
momentum y momentum and z momentum.
So, if you look at the x momentum term. Now in that case you will have a different terms.
𝐷𝑢 𝜕(𝜌𝑢)
So, you will have the term u, you will have 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 . And accordingly you will get +
𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝑈𝑢). So, that will be for the x momentum.
Similarly, if you go for the y momentum: y momentum you will have the velocity
𝐷𝑣 𝜕(𝜌𝑣)
component is v. So, you will have the total derivative 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 and that comes as +
𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝑈𝑣). So, so accordingly this way you will have the z momentum equation, and in
𝐷𝑤 𝜕(𝜌𝑤)
that you have w so it becomes 𝜌 . And that becomes equal to + 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝑈𝑤)
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
So, so accordingly you know if you use this total derivative term, this total derivative total
or derivative or substantial derivative expression that will be used for finding these
conservation equation for momentum also in the long in the coming lectures, where we
will be having the derivation of these conservation equation for the momentum. So, in the
coming will be having you know the expression for the momentum equation in three-
dimension.
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Lecture – 18
Momentum Conservation Equation
Welcome to the lecture on Momentum Conservation Equations. So, in the last class we
discussed about the conservation equation for mass. And, also we had the concept about
the total derivative or the substantial derivative and we had seen that when we are talking
𝐷𝑢 𝐷𝑣 𝐷𝑤
about the terms like 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 or 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 or 𝜌 .
𝐷𝑡
So, there will be the terms for the x, y and z momentum and keeping that in mind we are
going to have the expression for the equations of conservation of momentum.
So, what we had seen you know if you talk about the momentum conservation equation.
It is basically derived from the Newton’s second law which tells that the rate of change of
momentum of a fluid particle equals the sum of the forces on the particle. So, you will
have that rate of increase of momentum that will be sum of forces. Now, rate of increase
of momentum for the fluid particle so for the x y and z direction that momentum a per unit
volume that will be you know represented by 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 or 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 or 𝜌 which is not appearing
𝐷𝑡
fully here.
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So, that is the substantial derivative or or and that also is you know we had
𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡
𝐷𝑢
already seen that you know for the component 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 .
𝐷𝜌𝑢
So, that will be you know + 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝑢𝑈). So, while deriving that expression for the x
𝐷𝑡
𝐷𝑢
momentum term and using that total derivative concept what we saw this 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 . So, that is
𝐷𝜌𝑢
you know that is for the x momentum and that is basically becoming equal to .
𝐷𝑡
So, this is the taking time into picture and then it will be 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝑢𝑈). So, that way you had
a this x momentum. Now, similarly you will have the expression for the y momentum that
𝐷𝑢 𝐷𝜌𝑣 𝐷𝑤
is 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 . So, that will be + 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝑣𝑈). So, that is then 𝜌 . So, like that we had seen
𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡
these terminologies in our last class when we try to define this substantial derivative term.
Now, coming to the momentum conservation equation what we see that in this case you
have the you know. So, once you have the rate of increase of momentum of fluid particle
that is by this term and then we are going to have the discussion on the sum of forces on
the fluid particle.
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So, the forces we have to analyze and the forces which are typically you know there which
are acting on the fluid particle they are the surface forces and the body forces. So, you
have you know the pressure force or you have the viscous forces are there. Then also you
have forces like; so, normally pressure and viscous forces they we used to take them in
terms you know and we have also the gravity term.
So, that is normally taken as the source term; so, that we will see that when we derive with
these equations then that time they are taking as the source terms. So, you know if you talk
about the stresses which are acting. So, you have the surface forces which are taken as the
separate terms in the momentum equation and the body force as we discussed that we take
as the source term in the equation. Now, if you talk about the you know in component of
forces to.
So, you will have these and we will talk about the x component of forces and then we will
equate to the momentum term. So, we will have the rate of change of momentum that is
equal to the force. So, we will have the you know forces that we have to see in the x
direction. So, now, if you talk about these you know a fluid element. So, you have the
different you know stresses which are acting on it and now you have as we have seen that
you have the notation for the stress also like 𝜏𝑥𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 ,.
So, one will be the direction of the stress another will be we will be that and you know
plane on which the normal direction is there. So, that way you have these two you know ij
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is there while we define these stress terms. So, what we see that we have the pressure term
and also we have the 9 viscous stress components are there which are acting on the fluid
and that is what is shown in this picture.
So, the pressure is the normal stress that is p and the viscous stress is denoted by the term
τ. So, that is the you know the normal practice which we have and also we know that we
have the direction 𝜏𝑖𝑗 ,. So, you will have you know 𝜏𝑖𝑗 . So, you know it will be indicating
that direction of in which the stress will be acting and also you will have the i direction
that is the surface normal to that i direction. So, that you have. So, accordingly you will
have a 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 , 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧 , 𝜏𝑧𝑥 or so.
So, that way you will have these 9 stress components. Now what we need to know is that
you have to analyze the forces which are resulting from these surface stresses and that will
be force will be basically because of the surface stress and then multiplied by the area. So,
force will be the stress times the area. So, that way you will have the, you have a finding
the forces and you will have certainly positive and negative sign depending upon you know
the place where it is applied.
So, on the coordinate axis if you are on the positive side you will have positive sign and
otherwise you will have the negative sign and you will be finding the net force in the x
direction and it will be the sum of the forces which will be acting in that direction on the
fluid element.
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So, we will be talking about these forces and if you look at the you know the forces which
are you know acting. So, you see you will have the pressure force or pressure being normal
force you will have the element. So, on this side the negative x directions. So, you will
𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑥
have 𝑝 − 𝜕𝑥 and similarly on our from this side you will have 𝑝 + 𝜕𝑥
2 2
So, that is you know for the pressure term. Now if you come to the , 𝜏𝑥𝑥 term. So, 𝜏𝑥𝑥 term
again you will have this for this direction. So, from here it is on the negative x direction.
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝛿𝑥
So, it will be , 𝜏𝑥𝑥 − is the you know half of this length. Similarly on this side so
𝜕𝑥 2
we are basically neglecting the you know the terms which is coming after the second term
in the Taylor’s series expansion.
So, you will have 𝜏𝑥𝑥 + . So, this will be on these 2 sides. Now if you talk about
𝜕𝑥 2
other stress components like this term. So, you see this is direction is you know z and I
mean x. So, this is tau the second component is x and the this is perpendicular to that z
direction plane. So, you will have 𝜏𝑧 . So, this is 𝜏𝑧𝑥 and since from the center this is half
𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝛿𝑧
of 𝛿𝑧 above. So, on this phase the stress which will be acting will be 𝜏𝑧𝑥 + ..
𝜕𝑧 2
Similarly, on this phase you will have 𝜏𝑧𝑥 − ... So, that way you will have these
𝜕𝑧 2
stress components and then they will be multiplied by these areas. So, that way in this side
if you look at this will be 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦. So, that way if you look at terminologies like you know
𝜏𝑦𝑥 or you will have 𝜏𝑥𝑥 and 𝜏𝑧𝑥 . So, you will have you know different you know these
value of a stresses and we will analyze the value of these stresses.
So, coming to the different faces if you come to the east and west face; so, if you come to
𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑥
this and this face. So, what you see. You have the stress 𝑝 − 𝜕𝑥 here and this 𝑝 + 𝜕𝑥 .
2 2
So, this is here and also similarly you have 𝜏𝑥𝑥 − and this side you have a 𝜏𝑥𝑥 +
𝜕𝑥 2
.
𝜕𝑥 2
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So, if you talk about the you know on the east and west faces. So, on pair of east and west
faces if you know take the forces into consideration. So, what you see. You see the on the
𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑥
left hand side because of the pressure you get 𝑝 − 𝜕𝑥 . So, that will be there and then you
2
have the negative of the 𝜏𝑥𝑥 − . So, that is the this 𝜏𝑥𝑥 term is.
𝜕𝑥 2
Now, in this case in the case of pressure since we take the compressive as the positive once
we are taking this positive value. Now then you have the term you have if you go from the
opposite side. So, now, this is basically because of the sign it is having this positive value.
Now if you take the from the right hand side your pressure term is in the negative x
𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑥
direction. So, you will have -(𝑝 + 𝜕𝑥 ).
2
And then you have the term that is 𝜏𝑥𝑥 + ; so, this term. Now, these term all these
𝜕𝑥 2
terms so, this term as you. So, if you take whole term now this you know whole term if
you take that will be multiplied by the area that area of that face. So, this face; so, this is
your 𝛿𝑧 and this is your 𝛿𝑦. So, it will be multiplied by 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. So, this is the you know
forces which are on the E & W face in that you know x direction.
So, if you add these terms. So, you will have you know this p and this p will cancel and so
𝜕𝑝
you will get you know the- 𝜕𝑥 and you know and you have this 𝛿𝑧 term will come. So, this
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𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
is and this is . So, that it will be 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 and 𝛿𝑧 that will be going out and in this side
2 2
you have you know 𝜏𝑥𝑥 and here also you have +𝜏𝑥𝑥 . So, this −𝜏𝑥𝑥 and +𝜏𝑥𝑥 will cancel.
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥
So, you will have the term + and here again you have + and then you have 𝛿𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥
term coming into picture. So, the term becomes and in both the cases you have 𝛿𝑥
𝜕𝑥
coming here and 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 is outside. So, you will have the term that is 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. So, this is
you know on the pair of in form of east and west faces if you take that is how these term
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥
is coming a (− 𝜕𝑥 + )𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 . Now, if you take the net force in x direction on the pair
𝜕𝑥
of north and south faces so.
So, it will be the net force in x direction on pair of faces north and south. So, that can be
seen this is your north face and this is your south face and the forces which are acting in
the x direction. So, you will have 𝜏𝑧𝑥 and this is 𝜏𝑧𝑥 on this side. So, you will have
accordingly you will have the you know. So, you can have; so now this is north and this is
south face, this is your top and this is bottom face. So, you will have north face is 𝜏𝑦𝑥 −
𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝛿𝑦
. So, this will be on that face that is north face.
𝜕𝑦 2
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And this is your south face. This is you know east and this is west face. So, you will have.
So, once you see it is component in the x direction. So, that will be if you look at −(𝜏𝑦𝑥 −
). So, that will be your in the x directions.
𝜕𝑦 2
So, that will be multiplied by 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 and then we are adding the another term. So, that will
be you know (𝜏𝑦𝑥 + )𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 . So, if you see that again 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 is gone and you have
𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥
these 2 plus terms. So, you will have 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧.
𝜕𝑦
So, this is we are taking that net force in the x direction on the pair north and south face.
Similarly if you take the net force in x direction on top and bottom faces; so, on top and
bottom face you will have 𝜏𝑧𝑥 + . So, on the top face and on the bottom face you
𝜕𝑧 2
have 𝜏𝑧𝑥 − . So, that is there on the bottom face and we multiplied by the area. So,
𝜕𝑧 2
that will be again −(𝜏𝑧𝑥 − )𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦.
𝜕𝑧 2
and then we are further adding (𝜏𝑧𝑥 + )𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦. So, this will be again becoming same
𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥
as 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. So, what you see that you have the total force which will be acting on per
𝜕𝑧
unit volume on the fluid. So, that will be equal to the sum of these forces net forces acting
in the x direction. So, if you are having that you know net force in the x direction.
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So, your net force in x direction; so, that will be summation of you know these forces
which are acting on these different faces and their components in the x direction. So, that
will be you know it will be sum. So, you know it will be total force. So, you know that is
the, it is not the net force basically it is the you know total force. So, net force we have got
in x direction for by the on the different faces.
Now, we are going to have the total force. So, total force per unit volume on fluid due to
these surface stresses. So, it will be sum of these forces which you have derived in our. So,
for the east and west face for the north and south face and for also the you know top and
𝜕(−𝑝+𝜏𝑧𝑥 ) 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥
bottom face. So, that will be some of that. So, you are getting + + .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
So, this is you know this is the force which is acting in the you know it is because of the x
momentum. So, it is the total force in the x direction and so you can write you know that
your x momentum you know equation that will be becoming. So, you will have to equate
these to the x momentum what we you know rate of change of momentum. So, that is the
so that is equated to that force and apart from that you will have other forces body forces
or gravity forces.
So, by nature so you will have that term is taken as the source term. So, that you can have
the source term in the you know x direction. So, if you take the you know x momentum
equation. So, x component of the momentum equation that will be writing we will be
𝐷𝑢
writing as 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 . So, that is what we had seen that for the x component of the momentum
that will be equated to the you know force which is acting in the x direction.
𝜕(−𝑝+𝜏𝑧𝑥 ) 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥

So, that will be + + + 𝑆𝑀𝑥 . So, this is your source term in the x
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
direction. So, that is a 𝑆𝑀𝑥 . Similarly, if you try to have the you know y momentum
equation in that case again you will have to do the analysis of the forces. So, similar only
on the line if you try to have the equation for the y component though y component
𝐷𝑣
equation can be written as 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 so that u will be replaced with v.
So, that is you know rate of change of the momentum in the y direction and that will be
the force that is in y direction. So, when we are talking about the y direction. So, in that
𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕(−𝑝+𝜏𝑦𝑦 ) 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑦
case you will have 𝜕𝑥
then you will have 𝜕𝑦
+ 𝜕𝑧
+ 𝑆𝑀𝑦 .
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So, this is the momentum equation of for the y component. In the in the same line we can
𝐷𝑤
also write for the you know for the z component. So, that will be 𝜌 . So, that is your in
𝐷𝑡
𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧
the z direction that will be . Similarly you will have and then here that pressure
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕(−𝑝+𝜏𝑧𝑧 )
term will come in the you know this part. So, it will be and then you will have
𝜕𝑧
the source term in the z direction. So, that way these are the momentum conservation
equation which you get if you try to derive.
Now, in this case as you see that you will have you know the sign which is associated with
the pressure. So, if you see that pressures. So, it is opposite to that which is associated with
the viscous normal stresses. You know because the usual sign convention when you take
now that will be taking the tensile as the positive and the pressure is normally you know
which is by definition a compressive normal. So, that is that is why we take it as a negative
sign. So, accordingly you know we have to have the concentration of the sign convention.
Now, if you talk about the you know we are taking the account of the surface forces surface
stresses. Now this is source terms that is 𝑆𝑀𝑥 or 𝑆𝑀𝑦 or 𝑆𝑀𝑧 you know they are because of
the inclusion of the body forces. So, you know normally you know the gravity force which
is there in many cases when you will have the suppose it when the flow in transition is
there. So, and when there you will be gravity term coming into picture because of the
natural convection or order of the buoyancy and all that.
So, in those cases you will have to induce these source terms and when you have to model
this. So, what you can see is certainly when you take gravity into you know consideration
in that case. So, for gravity taking into consideration when you try to model this gravity
so your is 𝑆𝑀𝑥 that will be 0, 𝑆𝑀𝑦 will be 0 and 𝑆𝑀𝑧 . So, that will be basically the force
which is in the z direction and that is your gravitational force and since we are talking
about the that force per unit volume. So, you will have mass per volume. So, that will be
density times the g.
And then that will be with negative sign because it is acting in the you know negative
direction. So, that term will be coming here. So, this 𝑆𝑀𝑧 will be replaced by the 𝜌𝑔 term
−𝜌𝑔. So, this is the normal practice you will see that you will have source term. So,
whenever we try to solve and we have extra force coming into picture magnetic forces or
the gravity forces which are basically coming as the source terms only.
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So, they will be given and their values will be provided and then the equation will be
solved. So, that is the normal way of you know taking these momentum terms and these
are these 3 are the momentum conservation equation which will be further used when we
are going to deal with the equations which are derived like Navier-Stokes equations or
when we deal with the turbulence modelling in our coming lectures.
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Lecture – 19
Energy Conservation Equation
Welcome to the lecture on Energy Conservation Equation. So, you will have that which is
also known as conservation of energy equation. So, you know or energy equation in 3
dimension.
So, if you talk about this equation, so, this is energy equation is derived from the first law
of thermodynamics which states that the rate of change of energy of a fluid particle is equal
to the rate of heat addition of to the fluid particle plus rate of work done on the particle.
So, as we see this will be rate of increase of energy and that will be because of the heat
added which is net rate heat added and then net rate of work done on the fluid particle. So,
𝐷𝐸
we will talk about these 2 aspects. So, we will have this will be term that is 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 if you talk
about per unit volume, then you will have the net rate of work done. So, work done is
normally force times velocity components. So, that way we can have the expression for
the net rate of work done.
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Similarly, for the heat added we will have the conduction keeping in mind. So, based on
that Fourier’s law of conduction you will have for the element how the heat element heat
is added and how there will be energy rate of heat added to the fluid particle for that a term
will come. So, we will add them and then we will equate it to the rate of increase of energy
and that will be the equation for the energy conservation equation in 3 dimension.
So, if you recall our last lecture where we talked about the term that was for the force. So,
in that the term will be multiplied with the velocity component and that will be the work
done. So, we will be first talking about the net rate of work done on the fluid particle and
we will be talking about the work done by the forces.
So, work done by the forces will be as we know that work done by the forces force into
𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑥
velocity. So, we will have the. So, we will had the term that is (𝑝 − 𝜕𝑥 )𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧.
2
And similarly you had the 𝜏𝑥𝑥 term. So, 𝜏𝑥𝑥 − . So, all these terms were there while
𝜕𝑥 2
we are you know arriving at that particular term, now in that each of these term will be
multiplied with the velocity component u. So, that will be the work done. So, that term
you know if you talked about the work done you know in the x direction, so, that will be
𝜕𝑝
coming as you should know so, you had a 𝑝 − 𝜕𝑥 and you had. So, in that we will be
multiplying with u.
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𝜕𝑝𝑢 𝛿𝑥
So, 𝑝𝑢 − and then you will have here you will have . So, and similarly you will have
𝜕𝑥 2
the another term that will was the 𝜏𝑥𝑥 term. So, that will be again 𝜏𝑥𝑥 term will also be
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥
multiplied with the velocity component and on the left hand side you had the 𝜏𝑥𝑥 − it
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝑢 𝛿𝑥
will be (𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝑢 − ).
𝜕𝑥 2
So, that will be the term you know on the east face similarly you go and this one on the
𝜕𝑝𝑢 𝛿𝑥
west face and then you go to the east face. So, you will have −(𝑝𝑢 + ). So, that will
𝜕𝑥 2
be coming under the big bracket. So, this is one term and further you have the 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝑢.
So, everywhere, you are multiplying with the velocity to have the expression for the work
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝑢 𝛿𝑥
done. So, and . So, and this all will be if you see all this all together if you talk for
𝜕𝑥 2
the whole component that will be multiplied with the term you know 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. So, then you
will have the other terms also like you had if you. So, we are talking about the s direction
only and we are talking about taking into account all the you know faces.
𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑢 𝛿𝑦
So, talking about the north and south faces. So, you will have again (𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑢 − )..
𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑢 𝛿𝑦
So, that will be there or one term and then similarly you will have a 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑢 + . So,
𝜕𝑦 2
this will be all multiplied with the term 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧. So, this is for the you know north and south
face then comes the term for the top and bottom face. So, for that again you will have
−(𝜏𝑧𝑥 − )...
𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑢 𝛿𝑧
So, this is multiplied with u and then it will have 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑢 − and then you will have
𝜕𝑧 2
another term for the you know top face. So, you will have a dou of so, you will have first
𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑢 𝛿𝑧
the 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑢 + and then altogether it is multiplied with 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑥. So, this is the expression
𝜕𝑧 2
which we had seen you know where while deriving for the x momentum we had got this
expression wherever u is there u was not there in that. So, u are multiplying with these
velocity terms.
So, forgetting that you know net rate of work done in the x direction you are going to have
a this equation and in this again you can see that you will have some of the terms getting
cancelled and like 𝑝𝑢 and 𝑝𝑢 will be cancelling. So, there are many terms which will be
cancelled and if you know if you solve this if you so, you are getting these you know. So,
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you are getting this net rate of work done by these you know surface forces in the x
direction.
𝜕(𝑢(−𝑝+𝜏𝑥𝑥 )) 𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑥 )

So, that will be ( + + )𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. So, that term you know this will
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
be coming out and you are getting this you know net rate of work done you know by these
surface forces which is acting in the x direction this is defined by these forces.
Now, surfaces stress components are also acting in the y and z direction and they also do
work on the fluid. So, you will have those components for the y and also on the z
component. So, for that you will have so, this is a. So, you will have another you know net
rate of work done that will be. So, this is basically the net rate of work done by surface
forces acting in x direction. So, this is in x direction.
Now if you find in y direction. So, in y direction again you will have dou of you know v
𝜕(𝑣(𝜏𝑦𝑥 )) 𝜕(𝑣(−𝑝+𝜏𝑦𝑦 )
tau. So, it will be p term will go with this side. So, it will be ( + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕(𝑣𝜏𝑥𝑧 )
)𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧.
𝜕𝑧
𝜕(𝑣(𝜏𝑥𝑧 )) 𝜕(𝑣𝜏𝑧𝑦 )
So, similarly in the z direction you can have the expression that is ( + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕(𝑣(−𝑝+𝜏𝑧𝑧 )
)𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧.
𝜕𝑧
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. Now if you look at this so, the summation of all these forces you know this work done.
So, if you total rate of work done will be the summation of these you know 3 cases a, b
and c. So, total rate of work done you know per unit volume on the fluid element and that
will be you know summation of all these in the forces. So, if you all these terms in these 3
equations and then you have to divide it. So, if you have to you have to find the per unit
volume in that case this volume term will go.
So, you will once you will add you will have that will be your total rate of work done per
unit volume on the fluid particle. Now that will be consisting of few terms like you will
𝜕(−𝑝𝑢) 𝜕(−𝑝𝑣) 𝜕(−𝑝𝑤)
have one is then and you will have a . So, one is that term and another
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑦 )
term will be , . So, that will be another term. So, you will have you know
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕(𝑝𝑢)
different terms together. So, the first term which will be segregating will be with
𝜕𝑥
𝜕(𝑝𝑣) 𝜕(𝑝𝑤)
negative sign with negative sign and with negative sign.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑤
So, if you sum these 3 terms so, you will have you know term. So, this term comes as
𝜕(𝑝𝑢) 𝜕(𝑝𝑣) 𝜕(𝑝𝑤)
−[ + + ]. So, you can write this as minus of 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝑝𝑢). So, that way this is
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
one part of this summation of the term.
Now next part so, did here we have taken the pressure term collected together. So, this is
all the term which is having the pressure. Now if you talk about the total you know rate of
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work done taking all the terms. So, that becomes minus of −𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝑢). plus now if you
recall these terms like dou of u tau xx by dou x dou of u tau yx by y dou y so, that will
come.
𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑥 )

So, you will have a + + . So, that was for the first term similarly you
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) 𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑦 )
have another you know 3 terms coming up. So, that will be taking a + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑦 )
. So, that is the next 3 term and then the last 3 terms will be you know. So, this is
𝜕𝑧
𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑧 )
this is this term plus this way. So, that term come came here and then you have a +
𝜕𝑥
𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑧 )
+ .
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
So, this is you know all together all these this is the total rate of work done that will be you
know on the fluid particle by all these stresses. So, by the surface stresses that is coming
you know here. So, per unit volume calculating. We have remove this term 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. So,
if you look at the term. So, we have already you know we have seen. So, this term is in a
net rate of work done on fluid particle this we have achieved you know here. Now we are
going to find the value of the energy flux due to heat conduction.
So, if you are trying to find the energy flux due to heat conduction. So, for that we will
have the heat flux vector q will be taken.
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And if you take this heat flux vector q so, it has 3 components 𝑞𝑥 , 𝑞𝑦 and 𝑞𝑧 . So, you
know and we are going to have the concentration of all these 3 components 𝑞𝑥 , 𝑞𝑦 and
𝑞𝑧 and we are going to have the net you know rate of heat transfer to the fluid particle
because of the conduction because of the heat flow in the x direction.
So, that will be given by the difference between the rate of heat input. So, you have the
rate of heat input. So, from the west face as well as it from the east face. So, you have to
have the difference from of the heat you know due to the heat flow, in x direction so, we
𝜕𝑞𝑥 𝛿𝑥
have to take that difference on these 2 faces. So, if you take that it will be 𝑞𝑥 − and
𝜕𝑥 2
that will be you know and it will be subtracted with 𝑞𝑥 + .
𝜕𝑥 2
So, that is your so that will be you know that will be your heat net rate of heat added. So,
you are adding and them something is going out. So, net rate of heat added will be this
minus the amount which is going out. So, you know we will have the difference of you
know the this minus this and that will be multiplied with the area on which it is acting. So,
if you talk about the you know west face. So, you know west and east face into
consideration. So, in that case your rate of heat loss across the face e that will be 𝑞𝑥 −
.
𝜕𝑥 2
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So, that will be from the east face and from the west and then going towards the east. So,
you will have 𝑞𝑥 + and altogether it is multiplied with the area that is 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. So,
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑞𝑥
if you take this value that becomes equal to − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. So, this is you know net rate of
𝜕𝑥
heat transfer in the x direction, similarly you will have the net rate of heat transfer in the y
direction as well as in the z direction.
𝜕𝑞𝑦
So, in y direction it will be − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 and in z direction you will have the
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑞𝑧
− 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. Now the total you know rate of heat added to the fluid particle will be the
𝜕𝑧
sum of these 3 terms and if you want to have the per unit volume then you have to remove
these volume term. So, total rate of heat added to fluid particle per unit volume now that
will be addition of these 3 and we have to divided by volume.
𝜕𝑞𝑥 𝜕𝑞𝑦 𝜕𝑞𝑧

So, you will have − similarly you have a − , − and this can be written as minus
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
of 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑞. So, this is the −𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑞, now we will use the Fourier’s law of heat conduction and
it will be relating that heat flux to the temperature you know gradient. So, if you use the
𝜕𝑇
Fourier’s law of heat conduction so that can be that rights as 𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘 𝜕𝑥 . Similarly we
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
write 𝑞𝑦 = −𝑘 𝜕𝑦and 𝑞𝑧 = −𝑘 𝜕𝑧 .
So, you can write this 𝑞 = −𝑘. 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑇. So, normally you write 𝑞 = −𝑘. 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑇. So, if you
see minus. So, this term becomes −𝑘 𝑑𝑖𝑣(. 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑇). So, −𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑞. So, −𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑞
𝑑𝑖𝑣(. 𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑇) and this minus term comes here. So, it will becoming cancelling so, you
will have 𝑑𝑖𝑣(. 𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑇. So, that is how you know this −𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑞 can be written as
𝑑𝑖𝑣(. 𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑇 and now you will get the energy equation.
So, now if we have to find the expression for the energy equation now we have to equate
this with the term. So, as we see you had this is the rate of increase of energy of the fluid
particle and that will be equated to the addition of these 2 terms and we have to define this
energy term. So, that is your specific energy E of the fluid and it will be the summation of.
So, if you talk about the specific energy E of the fluid.
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So, that will be basically summation of the internal energy or thermal energy you know
1
that is. So, and then you will be adding. So, that is your 2 (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 ) and also you
will have the gravitational potential energy.
So, this term gravitational potential energy that we normally take into account in the right
hand side and we take it as the source term. So, you will have this will be the sum of i plus,
you will have the kinetic energy and all that and then you will have the gravitational p. So,
what we do, now we are equating these equation gravitational force will be taken as the
source term on the right hand side and you are adding the 2 terms on the right hand side.
𝑑𝐸
So, your equation becomes 𝜌 𝑑𝑡 . So, that is rate of change of that term you know that is
what rate of increase of the energy of the fluid particle.
Now, that we will be taking so, and you will have the source term coming out on the right
1
hand side that is S E and E will be basically internal energy 𝑖 + 2 (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 ). So, you
will have the that is internal energy that is I and also you will have this sum of the kinetic
energy. So, that also term will come here. So, these terms will come in this term and in
this side you will have the gravitational potential energy.
𝑑𝐸
Now, this 𝜌 𝑑𝑡 that will be the summation of you know these terms. So, you will have this
is the thermal term and this side you had got the these work done. So, you will have the
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𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝑣𝜏𝑦𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝑣𝜏𝑦𝑦 ) 𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑦 )
first term as −𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝜌𝑢) + [ + + + + + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑧 ) 𝜕(𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑧 )

+ + .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
So, that will be the term which we had earlier you know derived then you will have the
terms that is for the thermal term that is energy term that was 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑇) and then you
will have this source term. So, that is you know for the other type of you know energy that
is the gravitational potential energy we take this term as the source term. So, we are taking
that so, on the right hand side.
So, this is the energy equation you know which is which is to be used when we and which
is used for solving and forgetting the you know requisite you know outputs of interest
which we are you know interested in while solving the problem. We can have even the we
can take it for a 𝜌 of you know you can take the internal energy and the kinetic energy
together also I mean we can separate it.
1 𝑑𝑖
So, 𝜌𝑑(2 (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 ). , so that way now and 𝜌 𝑑𝑡. So, internal energy also for that
also there may be terms taken together, but then we should be knowing about these terms
which will be used in our coming lectures.
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Lecture – 20
Navier – Stokes Equations for Newtonian Fluids
Welcome to the lecture on Navier-Stokes Equations for Newtonian Fluids. So, we had
discussed about the conservation equations, we discussed about the equation for the
momentum, continuity, and also about the energy. So, especially in if you look at the
momentum conservation equation or the energy equation we had the x momentum or y
momentum or z momentum equations, then you had the energy equation. In all these
equations what you see that you come across the viscous stresses term.
So, the governing equations of momentum and energy they contain unknown viscous
stresses terms that is: 𝜏𝑥𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , you know, 𝜏𝑥𝑧 , or xy or so. So now, these need to be in
expressed in a measurable manner. And they are basically expressed as the function of
local deformation rate or the strain rate. So, in that case the equations will have something
by which you can so you can do the experiment you can measure those strain rates and
further you can calculate the values. So, those stresses are basically expressed in terms of
these strain rates.
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So, mostly what we do is, normally when we talked about the three dimensional flows in
that the local rate of deformation is composed of linear deformation rate as well as the
volumetric deformation rate. And, if you talk about the linear deformation rate of the fluid
it has nine components, out of which six are independent for the isotropic fluids. So, they
are normally denoted by 𝑆𝑖𝑗 . So, that is the I mean linear deformation terms. And their
suffix ij will have similar meaning the way we tried to even define for the stress terms. So,
in that only we are also defining them.
So, if you talk about the you know linear terms. So, you will have the linear; so you have
linear elongating deformation components. So, they are the three; so those three are
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
basically the 𝑆𝑥𝑥 , 𝑆𝑦𝑦 and 𝑆𝑧𝑧 . So, their values are 𝜕𝑥 𝑆𝑥𝑥 , is, then 𝑆𝑦𝑦 is 𝜕𝑦, and 𝑆𝑧𝑧 will
𝜕𝑤
be .
𝜕𝑧
Now you have apart from that, so as you had we saw that we have a nine component, so
you have six shearing also components; so, shearing linear deformations components. So,
they will be you know when. So, in the 𝑆𝑖𝑗 , when 𝑖 = 𝑗, so that will be linear elongated
deformation component and then you have shearing linear deformation components.
So, in that you will have the you know 𝑆𝑥𝑦 or 𝑆𝑦𝑥 you can have and they are normally
1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢
defined by 2 (𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑥). Similarly you have 𝑆𝑥𝑧 , or 𝑆𝑧𝑥 , they will be 2 ( 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑧 ).. And
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1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
accordingly 𝑆𝑦𝑧 or 𝑆𝑧𝑦 they will be 2 (𝜕𝑧 + 𝜕𝑦 )... So, this way you have the nine you know
strain rate linear deformation rate components. So then, these are deformation components.
Then we have the you know volumetric deformation. And volumetric deformation will be
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
defined by; so that will be 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 + . So, that will be 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 + . So, that way that is
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
also can be that can be represented by 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑢. So, what is seen that these are the strain
components, this will be required in our coming studies.
So now, if we talk about the Newtonian fluid; now in the Newtonian fluid the viscous
stresses are proportional to the rates of deformation. So, as we have understood earlier also
that they will be related to that rates of the formation. And the in the three-dimensional
form of the Newton’s law of viscosity for compressive flows you will have a two constants
of proportionality comes.
You know, we talked about the Newton’s law of viscosity and we saw that they are the
proportionality term is coming that is coefficient of viscosity. Now in this case, when we
talk about the compressive flows; compressible flows in those case we deal with two
constants of proportionality and that is mu and lambda.
So, mu is known as the dynamic viscosity which will where it will be relating the stress to
the linear deformation that is what we have seen in the case of Newton’s law of viscosity
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earlier. But, in the case of compressible flow you have a second term, that is second
viscosity 𝜆. So, this is used for relating the stresses to the volumetric deformation. So, this
which is happening in the case of compressible flows.
So, you know now this stress values; substitution of these stress values in the strain rate
terms give rise to the Navier-Stoke equations and how that is you know, that we will see.
So, what we have seen that since there are you know these two you know 𝜆 as well as μ.
These are the constant of proportionality is used.
And, if we define the viscous stress components; so, you have the nine viscous stress
component 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑥 . So, altogether you have the nine viscous stress
component which are encountered in the momentum as well as the energy equations.
Now, these components of the viscous stresses they can be expressed you know. So, they
are expressed like in the term of the λ and μ and also the deformation component. So, what
𝜕𝑢
you see is the 𝜏𝑥𝑥 it is defined as 2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜆𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝑈. So, that is you know 𝜆𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝑈, so that is
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
for the 𝜏𝑥𝑥 . Similarly 𝜏𝑦𝑦 will be 2𝜇 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜆𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝑈. And 𝜏𝑧𝑧 will be again 2𝜇 𝜕𝑧 +
𝜆𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝑈. So, that way we have these three stress component.
And then out of that you have you know out of the nine, six are independent. So, basically
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜏𝑥𝑦 will be taken as a 𝜏𝑦𝑥 . And this will be 𝜇(𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑥). Similarly 𝜏𝑧𝑥 equal to 𝜏𝑧𝑥 , so
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𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
that will be 𝜇( 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑧 )and 𝜏𝑧𝑦 or 𝜏𝑦𝑧 it will be 𝜇( 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 ). So, that way you have these
you know viscous stresses which are there. So, they can be expressed in terms of these
deformation components.
And you know these components; so these components values when they, so they these
are you know expressed in terms of strain rate. And then when they are written for the
these momentum or the energy equation in terms of these strain rate terms. So, that was
done by independently by two scientists Navier as well as Strokes. So, that is why this
equation which we obtain is known as the Navier Stokes equations.
So, you know the term that is λ so not much was known about λ earlier, but its effect is
2
said to be very very small as compared to 𝜇. And it is normally said to be about − 3 𝜇. So,
λ is said to be that is you know said by, that is basically suggested by sltzing. So, sltzing
was also a researcher and on his name there is a book also. So, he has suggested the value
2
of lambda as − 3 𝜇.
Now for the incompressible flows we know that 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑈 = 0. So, that way you have you
know accordingly you can have many meanings for the incompressible fluids and then you
will have the terminologies. So, once you give substitute these values into the momentum
equations x momentum z y or z momentum, so they will be having the different form. So,
when you substitute, so what happens? So, if suppose you take the x momentum. So, it
𝐷𝑢 𝜕𝑝
becomes 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 . Now that will be, so you had the first term that is − 𝜕𝑥 so that was as usual.
𝜕 𝜕𝑢
Now, we have the it will be 𝜕𝑥 [2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜆𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝑈]. So, this will be the first term. Similarly
𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
you will have of you know 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . So, that will be 𝜇(𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑥). And similarly the third
𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢
term will be . So, it will be 𝜇( + ). So, this will be the these are the three terms. And
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
then you had the source term that was 𝑆𝑀𝑥 . So, this was the momentum my question and
this is what you get for the you know x momentum equation.
𝐷𝑣 𝜕𝑝
Similarly for the y momentum equation you get 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 , so that will be minus of − 𝜕𝑦. And
𝜕𝑢
then you have the terms will be coming like that so you will have 𝜕𝑥 of now you have the
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𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕
terms like mu of d be 𝜇(𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑥).. Similarly, in this term you will have 𝜕𝑦 of this term will
𝜕𝑣
come 2𝜇 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜆𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝑈.
So, that term will be there in the y term y component. And then you have the this third
𝜕 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
term will be 𝜕𝑧. of be 𝜇( 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 )... So, then and then you will have the source term that is
𝑆𝑀𝑦 . So, this is the equation for the y momentum. And when you substitute in the z
𝐷𝑤
momentum equation you will have the equation rho of 𝜌 .
𝐷𝑡
𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
So, this will be equal to − 𝜕𝑧 + 𝜕𝑥 [𝜇( 𝜕𝑧 + . Similarly, 𝜕𝑦 of 𝜇( 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 ). And then you
𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕𝑤
will have the 𝜕𝑧 times you will have 2𝜇 + 𝜆𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝑈. And then you will have the source
𝜕𝑧
𝜕
term in the for the z 𝜕𝑧
component.
So, this is this is the these are the three equations which are the Navier Stoke equations,
because you have expressed these viscous stresses term in the term in the form of strain
rate you know terms. Now what we see if you look at these term. So, if you take any of
these values. So, we can express them.
You know now if you take these many terms; if you take this term. So, you can express
𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢
that as ( ) + 𝜕𝑦 𝜇(𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦) + 𝜕𝑧 (𝜇 𝜕𝑧 ),. So, that will be one term. And there will be
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
another term that will be separate and plus 𝑆𝑀𝑥 . So, that we are basically writing as the
source term. So, if you take this part and we write further.
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𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢
So, we are writing basically 𝜕𝑥 [2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜆𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝑈] + 𝜕𝑦 𝜇(𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑥) + 𝜕𝑧 [𝜇( 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑧 )]. . .
So, if you try to write further this equation that you can write as first you take one of these
𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑣
term together. So, it will be (𝜇 𝜕𝑥 ) + 𝜕𝑦 𝜇(𝜕𝑦) + 𝜕𝑧 [𝜇(𝜕𝑥 )] + 𝜕𝑥 (𝜇 𝜕𝑥 ) + 𝜕𝑦 𝜇(𝜕𝑥) +
𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕𝑤 𝜕
[𝜇( 𝜕𝑥 )] + 𝜕𝑥 (𝜆𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝑈)..
𝜕𝑧
So, this term will be you know 𝑑𝑖𝑣 (𝜇 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑢). So, that will be this term. And then a rest
term you can take in the bracket as 𝑆𝑀𝑥 .
So, that way you have taken this bracketed term. So, this basically this bracketed term is
taken into this bracket. So, that is the equation for the you know Navier Stokes equation
in the x direction. Similarly, so then in that case you can write. So, it you are writing; so
𝐷𝑢
that will be 𝜌 of 𝐷𝑢. So, this is basically 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 . So, that will be basically div of; so you will
𝜕𝑝
have term left is dou p by dou x it was in the earlier one so this is − 𝜕𝑥 was left. So, that is
that terms comes here. And then you have 𝑑𝑖𝑣 (𝜇 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑢). And then you have𝑆𝑀𝑥 .
So, this is the you know Navier Stoke equation for the x momentum you know component.
So, you have you will have three equations for the x, y and z momentum. So, as that is for
𝐷𝑣 𝜕𝑝
the x momentum. And if you go for the y one it will be 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 so that will be − 𝜕𝑦 +
𝑑𝑖𝑣 (𝜇 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑣) + 𝑆𝑀𝑦 . So, you know this is u and this is v.
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𝐷𝑤
And the third term will be for the z. 𝜌 + 𝑑𝑖𝑣 (𝜇 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑤) + 𝑆𝑀𝑧 . So, you have 𝑆𝑀𝑦 .,
𝐷𝑡
𝑆𝑀𝑥 ., and 𝑆𝑀𝑧 .. These three equations you know they are the Navier Stoke equations and
normally they are used for you know while solving. And where typically when we use
them for the you know using the finite volume method.
Now, if you go for the you know energy equation also. So, in the last class we had
discussed about the energy equations. And, for the energy equation which we derived we
had you know that time it will e will be for the internal energy component i plus you have
1
the kinetic energy that is 2 (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 ).
So accordingly, you will have the you know the terminologies coming for that, because
1
the 2 (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 ) that part for that you will have the u square term and otherwise you
have the for the i term coming up. So, you can use this I mean you can write the energy
equation also.
𝐷𝑖
So, for that for the internal energy 𝜌 𝐷𝑡; so, that will also come as −𝜌𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑈) +
𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑇) + 𝜑 + 𝑆𝑖 . So, 𝜑 is basically you are getting this you know by the this is
known as the dissipation function. So, this phi which is dissipation function it is
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
basically𝜇[2{(𝜕𝑥 )2+(𝜕𝑦)2 + ( 𝜕𝑧 )2 }] + (𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑥)2 + ( 𝜕𝑧 + 𝜕𝑥 )2 + (𝜕𝑧 + 𝜕𝑦 )2 . And then
you are putting into the bracket.
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. So, this is basically these are the terms that will come under bracket plus 𝜆(𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑢)2 ; that
is square. So, that was basically that you can get when we are you know we are converting
1
this e term into the two terms i plus the the other term, that is for the 2 (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 ).
So, actually that this might be not clear to you, maybe I can that you can understand what
𝐷𝐸
we did in our you know while we got for expression for the 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 .
𝜕
So, that was you know that was −𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝜌𝑈. And then you had the terms like [𝜕𝑥 (𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑥 ) +
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
(𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) + 𝜕𝑧 (𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑧 ) + 𝜕𝑥 (𝑣𝜏𝑦𝑥 ) + 𝜕𝑦 (𝑣𝜏𝑦𝑦 ) + 𝜕𝑧 (𝑣𝜏𝑦𝑧 ) + 𝜕𝑥 (𝑤𝜏𝑧𝑥 ) + 𝜕𝑦 (𝑤𝜏𝑧𝑦 ) +
𝜕𝑦
𝜕
(𝑤𝜏𝑧𝑧 ).
𝜕𝑧
𝐷𝐸
So, this way you had the d 𝜌 𝐷𝑡 and then you had the term 𝑑𝑖𝑣. ( 𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇) and you had
the term 𝑆𝐸 . So, this was the energy equation which we derived.
Now in that basically what we take E, this E will be internal energy i term then and that
will be for the temperature. And then you have the kinetic energy term that is half of u
square plus v square plus w square. So, what we do is normally when we are separating,
so you will have the terms for the kinetic energy. And for that what we see that in the in
that case you have the multiplied terms of u times you know those those terms. So, those
1
terms will be with these 2 (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 ).
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𝐷 1
So, if you segregate it will be for the one will be rho times d 𝐷𝑡 (2 (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 ).. And
𝐷𝑖
one will be 𝜌 𝐷𝑡. Now if you see in in this term. So, one will be for i which will be for the
internal energy and that will be for, so that we can take for the temperature term. And so
that though these terms will go with that term.
1
But, for this you know for this part four of the 2 (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 ).. part that is kinetic
energy part that will be obtained by multiplying the u component with the x momentum.
𝜕 𝜕
So, that can be understood that this will be basically 𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑥 . Similarly 𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦 .
So, all these terminologies will be coming for this expression and others will come with
with this. So in that, and this will also be you know divided in two terms so it will be
−𝑢 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑝. And, you know accordingly then you will have the terms like you know; so
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
this is basically p u. And, you have 𝑢(𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑥+ 𝜕𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑥+ 𝜕𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑥 ).
So, this will be further you will have v times that things will come here;
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑣(𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑥+ 𝜕𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑥+ 𝜕𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑦 ).. So, similarly plus w times you will have these components
basically, they will be coming together. So, all these terms will come here. And then you
have the u times the source term.
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
So, these terms like you have if you take v times, so 𝑣(𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑥+ 𝜕𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑥+ 𝜕𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑦 )... So,
similarly for w also these terms will come. And if you take, so that those components will
𝐷( 1
be for the for that component for the𝐷𝑡 2 (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 ). kinetic energy part.
And, for the internal energy part you will have other terms coming. And for that you will
have 𝑎 − 𝜌 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑢) + 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑢𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇); this term will come with the internal energy part.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
And then you will have the 𝜏𝑥𝑥 . Then you have a 𝜏𝑦𝑥 .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
So, this way you have all these terms multiplied by the these x stress term multiplied by
𝜕𝑢
these 𝜕𝑦 and . So, that way these terminologies will come alongside here and then you will
𝐷𝑖
have 𝑆 𝑖 . So, this way you will have. So, that is why we have written the expression for 𝐷𝑡
and you have 𝜌𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑢 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑇). So, that for that just understanding for the you have here
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for the 𝑑𝑖𝑣( 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑇 t and this term was here. So, if you put that in in this term you will be
getting you know this term, and this 𝜑 was will be coming like this.
So, this is about the Navier Stoke equation which will be solved. Normally, we solve with
the proper boundary conditions, and then you have solution methodology which is
adopted. And then we get the proper value of output parameters. That we will see in our
coming lectures.
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Lecture - 21
Introduction to Turbulence in Fluid Flow
Welcome to the lecture on Introduction to Turbulence in Fluid Flow. So, we had the
discussion about the governing equations for fluid flow, and when we talk about fluid flow
then in that case the flow may be laminar or may be turbulent and we need to know you
know things about turbulence because most of the flows which we will deal they will be
of the turbulent nature.
So, what are the essential terminologies? And what turbulence means? What needs to be
modeled while we are solving for the you know fluid flow problems in the tundish or in
any vessel where the flow is turbulent? So, we will have some introduction about these
terms and we will know more about these turbulent flows modeling and their associated
terms you know in our coming lectures.
So, as you know that when we talk about the flow then we basically decide by the Reynolds
number whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
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So, the Reynolds number value, so that will be less, in that case it will be laminar and if it
is more, so at low Reynolds number flow will be laminar and at high Reynolds number
flow is observed to be you know turbulent. So, your Reynolds number for that the
𝑢𝑙
expression will be re equal to . So, you will have these characteristic velocity
𝜂
characteristic length and then the kinematic viscosity of the fluid in the denominator. So,
that way you get these value of the Reynolds number and then you differentiate whether
the flow is laminar or the turbulent.
So, certainly, there will be also a situation when there will be transition from laminar to
turbulence, so that will be you know another thing which will be there. Now, Reynolds
number of flow gives a measure of relative importance of inertia forces and viscous forces.
So, you know as we know that Reynold number is inertia force upon viscous force, so if it
is of smaller value it means viscous forces are more dominant. And if the Reynolds number
is very high it means inertia forces are dominating, so that way you know whenever you
will have those reasons, so depending upon the Reynolds number we can say that which
kind of forces are you know dominating which is more you know prominent.
Now, what happens that when we talk about the turbulence? So, basically you will have
fluctuations. Now, the difference between the laminar and turbulence is that in case of
turbulence what was happening that those length scales become quite large over which the
mixing takes place. There will be fluctuations in the variable values like velocity, pressure
or source, so they will be fluctuating over the mean values. So, in fact, the fluctuation in
the velocities will give rise to another additional stress which we have seen that certainly
that, in earlier lectures we have seen that you have stress terms and they are expressed in
terms of you know velocity gradient term and all that.
Now, in this case your fluctuation terms which you are encountering because of the
turbulence, now they lead to extra or additional stress terms. So, they are known Reynolds
stress terms. So, they need to be modeled, they need to be taken into account. So, so these
things are important when we talk about the Reynolds number of flow and as you see that
you will have depending upon the number you see that which force is important, now you
know that you have a critical Reynolds number. So, before below that it is laminar and
above that it is you know turbulent.
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So, when the value of the critical Reynolds number, I mean value of the Reynolds number
is below the critical Reynolds number then the flow is laminar and in that you have the
adjacent you know when the flow is smooth and adjacent layers of fluid slide past each
other. So, that is what the new traits of the laminar flow is that your flow will be smooth
and your adjacent layers will be sliding one above other. So, they will not be mixing you
know across you know in the cross devised manner.
So, they will be going and then there may be some diffusion of the atoms will be taking
place you know from the bottom layer to the top layer or top layer to the bottom layer like
that. So, that is what is happening in the case of the laminar flow. And in that case if your
applied boundary conditions are not changing with the time then we call it the flow is
steady and the regime will be the laminar flow.
Now, there is another regime that is your turbulent regime and that is that you are
encountering when you see that the Reynolds number value is going you know beyond a
certain value that is critical value and in that basically there will be complicated series of
events will be taking place. So, you that I mean there will be radical change of the flow.
So, you will have a lot of you know events taking place in that and basically what happens
that finally, the behavior of the fluid that becomes a random and chaotic.
In this it is in a very defined manner the flow is flowing one above other flow is there, but
in that case it becomes very chaotic as well as random, there will be mixing, there will be
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eddies, smaller eddies will be there, larger eddies will be there, so all the diffusion which
is taking place they will be at higher scales. So, because the there may be you know
diffusion or the mixing over the larger you know bulk, so maybe if you have 1, 2, 3 or 4
and 5 layers, so maybe 1 and 5 layer may mix because of these turbulence. So, that is the
basic difference. So, your behavior that that is what it there are radical changes in the flow
character you have your flow becomes random and chaotic and you know that regime
which you get that is known as the you know turbulent flow.
So, if you try to see the you know the velocity measurement in case of a turbulent flow
then the velocity measurement basically will be like you will have the time here and if
your velocity is here; so, what happens that your flow will be, so suppose this is u, so your
actual flow will be like it will be going like this. So, it will be going, it will be fluctuating.
So, in normal case you can assume it to be you know fluctuating over a certain mean value.
So, that is. So, you will have a steady state mean value that is u. So, you will your you
know this value that is will be in the case of turbulent flow you will have a mean value
and you have the fluctuating component.
So, basically at any time 𝑢(𝑡) will be u, so that will be your mean component and then you
will have a fluctuating component, so that is 𝑢′ (𝑡) . So, that way the turbulence you know
in case of turbulence the flow is basically characterized, and you will have this for all the
properties like either as I u or v, t or w or p. So, for all that you will have a mean value and
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a fluctuating component this component basically you know that component is this
component above the mean that is the fluctuating component that is 𝑢′ (𝑡). So, that way
your so you will have many statistical descriptors will be used while we try to know more
about the you know the turbulent flow.
Now, while in normal case when your you will have two space dimensions for the velocity
of pressure now turbulent fluctuations when there are they will have the 3-dimensional
character. So, that is the trait about the turbulence. Now, in this case what happens that
you have the presence of eddies and if you look at the you know turbulent flow. So, in that
flow structures you will have the presence of eddies.
So, these eddies may be of you know smaller dimension or the larger dimension and they
can be or in of size, so they can maybe of a smaller size, intermediate size or even the
larger size may be to the extent of the length of the vessel or so. So, that way you will have
the presence of eddies and in that because of these eddies you know the point which are
largely separated in the vessel they also come in intimate contact because of the flow
structures in the case of turbulent flow and there will be very high value of diffusive
transfer as in transfer of mass, heat or momentum in the case of turbulence. So, that is the
basically trait about the turbulent flow. So, you will have the production of or the genesis
of very high value of the coefficient of diffusion when we talk about the turbulent flows.
Now, the thing is that in this case you have the characteristic velocity and the characteristic
length, and they are of the larger eddies are basically same of the for the larger eddies
suppose the characteristic length that is l will be same as the you know length scale l of
the mean flow. So, similarly the velocity also characteristic velocity for the larger eddies
will be same as that of the mean flow velocity u. So, that is normally there in the case of
the turbulent you know flows.
Now, when we talk about the other scales or the other properties, suppose if you go for
those when the turbulent is very small, suppose turbulent if you talk about the Reynolds
number. Now, in the Reynolds number you have the ratio that is inertia force by viscous
force. So, when your inertia force and viscous force will be somewhat nearly equal in that
case Reynolds number is close to 1, so that tells that your viscous force is quite high. So,
it is something that that is why it is close to about 1. Otherwise when you go in the
𝑢𝑙
upstream, so that is your depending upon, so if you take suppose the 𝜂 , if the u is 1 meter
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per second, l is 1 meter and your eta in normal case becomes 10−6 or so, so that in that
also you see that the value of the Reynolds number becomes 10−6. So, that is how you
know the, so that will be inertia dominated kind of flow.
So, we will come to this further if you try to know about the turbulence. So, now, you will
have the transition to turbulence and in the case of a different kind of flows you will have
a Reynold number which will say that here the transition takes place and you know in the
case of pipe flow transition you will have the category of flow without inflexion point.
So, basically there are two cases there may be the presence of inflexion point when you
have the transition to turbulence or you may have the case without the you know the
presence of these inflexion points. So, that way you will have, so that depends upon the
different situations.
Now, the viscosity of hydrodynamic stability predicts that these flows are unconditionally
stable to infinitely disturb to disturbances at all Reynolds number in case of pipe flow. And
in the case of pipe flow, the transition to turbulence will be taking place between Reynolds
number 2000 and 100000. So, basically normally what we might have studied about the
transitions in case of these you know pipe flows.
Before that when we are talking about the turbulence. So, in that we talked about these
smaller eddies and the larger eddies, and the you know the larger it is basically they will
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be dominated by the inertia effects and the viscous effects are negligible in that case. So,
you know, so normally this larger eddies which are there, so these are basically inviscid,
are effectively inviscid.
𝑢𝑙
So, basically if you look at the values so in that case if you take u and l and what we
𝜂
saw, so if you are taking that length as a characteristic length and we are taking larger
eddies into account in that case those the Reynolds number becomes very high, so inertia
force is dominating. So, in that case your the flow is inviscid, viscous forces are negligible,
their effect is negligible. So, that is why we take it as the inviscid.
Now, in those cases your angular momentum is conserved and that is why that leads to
you know I mean during that vortex stretching this angular momentum is said to be
conserved. So, that will you know lead to the rotation rate to further you know increase
and the you know radius of the cross section will decrease.
So, that way you will have that kind of flow structure which will be you know coming up
in the case of the turbulence and you know you will have the and also what happens that
you will have the mean flow, you will have the larger eddies, you have a smaller eddies.
So, they will be deriving the energy from the mean flow, so that way and also the
turbulence is said to be self dissipating also. So, those terms we will be discussing you
know later.
Now, coming to the you know the turbulence and the transition to the turbulence if you
look at. So, this we discussed that for the pipe flow that was the case where and for different
kind of flows you will have the in different way you will have the you know transition
taking place and we are discussing that when we talk about the you know velocity profile
where that will be susceptible to the different kind of flows and creating the instability.
So, the inflexion point which we were discussing that you will have you know when you
may have the you know instability and the velocity profiles may be like if your velocity
profile goes like this, so basically this is the point of inflexion. So, this is your y and this
is your velocity.
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Similarly, you know when you have the, you can have the transition of the turbulence also,
transition to turbulence even without the inflexion point, so your situation may go like this.
So, that maybe in this case you know you have this is your inviscid instability. So, in that
case you know viscous effects are negligible and this is your viscous instability. So, this
is basically the you know velocity profile which you see. So, this is with the presence of
inflexion point and this is without the presence of the inflexion point. So, that is what is
normally happening when we have the transition to turbulence you know taking place.
Now, that is basically for the different you know there may be different kind of flows, you
have jet flow, you have also the, so in that jet flow and then you have the mixing or you
have the you know many cases, so mixing or flow behind the wake and all that. So, in all
those cases you will have you must have the idea about how you know the turbulence is
takes place, how there is you know how I suppose in jet.
So, it will be moving this way moving fluid and that will be interacting with the stationary
fluid which is there, so accordingly you will have a deformation and all that. So, these
needs to be you know we expect that you have some understanding of these phenomena
and that will help you basically, in understanding basically the terminologies which will
be coming later related to the turbulence.
Now, coming to some descriptors of the turbulent flow. So, when we as we discussed that
in the case of turbulent flow you have a mean component and one is your fluctuating
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component. So, you know, so what we do is normally the mean phi of the flow property,
so you will have the flow property 𝜑 and this will be defined as the Φ + 𝜑 ′ (𝑡). So, that
way we define.
So, basically for the for the turbulent flow you know for any property for turbulent flow
when we talk about any property of 𝜑(𝑡) , so this 𝜑(𝑡). So, that will be defined as the
mean value. So, that is 𝜑, so and plus you will have the fluctuating component of 𝜑 ′ (𝑡).
So, that way your this is how the property will be there in the case of the turbulent flow.
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Now, the thing is that for as far as this fluctuating part is there. So, you know for this the
if you take the time varying component and if you take its value, so there, so basically its
time mean will be 0 for the fluctuating component. So, so you will have the other, there
are different ways to express this and one is the time average or mean. So, for any property
you know 𝜙 the mean 𝜙 that mean will be denoted as, so that will be basically, so that is
shown here. So, your this mean of the flow property is defined as we are taking
1 ∆𝑡
∫ 𝜑(𝑡)𝑑𝑡.
∆𝑡 0
So, that way we define the mean of the flow property.
And then you have the you know fluctuating component also. So, you may you know we
should take that limit towards the infinity you know, but then you will have, but you have
to take the ∆𝑡 you know cautiously because you have certainly a size of there is a limitation
on that limitation is put by the size of the eddies. So, that you know slowest variation will
be because of the largest eddies. So, accordingly you will have to take the ∆𝑡.
Now, if you take the time average value of the fluctuations. So, by definition the time
average value of the fluctuation will be taken as 0. So, if your the fluctuation which we
have seen in the first case that you have the mean value and then fluctuation taking place,
so basically it is assumed that the if you take the time average of this value it will be
coming to 0. So, that is why you have a mean value and then you have the time average
value. So, we write normally when we do not take the t into every time for t notation, so
you will be writing phi equal to mean phi plus, phi prime, so that way we are writing you
know these values.
Now, apart from that you know you have other properties. So, other properties will be your
now this fluctuation component of the suppose velocity we are taking into account. So,
this fluctuation component will also be leading to the energy also. So, the total kinetic
energy that. So, these fluctuating parts which will that give rise to the kinetic energy they
are the turbulent kinetic energy known as.
So, you will have the turbulent kinetic energy. So, this turbulent of kinetic energy then you
know per unit mass. So, this will be by the respective velocity fluctuations and that will be
1 2 2 2
equal to 2 (𝑢̅′ + 𝑣̅ ′ + 𝑤
̅ ′ ), So, that way this term because of this fluctuation part which
is squared. So, that gives you basically the turbulent kinetic energy you know per unit mass
and this is basically to be taken into account and we deal with the turbulent flows modeling
in that case this will be used.
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Similarly, you have based on this you define the turbulence intensity. So, that is basically
you know defined, and turbulence intensity will be the average you know rms, so it will
be depending upon the you know rms velocity. Now, before that we need to know what is
the you know variance and rms.
So, you know first of all the we are talking about the variance, so the variance we will be
1 ∆𝑡
we define as ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝜑 ′ )2 = ∆𝑡 ∫0 (𝜑 ′ )2 𝑑𝑡. So, that is how the variance is calculated. You will
have the fluctuation part, it is it is square, and then we are dividing by ∆𝑡. if you are
integrating over ∆𝑡.
So, this way we are getting the variance and the rms value of this fluctuating part, so that
𝜑𝑟𝑚𝑠 that will be the square root of this. So, this is your you know square root. And
2 2 2
basically what happens that before that we need to understand that the 𝑢′ or 𝑣 ′ or 𝑤 ′
on all these components so, they give rise to the some of the you know stress terms.
So, you know, so that is why and these are and these stresses which are because of these
fluctuation components we call it as Reynolds stresses that is what we discussed. And then
1 2 2 2
we defined this turbulent kinetic energy that will be K equal to (𝑢′ + 𝑣 ′ + 𝑤 ′ ). And
2
the turbulence intensity, that is the average rms velocity divided by the reference mean
flow. So, this will be you know average rms velocity divided by reference mean flow, so
mean flow velocity.
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So, if you take reference mean flow velocity as we u reference, so what you do is you can
2
2 ( 𝐾)1/2
3
derive it through this K, so that will be 3 𝐾. So, so 𝑇𝑖 will be because you will have
𝑈𝑟𝑒𝑓.
3 2
a one velocity component, so you will have 2 . So, 3 you multiply and, so it will be velocity
component that is your rms velocity and then it will be divided by the u reference.
So, this way you define these you know turbulence intensity and this will be one of the
you know parameters which will be used when we are going to give the boundary
conditions in the case of the flow where the turbulence will be used.
Apart from that you have even the terms like the moment of the these different fluctuating
variables, so that will lead to the terms like 𝑢′ , 𝑣̅′ or , 𝑤
̅̅̅′ that leads to these you know
stresses. So, so that those terms those will be the additional shear stresses. They will be
coming up you know when we deal with turbulence.
So, when we go to deal with the Navier-Stoke for that Reynold averaging Navier-Stoke
equations, where we take this turbulence flow into account in that case we will see that
these terms will also come into picture that will be the extra Reynolds, that is shear stress
that will be you know coming up.
So, accordingly now you know these terms need to be understood and that we will see now
you know more of these terminologies in our you know coming lectures.
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Lecture - 22
Characteristics of Turbulent Flow
Welcome to the lecture on Characteristics of Turbulent Flow. So, we will have few more
aspects about the turbulent flow and then how we start modeling you know what are the
approaches towards modeling some of the parameters in power turbulent flow; so, that we
will study in this lecture.
So, we will talk about initially some of the examples of the turbulent flows and especially
with the constant imposed pressure there will be some kind of flow which is coming under
the these examples like you have free turbulent flow.
So, you will have the example of mixing layer or jet or wake. So, these are the examples
of free turbulent flows whereas, if you talk about the boundary layers near the solid walls.
So, in that you may have the flat plate boundary layer or the pipe flow. So, they are
basically coming under the boundary layer near the solid walls.
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So, if you see the free turbulent flow so, in that case you will have 3 kind of you know
flows. So, if you talk about the mixing layer. So, the in the mixing layer basically a mixing
layer will be forming the interface of two regions: one with fast and one with the slow
moving fluid. So, that is how they the mixing layer is defined.
So, you will have the interaction between the fast and the slow moving fluid similarly
when you talk about a jet reason. So, there you have a high speed flow. So, you are leaving
a jet. So, that is that has high speed flow and then when it goes. So, it is surrounded by the
stationery fluid. So, then how you know the how it behaves how the you know there is
interaction from the surrounding stationary fluid of the high speed flow. So, that is also
the example of the free turbulent flow.
Then also there is a wake kind of situation where it is formed behind an object in a flow.
So, here we will have a slow region moving region and that will be surrounded by the fast
moving fluid. So, the first moving fluid is there and there is a behind the object you will
have that interaction is there in the case of the wake. So, these are the examples of the you
know some of the examples and we will talk about few of them and then we will talk about
how the velocity profile or how you know you are going to have the calculation of the
stresses and all that so that we will be discussing.
So, you know so, initially so, in these cases velocity changes which you know take place
in the initial thin layer. So, that becomes very important in all these 3 flows and then you
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will have the transition to turbulence will be occurring after very short distance in the flow
direction from the point where the different streams basically will be initially meeting.
And turbulence will be causing the vigorous mixing of adjacent fluid layers and rapid
widening of the reason across which were still changes take place.
So, that can be understood by you know the example of these 3 kind of flows. So, that is
normally for the case of jet flow where you see that you have a very high speed you know
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jet which is coming and it is, it has the interaction which is the stationary fluid. So, you
will have a stationary on the sides and that is how the velocity profile come out to be.
Now in the case of mixing layer you will have a smaller moving your so, slow moving
reason and that will be interacting with the fast moving one. So, that way you have mixing
layer and development of these velocity profile you will see. Similarly this is the wake so,
you will have a wake and in that when it will be velocities so that way, what you see that
this is how the change in the velocity profile looks like. So, these are the examples of the
free turbulent flows.
Now, when we talk about the experimental observations of the turbulent flows then what
has happened that you know these for the for mixing layers. So, you will have these are
𝑈−𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 .
the you know the equations which describe the mixing layers like you have 𝑈 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑦
𝑓( )
𝑏
So, basically the 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 they will be representing the maximum and minimum
velocities. So, that will be at a distance y. So, that will be you know or at a distance x
𝑈
downstream. So, accordingly your, you will have the 𝑈 . So, you know so, that you can
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑈 𝑦
see = 𝑔(𝑏 ); similarly you will have. So, this y is the distance in the cross stream
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
direction and x is the distance in the, in that stream that stream direction.
275
𝑈 𝑈−𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 .
So, you will have the it will be function of y by b similarly in this case
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑦
that will be for the as we a function of 𝑏 . So, that will be y in the cross stream and then you
will have similarly you will have for the and b is basically the cross stream layer width.
So, that is half width so that is how b you are taking and for the wakes what you see that
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑈. 𝑦
this you see = ℎ(𝑏 ).. So, that is what is these formulas are there, you know
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛
which talked about these variations in the U which 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 and it will be a function
𝑦
of how it is for the 𝑏 .
Now, if you go for the boundary layer near the solid walls.
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So, if suppose we are taking the case of boundary layer the near the solid walls. So, you
know in the turbulent thin shear layer flows this Reynolds number based on length scale
L in flow direction that is 𝑅𝑒𝐿 is always very very large. So, if you are taking that you
know length scale L and if you are measuring that turbulence value this Reynolds number
value that will be always very large and it that you know implies or; that means, that the
flow is very much inertia dominated.
So, that is what it means that the flow is when the Reynolds number is very large and if
you know that Reynolds number will be you know more than I mean the ratio of the inertia
to the viscous forces. So, basically you will have very large the value of Reynolds number
means that your Reynolds number is I mean inertia force is dominating over the viscous
force.
Now if you talk about the inertia forces. So, that will be happening when your the flow is
far away from the wall. So, there you will have this thing taking place in flows along the
solid boundaries there is usually a substantial region of inertia dominated flow far away
from the wall and a thin layer within which the viscous forces are important. So, you have
basically a very thin layer where the viscous forces are important.
And, once you go to the you know region which is far away from the wall they are the
inertia force I mean tries to be more important or more dominant than the viscous force.
Now, if you talk about the close to the wall the flow will be influenced by the viscous
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effects and does not depend on the free stream parameters and the mean flow velocity will
be only depending on the distance y from the wall fluid density rho and viscosity mu and
the wall shear stress tau w.
So, this point I mean this that can be represented by like if you are talking about this case
like, where the at the distance y you will have this close to the wall it will be depending
upon.
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So, in that case your 𝑈 = 𝑓(𝑦, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝜏𝑤 ), now this𝜏𝑤 is the wall shear stress in this case.
So, this is basically for the close to the wall and when you do the dimensional analysis in
this case then what you see is that the dimensional analysis will show that you get 𝑢+ that
𝑈
will be equal to 𝑢 .
𝜏
√ 𝜏𝑤
So, 𝑢𝜏 is the known as the friction velocity. So, and that will be basically now that will
𝜌
𝜌𝑢𝜏𝑦
be basically a function of you know . So, this way you know you get another you know
𝜇
𝜌𝑢𝜏𝑦
number I have been another parameter. So, that is and that is also known as 𝑓(𝑦 + ).
𝜇
So, this 𝑦 + no this is simply 𝑦 + . So, this 𝑦 + will have certain values and certainly on the
wall y is 0. So, it will be 0 and as you move from the wall 𝑦 + value will go on increasing.
𝑈
So, this formula 𝑢+ it will be a from you know 𝑓(𝑦 + ). that is 𝑢 . So, this equation is known
𝜏
as the law of the wall.
So, you will have you know two important dimensionless groups one is 𝑢+ another is 𝑦 + .
𝜏
So, that way and this 𝑢+ is basically defined as you know 𝑢𝜏 that is 𝑢𝜏 is defined as 𝜌1/2
𝑤
.
So, this is basically the friction velocity 𝜏𝑤 you know 𝑢𝜏 is known as and 𝜏𝑤 is the wall
shear stress and ρ is the you know density. So, that is how you will have the 2
dimensionless groups you are getting you know in this case.
Now, when you go away from the wall now in that case you know the. So, if you go away
from the wall the velocity at a point you know they can be considered to be influenced by
the retarding effect of the wall you know through the value of the wall shear stress, but not
by viscosity itself. So, as you know we move so far away from the wall so, there basically
you will have the influence of the wall shear stress not because of the viscosity is itself.
So, the length scale in this region will be the boundary layer thickness that is delta.
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So, in that case when you move far away from the wall now in that case your U becomes
another function 𝑔(𝑦, 𝛿, 𝜌, 𝜏𝑤 ),. So, you will have the y cross length you will have the
boundary layer thickness you will have the density and also the wall shear stress and that
is what is normally there when you are moving you know away from the wall. So, in this
𝑈
case if you do the dimensional analysis you get again 𝑢+ that will be again that is your
𝑢𝜏
𝑦
frictional velocity and that becomes you know 𝑔(𝛿 ).
So, this you know this is the most useful form which you get and you know the wall shear
stress basically you know what we seen it has the cause for the velocity deficit that is
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑈 and it will be decreasing. So, as you go towards the boundary layer edge so, the
pipe centerline. So, what we see in this case 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑈. So, that will be and divided by u
𝑦
tau. So, that becomes the function of 𝑔(𝛿 ).
So, that is what we had seen earlier also in the in those cases that you get such kind of
relationship there. So, this what you get this is basically known as the velocity defect law.
So, we are getting the velocity deficit in that case and that is why we call it as the velocity
defect law. Now we move to the linear or viscous sub layer now that has to be for the you
know linear or viscous sub layer.
280
So, if you go to the linear or viscous sub layer. So, in that basically that the fluid layer is
in contact with smooth wall. So, now, if you talk about that linear or viscous sub layer
where the fluid layer is in contact with the smooth wall it means the since the wall is
stationary. So, the fluid which is there that is also stationary, now the turbulent adding you
know motions which are there. So, close to that will also be stopping and we will have you
know. So, you will have the domination by the viscous effects there in that condition.
Now the viscous sub layer which is there so, that basically is you know very very thin. So,
this viscous sub layer; so, being very thin it is basically confined to 𝑦 + < 5 and it can be
assumed there that the shear stress. So, you know shear stress will be constant
approximately. So, shear stress is assumed to be constant and equal to the wall shear stress
𝜏𝑤 throughout the layer. So, in that layer as the layer is very very thin you can assume that
𝜕𝑢
the shear stress will be tau w that is constant throughout that layer. So, 𝜏(𝑦) will be 𝜇 𝜕𝑦
and that will be 𝜏𝑤 . So, that is what there in the case of you know a linear or viscous sub
layer.
Now if you do the integration of this and if you apply the proper boundary condition the
boundary condition will be that if you know at 𝑦 = 0, 𝑈 = 0. So, in this case what we see
𝜏𝑤 𝑦
we get a linear relationship and after integrating what we get is 𝑈 = that is what you
𝜇
get from here once you get the integration constant then that you know. So, put in the
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𝜏𝑤 𝑦
boundary condition you get this value 𝑈 = . So, you can have the further you can you
𝜇
𝑈
know what you see earlier you have got the 𝑈 = 𝑢+ and 𝑦 + also you know you see that is
𝜏
𝜌𝑢𝑤 𝑦 𝑈
. So, you can write here from U by 𝑈 and all that.
𝜇 𝜏
So, you can write here. So, with some algebra you can further define 𝑢+ and 𝑦 + and you
get the 𝑢+ is equal to 𝑦 + . So, you know this you have a linear relationship you know here
between the 𝑢+ and the 𝑦 + . So, that is between the velocity and the distance from the
wall and that is you know in the fluid layer which is adjacent to the wall. So, you this is a
linear sub layer that is why it is known as the linear sub layer because you have the linear
relationship between u plus and y plus and that is why it is known as linear sub layer.
Now, if you go to the outside this viscous sub layer. So, you have a log law layer. So, that
is basically the turbulent region close to smooth wall. Now, if you go to you know this
region where you know in this region will be basically by region where the 𝑦 + value will
be more than 30 and less than 500.
So, here this is outside the viscous sub layer. So, in that region your y plus will be more
than 30 and it will be less than 500. So, here these both these viscous stresses as well as
the you know turbulent effects both are important in this region that is when you are going
for the 𝑦 + value more than 30.
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Now, in this case the shear stress τ slowly will be you know varying with the distance from
the wall and within the inner region it will be assumed that. So, what you see this 𝑦 + for
this value 𝑦 + between 30 and 500. So, you are assuming you know these shear stress to be
constant and equal to the wall shear stress in that thin region and in that basically what you
1
see you get these u plus value you will be getting the 𝑙𝑛(𝑦 + ) + 𝐵. So, this is what you
𝐾
see what you get you know in the case of the that region which is outside the viscous sub
layer.
So, here the shear stress tau will be varying slowly with distance from the wall and in the
inner region it will be assumed to be constant and that will be equal to the wall shear stress
and regarding the length of the turbulence mixing you know mixing length here 𝑙𝑚 = 𝐾𝑦.
So, see this you know 𝑢+ . So, you will have the relationship between 𝑢+ and 𝑣 + in terms
1 1
of this K that is you know. So, this will be 𝐾 𝑙𝑛(𝑦 + ) + 𝐵 and we also take it as 𝐾 𝑙𝑛(𝐸𝑦 +
1
we are taking another you know constant. So, we call it as the 𝐾 𝑙𝑛(𝐸𝑦 + ).
So, basically because this is a logarithmic function in that 𝑢+ and 𝑦 + is varying in a

logarithmic manner that is why we call it as a log law layer and in this case what has been
found people have done the experiments and the numerical value of this kappa that value
is taken to be about 0.4 and B is taken out to be 5.5 or even E is taken as 9.8. So, basically
this is known as the Von Karman constant and this Von Karman constant is basically you
know 0.4 and your this constant B it is 5.5 or you can have E value as 9.8 for smooth walls.
And, once you have the rough walls so, you will have the decrease in the value of B. So,
your 𝑢+ will decrease for the rough walls. So, your B will be decreasing and because of
these you know relationship we call it as the log law in this case. So, that is why it is known
as the log law layer because of this logarithmic you know function which is seen here.
Now, we will come to another layer that will be your outer layer.
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So, if you go to the outer layer. So, you know the log law of layer that is shown to be valid
𝑦
experimentally in the region. So, log law will be valid in region. So, 𝛿 so, in that value has
to be more than 0.02 and less than 0.2. Now for the larger value of the y the velocity defect
law which we have got that gives you the correct you know form and in the overlap region
basically you have the log law and the velocity defect law that has to be equal.
So, based on that you can have the you know the relationship and the researcher you know
Lumley. So, they have shown that there will be a matched overlap in that you know. So,
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑈
you will have that function so, by over log if you make it equal. So, you will have .
𝑢𝜏
1 𝑦
So, that will be basically equated to this you know log. So, that will be 𝐾 ln( 𝛿 ) so.
So, that is basically you know applicable for the outer layer and here A is constant now
the thing is that you know this law this is the velocity defect law only and this law is many
a times now also called as the law of the wake. So, there has been closed you know findings
by the researchers especially resisting was one of the researcher who has done large
amount of work in the area of he has a standard book also on the boundary layer theory by
resisting.
So, that we refer also. So, in that so, they have found that you have basically the if you go
try to have the velocity profile. So, what you see that if you try to have the, velocity profile
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we have 𝑢+ and you have log(𝑦 + ). So, what you see you will have. So, this is your a linear
profile and your profile looks would going like this.
So, in this case you have 𝑢+ is 𝑦 + . So, that is that is this region and then otherwise you
1
have here this reason is u plus is 𝐾 𝑙𝑛(𝐸𝑦 + ) this is your you know log law layer where are
these logarithmic you know relationship holds good. And so, these are different points
which are you know coming and it has been found to be you know here correct. So, you
have this region as the you know log law layer so, here these log rule holds good in this
case.
So, what we see that the turbulent boundary layer adjacent to the solid surface is composed
of two regions you have the inner region which is 10 to 20 percent of total thickness of the
wall layer. And, the shear stress will be almost constant equal to wall shear stress that is
what we have seen outer region will be where it is the law of the wake layer. So, there you
will have the inertia dominated core flow from the wall and it will be free from the direct
viscous effects.
So, when you go from the wall away you will have inertia effects getting more and more
dominated then if you go to boundary layer near the solid walls inner layer will have 3
zones. So, you will have a linear sub layer where the viscous stresses will be dominating
the flow adjacent to the surface because there because of the wall also the flow becomes
0.
So, there the viscous stress is dominating you have a buffer layer where viscous and
turbulent stresses are of similar magnitude and then you have a log law layer where the
turbulent stresses dominate. So, these are you know so that basically now why we have
studied this because they will be used when we go and solved it on this flow. When we
talk about the flow near the wall so, how you have to model, how these you know quantities
are to be computed, how the depending upon the 𝑦 + s value, how you have to take the
different wall functions.
So, these things are basically you know very important to be understood that you know in
which region which way these 𝑢+ and 𝑦 + is varying and what are the functions and
accordingly you can have the calculation of the wall shear stress. And, then other related
components that can be you know calculated in the case of any such kind of turbulent
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flows which we normally for the you know flat plate near representing the flat plate
boundary layer or even other kind of you know flows in the industrial you know
applications.
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Lecture – 23
RANS Equations
Welcome to the lecture on RANS Equations. So, RANS is Reynolds Averaged Navier-
Stokes Equations. So, this equation we are going to particularly discuss because when we
deal with the turbulent flow, so, as we know that in the case of turbulent flow you have
the mean component and also at the same time you have the fluctuating component. Now
the presence of these fluctuating components they give rise to extra set of terms when we
deal with you know or when we talk about the momentum you know conservation
equations or momentum equations.
So, in this lecture we are going to see that how you know when we talk about the turbulent
flow so what are those additional terms which are coming and then that is why that you
know. So, we are averaging there are averaging principles, averaging rules are there
because of that certain extra terms are coming. So, how then these Navier- Stokes
equations you know change. So, that we will see here and that is why they are known as
the Reynolds Averaged and Navier- Stoke Equations.
287
So, if you know if you talk about the fluctuating parts of the velocity, so, what happens
that because of that you will have the fluid layers which will be experiencing the additional
turbulence shear stress that is known as the Reynolds stress. So, you can understand it like
what happens that when you have these fluctuating parts or you have you know if you take
the turbulent shear type of flow.
So, in those cases if you try to see the you know the velocity gradient in case of turbulent
shear flow, so, you will have the velocity gradient like this. So, you know you have the
velocity gradient in the y direction. So, there is a gradient in the velocity and if you talk
about if you consider the a control volume. So, what happens due to these fluctuations?
So, what happens? You will have the formation of eddies and these eddies you know on
the boundaries they will be looking like this. So, they will be moving like this. So, you
will have increase in the y velocity in this direction and decrease in the y velocity on this
side. So, this way due to these eddies so, in this side you have a fluctuating component
will be more than 0 and in this side your fluctuating component will be less than 0.
So, this is the velocity fluctuation due to the eddy formation and you will have the turbulent
eddies at many places which will be you know going on. So, what happens or if you talk
about this surface suppose so, you will have again the eddies you know moving in this
fashion. So, you will have on this side 𝑣 ′ is less than 0 and this will be 𝑣 ′ more than 0.
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So, actually what is happening, now in this case what you see? So, these are the you know
these are the turbulent eddies and these eddies are responsible for creating very strong
mixing you know inside. So, and they are responsible also for the momentum exchange
due to the convective transport. So, these are done by these eddies and which will be
causing the faster fluid layers to be decelerated and slower moving layers to be accelerated.
So, the faster moving layer which is their top. So, it will be you know there will be a
breaking effect on that. So, that will be subjected to some deceleration and the slower
moving layers will be there which will be subjected to some acceleration.
So, you know. So, that happens you know to the velocity component and even that is
happening in the presence of these temperature or concentration gradients also. So, these
eddy motions will generate the turbulent heat or specific concentration fluxes. So, basically
as you see that you know you can we have seen that this is along the turbulent flow you
know this control volume boundaries there will be you can see the eddies how they are
going out or you know inside. So, they will be you know across that control volume
boundaries they will be transport.
Now these things basically these. So, what happens that they will have the generally there
is no generation of additional you know shear component and you will have the additional
shear stresses will be generated this would do to this turbulent and that is why they are the
turbulent shear stresses and these shear stresses are known as the Reynolds stresses and
you know and there are many more you know we will see that how these fluctuating
components.
So, these you know presence of these Reynolds stresses they need to be accounted when
we deal with the you know conservation equations especially the momentum equation or
even the continuity equation. So, we need to see that and these extra terms will be coming
into the Navier- Stoke equations and they will be calling as the Reynolds Averaged Navier-
Stoke Equation, because what happens that the velocity will have 2 component, one will
be mean component, another will be the fluctuating component. So, ultimately when you
are going to have the momentum equation so, you will have certain components coming
in to additionally you know you know because of these fluctuating parts.
So, we will be talking about these you know Reynolds averaged you know Navier- Stoke
equations, now before that we must you know we know that if you talk about the you know
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fluctuation components. So, you will have you know. So, it is averaged if you talk about
the fluctuating part only. So, it is we have to consider the certain you know points that if
you talk about the you know fluctuating and if you take the average of this. So, your
average of the fluctuating properties, so that will be so, for the fluctuating part it has to be
taken as 0. So, if you take another property like 𝜓. So, for that also if you take the average
of the fluctuating component it has to be it is taken as 0.
So, as we know that you had the component. So, you have the mean and then you have the
fluctuation. So, if you take the average of this on the on the time scale. So, it will be taken
as 0, because you have the fluctuations above as well as the below. So, you will have this
part we will be taking summation derivative that we are taking as 0. If you talk about the
̅̅̅
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜑
other things like if you have the . So, that will be nothing, but . So, that way we take
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
it as these values. So, that will be mean part and then you have similarly if you have the
part like you know this plus this. So, it is mean will be you know. So, you are taking the it
is mean plus you know the mean separated.
So, there are certain you know properties which we will be using it while we discuss about
it and similarly you will have you know. So, basically you need to know certain when we
do the time averaging so, at that time that we will need to use like if you have the 2
properties and if you are taking the average of this product. So, it will be ̅̅̅̅
𝜑𝜓 = 𝜙Ψ +
𝜑 ′ 𝜓 ′ . So, it is average. So, because it is not going to be equal to 0 you can have other
component also where one of the properties mean will be taken fluctuating parts mean will
be taken. So, that will be anyway automatically 0. So, these are the you know concepts
which are to be used for that.
Now if you go to the other properties like. So, that is known as the cumulative mean
commutative property.
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Now, for any you know fluctuating vector quantity a, which is taken as it is mean part and
also it is you know fluctuating part 𝑎′ . So, similarly you take as the you have one is scalar
fluctuating scalar and this will be taken as the mean part plus the you know fluctuating
part of this scalar quantity. So, whatever happens that if you take the ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑎.
So, it is mean will be 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴. So, this will be it is mean part and this is the fluctuating parts
if you take the 𝑑𝑖𝑣. So, this part will be anyway 0, because as we have seen that it is a
change you know with time will be or with any you know if you do averaging it will be 0.
Similarly if you take 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝜑𝑎 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ so, it will be 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝜙𝐴 + 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝜑 ′ 𝜓 ′ ). So, that is it is mean parts
product and then it will be div of psi prime a prime and it is mean. So, that way you know
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
these also need to be you know kept in mind to us. So, similarly 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜙) so, and it
is a whole you know mean it is averaging that will be giving us 𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜙.
So, basically this is a mean part so, we are taking having the mean part. So, that is you
know. So, because when we use these you know equations when we are going to take the
you know any quantity as the summation of the mean quantity and the fluctuating part. So,
at that time these you know expressions will be required. Now if you try to see the you
know the Navier- Stoke equation. So, if you try to find the instantaneous you know Navier-
Stoke instantaneous continuity as well as the Navier- Stoke equation for you know vector
u.
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So, in that case your equation becomes 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑢 = 0, similarly you will have this is your
instantaneous you know continuity equation, similarly you will have Navier- Stoke
𝜕𝑢
equation that we have already seen it will be + 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑢𝑼) and this is basically bold one.
𝜕𝑡
So, bold one means this will be sum of the 2 quantities one is mean quantity as well as one
1 𝜕𝑝
is the fluctuating part. So, 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑢𝑼) that will be you know − 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜈(𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑢). So,
that way you know what we see.
So, this is your x momentum equation that is what you get you know this x component
equation similarly you have the you know y component and z component. So, you will
𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝
have 𝜕𝑡 + 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑣𝑼) = − 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜈(𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑣.
𝜕𝑤
So, then similarly if you take the w momentum equation so, that will be + 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑤𝑼) =
𝜕𝑡
1 𝜕𝑝
− 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 + 𝜈(𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑤). So, that way you know we use these are the instantaneous you
know this is the instantaneous continuous equation and this is the Navier- Stoke equation,
these are the Navier- Stoke equations you know in the Cartesian coordinate system. So,
that the velocity vector u that is this is the u it has 3 components u v and w. So, this u has
3 components that u v and w in that case your this will be your instantaneous those
equations.
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Now when we talk about the turbulent flow so, in that you will have the mean component
as well as the fluctuating component.
So, when we talk about these variables. So, what will happen, you will have the Reynolds
decomposition. So, in that what is done is this U as you see. So, you will have the
component u v and w and also it will have the you know fluctuating components. So, u
will be the mean component plus this is the fluctuating component similarly it is u x
component is u. So, that will be mean 𝑼 plus fluctuating u that is 𝑢′ we will be you know
mean V plus a fluctuating v that is 𝑣 ′ . So, that way you have to take these you know
components taken into to my taken together. Now we have to use the time averaging and
then we have to apply those rules.
So, if you go for the continuity equation for the mean flow. So, continuity equation if you
now find and especially for the incompressible flow. So, in those case what is happening
your 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑢′ will be basically 0. So, ultimately your equation of continuity for the mean
flow becomes 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑼 equal to 0. So, 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑼 equal to 0; that means, that 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑼 equal to 0.
So, this is giving you the continuity equation for the mean flow. Now we have to find the
equation for these x momentum y momentum and the z momentum you know and we have
to do the time averaging of the individual terms.
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̅
𝜕𝑢
So, if you do some homework what we see that if you find the . So, as you know that
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑼 𝜕𝒖′
you will be capital 𝑈 + 𝑢′ . So, it will be basically because u prime . So, that will be
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
one, similarly if you find the ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑢𝑈 and this you know u that is you know averaging of
this. So, it will be 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑈𝑢 and this will be you know bold one and then it will be plus
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑢′ 𝒖′ and this will be the bold component that is prime. So, that way whatever we have
1 𝜕𝑝
studied earlier similarly − 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 and it is average that will be again you know it will have
1 𝜕𝑃
the − 𝜌 𝜕𝑦. So, that is again mean component will be coming into it.
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So, if you substitute you know these values what you see you know in that case these time
averaged momentum equations if you substitute into it, your equations will become like
𝜕𝑈
. So, you see what happens that you have we have seen these equations here now in this
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
case this u will be will be. So, that you should will be it is averaging will be capital
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑢
. So, that will be seen here. So, is coming.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
̅̅̅̅̅̅
Now the 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑈 𝑼) that will be 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑈𝑼) + 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑢 ′ 𝒖′ ). So, that is what you have seen here.
So, from this you know line you can see that in place of the 1 term you are getting 2 terms
1 𝜕𝑃
in this case rest of the term comes like this you have − 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 this P is the mean pressure
term coming here and then you have the term 𝜈 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑈)) this term is coming.
So, this is the x momentum equation which is coming basically when you are doing this
time averaging and in that you know you see that you have otherwise if you look at these
equations. So, what you see it has also it has 4 terms, these 4 terms are similar to it has
some similarity these 4 terms; however, you have one extra term. So, that is there in all
these cases now what is this. So, this basically term 𝑢 ′ , 𝑢 ′ this is basically the extra term
which is coming this is the stress component that is because of the turbulence the
fluctuating component and this is the turbulent shear stress which is you know coming into
picture.
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Now how if you if you try to you know if you try to expand it so, it will be you know and
if you try to have the generalization. So, what we do normally that we keep these terms on
this side and we take these terms on the you know on other side. So, what happens this
will be negative term? So, what we do we take the plus terms and we take the negative
sign. So, what we do normally, because it is the you know these components so, as we
discussed that this is the you know additional term which is coming because of the
turbulent fluctuation I mean a fluctuation component and this is because of these stress
component.
So, what we do know customarily, we try to shift it towards the right hand side and if you
𝜕𝑣
try to put them towards the right hand side. So, you will have 𝜕𝑡 + 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑣𝑼) + 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑢′ 𝒖′ ).
Now if you find 𝑢′ will be so, you will have the 𝑢′ 𝑣 ′ and 𝑤 ′ component here and then you
are getting the div part of it. So, you will have 𝑢′ 𝑢′ + 𝑢′ 𝑣 ′ + 𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ and then we are getting
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
the div of it. So, 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 will be coming.
So, if you try to write you know now if you take these turbulent stresses on the right hand
𝜕𝑈
side then your equation becomes like . So, that will be the first term second term is as
𝜕𝑡
usual. So, you have 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑼 and this will be the bold U. So, that will be you know. So, you
1 𝜕𝑃
will have this is the bold part. So, then that will be the again again I mean pressure
𝜌 𝜕𝑥
has come here, then you have 𝜐 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑈). So, that is you know coming further and
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1
then we have the another term that is 𝜌 of now this is your component which will be we
are taking the div of those components.
̅̅̅̅̅
2
𝜕(−𝜌𝑢′ ) 𝜕(−𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣 ′ ) 𝜕(−𝜌𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ )
So, that will be + + ,. So, this basically these terminologies will
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
come if you try to expand it. So, because this 𝑢′ will be 𝑢′ +𝑣 ′ + 𝑤 ′ this 𝑼. So, that will
be you know 𝑢′ +𝑣 ′ + 𝑤 ′ .
So, it will have 𝑢′ 𝑢′ + 𝑢′ 𝑣 ′ + 𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ and all the averaging will be done and it is div. So, you
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
will have + + . So, that will be coming. So, that is what you are getting these 3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
terminologies which is coming on the right hand side and this is basically the you know
this is because of these turbulent shear stresses.
So, if you have the you know further if you try to write these equations. So, you will have
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑃
for the V momentum you will have + 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑉𝑼) = − 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜈 𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑉. So, and then
𝜕𝑡
̅̅̅̅̅
2
1 1 𝜕(−𝜌𝑣 ′ ) 𝜕(−𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣 ′ )
you will have again 𝜌 and now this time you will have you know 𝜌 [ + +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕(−𝜌𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ )]
. So, that will be you know coming.
𝜕𝑧
So, this way you will have 3 you know equations, these you know these extra stresses these
terminologies which we have taken from the left hand side towards the right hand side
𝜕𝑤
your equation you know becomes like this. So, you will have + 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑊𝑼). So, that will
𝜕𝑡
̅̅̅̅̅̅
2
1 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(−𝜌𝑤 ′ ) 𝜕(−𝜌𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ ) 𝜕(−𝜌𝑤 ′ 𝑣 ′ )]
be − 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 + 𝜈 𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑊+𝜌 [ + + . So, that is this way you
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
are getting these same equations, but then these once you expand it and take towards the
right hand side because all these stresses you are taking on the right hand side. So, that
will give you these 3 you know equations.
2 2
Now if you look at the equations this −𝜌𝑢′ 𝑢′ this is basically 𝑢′ , now this −𝜌𝑢′ . So,
this is basically 𝜏𝑥𝑥 similarly −𝜌𝑢′ 𝑢′ it will be 𝜏𝑥𝑦 .
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So, you know the, so because of that. So, that is why we can write 𝜏𝑥𝑥 that we write as
minus of rho and u prime square. So, that is your you know this is the turbulent stresses
for that you have. So, and then you have 𝜏𝑥𝑦 this will be −𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣 similarly you have you
2
know 𝜏𝑥𝑦 is 𝜏𝑦𝑥 and similarly 𝜏𝑦𝑦 will be −𝜌𝑣 ′ everything of that and the 𝜏𝑧𝑧 will be
2
actually 𝜌𝑤 ′ .
So, that way and you have 𝜏𝑥𝑦 similarly so that will be same as 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , similarly 𝜏𝑦𝑧 will be
minus of rho you know v prime w prime actually v prime w prime so, that will be 𝜏𝑧𝑦 and
similarly 𝜏𝑥𝑧 will be −𝜌𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ and that will be you know 𝜏𝑧𝑥 . So, this way these stresses
term are you know appearing on the right hand side. And these are known as the Reynolds
Averaged Navier- Stoke Equations.
Now if you try to find you know the you know for any extra turbulent term you know
which will be because of the transportation of certain scalar quantity like temperature or
so, in those cases you will have the time averaged transport equation.
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So, for you know that any scalar quantity transport scalar quantity you know 𝜑 So, for any
this of the transport scalar quantity 𝜓 you will have these time averaging equations. So,
𝜕𝜑 𝟏
you will have the mean part of it will be + 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝜙𝑼) = − 𝝆 𝒅𝒊𝒗(Γ𝜑 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝜑) +
𝜕𝑡
̅̅̅̅̅
2
𝜕(−𝜌𝜑 ′ ) 𝜕(−𝜌𝑢′ 𝜑 ′ ) 𝜕(−𝜌𝜑 ′ 𝑣 ′ )]
( + + .
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
So, this way you will have you know the transport equation for any scalar and normally
we will have the temporary equation for the temperature or any other quantity when we
have.
So, we normally have these equations also this is. So, this is what you get normally you
know this is the extra term which you are you know getting. So, these are the equations
these as known as the Reynolds Averaged Navier- Stoke equations, because we are doing
the averaging and we are taking that fluctuating part in to component and this will be used
while we try to study or try to model the you know turbulent equations you know or
turbulent flows so that we will see in our coming lectures.
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Lecture – 24
Turbulent Flow Calculations
Welcome to the lecture on Turbulent Flow Calculations. So, in this lecture we are going
to have you know some background about you know these stress terms and how they are
modeled. And what are those terminologies which are required to be known when we deal
with the solution of the turbulence models. Also, we will have some introduction about the
turbulence models.
So, what we have seen that in our you know earlier lectures in the in the past lecture even,
that you have the eddies you know because of the fluctuating you know component. So,
you will have. So, because of the turbulence you will have the eddies of different you know
length scale you will have larger eddies you may have these smaller eddies.
So, you know they will they will have the different length scale and time scales also for
their you know interaction. So, because they interact in a very complex manner and that
needs to be modeled when we need to see the you know turbulence flow; you know
modeling. So, and you have the numerical methods basically which are available to capture
this, to predict, or to study these turbulence.
So, you know the methods which are used for studying these turbulence are broadly you
know categorized or a broadly divided in you know three categories. So, one is the you
know turbulence models for the RANS equations.
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So, as we have seen that we focus on the mean flow and also the effect of turbulence on
the mean flow properties. So, in that you are getting one you know extra term. So, and in
this case what we do is that these extra terms which appear, which we have seen in the
earlier lecture. So, they need to be modeled. And you know they will be modeled with the
classical turbulence model and basically one of that is the k epsilon turbulence model; that
is you know used. And also there is one model that is Reynolds stress model.
So, these models basically ; so they will be using they will be used for you know modeling
these extra you know stress terms which are generated that is Reynolds stresses. And you
know for them the computational time or the resource which is required will be normally
reasonably. so in And in most of the cases it has been seen that it predicts somewhat form
fine. So, you know. So, this approach is mostly used in most of the engineering flows.
Next, the second category of you know the second approach is the large eddy simulation
you know. So, now this larger eddy simulation. So, is the intermediate form of the you
know turbulence calculation. So, here you will have to have the calculation which will be
tracking the behavior of the larger eddies. So, you will have, you know in the domain you
will have the larger eddies as well as the smaller eddies. So, you will be doing that
simulation based on or calculation based on the larger eddies, and the smaller eddies will
be filtered so you will have the sub grade scale modeling for that.
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So, what we do is, we will be tracking the behavior of larger you know eddies. So, what
happens that you will have you know the space filtering of these unsteady Navier stroke
equations. And prior to that computation you will have we doing these space filtration,
you will be seeing the large eddies and the smaller eddies.
And the larger eddies will be passed and the lower the smaller eddies will be rejected. And
then further you know these smaller eddies are also included using these sub unit scale
modeling. So, what happens that in this case the computational resource you know; if you
talk about the resources or volume of calculation its more than these you know what we
do using these turbulence models like k epsilon or so.
So, this is the second you know category. And then when normally recently we also do the
direct numerical simulation, that is also known as DNS. So, there will be computing, the
mean flow as well as all the turbulent you know fluctuation component. So, you know this
in that you have the unsteady Navier stokes equations and they will be you know solved
in that special grids you will have the final grids to account for the fluctuations, and the
you know timescales are also taken so that you know they can be even smaller time length
scales; time scales are also taken into account.
So, that way you will have you know it will be taking large amount of time, but then they
are they will be giving the most accurate results, but it will be taking basically very very
you know large time. So, computationally it is very very costly. So, normally it is used for
the industrial flow type of computations.
Now, what we do is; when we talk about the Reynolds averaged Navier stoke equations
and about the classical turbulence models. So, you know in that what we have seen that
normally we have the terms these stress terms. And also stress terms like −𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣 ′ , of
2
−𝜌𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ , and of −𝜌𝑢′ that is averaging averaged part.
So, these are the stress terms which needs to be you know taken in two or if you have the
scalar property also so 𝑢′ 𝜑 ′ my average part. So, these you know these parts needs to be
modeled and you have the Reynolds averaged Navier stokes equations for that you have
the turbulence models.
And you have, so turbulence models which we use normally is mixing length model as
well as the k epsilon turbulence model where you have the two equation you know model;
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you have one equation model, you have two equation model. So, these you know based on
the additional number of transport equations which you need to solve for modeling these
stress terms. So, based on that you have the you know different types of models which are
used I mean they are known as the turbulence models.
So, you know what happens that; if you talk about you know the depending upon the
number of transport equations which needs to be solved and that way you have those
equations solved. So, you have you know if you take the number of extra transport equation
which needs to be solved, and the name of the model will be.
So, suppose when you have a classical model that is mixing length model and that has
nothing you have an expression, so then in that you get the expression for the any
diffusivity. So, that we will see that what is that any diffusivity, so and that is in terms of
the mixing length. So, you will that length will be a function of the characteristic length of
the you know flow domain. So, you will have that is 0 equation, so since there is no any
extra equation needs to be solved. So, that is the that is for the mixing length model.
Similarly, you have one equation; one extra equation needs to be solved and that is the
Spalart-Allmaras models. So, in that you have one extra equation transport equation needs
to be solved for modeling these for taking into account these extra stress terms. Similarly,
you have to extra equations needs to be solved for you know in certain cases and that is
for k and epsilon you know, and that is developed by spalding.
So, you have that model known as k epsilon model, so you have turbulent kinetic energy
and you have the dissipation of kinetic energy equation. So, you have these two terms and
you have these two terms they are solved and using the value of k and epsilon you get the
you know value of those stress values. So, using the you know using the other parameters
like 𝜈𝑡 or so; so that we will see.
Similarly, you have the k-ω model. So, that is also one where you have the two equations:
one is k for k and another is for ω. Similarly, you have the algebraic model stress model.
So, in these you know models you solve two extra equations, and then from there you try
to find the value of these additional stresses which we need to compute when we are
solving the turbulence equations. Similarly, you will have seven equations when you are
using the Reynolds stress model.
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So, as you see that normally in the commercial CFD software’s you will have the provision
of all these you know models and you can use take into account, any of the model and you
can solve the problems. We will have some understanding about these models and what
they are especially about the main models which are used. And we will try to see that how
they are you know used for the computation of these stresses shear strain, shear stresses,
you know for modeling of that.
So, coming to the you know concept of eddy viscosity and the eddy diffusivity. So, as we
know that you have the eddy motion in the you know turbulence. So, you know you will
have the stresses which are appearing on the right-hand side and you know as we see that
you have the Newton’s law of viscosity where we say that you will have the stresses. So,
that in that stress you take as proportional to the rate of the deformation of fluid element.
So, that is what is being told by the Newton’s Law of Viscosity.
So, that you know for incompressible fluid what we write is 𝜏𝑖𝑗 that we write as 𝜇𝑆𝑖𝑗 . So,
that is you know the Newton’s law of viscosity and in that we talk about these viscous
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
stresses. And it is nothing but the 𝜇(𝜕𝑥 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑥𝑗 ). So, you know in this if i or j will be 1 in
𝑗 𝑖
that case you would take it as x and if it is 2 then you can take it as the y or if you take the
j equal to 3 in that case it will be for the third direction that is z direction.
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𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
So, if you talk about 𝜏12 , so it will be 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , so it will be 𝜇(𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑥).. So, this is what
normally we have understood. Now when we talk about the turbulence. So, in the
turbulence you will have the decay of the turbulence also. So, you know. So, what is found
that the turbulence decays unless there is shear isothermal incompressible flows.
So, if there is no shear than you know it will be you know decaying, so that is there. Now
also it is found that the turbulent stresses are increasing you know at the mean rate of
different deformation increases. So, these turbulent stresses are found to increase as mean
rate of deformation increases. So, if the mean rate of deformation will be you know
increasing in that case the turbulence is; stresses are found to you know increase. So, based
on that these two you know you know findings.
What Boussinesq has proposed; he proposed in 1877. So, the Boussinesq is proposing that
is Reynolds stresses might be proportional to the mean rates of deformation. So, that way
based on these two you know findings it can be said that the Reynolds stress will be might
be proportional to the mean rate of deformation.
So, it will be 𝜏𝑖𝑗 , that is mineral now stress will be 𝑢𝑖 ′ 𝑢𝑗 ′ and you know every is part,
so that will be you know this is your you know mean rates of deformation. So, this has
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 2
been written as the equation 𝜇𝑡 (𝜕𝑥 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑥𝑗 ) − 3 𝜌𝑘𝛿𝑖𝑗 . This is you know 𝛿𝑖𝑗 is the chronicle
𝑗 𝑖
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𝛿 and when i will be equal to j so that this term will be vanishing; 𝛿𝑖𝑗 vanishes in those
cases.
So, you know in that case you know this is expressed, so when you will have this 𝜏𝑖𝑗 . So,
now in this case the k it is the turbulent kinetic energy and it will be half of u prime. So,
1 2 2 2
in this case k will be 2 (𝑢′ + 𝑣 ′ + 𝑤 ′ ). So, this is basically turbulent kinetic energy per
unit mass.
Now, what you see in this case this μ𝑡 . This is the turbulent viscosity or the eddy viscosity;
you know this is known as the turbulent viscosity or eddy viscosity. And this is a based on
that you will have the term ν𝑡 ; ν𝑡 will be nothing but μ𝑡 /𝜌. So, that will be kinetic viscosity
kinetic turbulent viscosity or visco turbulent viscosity. Now, Kronecker delta; 𝛿𝑖𝑗 it will
be 1 if i equal to j and it will be 0 if delta if i is not equal to j. So, its basically in the matrix
wherever i equal to j along the diagonal it will have 1 part and otherwise it will have the 0
part.
So, that way you will have you know you know. So, it will be giving the correct result for
2
the normal Reynolds stresses where i will be equal to j. So, for the 𝜏𝑥𝑥 that is −𝜌𝑢′ you
know average of the term. And similarly, you will have the you know 𝜏𝑦𝑦 or 𝜏𝑧𝑧 . So, you
will have those terms coming into.
Now, if you try to have the scalar part, if you have the you know if you take the turbulent
transport of something like heat, mass or other scalar properties. So, in that case what we
take is we are taking this term and this is Γ𝑡 . So, −𝑢𝑖 ′ 𝜑 ′ so its average value it will be
𝜕Φ
equal to Γ𝑡 and the 𝜕𝑥 .
𝑖
So basically, this term is the its known as the turbulent or eddy diffusivity. So, you know
its you know its analogous to this term μ𝑡 . So, what happens that you know for other a
scalar quantity we use this tau t and you know what we do we have the Reynolds analogy.
So, what we do is that, we introduce a number that is your Schmidt number. So, that is a
turbulent Prandtl or the Schmidt number. So, that is defined as σ𝑡 . So, we defined this
sigma t that is turbulent Prandtl or Schmidt number. So, that will be basically the you know
turbulent viscosity divided by the diffusivity term.
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So, you know many a times we take its value as a constant and normally we take it as unity
in most of the cases. And in most of the see of the solvers they use this you know turbulent
the Prandtl number turbulent you know this Prandtl or Schmidt number that is taken as the
value of unity.
Now, coming to the different turbulence. So, as we see we have; so this is about the eddy
viscosity part. Now, we come to the different turbulence model. So, as we have discussed
that we have different turbulence models which are used or the you know mixing length
model, where we describe the stress by means of simple algebraic you know formula for
μ𝑡 that is and it will be as a function of the position. So, you will have some you know
value of position that is lm; so length mixing length is taken. So, in the in that term we are
expressing this μ𝑡 value. So, that is why it is known as the mixing length model.
Then you will have the k epsilon model, where you have two equations for k and epsilon
and based on that we find that these mu t. Then you will have other equations like Reynolds
the stress equation models, advanced turbulence models will be there. And also you will
have the you know rants turbulence model stuff, so this we will see.
Now, if we talk about the mixing length model. So, in this lecture we are going to have
some idea about the mixing length model how you know these mixing length model works,
and how we are using it for the you know prediction of these stress component turbulent
stress components.
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So, this model will be attempts to describe the stresses by means of simple algebraic
formula for μ𝑡 as a function of the position. And in this the assumption is that the turbulent
viscosity mu t is isotropic and it can be used to predict the turbulent transport of scalar
quantities.
So, what happens you know in this case the turbulent stress I know. This is turbulent
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
Reynolds stress what we do is we describe it in the form of this 𝑙𝑚 2 , 𝑙𝑚 2 | 𝜕𝑦 | 𝜕𝑦 here. So,
basically what we see its expressed in terms of this l m, and then that is why you know we
call it as a mixing length. Know its value also varies, so I mean there are certainly certain
deviations for that.
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So, you know what is done is normally. What we see that 𝜈𝑡 ; now in this you can write as
the velocity scale and the length scale. So, because 𝜇𝑡 has the unit of meter square per
second, so you know this is meter per second and meters so it will be meter square per
second. So, if the one velocity scale and one length scale that is described the effect of
turbulence. So, in that case the dimensional analysis will yield to this equation 𝜈𝑡 will be
𝑐𝑣𝑙.
Now, this C is basically a dimensionless you know constant of proportionality, because

the 𝜈𝑡 had the unit of meter square per second now. So, we can write the 𝜇𝑡 as 𝜌𝑐𝑣𝑙; v is
the velocity scale and l is the length scale. Now, most of the kinetic energy basically is
contained in the largest eddies and the turbulent length scale l it is basically the you know
the characteristic of these eddies, because they are containing most of the turbulent
energies you know. And they are basically interacting with the mean flow.
So, if you talked about the; so what you can say there will be strong connection between
the mean flow and the behavior of these larger eddies. And we can also think of attempting
this link to the velocity scale of the eddies with the mean flow properties. So, what is seen
𝜕𝑢
is that you can have the velocity scale as a 𝑐𝑙| 𝜕𝑦 |.
So, if you take the dimensionally you know maybe it will be dimensionally correct,
because if the eddies scale is eddies scale length is l, in that case if you correlate it with
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the velocity gradient. So, you know. So, in that case and because the turbulent stresses
they are proportional to the you know they have also the relationship with the velocity
𝜕𝑢
gradient. So, you can have the velocity gradient that can be expressed in terms of 𝑐𝑙| 𝜕𝑦 |..
2 𝜕𝑢
So basically, if you use them you can further write 𝜈𝑡 as the 𝑙𝑚 |𝜕𝑦|; should you take all
𝜕𝑢
these terms together and you have the constant so you can have the |𝜕𝑦|. So, this is basically
known as the Prandtl’s mixing length model. So, this you know l m which is coming, this
is because of this term this is known this is known as mixing length, so that is known as
𝜕𝑢
the mixing length model. And if the |𝜕𝑦| is basically the only significant we lost a gradient,
so you can have the 𝜏𝑥𝑦 or 𝜏𝑥𝑦 which we write as −𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣 ′ .
2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
So, it will be written as 𝑙𝑚 |𝜕𝑦|. So, it will be 𝜈𝑡 |𝜕𝑦|in fact. So, you can 𝜇𝑡 dou 𝜇𝑡 will be
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜌𝜈𝑡 . So, it will be this term and then you will have the 𝜕𝑦, this 𝜕𝑦 has been kept in more,
because the velocity has to have the positive values that is why it has been taken as the
mod value. So, that way you know from this you try to have the modeling of operation of
these stresses using this mixing length.
So, basically what has happened that if you has been found these for different types of
flow you take these you know a mixing length as different value. Like you know for the
for mixing layer, you take these mixing length. So, this mixing length 𝑙𝑚 it will be 0.07 𝑙
and l is the layer width. Similarly, if you have a jet. So, in the case of jet you will have
0.09 𝑙 and where the l is the jet half width. So, for different types of flows you have the
for the you know wake. So, for the wake suppose wake type of flow you will have 0.16 𝑙
and this is again wake half width.
So, for different type of flows you have different values of these mixing length which is
taken. And similarly for the boundary layer or even for the pipes and sandals you will have
one expression; that is 𝑙 with respect to y you know it will be varying have a functional
value and you will have the l will be the pipe radius or the half of the you know channel
width. So, those things are taken. So, you can have these values from the standard you
know textbooks and that can be used. So, they are used basically in the turbulence models
when you are trying to have the prediction of these turbulent stresses using these.
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So, its use will be there in the tundish flow basically, when we do the tundish modeling in
that case when we are to predict the quantities in that case which kind of model to be
selected. So, being the simple in model simple model it takes minimum time to solve. So,
you can start with this model and then go to other models and see how they are you know
predicting the your you know different output parameters. So, this is about that. We will
talk about more of the turbulence models which are used you know in commercial solvers
or so. So that will be in the next classes.
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Lecture – 25
Turbulence Modeling Using k-e Model
Welcome to the lecture on Turbulence Modeling Using k -epsilon Model. So, in the last
lecture we discussed about the mixing length model and it is a simple model which is in
which you have in an algebraic expression that is used for finding the expression for 𝜇𝑡 .
So, which is used for you know modeling of the term related to Reynolds stresses.
Now, that is normally you know applicable law that is more useful when you have a very
simple type of flows or in 2 dimensional things here you know layers, where the changes
in the flow direction is slow and that ensures that the turbulence can adjust itself to local
conditions. So, in those cases those mixing length models are useful.
However, when there will be complicated kind of flows or when you have in the flows
where convection and diffusion will be causing the difference between the production and
dissipation of the you know turbulence. So, my production and destruction of turbulence
mostly it is found in the case of recirculating flows for example. So, in those cases you
know these compact algebraic expression you know that is for the mixing length which is
prescribed that will not that will no longer be you know suitable.
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So, what we need that, we need to understand, we need to take into account these dynamics
of turbulence and we have to know the mechanism you know by which there is a effect on
the turbulent kinetic energy and for that these k and epsilon model is used. So, where k is
the turbulent kinetic energy and epsilon is the dissipation rate of dissipation of this
turbulent kinetic energy. So, based on that you know we tried to have the prediction of the
effect of turbulence. So, in this lecture we are going to have the discussion about the k
epsilon model.
Now, before that you know we need to understand because we have studied about the
instantaneous equations for the you know continuity or even the x y and z momentum
equations then we had the equation for the mean you know flow mean parameters like for
the continuity equation and for also the you know velocity component also.
So, that we have already seen and those x equations will be made use for finding the
expression for the turbulent kinetic energy and also we will have the governing equation
for. So, we will have another equation for the dissipation of you know once we will have
the expression for the mean you know turbulent kinetic energy and then you will have you
know mean kinetic energy and then you will have for the kinetic in turbulent kinetic
energy.
So, now, from there onwards we will talk about the k epsilon model which was devised by
which was suggested by researcher Spalding. So, he has given these 2 equations for k and
epsilon and with the value of k and epsilon we tried to have the expression for 𝜇𝑡 . So, that
is what the you know m becomes.
So, if we try to see you know we have seen that we got when we try to have you know for
these any parameter we have one mean component for any property. So, we will have one
mean component and another is the fluctuating component. So, similarly if you have the
kinetic energy also so, you will have a mean kinetic energy and then you have the you
know turbulent kinetic energy.
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So, we write the instantaneous you know values of K(t). So, that will be you know the
mean kinetic energy plus you will have the instantaneous you know that is the turbulent
1
kinetic energy. So, that will be you know this will be 2 (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 ) . So, this will be
2 2 2
half of u. So, that will be 𝑈 2 + 𝑉 2 + 𝑊 2 and this will be 𝑢′ + 𝑣 ′ + 𝑤 ′ . So, there will
1
be bars on those values. So, this will be basically 2 (𝑈 2 + 𝑉 2 + 𝑊 2 ) and this will be
1 ̅̅̅̅
(𝑢 ′ 2 + ̅̅̅̅
𝑣 ′ 2 + ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑤 ′ 2 ). So, that will be you know that is what we have normally seen.
2
Similarly, now if we try to express these stresses and the mean rate of deformation as the
tensor is. So, you try to express them in tonsorial form. So, you will have the you know
rate of deformation 𝑆𝑖𝑗 . So, that will be you know that will be represented by matrix in the
𝑆𝑥𝑥 𝑆𝑥𝑦 𝑆𝑥𝑧
tensor form. So, it will be you know [𝑆𝑦𝑥 𝑆𝑦𝑦 𝑆𝑦𝑧 ]. So, that will be you know you
𝑆𝑧𝑥 𝑆𝑧𝑦 𝑆𝑧𝑧
know in the similar line if you try to denote for the stresses.
𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧

So, you will have 𝜏𝑥𝑦 or 𝜏𝑖𝑗 . So, that will be again [𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 ]. So, you will have
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜏𝑧𝑧
this way you have the rate of deformation also in the fluid element you will be you know
if you talk about this instantaneous value. So, you will have the mean component as well
as the you know a fluctuating component. So, you know this gives. So, that will be used.
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So, what we do? We normally go for suppose 𝑆𝑥𝑥 . So, it will be 𝑺𝑥𝑥 + ̅̅̅̅
𝑆𝑥𝑥 you know bar
so, that way you know you will have.
So, if you take the value of suppose 𝑆𝑥𝑥 (𝑡). So, it will be you know 𝑆𝑥𝑥 ′ . So, that will be.
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑢′
So, as we know that 𝑆𝑥𝑥 will be + . So, that way you will have the 𝑆𝑦𝑦 (𝑡). and
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑆𝑧𝑧 (𝑡). , similarly if you have to find the 𝑆𝑦𝑥 (𝑡).. So, that will be also you know meaning
part plus fluctuating part. So, it will be you know. So, mean part 𝑆𝑥𝑦 . So, it will be you
1 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑢′ 𝜕𝑣 ′
know 2 ( 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑥 ) + 2 ( 𝜕𝑦 + )
𝜕𝑥
So, that way you will have the values of further you can have the value of 𝑆𝑦𝑦 (𝑡). and
similarly you can have the value of 𝑆𝑧𝑧 (𝑡). . So, in this way also you will have you know
it will be same as 𝑆𝑥𝑦 (𝑡). . So, you can have the expression for 𝑆𝑦𝑧 (𝑡). or as 𝑆𝑧𝑦 (𝑡). or
so all these you know they can be taken in that form. Now, what we need to know? That,
we need to find the turbulent you know the governing equation or the you know the
equation for the mean turbulent kinetic energy.
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Now, for you know finding the equation for the mean turbulent kinetic energy you we had
the equation you know for the you know for this mean component of velocity. So, what
you can do is in that particular equation you multiply that with the mean component of
velocity. So, that capital U and capital U will be U square. So, you will have 3 equations
for that you know ah mean you know x component y component and that component
momentum equation if you recall.
So, in that though you row of U by dt by dou U U there that will be so that you had those
expressions. Now, what you do normally? You try to multiply them with the you and then
you so, that x momentum equation will be multiplied with capital U, y momentum which
we will be multiplied with capital V and z momentum will be multiplied with a capital W.
So, you will have the 𝑢2 term will be coming in the you know in that x momentum
equation, in the 𝑣 2 term will be coming in the y momentum equation and z and 𝑤 2 comma
will be coming in the z momentum equation and if you do certain rearrangement in that
case you are getting the expression for the mean flow kinetic energy.
So, that is for the mean flow. So, as you know that you will have one is mean flow part
and another is the fluctuating part. So, there you get this equation, if you now look at this
equation you have 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 terms now if you look at this term this is the rate
of change. So, this will be rate of change of the mean you know kinetic energy you know
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that is with respect to time. So, this is that rate of change term then this will be the term
which is 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝜌𝐾𝑈).
So, this is for the mean you know kinetic energy and this is by the convection. So, this is
the you know transport of K by convection. So, the second term if you take this term as
the first one, this as the second one, this as the third one, this as the fourth one, this as the
fifth one, this as the sixth one and this as the 7 th one. So, same thing here also. Now, in
this case if you look at the first term it is the you know change. So, that is rate of change
of mean kinetic energy this is the transport due to you know convection of the mean you
know kinetic energy.
Similarly if you look at this -PU so, this is again mean pressure. So, this is the transport of
K because of the you know pressure so, this is because of the pressure you will have the
transport. Now, if you look at this term 2𝜇𝑈𝑆𝑖𝑗 ; so it uses this 𝜇. So, it will be with the
because of the viscous stresses you have here this is the 𝜇 and then you have 𝑆𝑖𝑗 . So, that
is your rate of deformation. So, that leads to the viscous stress. So, basically this is the
transport of K because of the viscous stresses.
Now, if you look at this term; this term contains this fluctuating velocity component and
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
then bar over it. So, that leads to u rho u i use a you know prime 𝑢 ′ ′
𝑖 𝑢𝑖 . So, that is the
indication of having the turbulent you know shear stresses. So, this is your that is we call
it as the Reynolds stresses. So, this is the you know transport of K by the Reynolds stress
then come to this term this is basically −2𝜇𝑆𝑖𝑗 𝑆𝑖𝑗 .
So, this is basically the rate of viscous dissipation term. So, what you see this will be
dissipation this is a negative term. So, this will be the rate of viscous dissipation you have
the 𝜇 term and this is. So, that will be 𝑆𝑖𝑗 . So, that will be viscous dissipation is there going
on.
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
So, this is that term and this term again you if you look at this is again 𝜌𝑢 ′ ′
𝑖 𝑢𝑖 . 𝑆𝑖𝑗 . So, this
is because of the turbulence production. So, this is again this is a negative term. So, that is
why we again call it as a you know destruction because this term minus of this term is
normally positive. So, this will be destruction of the you know turbulence production. So,
this is that term. So, these 7 terms you are getting they are the governing equation for the
mean for the kinetic energy now what we have to do is.
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Now, you have you recall in our earlier lecture you had one equation for the instantaneous
you know velocity. So, for that you had the 3 equations that nearest to equation. So, you
got for the small u that is comprising of a mean part plus fluctuating part. So, again you
know that will be multiplied you know and then you have the multiplication to the mean
you know mean velocity component equations. So, that momentum equations and further
you are when you are taking the difference.
So, in that case you are getting the equation for the turbulent kinetic energy k. So, turbulent
kinetic energy k will be nothing, but if you are getting having the expression for the k(t)
that is your you know turbulent kinetic energy and if you take the difference that is of the
mean part of the kinetic energy. So, you will get that for the fluctuating part.
So, in that if you do those you know some kind of computation, in that case you are getting
the governing equation for the turbulent kinetic energy and this turbulent kinetic energy
for that you know that. So, there are certainly some of the there are many you know
computations on that and this is done by Tanaka San . So, they have devised.
So, with that you know with some of the reframing of the equations and all you get further
the equation for the turbulent kinetic energy k. Now, for that again if this equation comes
𝜕(𝜌𝑘)
out to be so, again this is fist. So, this is again the change of rate of change of the
𝜕𝑡
turbulent kinetic energy here. So, this is rate of change with respect to time, then you have
𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝜌𝑘𝑈).
Now, here it is the mean you know kinetic energy mean flow kinetic energy capital K and
this is a small k. So, this is for the turbulent kinetic energy part. So, this will be 𝜌𝑘𝑈. So,
again this is because of the convection. So, it will be the transport you know of turbulent
kinetic energy by the convection. So, that is 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝜌𝑘𝑈)..
Then the third term similarly here if you have the capital P that is mean pressure and this
is the U. So, in that place you have the 𝑝′ that is your fluctuating you know is that part of
pressure as well as the velocity. So, you have again the transport of turbulent kinetic
energy. So, that is because of the pressure.
So, here it was also the because of pressure. So, here also it will be because of the pressure,
̅̅̅̅̅̅
then you will have the again this is the 2𝜇𝑢 ′ 𝑠 ′ . So, this will be the because of the viscous
𝑖𝑗
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stresses. So, that is the 𝜇𝑠̅̅̅
′
𝑖𝑗 . So, you will have the viscous stresses. So, because of that so,
this is transport of k b by the viscous stresses similarly this will be transport of k because
of the Reynolds stresses and now here you will have the rate of dissipation of the k and
this is the rate of production of k.
So, now in this case this is minus and this is plus. So, this will be the rate of production in
that case it was the destruction because it was plus and this value is overall becoming
negative. So, you will have this term as the rate of production of the turbulent kinetic
energy.
So, this way you are getting these 2 governing equations for the mean flow kinetic energy
and the turbulent kinetic energy and we will define we will see that there are 2 governing
I mean 2 equations for k and epsilon which is which has been given by the Spalding and
with that value of k epsilon how we find these you know mu t value.
So, you know we see few terms and the term that is 6 one this is 2𝜇𝑆𝑖𝑗′ 𝑆𝑖𝑗′ over, here this
2
is 𝑆𝑖𝑗′ 𝑆𝑖𝑗′ this is the you know viscous dissipation term and this will be nothing, 2𝜇(𝑆11
′
+
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑆 ′ 2 ′ 2 ′ 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
′ ′ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
′ ′
12 + 𝑆22 + 𝑆33 + 2(𝑆1 + 𝑆2 ) + (𝑆2 + 𝑆3 )+. . . . ... So, that way that term can be
defined as and then it was you know.
So, this is the you know this has it is it has a negative contribution. So, you know this is
because of the you know this square of these fluctuating terms. So, you know. So, you
have the dissipation of these turbulent kinetic energy which is you know caused by the
work done by the smaller eddies. So, against these viscous stresses and for that there is a
parameter which is defined. So, you know that is a rate of dissipation you know per unit
volume and then rate of dissipation per unit mass.
So, this rate of dissipation of this turbulent kinetic energy so per unit mass if you take as,
if you multiply that with rho so that will be for the per unit volume and for per unit mass
so, we call it as the epsilon. So, this epsilon is further you know used for finding the 𝜇𝑡 .
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
So, this epsilon is basically defined as 2𝜈𝑆 ′ ′
𝑖𝑗 𝑆𝑖𝑗 and then this is what is defined as the rate
of dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy from this point so, it will be divided by ρ.
So, you will have 2𝜇𝑆𝑖𝑗′ 𝑆𝑖𝑗′ and you know so, that basically will be this parameter is this
is a term which is known as the rate of dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy per unit
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mass. Now, if you look at it is you know unit it will it is unit is basically for this the unit
is meter square per second cube. So, this is very important in the case of turbulence
dynamics and we have to see that how you know we try to have the it is significance when
we get the capsule and turbulence model. So, what we do? We try to find the you know
equation for the k and epsilon and that is given by the Launder and Spalding.
So, what they have given initially, what they have suggested that you have you know the
k and epsilon. So, that will be used to define the velocity scale and the length scale. So,
the velocity scale will be defined as the 𝑘1/2 because as we know that k will be half of. So,
it will be power proportional to 𝑣 2 . So, we will be k it is to the power half. Similarly the
𝑘 3/2
length scale can be taken as .
𝜀
So, that there are a certain you know you know conditions or there are certain assumptions
why they have they have been taken. So, why we are taking this length scale and when
you know small eddy variable is there that is epsilon. So, we are taking the, you know we
are taking that to define the largest scale length l. So, certainly because they are extracting
the energy so, they have the interaction so based on that you know they have been defined
this length scale as in terms of epsilon.
Now, using the dimensional analysis what we can get the eddy viscosity 𝜇𝑡 as the 𝑐𝜌𝑣𝑙
𝑘2
and that way we can get 𝜌𝑐𝜇 . So, basically what we do, we try to have the value of k
𝜀
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and epsilon and then you are getting this value of 𝜇𝑡 using that value of k and epsilon and
this k and epsilon you are getting from the 2 you know governing equations for the k and
epsilon. So, the 2 equations for one for k and one for epsilon that has been given by the
Spalding and they are like this.
𝜕(𝜌𝑘)
So, this equation for the turbulent kinetic energy k has been given as the +
𝜕𝑡
𝜇
∇. (𝜌𝑘𝑈) = ∇. [𝜎 𝑡 ∇𝑘] + 2𝜇𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑗 . 𝑆𝑖𝑗 − 𝜌𝜀. Now, if you look at this term so, this term again
𝑘
this is the rate of change of k or epsilon. So, if you look at these 2 terms they go you know
𝜕(𝜌𝑘) 𝜕(𝜌𝜀)
one and one. So, here and this is . So, these 2 terms are the rate of change of
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
either k or epsilon. Next will be the transport of k epsilon because of the convection. So,
this is for the k equation and this is for the epsilon equation.
Now, coming to right hand side we are taking this parameter sigma k and this
𝜇 𝜇
div. [𝜎 𝑡 grad 𝑘] and similarly div. [𝜎𝑡 grad 𝜀]. So, this is the transport of k or epsilon
𝑘 𝜀
because of the diffusion. So, you have diffusion and that is because of the new terms and
sigma terms. So, this is because of the diffusion terms, then come to the 2𝜇𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑗 . 𝑆𝑖𝑗 this is
𝜀
in the case of you know k and this is here we are taking 𝐶1𝜀 𝑘 2𝜇𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑗 . 𝑆𝑖𝑗 . So, now in these
2 terms they relate they are basically talking about the rate of production of the you know
either k or epsilon in this case.
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And then the last term is the rate of destraction, I mean destraction so that is dissipation
and here also it is the dissipation. So, you are getting these values. So, you are having these
2 governing equations are used for finding the value of k and epsilon and then in this case
you are having these constants 𝐶𝜇 . So, this 𝐶𝜇 which is used you know that 𝐶𝜇 will be it is
value will be 0.09 and C mu is used for finding the mu t. So, where we have seen that
earlier so, mu t will be 𝐶𝜇 and then you apply this you know other parameters.
You have the use of sigma k that is we are taking as one and see my epsilon we are taking
as 1.3, 𝐶1 epsilon and 𝐶2 epsilon has been taken as 1.0 they are suggested by the researcher
Spaulding. So, this is basically the these are the constants and they are used for finding the
value of the k and epsilon and then further we use them for finding the 𝜇𝑡 once when we
get the value of C mu there from and k and epsilon. Now, what we see in this case now we
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
can have the computation of the Reynolds stress𝜌𝑢 ′ ′
𝑖 𝑢𝑖 . So, that we can get using the Boss
disk approximation so, their form also you get it.
Now, the thing is that if you talk about this model. So, this model is basically a very you
know simple turbulence model which is used for which only initial and order boundary
conditions need to be supplied. So, we have certain name initial and boundary conditions
suppose at inlet we give the distribution for k and epsilon.
So, those values need to be supplied, then you know at the outlet you are or the symmetry
line you may have the you know the dou k by dou n equal to 0 or 2 epsilon by doing equal
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to 0. So, that way you are giving this boundary conditions and you are solving at the walls
basically you are giving the condition based on the Reynolds number. So, you have already
seen that what are those law of walls. So, based on that we are giving the boundary
conditions, this is a very you know model which has a very excellent performance for
many industrial relevant flows and this is well established and most widely validated the
turbulence model.
Now, if you talk about this model so, but this model has also certain disadvantages and
those disadvantages will be now you know that it is more expensive as compared to the
mixing length model and then you have also some poor performances in the variety of
important cases. So, in some of the unconfined flows or flow with large extra strains where,
I mean in the case of curved boundary layers or swirling flows or rotating flows or even
flow is driven by anisotropy of normal Reynolds stresses in these cases this model does
not work.
So, in our lectures to come sometimes when we talk about the boundary and also other
models at that time we will also try to have the discussion about you know certain you
know aspects of this model and there are certain modifications to this you know k epsilon
model, because that does not work good you know in that reason where the turbulence
more Reynolds number is low. So, you have certain damping you know coefficients are
damping constants are also supplied.
So, that the that decays it gives you proper you know it predicts proper parameters for the
turbulence is you know very small in those reasons. And so there will be certain
modifications that we will see that what modification we do in this model. So, that it can
be used even for certain cases like where you have the low Reynolds number flows also
near the walls or, so that we will see in our long run, but for the time being we should be
you know knowing the terms of this k epsilon turbulence model. So, that when the mostly
when we use them for predicting the you know turbulent flow. So, we should feel confident
about all these terminologies.
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Lecture - 26
Introduction to Heat Transfer Phenomena
Welcome to the lecture on Introduction to Heat Transfer Phenomena. So, as we are going
to have the study on the tundish flow. So, in tundish, there is a flow of molten steel or you
know any molten metal which is at very high temperature. And since it is flowing, so we
have studied about the basics of the fluid flow phenomena.
Then, also in that flow we talked about the turbulence and we had some idea about how to
model this turbulence because of the turbulence certain extra terms are coming in those
equations. So, how to model them. So, that we have studied in the you know earlier
lectures. Now, we will have to have a some fundamental understanding about the heat
transfer phenomena because the heat transfer is an essential part of that process. Heat
transfer will be taking place by different modes and that affects the process that affects the
flow configuration also in many cases.
So, we need to have the understanding about the heat transfer phenomena. Now, coming
to the heat transfer as you know, there are basically three modes of you know heat transfer
and that is conduction, convection and radiation. So, as you know that you know whenever
there will be a you know gradient of temperature will be there. So, when there will be
change of temperature there in the body. So, there will be you know transfer of energy task
will be there from higher temperature towards the lower temperature side and you know
that is your conduction.
Then, we will talk about the convection where because of the you know fluid motion or
fluid in contact comes into picture. So, that time you have convection and then you have
the radiation. So, that is because of the electromagnetic radiation which is emitted by the
temperature maintained at higher you know by the body maintained at higher temperature.
So, you have three modes and all these three modes are active in the case of the
steelmaking process. For example, if you talk about a normal tundish. So, you have the
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inlet and then, you have the you may have the outlet. So, this is your inlet and these are
the outlet.
So, what happens that the high temperature metal which is coming. So, you have a you
know ladle here. So, from the ladle your high temperature metal will be coming and getting
poured into the tundish. Now, this will be striking at this point and then, it will be going
and moving inside. So, they will be having contact with these walls of the tundish.
Now, these tundish walls are normally refractory lined, but still there is heat transfer taking
place. So, those heat transfer which is taking place from here. So, the heat transfer in
between these places which take place there and then, also heat transfer it should be there
are the surface because of the fluid motion. So, that will be a convection further and then,
the heat transfer is also taking place from these surfaces.
So, from the here, it is the heat will be going out. So, they will be normally by the in the
form of a electromagnetic radiation that is by radiation mechanism. So, all these three kind
of you know heat transfer modes are there in the case of tundish and we need to understand
and we also will see that where it will be required in our case; basically when we try to
solve the equations.
So, we will have the energy conservation equation that we have already seen in our you
know previous lectures. So, we are solving for the temperature and that we need to supply
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these you know the boundary conditions and we need to give that in what way the heat
transfer is taking place. So, suppose from the inlet, you will have to specify the temperature
of the material or the metal which is going into; but then, the heat transfer which is taking
place you know from these walls need to be shown.
So, you will have the heat flux which is there from these walls or from the top surface they
need to be provided. So, this will be the input to the model and then, we will get the you
know we will have to solve the equation and get the temperature distribution inside the
tundish.
So, coming to the you know conduction.
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So, the conduction is that when the temperature gradient will be existing in the body. So,
there will be energy transfer from the high temperature region to the low temperature
region. So, this type of heat transfer is called heat. So, in the body itself you have when
you have the temperature gradient, so, just like you can see if you see this tundish if you
have a tundish and you have the you know these there will be refractory lining. So, if you
talk about the you know lining, now in this case this temperature is quite high and this is
closed; this is exposed to the you know external atmosphere so that is surrounding.
Now, in that you will have the typical temperature gradient. There will be you know
propagation of heat. So, there will be that will be done by conduction in this because
through this material so that is by conduction. So, that is the conduction. So, you have a
solid body this one side is a heat temperature side. So, in the case of tundish the face of
the wall which is in contact with the molten steel. So, that is having high temperature and
the external phase of the tundish which is a steel shell normally. So, that is at a lower
temperature.
So, certainly in between you have the refractory material. So, there will be transfer of heat
through that medium and that material and from the high temperature to the low
temperature region and this type of the heat transfer mode that will be your you know
conduction mode.
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So, in the in conduction normally, now we use the Fourier’s law of heat conduction and
basically what has been seen that the heat transfer which is there, it will be proportional to
the temperature gradient, then area and also the time. So, if you talk about. So, this is dθ
is nothing but the theta 2 minus theta 1 is if you have you know a reason, that is the higher
temperature side and this is a lower temperature side.
You have the this side the temperature is 𝜃1 and this side the temperature is 𝜃2 . So, there
will be you know flow of heat from this side to this side. Now, that will be proportional to
what has been found by Fourier that it is proportional to the temperature gradient. So, how
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
much is the gradient that is dθ and that. So, that is 𝑑𝑥 basically. So, this is 𝑑𝑥 .
This is the you know 𝑑𝑥 for any element, if you take 𝑑𝑥. So, this is a length 𝑑𝑥, if you
take x in this side. So, 𝑑𝑥 will be a smaller part of it. So, 𝑑𝑥 incremental part. Then, it
will also be proportional to the area of which is there in contact. So, if a higher is the area
higher will be the heat transfer. Similarly, higher will be the heat transfer, similarly higher
will be the time, it is you know the heat transfer is.
So, if you calculate for higher amount of time, it will be more; there will be more heat
transfer. So, then in that case that there was a constant of proportionality added and that
constant of proportionality gives you that is λ or many times, we call it as a k also that is
the thermal conductivity of this material. So, this way you know we find this q. Now, if
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you try to have 4 per unit area and also rate of the heat transfer. So, we divide by A and t.
𝑑𝜃
So, in that case q will be becoming minus of λ 𝑑𝑥 .
Now, the minus sign as you know you must have the idea that we normally give this minus
sign because 𝑑𝜃 term is negative. So, because 𝜃2 -𝜃1 .., this term will be negative in this
case. So, that is why we are putting it you know minus. So, that you have altogether you
will have the positive term. Now, what we need to do when we try to if you try to see the
you know tundish in that also we need to so if you are the modeling in tundish flow.
So, in that case you need to have the dimensions of this part; also you need to must you
can specify the temperature on this side and temperature on this side and also you need to.
So, basically you know if the dimension is known and the temperature is also known on
𝑑𝜃
these two extreme sides; then, 𝑑𝑥 will be known and then if you know the k so, or λ. So,
that is what is required.
So, that way you can have the conduction heat transfer, you can find in those cases. So,
what is what will be required when you go to the modeling of the tundish flow and you
are required to give the boundary conditions for the temperature or thermal boundary
conditions. So, on the wall you need to specify the material of the wall.
So, if you have the refractory you need to provide the refractory material with the
appropriate value of the thermal conductivity. So, that is what the there will be the use will
be for the thermal conductivity of the material. So, that will be varying for different
materials and you can have the appropriate value of the thermal conductivity of the
material.
So, there may be ceramics of different type and you can have the thermal conductivity
value from the literature for those you know values. So, accordingly, we try to model the
conduction part.
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Now, coming to the convection. So, in conduction, we know that we need to have the value
of the thermal conductivity and this is the property of the material and that will be required
to have the value of the conductive heat flux or conductive heat you know which is
transferred heat transfer by conduction. Now, heat transfer is also accompanied by the
fluid motion.
So, you will have the this is your surface area A and this you have the surface temperature
𝜃𝑠 . So, and if the Q is the heat flow and you are approaching flow temperature is you know
𝑄𝑓 .
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So, in that case what we see that we get the you know expression for the you know heat
conducted by the Newton’s law of cooling. So, Newton law of cooling tells that q is
basically equal to 𝛼(𝜃𝑠 − 𝜃𝑓 )𝐴𝑡 . So, again you can have the expression for the 𝛼(𝜃𝑠 −
𝜃𝑓 ). And in this case, you know we have the term that is the heat transfer coefficient which
is coming into picture in such cases in the case of you know convection.
So, you will have these values and we are using this many a times, we also denote it with
h in place of alpha; in most of the cases we also try to have. So, heat flux what you see you
know q which it will be proportional to the temperature difference here and you will have
the values of alpha into theta s minus theta f.
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Now, what we need to know that when we talk about the convection, then there are two
types of convection mechanism; one is the free or natural convection and one is forced
convection, which is induced by the external means. Now, in the case of free or natural
convection, you know what happens that because of that so that is basically induced by the
buoyancy forces and it is basically in those cases when there will be change in the density.
So in that case you will have and the loop formation or the there will be a convection
current which will be generated because of you know those you know natural you know
drop in the temperature or because of the change in the density or so. So, that happens so
also in the case of tundish, where it has been seen that in case of tundish when you have
the temperature difference in the tundish, you know and it is of the significant magnitude,
larger magnitude in that case because of that you will have a convection loop which is
formed and you that will be affecting the velocity profile in the tundish also.
So, that is because of the buoyancy forces that is induced and they may occur and this free
convection or forced convection that may occur with phase change boiling or the
condensation processes. Now, if you talk about the free the value of h that is heat transfer
coefficient, which is have a unit of watt per meter square Kelvin. So, in the case of free
convection your for the gases, you are getting the values as you know 2 to 25 and for the
liquids, you have 50 to 100. Whereas, when you have the forced convection, in that case
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you have the if you look at the value of these heat transfer coefficient, it is a multiplied 10
times as compared to that in free convection for gases.
And then, for liquids also it is going maybe close to more than 200 times about 200 times.
So, that is the you know heat transfer mechanism for I mean that is what is required of you
know that is how the heat transfer, you know is changed when you have the forced
convection taking place. In the case of boiling and condensation that is even more it goes
to 2500 to over 100000 water per meter square Kelvin.
So, that is how the heat transfer you can see that how you know these a heat transfer order
can be seen to change when you have the different in different way your you know whether
the convection is by free mechanism or by the force mechanism. So, in those cases you are
having these values.
Then, you have another you know part is the radiation. So, radiation is again it is an
electromagnetic radiation whereas, it is emitted by the body as a result of its temperature.
So, in that case what happens that you have a body which is at higher temperature. So, it
will be emitting the radiation towards the body of lower temperatures. So, that is the
principle.
So, that basically in terms of so, this flow which is going to take place that is basically in
the form of electromagnetic radiation. So, that is why it is called as the radioactive heat
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transfer. Now, in case of tundish what happens that you have many surfaces which are
open. So, you have the top surface of the tundish, where you have slag layer or so which
is also at higher temperature.
So, there will be heat transfer taking place from that surface because it is exposed to
atmosphere and that is slag is in touch with hot metal and slag is also at very high
temperature. So, they will be losing the heat to the surroundings and that is done by the
radiation mechanism. So, again here also you will have the similar you know process, but
here the temperature you know the exponent which we use on the temperature that is
different and that is by this Stefan Boltzmann law. So, that we will see.
So, that way it is changing. So, whenever we are dealing with these you know thermal
condition, so in that case you will be asked whether you want to give a condition where
there is radiative heat transfer or not. So, that you can you know accordingly you can
supply those conditions. So, if you talk about the radiation heat transfer it is basically
described by the Stefan Boltzmann law.
𝜃
And that is you know by the expression 𝜎𝐵 (100)4. So, basically that is for the blackbody.
So, what happens that normally you have as you see that it will be a function of the you
know fourth power of that temperature turn. So, you will have if you look at these material,
you have a you know body. So, absorbing you will have instant energy, then you have
reflected and then, you have transmitted energy. So, that way we also try to have the
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radiative heat fluxes. We also try to provide you know on the on those surfaces from where
the radiation has to take place.
Now, after that we need to know also few terminologies like you have the hydrodynamic
boundary layer and the thermal boundary layer. So, the hydrodynamic boundary layer will
be defined as that region of flow, where the viscous forces are felt. So, as we see that you
will have a region close to the wall, where you will have the viscous forces are in
dominance and that layer. So, you will have the formation of the hydrodynamic boundary
layer.
Similarly, you will have the thermal boundary layer also and this is that reason, where the
temperature gradients are present in that flow. So, you will have the temperature gradients
you know that will be seen in that you know thermal boundary layer. Now, these
temperature gradients would result from the heat exchange process between the fluid and
the walls. So, that is what we discussed that you have the fluid and the wall. So, you will
have you know the heat exchange process taking place between them and because of that
these temperature gradients will be resulting into.
So, normally there has been the description of the hydrodynamic boundary layer and
thermal boundary layer by dealing with the stokes first problem and where it is dealt that
the you know you know there will be flow around the wide flat plate which is suddenly
moved from rest to a constant velocity and then, what will happen that the fluid which is
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adjacent to the plate will be moving with times, once you are moving. Now that layer
which is this layer will be called as the hydrodynamic boundary layer and the velocity of
the fluid will be decreasing in the direction normal to the plate.
So, as we know that it will be decreasing in that direction normal to the plate from v on
the surface to the plate to 0 outside that layer and the thickness also is found to be
increasing with time by this expression. So, 𝛿ℎ will be 4𝑣𝑓 𝑡1/2 o. So, that way you are
getting this you know𝜈𝑓 and this is 𝜈𝑓 is nothing but the this is kinematic viscosity of the
fluid. So, you know if you look at the development of the this is a 𝜈𝑓 .
So, this is if you look at the you know hydrodynamic boundary layer formation. So, they
are you know they are very much the growth of these a dynamic boundary layer, they are
function of these economic viscosity of the mud. So, in that case it is a measure of the
momentum exchange of the flow.
Now, in the same manner, you can have the thickness of the thermal boundary layer also
on the flat plate and that is governed by 𝐾𝑓 . The properties 𝐾𝑓 that is your thermal
𝜆𝑓
diffusivity and that is 𝜌 .
𝑓 𝑐𝑝
𝑘
So, it is also sometimes seen in some terminology, you will be as 𝜌𝑐 . So, k is nothing but
𝑝
𝜆𝑓 that is a thermal conductivity. Then, this is you know 𝜌 and this is the 𝑐𝑝 . So, this 𝜌 is
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density and this is the specific heat at constant pressure. So, that way you know we try to
have these you know thermal boundary layers also. So, that will be governed by these
processes.
Coming to the different types of you know the dimensionless numbers, which we will be
required which will be coming across you know in our study and that will be you know.
Firstly, the Prandtl number. So, this Prandtl number is the ratio of the kinetic viscosity that
𝜈𝑓
is 𝜈𝑓 to the thermal diffusivity 𝐾𝑓 . So, that way we define this . So, it is basically the
𝑘𝑓
direct measure of the ratio of thickness of the hydraulic and the thermal boundary layer as
we have seen.
So, it will be measuring the ratio of the thickness of the hydraulic and the thermal boundary
layer. You have another you know relevant dimensionless number that is your Schmidt
number Sc and this Schmidt number, it is the ratio of the kinematic viscosity to the
diffusion coefficient D, we have already seen earlier also. So, in that case also you take
the ratio. So, that is your many a times we have the turbulent speed number and all that.
So, this basically will be talking about the ratio of the kinematic viscosity 𝜈𝑓 to the
diffusion coefficient d and this is the Schmidt number. So, these are you know these are
the apart from that you will have there are many other numbers which will be coming into
picture like when we talk about the you know natural convection. In that case as you know
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that that deals with the numbers like guess of number or so, and when we deal with that
we have already seen that there is another number that is Tundish Richardson number that
also is used many a times while we deal with the thermal analysis of the tundish flow.
So, these you know I mean these terminologies will be useful while analyzing the output
which we get by after post processing operation. So, in those cases you can have the idea
of you know the value of these you know parameters or these numbers and by that you can
compare you know the processes or the compare the different cases. Apart from that we
will have also we will be dealing with certain phenomenon like the phase change or so that
what we had seen earlier.
So, you know you need to also see that how there will be you will have the different models
which talk about the phase changes during the heat transfer. So, many cases and mostly in
metals when you your temperature goes below certain limit. So, that starts changing two
different phase. So, the liquid phase will be changing to the solid phase and in that case, if
that phase change is taking place many a times we have the change in the properties when
we are there is change in phase.
So, you will have the conductivity values or a transfer coefficient values which is used
specific conductivity values will be different when we have the phase change taking place.
So, those also need to be looked into so that will be governed by the material properties
also because and that will only say that when the temperature becomes lower than that,
you will have basically the change of phase from one phase to other.
So, you will have different equations which will be talking about the you know
transformation of one phase to other in a gradual manner and then, how the it will be
affecting the heat transfer of fluid flow you know in that domain. So, these things may be
it used by us in our you know lectures to come, when we deal with that particular situations.
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Lecture - 27
Numerical Methods for Solving Governing Equations
Welcome to the lecture on Numerical Methods for Solving Governing Equations. So, in
the last lectures, we talked about the different governing equations of fluid flow and heat
transfer. And now we should go towards the modeling aspects, especially the numerical
modeling which is normally carried out in the case of tundish modeling.
So, what are the typical numerical methods which are used for solving those governing
equations, because we need to solve these governing equations to find the you know
distribution of the variables like pressure, velocity, or temperature and many more at the
different points in the domain. So, for that, there are different methods which are being
adopted and among them. We will typically talk about one of the method that is finite
volume method, but we will have certainly some idea about the other methods.
So, let us talk about the numerical methods or numerical analysis when we talk. It is the
study of algorithms that uses numerical approximation for the problems of mathematical
analysis. So, as we know that we are normally getting the problems you know expressed
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in the form of mathematical expressions. And now these expressions you know need to be
solved, so you have to approximate it numerically.
And there are basically three types of different approaches which are most commonly used,
and they are finite difference method, finite volume method and finite element method.
Out of that normally we use for the fluid flow and heat transfer applications, we use the
finite volume method especially in the domain of CFD that is computational fluid
dynamics and even heat transfer.
So, the finite difference method which was first method which was you know devised that
was you know that is still used, but then finite volume method has many advantages when
we typically go for solving these fluid dynamics related problems. So, and then finite
element is also used typically you know when you have this structural problems or related
to deformations and all that.
So, in those cases, in the case of metal forming or so typically they are used these finite
element methods, but not necessarily you can say that always only finite element method
should be used, only on those areas you can use even in the area of fluid mechanics and
heat transfer also. So, the major advantage of the numerical analysis is that a numerical
value can be obtained even when the problem has known analytical solution.
So, the thing is that in many cases, we are not likely to have the analytical solution, and in
those cases we have to rely you know we have to go for the numerical you know
approximation and that is why the numerical analysis is being carried out.
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So, the finite difference methods these are the numerical methods for approximating the
solutions to differential equations using finite difference equations to approximate
derivatives via truncated Taylor series. So, basically what is required is that most of the
these equations where you see these derivatives are there or there the differential equations,
and we need to have the solution of these differential equations.
So, you have derivatives. And in the derivatives, you know we are approximating these
derivatives via the truncated Taylor series. So, you have a Taylor series expansion, and in
that we truncate it we try to ignore certain terms to find the expression for the derivative
in terms of the neighboring you know points. And accordingly you know if you get the
algebraic equation which is to be solved.
So, these finite difference approximations are algebraic in form and the solutions are
related to grid points. So, what happens that suppose you want to go for this point, so, if
you have to find you know the derivative. So, derivative at this point suppose if you have
to find suit maybe this point minus value at this point minus this point divided by the whole
distance or maybe you know if you want to have the derivative, so in this domain it will
be at this value minus at this value divided by this domain.
So, like that if you go for the derivative with respect to the you know in this direction, so
there you have the points at these two, you know the values are these two points and taken
the distance between them as 𝛿𝑦. So, accordingly you know you get you know these
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differential equations in you are converting it into the algebraic equations, and then they
are solved.
So, the finite difference method will be involving three steps first is that you divide the
domain into a set of grids of nodes. So, you have a domain. So, you will be you know
dividing it in the form of nodes. Then you are approximating the given differential equation
by via finite difference equivalence that relates the solution to the grid point.
So, you will have you know the grid points in the in their form, you will be approximating
those equations using the finite difference equivalence. And then you are solving these
difference equations so that will be subjected to the prescribed boundary conditions or and
or the initial condition.
So, once you have the equations at the different points you know, but not points basically
for every node you will have the equation and then you will have also the conditions as
the in the form of initial conditions or the boundary conditions which are there at the
boundaries, so then they are solved. So, normally we go for we used to solve you might
have done hopefully the solution of the steady state heat transfer in one-dimensional using
the finite difference you can do it.
So, as we are talking about, so that the minute from this Taylor series and that is truncated
Taylor series. So, as you know that this is the Taylor series 𝑓(𝑥 ± 𝑑𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ±
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𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥). . . . . . . . . . . . . .., so like that it will go. So, you know if you have to find
2!
the 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), and if you know remove these terms if you are trying to you know neglect these
terms, so, 𝑑𝑥 will be divided, so 𝑑𝑥 will be divided for whole the terms.
So, this will be of dx order, so that way it will be order 𝑑𝑥. So, the error is or the order of
𝑑𝑥. So, you are further you are neglecting, so that way you get the 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) value, and that is
being you know expressed in terms of with the function value at 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, and 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑑𝑥
is the distance between the two points that is 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 and the x.
So, this is being used you know for that approximation and that you are getting one linear
algebraic you know equation and that you will be getting at all the nodes and then you can
solve it. Now, the important method which is normally used for the CFD calculations will
be the you know finite volume method.
Now in the finite volume method what is done is that this here the domain will be converted
into the control volumes, and there will be integration over the you know control volume.
So, integral conservation will be satisfied over the exact may be known over the all the
exactly over the control volume. So, basically it is keeping that physics also into mind and
so it will be and in this case you apply the divergence theorem because you will have, so
you are integrating over the whole control volume.
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So, you will have the divergence theorem applied, so that you are getting another equation
for the further. And then you use the you know different type of discretization you know
rules and these rules basically will help you to get the equations in the algebraic form
which is solved. So, the to evaluate these derivatives, derivatives terms what is done is that
values at the control volume phases are needed.
So, you have to make an assumption that how the value is varying. So, basically you know
you have the control volume in that you have the node. At the center of the control volume,
you have the you know control volume phases. So, you know when you need to have the
values at the control volume phases, you will have to make the assumption that how the
value is varying.
So, you will have the values at the nodes in their term you have to take the value at the
nodes. So, for that you will have the different rules that we will discuss. And that this way,
so that there may be you know there are discretion schemes are there. And then the result
is that we try to you know have a set of linear algebraic equations and that is one for each
control volume.
So, whatever be the of volumes you will have that number of linear algebraic equations
and then you are solving these equations iteratively in most of the cases. And you get the
values you know at the different you know points of interest. Now, the advantage of finite
volume method is that the integral conservation is satisfied exactly over the control
volume.
So, in those cases what you see that you are you know conservation is satisfied over the
control volume. So, as you see this is a typical a control volume, these are the nodes - the
computational nodes, and this is the you know as you see this is the boundary. So, you
know and these are the you know, so you will once you find the control volumes then you
will have, so this is typically a control volume, and this is the node at the boundaries this
is boundary node.
So, basically you use the boundary conditions, and then accordingly you will have the
equations are at these points also. So, they will be helpful in solving the equation.
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So, you will have this is your solution domain which is subdivided into number of you
know small control volumes. Then the grid defines the boundaries of the control volume.
Computational node will be lying at the centre of the control volume and all this that we
have already seen.
Now, what we see that how we have to know that how this control volume method works.
So, because when we are taking a domain in most of the cases, we will be solving the
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problem in 2D or 3D, but just for understanding, we will start with one-dimensional
problem and also the two-dimensional problem.
So, suppose we start with a simple problem of pure diffusion problem, so if you look at
the pure diffusion problem, and if you do the 1-dimensional steady state diffusion, so in
that case you know there is no you know the time derivative term, and you have the one-
𝑑 𝑑𝜑
dimensional steady state diffusion equation can be divided 𝑑𝑥 (Γ 𝑑𝑥 ) + 𝑆 = 0.
So, that is the 1-dimensional steady state diffusion, you know if that is of 2-dimensional
you will have x and y both will be coming into picture. Now, what we do you know in
these cases as you see first of all you have the domain. So, you are having the formation
of control volume. So, once you take these nodes, now surrounding these nodes you are
finding the control volumes.
So, as you see you are you are having, so this way you will have the control volume at this
point; similarly you will have one control volume at this point, so that way you can have
these different you know control volumes. As you see the on this side and this side, so you
will have certain you know conditions will be there.
Suppose 𝜑 is if you are do going for the heat conduction equation or so, 𝜑 will be nothing
but the temperature. So, temperature values may be given at this point and this point. So,
these are the boundary conditions, so that will be you know those conditions at boundaries
they will be taken into account, and then accordingly you will have the equations formed.
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So, what we do is initially we go for the grid generation, and as you see that if you take
any point P, so what happens on the, so on the this is the control volume. So, what you see
this is the east phase of the control volume, this is a west phase of the control volume, and
this is the grid node P.
And similarly you will have these distances; so they will be represented by 𝛿𝑥𝑤 is west to
east surface, the small will be that surface denoting the surface. Similarly, this will be delta
x P and this is 𝛿𝑥𝑤𝑝 . So, these are the distances, and this will be again the distance between
the nodes P and the east node, and similarly the between EP, and the west node it will be
𝛿𝑥𝑊𝑃 .
So, you make these you know grids, and normally we practice is that we make these you
know control volumes near the edge of the domain in such a manner that the physical
boundaries should be matching with the control volume boundaries that is what you see
that here also if you make these boundaries, so the control volume boundary will be
making you know coming in you know here in the same line with this surface boundary.
Now, after doing that what we do is, we do the discretization.
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And if you look at the x equation, so what we see that we get once you do the discretization,
you get the equation in this form.
Now, how we get the equations in this form, so what we have seen we saw that you have
𝑑 𝑑𝜑
(Γ 𝑑𝑥 ) + 𝑆 = 0. So, this is your equation. Now, if you go for the integration of over the
𝑑𝑥
control volume, so what you do is you are doing the integrations, you do the integration
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𝑑 𝑑𝜑
over the control volume that is ∆𝑉, and it will be ∫∆𝑉 𝑑𝑥 (Γ 𝑑𝑥 )𝑑𝑣 + ∫∆𝑉 𝑠𝑑𝑣, so that will
be also for the volume you are doing the volume integration.
Now, what happens that if you do that, so using that theorem you can write you know as,
𝑑𝜑
so this will may be written as ΓA 𝑑𝑥 . And similarly you will have, so and then you this also
you will have 𝑠𝑑𝑣. So, this will be for the area, and then you have 𝑠𝑑𝑣. So, this way you
know that will be equal to 0. So, this will be 0 that seems to be you know accordingly you
will have.
So, what happens you know now if you integrate, so first of all you will have the area term
coming into picture. And then since it is integration, so you will have the value at the east
phase and then value at the west phase, so you will have basically this as the ∆𝑣 term will
𝑑𝜑
be coming later, and here you will have e minus again you will have the term ΓA 𝑑𝑥 and
that will be at the west phase. And then you will have the term 𝑠∆𝑣 will be equal to 0.
So, that way you are getting these values. So, you are converting them you know using the
divergence theorem. Now, the thing is that you are getting these values at the nodes. And
you need to have these values at the these phases or the phase of the control volume
boundaries. So, you will have to basically do certain kind of differencing.
And if you use the central differencing for this tau term, so you will have to define the tau
term at e if you look at the you know this, this point, so you will have the point e here.
And if you have to have the you of tau at e, so you can have it you know as the average of
using central differencing approach, you can have the average of at this point plus the plus
this point.
So, you can have the you know this value that will be interpolating, linear interpolating we
Γ𝐸 +Γ𝑃
can have this value. So, tau e we can have the tau w plus you know Γ𝑒 = . And
2
Γ𝑊 +Γ𝑃
similarlyΓ𝑤 = .
2
𝑑𝜑
So, your diffusive fluxes what we have seen ΓA 𝑑𝑥 . So, you know you are you know tau
𝑑𝜑 Γ𝐸 +Γ𝑃
ΓA 𝑑𝑥 , it will be you know you know tau so that is what it will be Γ𝑒 . So, it will be
𝑒 2
that you can take it; otherwise you take these values at the phase itself.
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[𝜙𝐸 −𝜙𝑃 ] 𝑑𝜑 [𝜙𝑃 −𝜙𝑊 ]
So, you can have the Γ𝑒 A𝑒 . Similarly, ΓA 𝑑𝑥 = Γ𝑤 A𝑤 .
𝛿𝑥𝑃𝐸 𝑤 𝛿𝑥𝑊𝑃
So, and also now what we do that for the source term what we do is we linearize it. So,
once we linearize it, will be S will be, so what we do for the for source term, so it will be
linearized and that we represent as this 𝑆 ∆𝑉. So, if you take the 𝑆̅ ∆𝑉, if we take it as the
you know one is S𝑢 + S𝑝 ϕ𝑝 .
So, we are linearizing this source term, so that the term which is you know when we are
doing for the you know getting the equation in terms of ϕ𝑝 at that time this will go on that
side. So, what we see if you try to give these values in that particular equation, so in that
case, you are getting you know this value.
Γ A𝑒 Γ𝑤 A 𝑤 Γ A𝑤 Γ A
So, what we get is that this will be ( 𝛿𝑥𝑒 + 𝑤
− S𝑝 )φ𝑝 = ( 𝛿𝑥 )φ𝑤 + ( 𝛿𝑥𝑒 𝑒 )φ𝐸 +
𝑃𝐸 𝛿𝑥𝑊𝑃 𝑊𝑃 𝑃𝐸
S𝑢 . What you see, so that can be you know that you can get if you go further, so that will
be you know once you do that. So, you will have, so that can be even understood by writing
these equations.
𝑑𝜑
So, what you got is Γ𝑒 A𝑒 , and you have the you know 𝑑𝑥 , so it will be 𝜙𝐸 − 𝜙𝑃 p. So, you
𝑒
[𝜙𝐸 −𝜙𝑃 ]
will have . And similarly you will have tau w A w and then you have d phi by dx,
∆𝑥𝑃𝐸
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[𝜙𝑃 −𝜙𝑊 ]
so that will be Γ𝑤 A𝑤 or P W So, you can write. And then, so, that will be and then
∆𝑥𝑃𝐸
plus S𝑢 + S𝑝 ϕ𝑝 , so that will be equal to 0.
What do you see is that now this equation can be written you know what you see that you
have 𝜙𝑃 , and you have a 𝜙𝐸 and 𝜙𝑊 , and there is one source term S𝑢 . So, 𝑎𝑝 𝜙𝑃 = 𝑎𝐸 𝜙𝐸 +
𝑎𝑤 𝜙𝑊 + 𝑆𝑢 ,.
So, and then we write as a E, then a W and then you have the source terms that is what you
are getting and a P will be. So, that is what you know this same equation you are getting.
So, this will be 𝜙𝐸 /∆𝑥𝑃𝐸 , so that way you know now getting the 𝜙𝐸 , whether how should
you get it you can have in general you can negate the that 𝜙𝐸 value as the average of the
value at towards the at the east, and also at the p node, so that way you can get in simple
terms, but you know that also may be taken differently and that we will study later on that
how it is done.
So, what we see is that in this case you are getting just such kind of equation, and this
equation you will be getting you know at for all the control volumes, and then they are
solved, and you get the value at the nodes. So, this is how you know your equations are
solved in this case.
Similarly, I mean we can go for the, so what we see normally in the finite volume method,
you have the discretized equation which is must be set at each of the nodal points in order
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to solve the problem. You know you we got the equations for the control volume and also
we will have the equations for the you know at the boundaries.
So, you will have certain boundary conditions will also lead to some set of equations, and
accordingly you will be solving them. So, your discretized equations are set up at the nodal
points and which are adjacent to the domain boundaries those volumes the discretized
equation is modified to incorporate the boundary condition.
So, what happens that at the boundaries, you will have to modify now you know that
equation because that condition needs to be satisfied. So, you will have the incorporation
of the boundary conditions, and then the equation resulting system of equation is solved
to obtain the distribution of property 𝜑 at all the nodal points.
Now, if you saw this that was done for the 1-dimensional and what we saw in the 1-
dimensional flow, you have the control volume and you have one node towards the east
and one node towards the west. And so they at this particular point you know you are
getting the value at this point expressed in terms of the point at this end point at you know
the value at this point as well as at this point neighboring two points, and then you are
solving them, now that was a simple 1-dimensional case.
Similar can be extended for the 2-dimensional cases. So, when you have 2 dimensional
𝑑 𝑑𝜑 𝑑 𝑑𝜑
diffusional problems, so it will be 𝑑𝑥 (Γ 𝑑𝑥 ) + 𝑑𝑦 (Γ 𝑑𝑦 ) + 𝑆 = 0.. So, what happens here,
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you will have the control volume and you will have the phases towards the north and also
all towards the south.
So, what happens that in this case you get the value at the P point, it will be expressed in
terms of west east plus south plus north and then plus the source term. So, same in the
same way, you will have this equation coming in this form. And this equation will be you
know, so you get these equations at all the nodes you will be getting those equations and
these equations are solved and you are getting, so same thing applies for even the you
know 3-dimensional problems where you have top and bottom also.
So, you will have the six terms plus the source term will be coming, and that needs to be
solved using the proper algorithm. So, there are many algorithms for solving these set of
linear equations in those cases. So, this is you know about the difference in finite volume
method typically, there are methods like finite element also, but we will be talking more
about the finite volume methods in our study in the coming lectures.
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Lecture - 28
Finite Volume Method for Convection and Diffusion Problems
Welcome to the lecture on Finite Volume Method for Convection and Diffusion Problems.
So, as we discussed in our last lecture, we talked about the different numerical methods
and typically we will be talking about the finite volume method which is normally used
for solving the problems, which take place you know which discusses about the cases in
the steelmaking you know practices.
So, you will be talking about the finite volume method and its aspects you know different
you know aspects which are to be taken into consideration, when we deal with the
convection and diffusion problems. Because we have seen while dealing with these you
know equations of the navier stokes equations or so, what we see that you have especially
you have the convection term as well as the diffusion term.
So, apart from that you will have one term related to time and then you will have the terms
related to pressure on the right hand side as well as the source term. So, that is how the
you know overall you know shape of the you know equation is like. So, we will see that
when you have the convection terms and also the diffusion terms, both you know into the
governing equation then how this finite volume method will be working and what were
those considerations which need to be taken to solve these problems.
So, going to the finite volume method for the diffusion you know problems, now we will
be talking about the you know convection as well as the diffusion problems in the in that
case.
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So, here its not about diffusion problems only, but it is about the convection as well as
diffusion problems. So, you will have the one equation will be 𝑑𝑖𝑣. (𝜌𝒖𝜑) =
𝒅𝒊𝒗(𝚪𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝝋) + 𝑺𝝋 . So, this is the you know the convection term and this is talking
about that terms related to convection and this is the about the diffusion you know and
then you will have the source term. So, what you do is that, when you are integrating
formally this equation over the control volume.
So, in that case, you will have once you integrate it. So, it will be n times ∫𝐴 𝑛. (𝜌𝜑𝒖)𝑑𝐴 =
∫𝐴 𝑛. (Γ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝜑)𝑑𝐴 + ∫ 𝑆𝜑 𝑑𝑉. So, that is how you can you will have that is by the rule,
you can write that once you do it over the control volume, that can be expressed in this
form.
So, accordingly you will have the equation coming like ∫𝐴 𝑛. (𝜌𝜑𝒖)𝑑𝐴 =
∫𝐴 𝑛. (Γ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝜑)𝑑𝐴 + ∫ 𝑆𝜑 𝑑𝑉. So, if you talk about the one-dimensional form you know
one dimensional control volume that is what we have earlier.
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You know discuss this one dimensional control volume, you will have the node p here and
you will have the west face as well as the east face and say accordingly you will have the
distances 𝛿𝑥 small w capital P and capital P small e that is between the node p and the
𝑑
phase these are the distances. So, apart from that so, you will have the equation 𝑑𝑥 (𝜌𝑢𝜑) =
𝑑 𝑑𝜑
(Γ 𝑑𝑥 ).
𝑑𝑥
So, that will be normally when you do not have the source term in that case if you go for
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝜑
that equation. So, you will have the expression you can write (𝜌𝑢𝜑) = 𝑑𝑥 (Γ 𝑑𝑥 ) that
𝑑𝑥
will be coming from you know this, you know equation and also the flow has to satisfy
𝑑
the equation of continuity. So, in that case 𝑑𝑥 (𝜌𝑢) = 0. Now, what you see, what you have
seen earlier where we have seen that you have found the control volume and again do you
have once you have this equation. So, the equation must be rewritten further for the control
volume.
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So, if you try to write these do the integration over the control volume, in that case what
𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜑
will happen this (𝜌𝑢𝐴𝜑)𝑒 − (𝜌𝑢𝐴𝜑)𝑤 = (Γ𝐴 𝑑𝑥 )𝑒 − (Γ𝐴 𝑑𝑥 )𝑤 . So, that is what this
equation needs to be solved.
So, that these values you are finding at this and these you know surfaces. So, you are
finding at e and as well as w. Similarly for the continuity equation, that equation will yield
to (𝜌𝑢𝐴)𝑒 − (𝜌𝑢𝐴)𝑤 = 0. So, what happens that once you have this these two equations,
now what we do is that we take these you know you have the this is the convective term
representation of the convective. In fact, and this is the representation of the diffusion
effect and you take this𝜌𝑢 this 𝜌𝑢 will be taken as the F.
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So, what we do is, we have we can write the equation. So, you will have the equation that
𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜑
is (𝜌𝑢𝐴𝜑)𝑒 − (𝜌𝑢𝐴𝜑)𝑤 = (Γ𝐴 𝑑𝑥 )𝑒 − (Γ𝐴 𝑑𝑥 )𝑤 . So, and then you got the you know
(𝜌𝑢𝐴)𝑒 − (𝜌𝑢𝐴)𝑤 = 0 this is based on the continuity equation. Now what we do is you
take you know these you have the convection as well as the diffusion terms.
So, what we do is we define two variables F and D. So, F will be the convective mass flux
per unit area and we represent it you know. So, we are taking this value as 𝜌𝑢. So,. So, we
are taking this 𝜌𝑢 and similarly the D, this is the you know diffusion conductance and that
Γ
will be 𝑑𝑥. So, this way you know you are taking these two terms. So, you know for the.
So, now at these phases when you talk about the 𝐹𝑤 . So, it will be 𝜌𝑢𝑤 . similarly you have
Γ
𝐹𝑒 , it will be 𝜌𝑢𝑒 similarly you will have 𝐷𝑤 . it will be 𝛿𝑥 𝑤 . So, for that you know west
𝑊𝑃
Γ
phase and similarly you will have 𝐷𝑒 it will be 𝛿𝑥 𝑒 . So, this way you have you are taking
𝑃𝐸
that now A will be also Aw as well as Ae and if you take the Aw and Ae as the same one.
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So, and so, if you take the 𝐴𝑤 = 𝐴𝑒 and you know we apply the central differencing
formula which we have done earlier for the contribution of the diffusive you know
diffusion terms. So, then you can you what you see we now you can see that. So, this A
term will also vanish.
So, you will have the 𝐹𝑒 𝜑𝑒 − 𝐹𝑤 𝜑𝑤 .. So, that is the these two equations are there. So, this
because we are taking the 𝐴𝑤 = 𝐴𝑒 as same. So, you can write that on both the sides A; A
will cancel. So, then that will be equal to. So, that will be 𝐷𝑒 (𝜑𝐸 − 𝜑𝑃 ) − 𝐷𝑊 (𝜑𝑃 − 𝜑𝑤 ).
. So, this is what you get you know once you go and see that you know equation.
Now if you have do you have another equation that is your continuity equation and the
continuity equation becomes 𝐹𝑒 − 𝐹𝑤 = 0. So, you know that is how you get this you know
these two equations which is found. Now, what we have to do is that you will have how
you use because you have the 𝜑𝑒 and we need to have this 𝜑 you know expressed in terms
of the you know the node nodal values. So, if you take the central differencing
approximation. So, for that we will be talking this you know 𝜑. So, we can have this 𝜑𝑒 =
𝜑𝐸 +𝜑𝑃
.
2
𝜑𝑊 +𝜑𝑃
Similarly, you can have 𝜑𝑤 = . So, if you put these you know these values on in
2
that equation. So, and you further do the rearrangement. So, in that case you will be getting
𝐹𝑤 𝐹 𝐹𝑤
the. So, you will be getting {(𝐷𝑤 − ) + (𝐷𝑒 + 𝑒 )}𝜑𝑃 = {(𝐷𝑤 + )𝜑𝑊 + (𝐷𝑒 −
2 2 2
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𝐹𝑒
)}𝜑𝐸 . So, what you see now in this case what you are getting is that you are getting again
2
the 𝜑𝑃 in terms of the 𝜑𝑊 and 𝜑𝐸 .
Now, this is coming because you know this we are getting after rearrangement because in
this case Fe into a phi plus phi P by 2. So, basically you are getting this expression from
𝜑𝐸 +𝜑𝑃 𝜑𝑤 +𝜑𝑃
the expansion of this expression 𝐹𝑒 ( ) − 𝐹𝑤 ( ) = 𝐷𝑒 (𝜑𝐸 − 𝜑𝑝 ) + 𝐷𝑤 (𝜑𝑃 −
2 2
𝜑𝑊 )
S. So, that is how now if you rearrange this equation. So, you are going to get you know
this expression and that is what you see again 𝜑𝑝 will be in terms of 𝜑𝑤 and 𝜑𝑒 now you
know if you identify if you did see the coefficient you know in this case where you can
write that 𝑎𝑃 𝜑𝑃 = 𝑎𝑤 𝜑𝑤 + 𝑎𝐸 𝜑𝐸 .
So, what you see that again in this case a P will be you know this term D w minus f F w
by 2. So, 𝑎𝑃 basically will be 𝑎𝑤 + 𝑎𝐹 − 𝐹𝑒 − 𝐹𝑤 . so, that is what we can write. So, what
we see in these cases you get the value of 𝑎𝑃 , you get the value of 𝑎𝑤 and you get the value
of 𝑎𝐸 . So, what you get the value of 𝑎𝑃 = 𝑎𝑊 + 𝑎𝐸 + 𝐹𝐸 − 𝐹𝑤 . Similarly in this case 𝑎𝑊
𝐹𝑊 𝐹
we will be getting 𝐷𝑤 + 2
. So,. Similarly this will be 𝑎𝐸 = 𝐷𝑒 − 2𝑒 . Now, this will be
you know this will be a small one.
𝐹𝑊 𝐹𝑒
So, this will be 𝐷𝑤 + and this is 𝐷𝑒 − that is what you get and then you can solve
2 2
them. However, we need to be you know concerned with certain aspects in the case of
diffusion problems. Now, what we need to be aware when we deal with these convection
and diffusion problems. So, we do the central differencing when we have done with the
you know diffusion problems in earlier case, in that in that you can easily take the central
differencing scheme.
Where you know you if you have to find the value at the phase you are taking the value at
the two sites. So, you will have the east as well as towards the east as well as the west and
then you can take the average of them. Now, this has not found to be going well when the
numerical solution is done. So, in the case of diffusion problems or convection diffusion
problems. So, it has been seen that when the convective effect is more, in that case you
need to be careful how you are going, how you are using the discretization you know
schemes that you have to know.
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So, you know there you we should be you know the discretization scheme which we have
to choose, that has to have certain you know properties and the common properties which
the discretion schemes need to have are one is the you know conservativeness.
So, you know conservativeness it tells that, because we are dealing with the you know the
conserving property of the five when we talk about the control volume. So, what is desired
in this case is that the flux you know balance has to be maintained. The flux which is
entering from the adjacent phase so, that has to be represented in a consistent manner.
So, suppose you have two adjacent control volumes. So, for first control volume the the
west phase will be same as the east phase of the or the east phase of the first control volume
will be same as the west phase of the second control volume, and they should be
represented by the same amount of flux which is suppose you know getting transferred.
So, that needs to be you know that needs to be consistency in that case and there needs to
be a conservation you know of the property.
So, that. So, you have to take the discretization scheme in in I mean properly which should
so, this you know on this property. Similarly another you know property which a proper
discretization scheme has to follow will be the boundedness value; boundedness property
and what is seen is that you know there has to be the value has to be bounded by certain
and the extreme values.
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The suppose you are dealing with a problem of conduction as we discussed, now in that
case the value which will be there in the intermediate nodes will be bounded by the you
know extreme values. So, you know and that also you know it is seen that you are going
to get the meaningful results, when you have the diagonally dominant condition. Because
you are getting those you know as you have discussed we will see later, that the discretized
equation which we get. Normally you get you know and the; so that you know equations
you will have the three terms in one equation and then next on line also you will have the
three equations but that points will be changing.
So, you will have a something like a third diagonal type of matrix will be coming up and
then you will have a corresponding solver also. Now in that case what has been shown that
depending upon the coefficients which is there of the neighboring node and which is there
of the side nodes of the parent node that is p.
So, that basically shows you know the property that is also one of the desirable property
you know for the that is a sufficient condition for the convergent iterative methods, which
otherwise it will be diverging. So, for that the condition is that your summation of the these
∑ 𝑎𝑛𝑏
neighboring you know nodes ′
∑ 𝑎𝑝
we are taking because we are taking that contribution
from the source term also.
Now if this has to be you know it has to be less than equal to 1 at all nodes and it will be
less than 1 at one node at least. So, what happens that you know this 𝑎𝑝′ this is the net
coefficient of the central node that will be 𝑎𝑝 − 𝑆𝑝 . So, that is why it is 𝑎𝑝′ , it is written
as and this n v is the basically neighboring nodes. So, you are taking the summation of all
the neighboring nodes. Now what you see that it will less than 1. So, it means you know
what we see is that the if that differencing scheme which you are taking and if it is giving
you the meaningful result.
So, in that case the criterion will has to be satisfied and for that the resulting matrix of the
coefficient will be the diagonally dominant one and for that you have to have the larger
value of this 𝑎𝑝′ . So, 𝑎𝑝′ is 𝑎𝑝 − 𝑆𝑝 and that is why many a times what we do is that, we
take the sp in such a manner that 𝑆𝑝 has the negative value. So, that 𝑎𝑝 − 𝑆𝑝 so, that will
be adding. So, you will have the diagonal dominance and the diagonal dominance is
desirable for the boundedness you know property boundedness criteria. And this property
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tells you know this boundedness property tells that the value of the property phi, it should
be you know bounded by its boundary values.
So, you know in the. So, in the case of study state you know as we discussed in those cases
if its not so, it will be you know changing, it will be going above the boundaries that will
be unrealistic in fact. So, this is you know the one of the other property which is there also
you know the sign of the coefficients also you know matters. So, it should have all the
coefficients would have the same sign. So, that is another you know property.
Then the next property which is also very important property when we talk about the
convective type of problems. So, it is the transportiveness. Now, it is the you know
transportingness is the property of the fluid and for that you know what is done is that you
know when there is a fluid flow. So, it will be moving from supposed from the west
towards the east or maybe from east towards the west.
So, you will have the effect you know when there is a you know largely convection
oriented flow, then diffusion or it may be you know what is the order. So, it may be
diffusion dominated flow or it may be convection dominated flow. So, you know for you
know to understand or to properly you know model you know the such kind of flow, you
define one dimensionless you know numbers dimensionless cell peclet number and that is
𝐹 𝜌𝑢
defined by Pe and it is the ratio of 𝐷 = Γ/𝑑𝑥.
So, this peclet number is basically. So, 𝛿𝑥 is the characteristic you know cell width
characteristic length. So, that is cell width. So, you will have you know the. So, you have
one note towards the w and I mean towards the west and one note towards the you know
east. Now, what happens what we mean to know in these cases that when you have a
convection dominated flow, in that case you if you take this central differencing rule if
you try to have the property at the point, as the average of the property at these two extreme
streams.
So, in that case it will not give you the realistic result. Now you know when you have now
when you have these this situation will be there. So, when the peclet number is 0 it means
that it is purely diffusion type of you know situation, in that case if you take the you know
contours of you know constant variable. So, in that case you can have this p as the effect
of both the on this side w and p comes into picture.
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Now, if you have a you know you know purely convective type of flow, when the peclet
number is very high or outward tending towards the infinity, in that case you know the
flow will be. So, the if you find these what you see is that if you this is the w. So, it has
more effect on p and rather this e has less effect on p because it will be governed by these
you know upstream values.
So, it will its value will not be governed by here, but it has bearing of this value. So, so
what is they are. So, based on that so, if you take the central differencing you know
schemes in these cases these central differencing schemes are not going to give you the
proper results in these you know convection dominated cases.
So, what has been seen that if you look at the terms of the aw and 𝑎𝑒 and 𝑎𝑝 in the case of
the study is this convection diffusion problem, what you have seen that you know at 𝑎𝑒 is
𝐹 𝐹
𝐷𝑒 + 2𝑒 . Now, what is happening that if you see the ratio of f e 𝐷 is the you know it is the
𝐹 𝐹
peclet number. Now if 𝐷is more than 2. Now if you look at the 𝐷value which is more than
two in that case that term that coefficient becomes negative.
And then that will be affecting these boundedness property of the you know. So, the
condition which we have discussed your constant this coefficient becomes negative
whereas, in normal case what we discussed that it should be positive you know. So,
because that also affects because it will be positive. So, one since increase will also affect
the increasing on the 2 or less than 2, it has you know its bearing and that is why many a
times we need to be carefully. Now depending upon these peclet numbers you will have
to have the selection of the proper difference in schemes.
So, in our coming lectures we will be talking about the different schemes discretization
schemes which are used you know to take into account this effect like the convection effect
or so, ah. So, that the numerical results which you are getting it does not so, unrealistic
results. So, that is why you have because when we talk about the convection dominated
flow, in that case there are schemes like upwind scheme. So, in that case the if you have
to define the value at the west cell phase, the value of at the western node has to be taken
at as the value at the west cell phase.
𝜑𝑃
Whereas in normal case we take the average of the west cell phase 2
. So, that is in the
central differencing scheme. So, that is why you have the upwind scheme, then we have
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also other type of schemes like quick scheme or habited scheme. So, these schemes are
taken to take care of this transportiveness property in the case of convection diffusion type
of problems so, that we will see in our coming lectures.
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Lecture – 29
Difference Discretisation Schemes
Welcome to the lecture on Different Discretisation Schemes. So, in the last lecture, we
talked about the problems related to convection and diffusion, and how to solve them and
we have so far used the central differencing scheme because what we have seen is that we
need to define the property at the you know control volume cell face.
And there you know how to define that you know normally we take as the you know
average of the you know values which is on the east and west side node and that way we
are calculating. Now, what we see normally when there will be convection dominated
flow? In those cases it will be you know it will not give proper result if we are using those
schemes.
So, in fact, what happens that in such cases it will be more dependent upon the upwind
node values. So, you know in the case of you know the flow direction whenever there is a
flow involved and flow direction is there so, this central differencing scheme does not do
well. So, that even we can see we will see later on when we solve a problem based on that.
Now, in this lecture we are going to have the discussion about the different you know
differencing schemes or discretized schemes which is available for the prediction of the
cell face value you know when we are we have to calculate those values using the nodes
which is towards east and west.
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So, normally the schemes which are used are the central differencing scheme the upwind
differencing scheme, hybrid differencing scheme, power-law scheme we have we will also
discuss about the higher order schemes like quick scheme. And, there are many more but
we will try to have the understanding of these schemes because when we do the modeling
of the fluid flow.
You know inside the tundish at that time in most of the modeling tools or maybe softwares
if we use, we need to specify these schemes and we must be acquainted with the effect
what the different schemes will be generating or which of the schemes are there we should
not be used because they will be having the problems while the convergence of the solution
or so. So, we have talked about the central differencing scheme earlier where we take the
you know values that is based on the both the east and west you know nodal values.
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Then, next comes is the upwind differencing scheme now upwind differencing scheme
basically you know it will be normally you know that and when you have the flow
direction. So, in case of flow direction the central differencing scheme has the inability
now that is being taken care of when you have the chance to use the upwind differencing
scheme.
So, basically when if you look at if you have the flow you know which is there and if
which is it is flowing in the positive direction. So, you have the you know velocity that is
𝑢𝑤 here at the cell face and here you have the 𝑢𝑒 . Now, what we do normally in the case
of upwind differencing scheme or if it is also known as the donor cell differencing scheme.
So, it will be taking into account the effect of these flow direction while we try to find the
you know value at the cell face. So, the convected value at this cell face that is your west
cell face it will be taken as the value equal to the upstream node value. So, normally in the
case of upwind differencing scheme you are have when you are calculating the converted
flux you know value.
In that case at this face it should be taken as the value at the immediate upstream node that
is your w. So, now basically if you try to find the 𝜑𝑤 I mean that is at this face it will be
equal to the upstream is this w node. So, you have west node. So, you will have it will be
equal to west node value.
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Similarly, if we try to have the value of value at e so, for E the upstream node is immediate
upstream node is P. So, that is why you get the 𝜑𝑒 as 𝜑𝑃 , because this is the value this is
a node where and anyway then you can have the expression in the form of 𝜑𝑃 , 𝜑𝑊 and
𝜑𝐸 .
So, accordingly you will have the 𝑎𝑃 𝜑𝑃 will be you know 𝑎𝐸 𝜑𝐸 + 𝑎𝑤 𝜑𝑊 + 𝑠𝑢 that is what
we get you know you know that equation which needs to be solved. So, this way the you
know when is you have a upwind differencing scheme you would get these values as this
one and you get this value as this one and then you get one equation.
And, if your stream is in this negative direction. So, anyway then you have to take this 𝜑𝑤 .
So, it will be if you are having here. So, the upstream you know it is flowing in the
directions upstream is P. So, 𝜑𝑤 will be phi at this P node; similarly 𝜑𝑒 will be at 𝜑𝐸 that
nodal value. So, this will be used to you know discretise the equation and you get the
expression for 𝜑𝑃 in terms of 𝜑𝑒 and 𝜑𝑤 and the source term which needs to be solved.
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And, then you get these values in terms of 𝑎𝑃 𝜑𝑃 = 𝑎𝐸 𝜑𝐸 + 𝑎𝑤 𝜑𝑊 . So, your central
coefficient will be given by 𝑎𝐸 + 𝑎𝑤 + (𝐹𝑒 − 𝐹𝑤 ). Now, what we see that in the case of
this upwind differencing scheme you know you get these values you can have the idea
about how that you know changes.
So, what we saw is that you get when you have the flow in the positive x direction. So,
your 𝜑𝑤 = 𝜑𝑊 , similarly you get to 𝜑𝑒 . So, you will have the upstream node that is P so,
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you will have 𝜑𝑃 . So, you will have so, what you can get the values. So, you will have F
e phi E and phi E will be phi P.
𝐹𝑒 𝜑𝑃 − 𝐹𝑤 𝜑𝑊 = 𝐷𝑒 (𝜑𝐸 − 𝜑𝑃 ) − 𝐷𝑤 (𝜑𝑃 − 𝜑𝑤 ). So, that is what we normally get. And,

then if you try to solve so, you can have the 𝜑𝑃 terms on one side. So, if you take 𝜑𝑃 terms
on one side. So, you will have this side it will be −𝐷𝑒 and if this side it is −𝐷𝑤 is coming.
So, and this side it is 𝐹𝑃 . So, that this will imply that if you take the (𝐷𝑒 + 𝐷𝑤 + 𝐹𝑒 )𝜑𝑃 =
𝐷𝑒 𝜑𝐸 + (𝐷𝑤 + 𝐹𝑤 )𝜑𝑤
So, that way you see that there will be changing the equation so that you get it. Now, this
will be further you know change. So, that is what you get from here. So, what you see that
this will be (𝐷𝑤 + 𝐹𝑤 ) and you know and similarly you will have the𝐷𝑒 .
So, that is when 𝐹𝑤 > 0, 𝐹𝑒 > 0 , when u is positive in that case 𝐹𝑤 and 𝐹𝑒 will be that
is 𝜌𝑢. So, it will be positive and that is why your a W will be (𝐷𝑤 + 𝐹𝑤 ) that is what
you see the 𝑎𝑤 will be the (𝐷𝑤 + 𝐹𝑤 ) similarly 𝑎𝑒 will be 𝐷𝑒 and then you will have
the expression for 𝑎𝑃 . So, 𝑎𝑃 = 𝑎𝑊 + 𝑎𝐸 + (𝐹𝑒 − 𝐹𝑤 ) that is what you get from
here.
So, and when you have the velocity in the opposite direction in that case your upstream
nodes having different values and in that case your cell face values will be different
because the upstream direction is now in the negative direction. So, for west it will be P
and for east it will be E. So, accordingly your expression changes and that becomes again
in that case it will be changing.
So, you will have the different you know expression for that case. Now, this is how so, in
generalized way your neighboring coefficients you will be having the you know a W as D
w plus maximum of 𝐹𝑤 and to 0 and this will be 𝐷𝑒 plus maximum 0 to minus 𝐹𝑒 and
that is how you know you these differencing schemes are you know used for predicting.
So, normally whenever you have these you know when the Peclet number is important in
those cases especially when the convection flow dominates in those cases the upwind
differencing scheme is seen to work better.
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Now, the next scheme which is important is the hybrid differencing scheme and this
scheme is used when you know the central differencing scheme will be useful for the
diffusional problems when you have the diffusion dominant flow. So, in that case you take
the central differencing.
So, you are those central differencing schemes are you know useful whereas, when you
have the convection dominated flow. So, you take the upwind you know differencing
scheme. So, that is because in the case of convection the upstream node is gone to a
actually effects you know more than the downstream ones.
So, in the case of a hybrid differencing what it takes is it will take the effect you know of
it will take the advantage you know advantage of both central differencing as well as the
upwind differencing and you know normally central differencing will be useful when your
Peclet number is less.
So, in those cases and central differencing is basically second order accurate whereas, the
upwind differencing is first order accurate. So, also it has the different traits. Now, in those
cases what we is done is that this hybrid differencing scheme it will be the using the
piecewise formula you know and that will be based on the local Peclet number.
So, local Peclet number will be computed and based on that it will be using that piece wise
you know formula you know for finding the net flux through that control volume face. So,
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we know that the these Peclet number is nothing, but the ratio of 𝐹/𝐷. So, you will have
you know the.
So, if you go to the you know hybrid you know hybrid differencing scheme . So, as we
𝐹𝑤
know that you have the definition of Peclet number at the west face that will be . So,
𝐷𝑤
(𝜌𝑢)𝑤
you find Γ𝑤 . So, that is how you calculate these Peclet number at the west face.
𝛿𝑥𝑤𝑝
Now, what is done is that in the case of the you know the hybrid differencing scheme we
find the you know net flux per unit area. So, net flux per unit area through west face. So,
that will be computed using a formula and that formula will be like you will have 𝑞𝑤 .
1 2 1 2
So, that will be you 𝐹𝑤 [2 (1 + 𝑃𝑒 )𝜑𝑤 + 2 (1 − 𝑃𝑒 )𝜑𝑝 ].
𝑤 𝑤
So, basically and when this Peclet number will be varying between minus 2 to 2 so, in fact,
when the what we have seen earlier that while discussing the boundedness criteria related
to the differencing schemes that for ensuring the you know coefficients to be positive for
a E especially in that case what we saw is that you know is the Peclet number is more than
2 or 𝐹/𝐷 > 2 in that case is likely to be negative.
So, that is why when it is between minus 2 to plus 2 in that case it is taking you know the
see the it is having these effect actually you know of both these 𝜑𝑤 as well as 𝜑𝑝 . So, that
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is why you know it is known as a hybrid, it is taking the considerations for both these
nodes you know in one case and in other cases it will also change.
So, for the value of from Peclet term out from minus 2 to 2 in between you will have this
one because minus 2 means even if the flow direction is changing. So, in those cases your
you know net flux per unit area or the west face can be calculated using that. Now, if your
Peclet number will be more than 2 in that case; so, if you see that convection dominance
is more in the positive direction in that case you know it will be switching over to the
upwind mode because in those cases the upwind differencing schemes are you know said
to be more stable or more useful.
So, in that case the 𝑞𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤 𝜑𝑤 . So, that will be in the upstream node will be the western
node. And if so, it is for the Peclet number as local Peclet number at this face it is more
than 2 and if it is Peclet number is less than you know less than 2 in fact so, in that case
you know what you see is that the 𝑞𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤 𝜑𝑃 .
So, that is the extreme node when we see the flow in the opposite direction. So, that way
your 𝐹𝑃 will come. Now, we can have the values this values putting into the discretized
equation and then we get the formula. So, what we get is that is the central coefficient. So,
𝑎𝑃 you know 𝑎𝑃 𝜑𝑃 = 𝑎𝐸 𝜑𝐸 + 𝑎𝑤 𝜑𝑊 if we write.
So, in that case you can have the 𝑎𝑃 = 𝑎𝐸 + 𝑎𝑤 + (𝐹𝑒 − 𝐹𝑤 ). and for the you know hybrid
differencing schemes you know for steady one dimensional convection diffusion
𝐹𝑊
neighboring coefficients can be written as the 𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝐹𝑤 , (𝐷𝑤 + ),0] , similarly you know
2
𝐹
𝑚𝑎𝑥[−𝐹𝑒 , (𝐷𝑒 + 2𝑒 ),0] so, like that.
So, basically so, this is how in the case of a hybrid differencing scheme it will take into
account both the things like a central differencing as well as upwind differencing and then
accordingly it will try to you know your equations are solved and you can see the accuracy
with respect to the exact solution which we can verify in our coming lectures when we try
to solve and learn it through by solving a problem.
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The other kind of differencing scheme which is used is the power loss schemes. So, this
power loss scheme. So, it will be using certain power depending upon the you know Peclet
number. So, you know in this case what you see that you see this you know Peclet number
raised to the power 5.
So, in this case depending upon the cell Peclet value when it will be you know it will be
exceeding 10, so, in those cases it is assumed that the diffusion is 0. So, diffusion will be
set 0 and the flux will be calculated using a polynomial you know expression in this case.
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So, if you go to the power law scheme so, it is basically by suggested by Patankar. So, him
researcher I mean there is a book called so, very renown book by the authors author that
is S. V Patankar. So, they have gone you may given the invention done the invention of
this scheme. So, what it tells that if it is you know the Peclet the cell Peclet value is more
than 10 in that case the diffusion is said to be 0 and when the cell Peclet value will be
between 0 to 10 in that case the flux will be evaluated using a polynomial expression.
And, so in this case flux evaluated using polynomial expression and if you try to find the
net you know flux per unit area so, this one at the west control volume face so, that will
be given by one polynomial expression. And, 𝐹𝑤 [𝜑𝑤 − 𝛽𝑤 (𝜑𝑝 − 𝜑𝑤 )]. So, that is for the
Peclet value where it is from 0 to 10 and if the you know if the Peclet number is more than
10 in that case it is considered to be purely diffusional. So, diffusion is said to be 0 so, that
will be again going for the upwind differencing.
So, and in this case 𝛽𝑤 = (1 − 0.1𝑃𝑒𝑤 )5 /𝑃𝑒𝑤 . So, this is how it will be depending and
that is why it is known as a power law and when your Peclet number will be more than 10
in that case the diffusion is assumed to be seized and then it will behave as a the upwind
differencing scheme.
So, in that case the 𝑞𝑤 that will be the 𝐹𝑤 𝜑𝑤 . So, that is what is there for the you know the
upwind differencing scheme where you have the upwind node is phi w. So, this is for
Peclet number more than 10. So, you know this coefficient also in this case as we see in
this case you have the coefficient will be 𝑎𝐸 + 𝑎𝑤 + (𝐹𝑒 − 𝐹𝑤 .
And, as we see based on this power law we have the value for the a W or a E expressed in
this form for the power law you know power law is schemes which are devised by the
Patankar and another you know scheme which is also used that is the higher order scheme
and that is you know the quick scheme.
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Now, in this scheme basically what we do is that you have the two nodes on the two sides
and we also take one node in the upstream side.
So, you know if you have you know so, in the case of the quick scheme so, in this case
this is based on the you know quadratic you know form so, that is quadratic upwind
differencing scheme. So, in that case what we do is that you have this is your you know
west face this will be west node.
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So, in that case you take another you know that is WW and this is the W face and this is
your P. So, you are getting you know the flux value in the form of the values at the these
three nodes in the this quadratic you know upwind scheme. So, differencing upwind
differencing scheme that is what is known as quick.
Now, in this case if you look at the quadratic upwind scheme if you try to understand in
6 3 1
this case basically the 𝜑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝜑𝑖−1 + 𝜑𝑖 − 𝜑𝑖−2
8 8 8
So, this is if your this is i and this will be i minus so, this is i. So, in fact, this is the P point
this will be and you are calculating that face here and this will be I this will be i minus 1
and this will be i minus 2. So, basically you are calculating this you know 6/8 of this
portion 3/8 of this portion and minus of 1/8 into this portion.
So, that way you are getting. So, if you suppose you are trying to have the phi of the W
6
face so, in that case8 𝜑𝑤 . So, from here i minus 1 will be here. So, that will be phi W; then
3 1
3 by 8 i, so, it will be 8 𝜑𝑝 and 8 𝜑𝑤𝑤 so, this face 𝑖 − 2 will be the WW. So, 𝜑 and WW
is taken.
So, this is how you know you calculate you know the values. This is for the west face;
similarly, if you have the control volume at the east face so, in that case you will the values
on this side also. So, on this side you have the east face. So, your you know for this you
6 3 1
will have p, w and e will be coming out. So, your phi e if it will be 8 𝜑𝑃 + 8 𝜑𝐸 − 8 𝜑𝑊 .
So, this is you know also this is a higher order type of differencing scheme which is also
used you know in many cases.
And, you know in this case the neighbor coefficient will be now as you see it will be in
terms of a WW or so, and a EE also depending upon where you are trying to find and
accordingly you will have a W and a WW, a E and a EE how you know you find it. So,
that is how it is computed in such cases.
So, this is these are the you know in just we are having these different types of schemes
apart from that we have also you know other schemes like TVD schemes are there you
know. So, there are many other schemes also which you may come across while dealing
with these you know studies and typically in the you know softwares you will be having
mention.
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And, basic idea is that you must have the understanding about how these schemes you
know work, what are the fundamentals of these schemes and how they are used for you
know discretisation. So, that is what about the and different discretized schemes. We will
discuss about the their performance by considering an example in our coming lecture.
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Lecture - 30
Assessment of Discretisation Schemes
Welcome to the lecture on Assessment of Discretisation Schemes. So, in the last lecture
we talked about the treats of the different type of discretisation schemes, we talked about
the upwind differencing scheme, we talked about the you know hybrid differencing
scheme, powered loss scheme and even the quick scheme.
So, in this lecture will try to understand by you know by looking into a problem and we
will see that how they are you know solved and how we get you know the solution you
know how this results which we get by using the differencing scheme for different cases,
especially when you have the variation of the Peclet number because of the convection
component. So, how the different you know differencing schemes you know they are able
to predict the result and that how they match with the analytical result so that we will see
in this lecture.
So, we will talk about a problem. So, that in a problem in that you know we have a property
𝜑 which are you know that is transported by means of the you know convection and
diffusion. So, for this you know 𝜑 and that is for a one dimensional case. So, it is a problem
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through this. So, of the convection and diffusion through one dimensional domain and you
know. So, you have you know this way 𝜑 is a transported and you have the conditions
which is given. Now your u is you know in this direction. Now here this is your x is 0 and
this is x is 1 and the value of 𝜑 it is taken as 1 at this end and it is taken as you know 0 at
this end. So, these are the two you know boundary conditions.
So, you have. So, boundary conditions are a 𝜑0 is 1 and 𝜑1 is you know. So, this is at x
equal to 0 and then you have 𝜑𝐿 will be 0 at x equal to L. So, you know this is the boundary
condition. Now what happens that in this case we will see that how we find the control
volume. So, we will have the number of control volumes in this domain and then we will
try to assess that how you know the different schemes they are able to you know predict
the result which is and how much it is close to the analytical result and we are going to
have that. So, you are going to have the calculate the distribution of 𝜑 and as a function
of x and for the two case, in one case we are taking u as 0.1 meter per second and in the
another case we are taking the u as 2.5 meter per second.
So, these are you know the two cases and you know as you see that your length is given
as 1 meter rho is a you know 1 kg per meter cube and tau is given as 0.1 kg per meter
second. So, this way you have these values. So, that will be used for finding the f and d
and the first job will be to have the you know to have the formation of the control volumes.
So,. So, this is for case 1 u is 0.1 meter per second and for case 2 to 2.5 as you see that the
velocity is very much increase. So, convection term will dominate into it in this case and
then accordingly Peclet number will also change that also is a function of d x also.
So, if you change the number of points or number of control volumes that away also Peclet
number is you know has the effect any way, but we will start with having the five control
volume. So, we will divide this whole domain into five control volume. So, divide the
domain. So, this domain is divided you know into five control volumes. So, if you divide
these an length is 1 meter. So, in that case the 𝛿𝑥 becomes 1/5. So, that is 0.2 meter.
So, once you have 𝛿𝑥 0.2 meter, in that case you can have the if calculation of other things
like 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑢 , 𝐷 = Γ/𝑑𝑥 . So, you know based upon the value of Γ , you can have the value
of D also being calculated. You will have the value of 𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑤 and similarly 𝐷𝑒 = 𝐷𝑤 that
will be equal to D that is you know everywhere.
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Now, what we need to you know calculate in this case is that you have you know you will
use these differencing schemes and you will be calculating. Now what we see that when
we use the central differencing scheme, now in that case we know that you have you get
one expression for phi p in terms of the phi w and phi e and also you have the source term
also coming to picture. So, you know what we will do that next?
So, your domain will be looking like this. So, you will have this point on the side. So, this
will be x equal to 0 and this will be x equal to 1, you have this point as A and this point as
B.
Now, you have a five point; so, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. So, you will have a five control volumes
will be found like this. So, control volume is found so that the boundary is matching with
the you know the outer boundaries. So, that way you form these control volumes you are
getting, you know this is how you are getting the control volume.
So, we get these you know five control volumes, now what we have already studied so far
earlier that we will have the similar type of expression for you know for the nodes 2, 3 and
4 whereas for 1 and 5 we will have the somewhat different expression because of the you
know finding the value at this point. So, if you take the node 1 you know at node 1 if you
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𝐹𝑒
use, node 1 you will be having the you know expression that is (𝜑𝐸 + 𝜑𝑝 ) − 𝐹𝐴 𝜑𝐴 =
2
𝐷𝑒 (𝜑𝐸 − 𝜑𝑃 ) − 𝐷𝐴 (𝜑𝑝 − 𝜑𝐴 ) value is known here and that is any way given.
So, if you use those values, so, accordingly you will have the expression for this. Now
similarly if you go for the node B you will have the you know B point that will be coming
𝐹𝑤
out. So, for node 5 you will have the 𝐹𝐵 𝜑𝐵 − (𝜑𝑃 + 𝜑𝑤 ). So, you know that because
2
you are having this as suppose any anyone you this is one this is two or so. So you can
have this as the west and then you will have this is the west phase and if you take you
know this. So, this will be your P and this will be your east phase and this will be your east
node or so.
So, F B phi B; so, once you go to the fifth node in that case you will have that F B. So,
𝐹𝑤
𝐹𝐵 𝜑𝐵 − 2
(𝜑𝑃 + 𝜑𝑤 ), it will be coming as you know D𝐷𝐵 (𝜑𝐵 − 𝜑𝑃 ) − 𝐷𝑊 (𝜑𝑝 − 𝜑𝑊 ).
Source term, these are the two equations which you get you know at the extreme you know
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1 and 5 and you know at other points you will have 𝑎𝑝 𝜑𝑝 = 𝑎𝑒 𝜑𝑒 + 𝑎𝑤 𝜑𝑤 plus source
term
So, what you see if you do the rearrangement you get the expressions for the or for every
node, node y is you will have the value of 𝑎𝑤 𝑎𝐸 𝑎𝑝 and then you have 𝑠𝑝 and 𝑠𝑢 . So, if
you rearrange them you will be getting those value.
So, if you do the rearrangement you will have the node here and similarly you will have
the 𝑎𝑤 , then you have 𝑎𝐸 and then you have 𝑆𝑝 and 𝑆𝑈 that is your once you linearize the
𝐹
source term. So, for node 1 your 𝑎𝑤 becomes 0 𝑎𝐸 becomes 𝐷 − . Similarly you will have
2
the 𝑆𝑝 as –(2D+F) and then you will have the you know the a source term you know; so,
𝑆𝑈 that will be (2D − F)𝜑𝑎 . So, that will be they are the node 1.
𝐹
And similarly at node 5 you will have 𝐷 + 2 and this will be 0, this will be –(2D-F) and
you will have (2D − F)𝜑𝐵 . And that is because of the boundary conditions which are
imparted if you go for you know by go by you know working on that equation. So, you
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𝐹
will get this expression and for 2, 3 and 4 you will have the expression that is 𝐷 + 2, 𝐷 −
𝐹
and you will have this 0 and 0 that is what the common in that 𝑎𝑝 𝜑𝑝 = 𝑎𝐸 𝜑𝐸 + 𝑎𝑤 𝜑𝑤
2
𝐹 𝐹
So, that is what you are getting 𝐷 + 2 and 𝐷 − 2 in these two cases. Now if you imply the
boundary conditions and if you go for the case 1, so, suppose for case 1 where you have u
as 0.1 meter per second and as you see that your F will be 𝜌𝑈. So, it will be 0.1, similarly
D will be Γ/𝑑𝑥. So, it will be 0.1 by zero point you know 0.2.
So, 𝑑𝑥. is anyway 0.2 because you have length is 1 and there are five control volume. So,
it will be 0.2. So, you will have this is 0.5. So, in this case you can have you know the if
you go for these nodes you will have the value of 𝑎𝑤 𝑎𝐸 . So, you also know the value of
D and F. So, from here you can get these you know value of these coefficients and then
these coefficients will be put in terms of the matrix.
So, you will have. So, if you take the you know if you try to find the node and that will
be node will be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. So, for 1 you know a W is 0. So, anyway your a W becomes
𝐹
0, similarly for 2, 3, 4 and 2 and 3 and 4 it is 𝐷 + 2. So, D is 0.5 and F by 2 is 0.05. So, it
will be 0.55. So, 0.55 will be there for these three numbers and then for fifth it will be 𝐷 +
𝐹
again. So, it will be 0.55, similarly if you go for a E so, you can have the calculation of
2
𝐹
a E again. So, this will be 𝐷 − 2. So, it will be 0.45 that will be 0.45 also 2, 3 4 it will be
0.45 and then last will be 0.
So, then if you go similarly you go for 𝑆𝑢 . So, 𝑆𝑢 also you can have (2 𝐷 + 𝐹)𝜑𝐴 you
know. So, accordingly you can have the values. So, you will have the values like 1.1 𝜑𝐴
something like that and you know. So, that is 𝑆𝑢 ; so, 2 D plus F 2 into D; so, 1 plus 0.1
1.1 𝜑𝐴 . So, that way it will go and then for the 2 3 and 4 it will be 0 0 0 and similarly in
the and you will have minus 0.9 and similarly is you have 𝑆𝑃 . So, 𝑆𝑃 will be again. So, you
can calculate these values and you will have the different values that will be you know for
𝑆𝑢 it will be minus zero point. So, this will be 0.9 you know 𝜑𝐵 and for 𝑆𝑃 you will have
minus 0.9.
So, you can what I mean to say that 𝑎𝑃 will be and you can get 𝑎𝑃 𝑎𝑃 as you know 𝑎𝑤 −
𝑎𝐸 − 𝑆𝑃 . So, that they can be calculated from here directly you can have the values of you
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know the 𝑎𝑤 , 𝑎𝐸 and the 𝑆𝑃 . And 𝑆𝑃 is -1.1. So, accordingly you can have the value of the
𝑎𝑃 . Now what we mean to say that is. So, a P will be coming as 1.55, similarly you have
1 you have 1 here, you have 1 here and 1.45. So, that is you can you know calculate
yourself and you have one know values in that table now this you know leads to the
formation of a matrix.
And then that matrix basically you have all these you know values. So, you will have the
values accordingly you have as you go. And then that will be multiplied with the
𝜑1 𝜑2 𝜑3 𝜑4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑5 and accordingly you will have the you know values. So, if you take
the you know 𝜑𝑎 as equal to 1, so, for 𝜑𝑎 equal to 1 and 𝜑𝑏 equal to 0 so, you will have
again the expression you will have 1.1 0 0 0 and 0. So, accordingly you have to get the
solution of this 𝜑1 𝜑2 𝜑3 𝜑4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑5 is you know computed and you get the values you
know using the central differencing scheme.
Now, similarly now the thing is that the problem is that we have to know that how much
it is getting closer to the analytical solution and when it was you know compared with the
analytical solutions. So, analytical solution is anyway given for you know this, and when
the it was compared with the analytical solution, so, it was seen that there is a match you
know in this case. So, it comes like this.
So, you will have you know phi value 1 here and you know if you with so, if this is you
are getting with a central differencing, so, with exact also it matches if you are taking the
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central differencing. Now what is the seen the problem is here is, you know the problem
which can be seen later will be because of the case 2 which we will be dealing.
Now, if suppose we deal with the case 2, now in this case. So, if you go to the case 2 in
that case u becomes you know a larger.
So, in that case you your u becomes 2.5 meter per second. So, your F becomes 𝜌𝑢 that is
Γ
2.5 and 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑥. So, it will be 0.5. Now if you look at the Peclet number you know F by
D. So, 𝐹/𝐷 will be 2.5 by 0.5 that is about 5. Now in this case again you will be getting
the same you know matrix and if you try to further solve, so, in the in that case the and if
you try to compare it with the analytical solution, the solution is seen to be the analytical
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solution is seen to be here. So, you have phi here. So, one is there and on this side you
have distance. So, you on this side distance also it is 1.
Now, in this case this is your exact solution and if you try to do it through the central
differencing for this condition, the result which is found is basically it comes like this, it
is reported you know by in this manner. So, what you see that this result is you know it is
very much far from the exact solution. So, the value is somewhere under predicted is over
predicted like that. So, there is you know suiting of these results and this result is showing
that when you have a convection dominated flow, in that case your you know this what
you see is that it is not able to predict properly because of the flow.
So, its ability is there of the central differencing scheme to predict the flow in that case.
Now what you can what has been seen that if you are solving this problem by taking 𝛿𝑥 to
be smaller or if you take suppose you take the case 3 with 20 nodes, so, with 20 nodes you
know what will happen that the width the 𝛿𝑥 control volume width will be smaller. So, the
delta x will be you know, o, earlier you had the you had the 𝛿𝑥1 by 5 0.2, now you know
delta x becomes you know less. So, it will be 1/20. So, it will be 0.05.
Now, in this case if you do that analysis and if you can further find the value you write the
matrix and solve it, what has been seen is that your you know equation in the same you
know same result was seen to be. So, if it this is the exact, now in this case it was found to
be very close, there will be there is not complete you know matching at all the point where
this very much you know close it was a seen to be. Now that is because you see that the
Peclet number that was 𝐹/𝐷.
𝑑𝑥
So, 𝐹 and if you see the you know the value of the Peclet number it becomes very small
Γ
and in that case you know even so, even for the higher velocity case of 2.5 meter per
second, you are getting a very close result to the you know the analytical results that is the
you know effect of the you know number of nodes which you are increasing and that way
you are getting a closer result.
Now, same problem when it is done with the other you know higher order schemes other
schemes like the upwind scheme. Now in the case of you know upwind scheme, even with
the smaller nodes and also with the you know for the you know for case 1 where the
velocity is very small it is said to seen to be matching, but even if you know when we are
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where you have the large suiting seen in the case of larger velocity values, the upwind
differencing scheme seems to be matching because you know matching with the analytical
close match is seen in the case of the upwind differencing scheme.
You know because when the Peclet number is higher in that case you know the upwind
differencing scheme will work better and with the lower number of grids also the closeness
which is maintained will be you know smaller. So, what has been seen? So, basically what
we have seen in this lecture that you can try with the other you know differencing schemes
and just see that how your result is matching with the analytical value which is you know
which has been you know given.
So, basically if the analytical value if you look at the you know problem there. So, anyway
analytical value you know it has been you have to compare the results with that analytical
𝜑−𝜑0 𝑒 𝜌𝑢𝑥/Γ −1
value and that is basically given as 𝜑 that will be you know 𝑒 𝜌𝑢𝐿/Γ−1. So, that way you
𝐿 −𝜑0
know you have once you get these numerical results and then you compare with these
analytical you know result and then you can compare and see that how the other
differencing schemes work and how the effect of convection can be seen you know pre
dominating and then in the you feel that need to have the use of these you know other
differencing schemes.
Because your those conditions of the you know transportiveness, boundedness and
conservativeness needs to be satisfied and that will be governed because of there are many
you know as a factors like the coefficient value needs to be positive then there is has to be
boundedness there has to be consistency in representing the conservativeness and all that.
So, I hope that you will be you know having some more zeal to look into this aspect and
go and study you know the different aspects of the other differencing schemes, which we
will be you know mentioning while dealing with the flow you know analysis in the tundish.
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Lecture – 31
Elements of Mathematical Modeling in Tundish Steelmaking
Welcome to the lecture on Elements of Mathematical Modeling in Tundish Steelmaking.

So, far we talked about the prerequisites. Especially, we needed to know the concept of
fluid flow, heat transfer. Then in the last week, we also talked about the solution
methodology of you know equations and the solution parameters, control parameters
specially, especially towards the solving of the equations.
Now, we will talk about the aspects of modeling or you know when we go for mathematical
or numerical modeling of the Tundish steelmaking. So, as we know that when we talk
about the models, then we deal with either the physical model or the mathematical or
numerical model. Now, in those cases in the case of physical model, we need to prepare a
physical model which is normally made of you know, perspex sheet or so, and then we do
you know physical modeling by allowing the water normally the fluid to flow.
Whereas in mathematical modeling, you know you know we have the set of equations
which are representing the case of the phenomena which is occurring inside the Tundish.
And then these equations are needed to be solved and we also have studied that how you
know the, the equations are solved and how you get results. Now, the thing is that being
the era of computers, we normally do the computation on computers. And also for having
a better understanding you know visually we have now a days tools where you can have
the geometric creation, you can see the geometry, then you have to apply the conditions
you know.
So, you have to take first of all these you know conditions or you have to have the
assumptions and you have to also take all the conditions which will say that you are solving
which type of problem. Then you are making the geometry and then putting the conditions
different conditions at different places. And then you are solving the equations in that
particular domain and then you are getting the results and interpreting them.
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So, if you talk about the you know elements of the model mathematical or numerical model
which you develop towards the you know flow in a Tundish flow and heat transfer in a
Tundish so, basically they are done under the you know three head, one is the pre
processing, another is solving and then you have post processing.
So, mostly the CFD tools when we use the CFD, you know do the CFD analysis. So,
basically our work is divided into these three main, you know domains; so, pre processing
solving and post processing. Now what we do in pre processing the in the pre processing
we do the geometric creation. So, normally what we do is we have to create a particular
kind of geometry. So, that geometry will be available to you. If suppose you are making
the model of the Tundish so, you have to make a Tundish using a using a tool which so,
by which you can create the geometry and that we will discuss that how you know you
create the geometry, there are many approaches by which you create the geometry.
So, that geometry you know has to be there with you. In normal case, if you start the simple
you know analysis, you can have a geometry of rectangular shape of box, if it is of three
dimensional or you can have a two dimensional geometry also. So, that geometry needs to
be you know clear in your mind. Then what you do is you specify the material properties,
you know material of the you know Tundish by which it is made or material which is going
to flow inside the you know, Tundish.
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So, you will have the boundary material, material of the walls or you know the material of
the the steel which is flowing inside. Then you are going to impose the boundary
conditions. So, boundary conditions will be there, those conditions which are specified on
the boundaries.
So, boundaries are especially the walls or the inlet or the outlet you may have blocks inside.
So, and you will have a boundary conditions may be of different type, you may have the
boundary condition related to flow, it may be related to heat transfer, it may be related to
pressure. So, there may be different kind of boundary conditions which you need to specify
in the domain. And then you are going to have the solution control parameters.
So, once you put these boundary conditions, you specify different zones as the walls or
you know the symmetry or the you know periodic boundary conditions or so, or you
specify the inlet and outlet and other all other things. Then after that you have to go for the
solution control parameters, you have to provide those parameters which will be talking
about the solution which will be done. So, basically there you need to provide you know
the number of iterations, you want to go further. Then you have to you know specify the
time step size, if you are going for the you know the transient type of analysis.
So, you will go for the, you know time step size that will be provided. Then you will also
go for the, you know parameters which will be helping you in getting the solution
converged quickly and give you the meaningful kind of results. So, that will be the
relaxation parameters. So, those parameters will be you know under that solution control
parameters. Now you have to go for the solving and solving most of the tools may have a
separate solver.
So, that will ensure that the equations which are there integrated, because of the type of
problem you have taken and because of the conditions which you have given. So,
ultimately, they will be resulting into the set of equations. And these equations are
typically, if you are solving you will have Naiver-Stokes equations, you have the equation
for energy and they need to be solved. And then they need to be solved using these solvers.
So, you may have the solving option also and you will be solving these. So, that will run
and the incase of the steady state you know type of the problem you will wait till the steady
state is reached.
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And then you have also many a times problems like the in case of transient you will see
that the how you know with step size that iteration go away go forward. And then when
the you are at a stage where the solution is solving process is over, then you go for the post
processing operation.
So, in the case of post processing operation, you are going to have the analysis of the
results. So, you have the visual display of the results, you want to have the; you know
velocity or the pressure or the or computation of any parameter you know that we try to
find and, and that is known as post processing.
So, post processing means after the solution is over, after the solver has done its job then
you try to further see the results. And since, we have a very effective tools now a days, we
can have the images, we can have the graphs being plotted for now one variable another
against another variable or so. So you can have those different kind of graphs being plotted
and then you can interpret the results. So, that is also you know a very good part, very
important part, because whatever you get the results and then it to be interpreted in a proper
manner.
So, that you get the meaningful results. So, that is why post processing also is important
and there are tools available which will properly you know so, quickly it can show you the
graphs of order or relationship between the different you know operating parameters. And
then accordingly you can have these interpretation of the results.
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So, now we will go towards the geometric creation which is the initial step you know the
first step, because first of all you need to have a proper geometry of the you know the
Tundish or any vessel which you are making.
So, you have to decide we are going for the two dimensional geometry or three
dimensional geometry. And in that case you will have you know in the case of you know
depending upon the type of geometry, you will have to choose, because if you go for two
dimensional geometry which will be enough for the complete representation of the flow
behavior or the behavior of the system.
In that case you prefer to go for two dimensional geometries, because that will take less
amount of computational time, else you have to go for the three dimensional geometries.
And then you know the geometry needs to be you know divided into small elements. And
as we have studied that you need to apply these conservation equations.
So, you will have the suitable equations, you have the algebraic expressions basically you
get out of you know out of these conservation equations when you apply the different kind
of differencing schemes or discretization schemes. So, basically you are you know
converting the whole domain into small elements.
And then you are so, basically you will have divide the domain into different control
volumes. And then you are going to start the work now as far as the grids are concerned if
you have to know that what kind of an analysis, you are going to have on the you know on
that particular geometry.
So, whether depending upon the geometry, you have to see that whether you are for the
structured type of grids or you have to go with the unstructured type of mesh. Now
structured type of mesh are there where normally you know you can identify the adjacent
cell with the help of the i j and k values. If you are going for the three dimensional analysis
in that case, if you have to locate a particular cell that can that can have a unique i j and k
value. So, that is normally the structured the kind of grid. And if you have the grid you
know where it is not possible to have that kind of you know grid structure.
So, there they are known as the unstructured grid. So, in that case certainly it uses it’s own
internal data structures; its own internal programs. And with the help of that it will be
taking you know you can go for a particular point or on a or a plane can be located, a
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surface can be located or a volume can be located and accordingly the analysis can be
done. So, you can have these you know structured or unstructured grid then you have the
element types. So, the element type you know you may have. So, you may go for 2 D
structure or you may go for 3 D structure.
So, based on that you know if you have the 2 D type of grid so, you have you may have
the element type may be like you have triangular or you may have the quadrilateral type
of element whereas, if you go for the three dimensional level structures, you have different
kind of you know grid topology. So, that may vary from the tetrahedron to hexahedron to
you know maybe prismatic type. So, you have different kind of shapes. So, do we have
may have different types of elements which you may choose when you are making the
grids. Then you know approach of making the geometry. Now, here you must know that
you can make the geometry in the top down or bottom up approach.
So, this is normally available with the commercial solvers. So, you have many kind of
commercial you know CFD tools like phonics, fluent is there, star CCM+ is there or there
are many you know CFX and you know all these. So, these are using their in their own
way they are making the geometries. And you know you have solid modeling tools also
like you can use the solid modeling tools solid works, catia and all that. So, you can use
these tools to make the geometry. Now making the geometry is using the top down or the
bottom up approach.
So, bottom up approach means, you are starting from the initial and then making the things
and then moving towards the final result by adding by in the adding stepwise, addition of
a stepwise like you are first of all making the points then you are making and joining the
points that is by lines then you are making the faces, then you are making using the faces
you make the volumes. And then you integrate them and then in that you may specify
certain kind of you know zones like you may have the blocked zone where you want you
want that it should be blocked or so or you can specify there itself other zones.
So, that we will see like different zones like wall inlet or so, so that is top bottom up
approach. In many cases, we go for the top down approach also like, you know many a
times, it becomes helpful if you have to make suppose one geometry.
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Suppose, you have to make geometry where the things are suppose this way that is you
know tapered. So, in that case you can make one geometry of this type and then maybe
that you can take this part being off. So, that is removing this part taking away so, that will
lead to this result.
So, you can start with a rectangular type of or, or a you know three dimensional structure
and then cut a certain portion and make the required geometry. So, that is bottom up I
mean top down approach. So, you make the larger you know geometry and then you are
you know reducing that and, and getting the required geometry. So, that is using the top
down approach. So, both the approaches basically are you know in practice and, and we
used by the modeling tools to make a proper geometry. Then comes the meshing
parameters.
So, once you make the geometry you will be making the geometry, you will be integrating
them you will be making a complete you know geometry of virtually physically
representing the domain. Then you have to go for the meshing of these you know,
geometry.
Now, why meshing is important that we know that by meshing, we are going to have the
formation of the small control volumes or elements which will be linked to each other. So,
that when we apply these conservation equations and solved you know when the equations
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are solved simultaneously in that case you are going to have the values of you know
parameters or variables in the respective cells or, or at respective nodes.
So, the meshing needs to be done properly. Now in while meshing you need to have the
you know proper, you know care for the mesh size. So, you can have the large you know
number of meshes. So, mesh size will be small you can have a small number of mesh so,
mesh size will be larger. Now every you know as it is a quite evident that when you take
large number of mesh, in that case the computational time will be higher and when you
take less number of mesh the computational time will be lower, but then certainly the
accuracy will be affected.
So, accordingly you have to take the mesh size, you have also to be careful while taking
the mesh size, what should we by what way and the even the mesh size should vary. So,
in case of the boundary layer regions, you may have to have the, you know proper variation
in the size of the meshes from the walls to the point in the active domain. So, that to
basically properly, you know predict the output parameters, you need to have a, an
understanding of that also that how you have to maintain those you know mesh size ,then
the density that is what it talks about and also the aspect ratio.
So, typically you know aspect ratio we will talk about the, you know ratio of the dimension
of the you know mesh in the perpendicular directions. So, basically we try to have aspect
ratio of one normally which is more ideal, but it is not always possible. So, we try not to
have a very large value of aspect ratio in most of the cases.
So, these are you know points which needs to be looked into while going for the meshing.
So, once you do the meshing then, it will show and you can have a look of the mesh that
how the meshing has been done. So, you have to go for the net checking off also the meshes
and you can in the software have the capability to ensure that there is proper mesh
otherwise they may so, tell that there is no proper meshing there is no proper integration.
Maybe, once, we the situation may be such that you have done the meshing, but their the
portions are not integrated. So, there will be two different zones and there may not be you
know transfer of information from one region to other. So, all these things need to be
checked into well when we do the final meshing at that time you need to check all those
things. So, that you can go further and when you go for specifying the other parameters in
the domain. So, that time you have not to face much of the problem. So, after the meshing
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or and after the geometry creation, we need to be looking at the specifying zones as well
as the boundary conditions.
So, you know what we do is that as you know in typical you know at a Tundish you have
different you know parts like now this is a Tundish so, if so, you, you will have inlet and
then you may have the outlet. So, typically you have these you know these are the you
know walls and then this is suppose inlet and this is the outlet. So, that is there and then
you have these are, are the walls may be that many a times we use a certain kind of dams
or weirs that are they are the flow modifiers.
So, what is done some of the tools you know while making geometry itself you can show
them as you know you show them as the walls or the blockages.
And some of them while providing the solution control parameters or while giving the
boundary conditions there you have those you know options we have to define that this is
wall or so. And then accordingly you have to provide the proper boundary conditions.
So, if you look at this so, what you have to do is first of all you have to define the zone
where you define the boundary type and you also define the continuum that is. So, in
boundary type normally you have the, the boundaries you know specified in terms of walls,
because external boundary is normally the wall. So, you will have to define those surfaces
as the wall. Similarly, you will have the conditions like the inflow.
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So, you will have inlet. So, that will be the inflow boundary condition will be there then
you allow out flow boundary condition that will be outlet. So, basically while making
geometry also, you can specify those zones as the walls or the inlet or inflow or out flow
or symmetry so it will go there. And while you are giving the proper boundary conditions
at that time you can have the selection from the, you know drop menu that if you take wall
whatever you have specified as walls they will come and properly selecting them you can
have the proper values fixed to them.
So, accordingly you know this way you provide these you know, you specify these zones
as the boundary types and then you are going for the continuum or the, you know. So, in
continuum you know means that you are going to define the domain wherever you have
the fluid. So, you will say that it is occupy going to be occupied by the fluid. Similarly,
wherever you have the, the existence of porous materials in case of porous you know flow.
So, you have to define that this region needs to be specified as the porous material. And
similarly, if there are blocks or solid portions so, you need to define them.
So, as I told that you can define these things either while making geometries or you can
and there itself or while you are specifying the boundary conditions you can do that job
you know while going for the specifying the zones and the boundary conditions.
So, once you have given those specified these zones as boundary types and also the
continuum that is where there is fluid where there is solid or so, or porous media then you
have to provide the solution control parameters. Now solution control parameters means
now after that you are going to have the solution started.
Now, what you need for we need to specify when you have to; you want to talk about the
solution to be started. So, basically, you have to tell that whether your solution is steady
or transient. So, if it is steady it is fine you have to tell that for how many iterations you
are going to stop, after how many traces you are going to stop and see the result.
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Whereas in the case of transient analysis you will have the specification of the time step
sizes. So, for in a particular time depending on the step size you will go it will go for that
many you know number of iterations and you are going also to provide certain relaxation
parameters. So, that parameters need to be specified you know towards getting a converged
solution. So, these you know relaxation of parameters will be provided and then the
solution will start and it will reach till the till you get the results. So, once the solution is
over in that case after that you go and do the, you know post processing of results, you
interpret the results in your own way.
So, this basically are these are the elements of a typical you know model mathematical
model or numerical model which you are making especially with the help of you know
you will you will be you must be having the exposure to certain of the tools modeling
tools.
So, you can you have to you know proceed and you have to have the information about
these things. So, that you can get the meaningful results after the post processing I mean
after the processing operation that is in case of post processing. So, we will talk somewhat
more about the boundary conditions and all that how it is what are the different kinds of
boundary conditions which are you know imported in all that in our coming lecture
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Lecture – 32
Boundary Condition
Welcome to the lecture on Boundary Conditions. So, in the last lecture in a approach
towards the modeling process we talked about the elements of modeling step. And, we saw
that we need to have the you know acquaintance with the 3 steps which we need to follow
I mean that is pre-processing, post processing and solving. Now, once you make the
geometry then you need to apply the boundary conditions and as it say normally we deal
with the cases of mass momentum and heat transfer.
So, you know we need to have the you know knowledge about the different type of
boundary conditions which are required which are applied on the boundaries and other
conditions other type of boundary conditions, may be they are of different type that we
will see in this lecture. And, after that the solution is you know the equations are solved to
get the meaningful results. So, if you talk about the boundary conditions. Now, typically
when we talk about the boundary conditions, if you typically look at the Tundish geometry;
so, you have boundaries as the walls.
So, you have one is your wall boundary condition. So, on the wall you will have a different
kind of processes going on. You know like on the wall there is flow, there is shear going
on, there may be roughness; so, the roughness that may also be required to be provided in
many cases.
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So, you will have wall boundaries. Apart from that you know the inlet is important because
through the inlet the material is going inside the domain. So, you have to specify that what
are the inlet boundary conditions like you may specify the velocity, you may specify the
pressure. So, like that you have a different you know ways to you know to represent these
inlet boundary condition. Similarly you have exit boundary condition or outlet boundary
condition. So, you there you have to have again the outflow boundary condition or pressure
outlet or so.
So, these are the options which are you know available to you this which needs to be
applied depending upon the type of problem we are dealing with. Apart from that many a
times we need you know we do the computation on a larger domain which is time
consuming. When we do the computational you know work, when we do the mathematical
modeling or numerical modeling that time we need to be aware that we should approach
towards those the methods by which you can reduce the computational time.
So, that is how you know that is one of the parameter which you know is indicative of the
efficiency of the computational algorithm or the computational tool or the way you are
doing the computation. So, these boundary conditions like periodic boundary conditions
or symmetric boundary conditions they help you know to identify, you know those
conditions you know and imply them in such a manner that your domain size may be
smaller and that will physically give you all the meaningful results or that the same results
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which you could have done on the full you know geometry. Like if you have a very large
you know vessel which is of rectangular shape I know cross section. So, you will have that
vessel. So, and if there is simply one inlet coming and there are two outlets in that case.
So, if suppose you have a larger you know tundish and if suppose; so, if suppose if this is
of a this shape so, suppose here. So, you know and so it is going like this. Now, in this
case if suppose there is out outlet which is there in the center in that case and you have two
outlet us here at the symmetry you know plane are in the middle. Now in this case what
you can see is that you can take half of the tundish half along here and do the you know
analysis which will.
So, this line has to be the symmetry on this plane you have to apply the symmetry boundary
condition which will tell that there is the similar type of mirror geometry existing on the
other side. So, accordingly your computation time will be one half. Again in such kind of
geometries even you can have further you know bifurcation from half because again this
is the mirror geometry of this part.
So, you can have the solution only for the one fourth of the domain. So, your computational
time is normally becoming one fourth of what you are doing and that is helpful when you
are doing these you know analysis when you are doing the solution of the you know results
when you are solving the equations that time it becomes helpful to locate them.
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So, you know that time these periodic you know symmetry boundary conditions or
periodic boundary conditions are also there where periodically if you have to apply the
boundary condition in that case the periodic you know same type of condition if it is
applied at regular intervals you know in that case you know you can apply the periodic
boundary condition and you can get those results.
So, you will have these are the different types of you know the boundary conditions we
will discuss about them one by one.
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Now, the most important is the or every each one of these are important. So, first we will
start with the inlet boundary condition. So, inlet is that place through which the medium
you know of flow that will be moving and it will be going into the domain. So, there you
need to have the condition. Now, in that you may have to specify a velocity and then you
have a scalar properties of flow and the inlet boundaries.
So, you can have velocity you can have the definition of temperature or so. So that is
known as the velocity inlet us when you are specifying these velocity then it is known as
the velocity inlet condition mostly in case of the in normal case we use these velocity
boundary condition especially in the case of incompressible flow where the density is
remains constant and throughout it does not vary. So, in that case you know you go for
using these velocity inlet boundary conditions. This is not going to be suitable in the case
of compressible flows.
So, in compressible flows we normally go for the mass flow inlet boundary conditions.
You know because they are the density will be changing. So, that is why you go for the
mass flow inlet boundary condition. So, you specify the mass flow you know at the inlet.
You have also you know pressure inlet pours. So, sometimes your pressure distribution is
known you know the pressure are the inlet us. So, in that case you are total pressure and
other scalar quantities you know at the flow inlet is defined.
So, that is known as the pressure inlet boundary condition. So, these are the 3 types of you
know inlet you know boundary conditions. When you go to define the inlet boundary
condition now when you are dealing with the you know turbulent flow in that case you
may have to go for you know defining. So, while discussing the turbulent parameters that
there we will also discuss that you will have to give the turbulence parameters also defined
at the inlet especially you try to define the intensity many a times and hydraulic dia you
know that is also demanded you know required to be specified.
So, you we you go for turbulence intensity many a times and that will be depending upon
the you know. These are the assumptions basically so that is taken are at the inlet. So, these
are you know the inlet boundary condition. Similarly, if you have the exit boundary
condition or outflow boundary condition.
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So, the outflow boundary conditions are used to model the flow exits for details of flow
velocity and pressure are not known prior to the solution of flow problems. So, basically
in normal case when you are defining the inlet velocity you do not know what will be the
velocity at the pressure. So, you give the outflow boundary condition and this is the
normally by default boundary condition given. So, it will you know take that depending
upon the conservation rules.
It will set the you know velocity or the required things at the outlet. So, that is normally
the outlet boundary condition. And, apart from that we can know we also should know that
there is a on the outlet you have some sometimes the pressure outlet boundary condition
which will be defining the static pressure at the flow outlets. So, these are the you know 2
kinds of you know conditions boundary conditions which are applied at the you know
outlet.
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Now you come to the you know wall boundary conditions. So, you have while we talk
about the wall boundaries you need to provide you know many kind of conditions, many
kind of parameters. And among them you have something like wall motion conditions
there may be wall moving. So, you may specify the movement on the wall. There may be
shear conditions you may have to provide the wall shear value.
Wall roughness can be provided you may have the thermal boundary conditions at the
walls. So, what is the you know heat flux through the wall or whether you are the providing
a specific temperature at the wall. So, there will be temperature boundary condition at the
wall. So, that way specification will be there then you have species you know boundary
conditions also. There you have the chemical reaction boundary conditions, radiation
boundary conditions.
So, you have the discrete phase boundary condition and you have the wall adhesion contact
angle. So, these are the different kinds of boundary conditions for different cases use. Like
in chemical reaction you can have this condition like what is the that condition at the wall
also. So, whether the reaction is taking at the wall or you know for the radiation boundary
conditions what will be the radiation you know for that wall properties need to be you
know set. So, what will be the radiation values.
So, how it will be computed, that you need to specify. Then the discrete phase boundary
condition many a times we discuss for the discrete phase particles. So, we talk about the
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you know behavior of the discrete particle which is there. And, we use many a times the
Lagrangian type of a method for that and in that also you give define a condition on the
wall that when this particle will be hitting the walls what cut type of conditions should be
given that the wall may absorb these particles, the absorbed particle may stick to the wall
or the middle be rebounding or reflecting you know.
So, that needs to be specified you know on the wall. So, this is regarding the for the discrete
2 phase kind of studies there you need to provide these conditions wall adhesion contact
angles. So, this is also one of the parameter which needs to be looked into. So, this is. So,
what do you see that you have the different type of you know wall boundary conditions.
And you need to know that what way because suppose if you talk about the you know
flow. So, in that case you may have the no slip boundary condition.
So, which is mostly used; so, no slip means you know the layer the wall is you know
having no movement the wall and also the fluid layer which will be attached to that it also
does not have the movement. So, that way you apply these you know no slip type of
condition. So, we will talk about the different types of the these wall boundary conditions.
So, you go further we go further. So, if you talk about the wall motion condition you will
have it is a study wall you may have a moving wall.
So, on the moving wall also you have elastic conditions for the moving walls you may
have that the translational wall motion, rotational wall motion or wall motion based on the
velocity components then if you talk about the shear conditions. So, in that you may have
the you know no slip condition.
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You may have the specified shear and you may have the Marangonis stress that is that
stress also. So, that shear you know that condition is also there. So, basically you know if
you talk about these you know. So, in the case of you know these the specified shear you
defined a certain value of the shear you know that is given. And, in the case of these
Marangoni you know stress you may hear you know this is this will allow you to specify
the gradient of the surface tension with respect to the temperature at the surface.
So, there this Marangoni type of stress condition or that condition will be there. So, you
will be getting that shear stress calculation you know because of these you know gradient
of temperature on this surface. So, whether is for a specified surface tension; so, that way
it is the this shear you know conditions are used. You have also the wall roughness
conditions. So, before that we should know about the roughness parameters also are given.
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So, you may be you know encountering these terms like wall roughness. So, you know if
the roughness is nil then you have the no slip. It is just a plain type of condition, but there
may be you know the roughness also provided on the wall. So, that so this roughness will
be there. Then you have the temperature boundary conditions as we where discussing. So,
you will have the thermal boundary conditions.
Now, the thermal boundary conditions are important because while dealing with these
thermal boundary conditions you need to know that what should be the condition proper
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condition you should be selected. Like you may go for the fixed temperature kind of
condition where, you say that the walls are at a fixed temperature and accordingly because
the fluid is there inside the domain and the walls are at a fixed temperature.
So, the heat transfer will take place and since the temperature of the fluid is generally
higher than the wall and walls are normally at room temperature or at some specified
temperature. So, there will be you know heat transfer taking place you know through the
walls and that is to be computed. So, when you have the temperature boundary conditions
provided. So, in the case of you know temperature boundary condition which is there. So,
in those cases you know you can find the heat transfer and that can be found you know
when there is a temperature is fixed at the wall.
So, you can have the use of the heat transfer coefficient. You know that is local heat
transfer coefficient will be there on the inner side and based on the you know temperature
difference between the wall and the in the fluid which is adjacent to so at that node which
is adjacent to the wall inside the you know domain. So, that is being taken out. So, you
will be finding that that by multiplying with this you know local heat transfer coefficient
and then also if there is any radiation type of heat transfers that can be added. So, what
you need to tell you need to tell the proper temperature you know at the boundary or at the
wall.
So, that you know the heat transfer value can be calculated. Similarly you may have you
have the heat flux you know condition. So, then apart from the temperature boundary
condition where you define a temperature at the wall you have the heat flux boundary
condition. So, you know this boundary condition in that you are providing it a constant
value of heat flux you try to say and from that heat flux which you provide and the solver
will try or the model will try to find the temperature and you know.
So, normally you provide these you know heat flux boundary condition and it will
depending upon that heat flux. So, dividing it again by the heat transfer coefficient and
then and taking into account the that the temperatures you find the value of the you know
temperature you know using these heat flux boundary conditions. So, you have this way
different type of you know these typically you have heat flux boundary condition or you
have the you know the temperature boundary condition. Then you have the convective
heat transfer then radiative heat transfer you have the conduction heat transfer. All these
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you know depending upon the you know formula these things can be applied and you can
get you know the you know you can put these boundary conditions into the model.
Now, apart from that and the next type of boundary condition is the symmetry boundary
conditions. So, you need to specify as we discussed that you specify the symmetry
boundary conditions in the in the domain and that basically decreases the size of the
domain. So, that increases the computational you know efficiency that will decrease the
computational you know time and so proper you know symmetric boundary conditions
needs to be applied and also the periodic boundary condition and that may be for the
translational or the you know rotational type.
Then you know after that you have you know. So, once you have put these boundary
conditions then you need to go for ensuring that what is the, what are the other things you
need to know. Like you have to specify the material properties; so in fact, the material
properties are specified before we apply the boundary conditions in many kind of models
or CFD tools. So, you need to specify you know the material properties. Now as we
discussed that when you talk about these boundary conditions so they are also they will
also be dependent you must have the proper knowledge about the type of flows which you
are dealing with.
So, accordingly the boundary conditions will be varying like for laminar boundary
conditions you will have the different conditions and for turbulent boundary conditions
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you will have the different boundary conditions and all that. So, accordingly you have to
see that what kind of boundary conditions you need to apply. So, we further so what we
talked is that one of the part of the this you know pre processing is that when you specify
the properties especially the material properties. So, when you specify you know the
material properties you have materials may be like you have fluid solid or porous.
So, for materials normally you will have its physical properties like density, temperatures
you know thermal conductivity, heat capacity you know you know temperature. So, you
may have this density or several conductivity or you know the heat capacity. So, this needs
to be specified. Now, the issue is that they can be having a constant value or they may be
depending upon the temperature. So, you need to specify you know. So, most of the tools
have this provision to have you know these properties defined in terms of so that will be
varying in terms of temperature. So, they will be temperature varying.
So, what happens is that you know they will be in some form may be there is polynomial
relationship is there, for the material property with temperature or they may be you know
different you know type of forms. So, that needs to be specified while taking the properties
of the material you know. Then that will apply to all the different types of you know
properties which is there. Then next thing is which will be is that you must know that what
kind of you know you know solution you are heading towards because there is not always
only the solution for the heat transfer and fluid flow.
Normally you go for the you know the reaction or the other parameters like the parameters
related to the mixing of the fluid you know and it is behavior inside the fluid or you may
have to have the conditions related to the discrete phase. So, you will have the species
transport you know models. So, you will have to take into account that part. Then you will
have the especially the discrete phase type of model will be there.
So, in that you have the a Eulerian Lagrangian type of Lagrangian type of model is
normally adopted where for the fluid you have the Eulerian you know you know concept
where you get you solve the almost all the equations. You know get the velocity field and
all the temperature field everywhere and then you are solving for the discrete phase. So,
that will be interacting that will be interacting on the basis of mass I mean the momentum
and the heat transfer interaction will be there you know and accordingly you will have the
behavior of these particles.
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So, especially they are used you know in the case of tundish when we deal with the
inclusion you know behavior. So, in those cases these type of models are used and in those
cases you have the boundary conditions. Like you have to specify the diameter of these
you know particles and their numbers and their densities you know all these things need
to be specified as the boundary condition. So, because what happens that when and this is
based on the concept that these particles when they are in the in the existing flow field so
they will be subjected to certain forces.
So, there will be force balance equation. So, basically it has its own weight and it is
subjected to certain forces and also depending upon the flow you know conditions which
are available. So, that force balance is done then accordingly you will have acceleration
and also velocity of these. So, they will be moving you know in that domain accordingly
and they will be floating or they may be going to the walls where on the wall as we had
discussed that you will have the condition at the wall like it may be sticking or it may be
reflecting there.
So, that so these you know these conditions are need to be specified you know. So, these
are also the conditions a boundary conditions will be there for these particles which are
required you know to be provided in the case of discrete you know phase. So, discrete you
know phase in those cases. Apart from that we will also discuss in the case of a tundish
flow one thing is also common is the multi field analysis. So, what happens that you have
the presence of the different phases like you may have the gas solid interacting or gas
liquid interacting or liquid solid interacting.
So, especially when you talk about the tundish in that case you have the liquid steel in the
tundish and then you have slag they are at the top. So, you can do the two phase or multi
phase type of analysis and there are different methods for that. So, there also you will have
those analysis and there we need to know that how this analysis used to be done and what
are the conditions which needs to be given at the interface and how they are computed.
Because they are you know especially when we do the free surface analysis or the surface
fluctuation or the interaction of the one phase with the other at the interface.
So, these you know there also you need to provide the conditions you know in the case of
these multi phase analysis and that you know that. So, appropriate boundary conditions
need to be provided in those cases also. So, when we will discuss about that kind of you
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know analysis there we will study that how the appropriate boundary conditions are
provided and you know accordingly you get the proper you know output values.
So in fact, you know we talked about all these kind of possibilities of those models which
we need to study and there are boundary conditions which need to be applied you know in
the tundish in such cases. So, we will talk about it in our coming lectures.
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Lecture - 33
Flow Analysis in Tundish
Welcome to the lecture on Flow Analysis in Tundish. So now, we will see that how the
molding work is carried out for the flow analysis in tundish and how you can show the
flow behavior you know of the liquid metal inside the tundish because the inlet through
the inlet the liquid material metal enters and then, it is going to all the outlets. So, once
striking first of all it will strike at the tundish bottom and then, from there it will move
gradually towards the outlet or outlets in the case of multi strand tundish.
So, now in that case as we had discussed that the methodology for the flow analysis is that
you have to create a geometry you know of significance where you want to in which you
want to have the you know flow modeling to be carried out. Then, you have to select those
parameters like what is the inflow rate you know into the tundish and what are the
boundary conditions.
Like if you are solving for temperature, then what are the conditions. You know at the
walls what you are going to specify and what are the other parameters like turbulence
parameters or may be other things, we have to set like you have to go for the solution
control parameters and all that. So, and after that our job is to have the analysis of flow
inside the tundish.
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So, that is what we had earlier seen that when we solve or solving a problem, in that case
we first create a geometry then we create the computational mesh for the geometry and
then, set up the CFD simulation. And in that we have to set the material properties and
boundary conditions. Then, we have to solve the equations using the solver and ultimately,
in the post processing you know stage we have to examine the flow field as well as the
temperature field and we are solving for any scalar you know we have to see the scalar
transport, you know also this is the scalar field also you have to check it.
So,. So, first of all as we discussed that we can take one geometry you know hypothetically
or you know you we can have.
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So, on this I had done this simulation. So, in that what we see is that this is a typical tundish
and as you see that this is the inlet and these are mid NEAR, MIDDLE and FAR are the
outlets. So, this is typically a multi strand tundish you have more than one outlet.
So, then we call it as a multi strand outlet multi strand tundish because you have more
number of outlet. We have given this nomenclature NEAR, MIDDLE and FAR because it
is near to the inlet that is why; otherwise it may be taken as outlet 1, outlet 2 and outlet 3
also.
As you see that this is the length of the tundish and this is the height of the tundish that is
600 mm. All the dimensions are in mm. Suppose then, this is 600 mm is the you know
height and 800 mm is the width and then if you add, so it will be 2200 plus so it will be 3
meter 3000 mm is the half length of the tundish and it is the symmetry plane.
So, it means symmetry plane means the half of the tundish is you know extending towards
the left side also. So, your that way your whole tundish length becomes 6 meter. Then, the
outlets are placed as you see it is near to this wall. It is not in the you know middle. So,
had it been placed inside the middle, we could have even taken the one-fourth of the
tundish for the calculation because that way you know that is the symmetry maintained
you know.
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So, in that case you have to make the base geometry. So, for that in normal you know in
any kind of modeling tool, you can create these geometries either by taking these points at
you know different positions and then, you can you know join them to form edges and
then, you can have the surface creation and then, you create the volume. Similarly, you
will have to have these areas you know identified like for the inlet and for the outlets and
all that.
So, that way we create these geometries in the tundish. So, after we have created the
geometry, then we have to mesh it. So, you can have a structured mesh or you can have
unstructured mesh, using the you know using the computational tool.
And in the structured you know mesh, you will have you will be giving certain number of
you know mesh in the X direction, certain number in Y direction and certain number in Z
direction. So, accordingly, you will have a structured mesh and in that as we have
discussed that the trait of that mesh is that you can have any particular point or any
particular cell.
So, they are represented by a particular value of I J and K. So, or else you can have even
unstructured mesh. So, far so for simple symmetries you can have a structured mesh. So,
if you do the meshing and if you take these number of cells in the X, Y, Z direction.
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So, accordingly, you can have this kind of you know gridded you know domain; the
domain is now filled with the number of grids and it shows the you know control volumes
which are formed because of the you know the number of meshes which have been taken
in the three dimensional three-dimensions. So, you have a three-dimensional geometry.
Now, and it has also the grids. So, that way you get this structure.
Now, you are going to set up the model and you know before that you may identify the
different you know different zones also inside. So, you can have the identification of inlet,
outlets. Then, you have the different walls, you can set as the walls and also you can have
the you know zone also will as the continuum or where the liquid is there so that you can
set it.
Now, what you have to do is you have to set up the model and in that if you are going for
the heat transfer study also you have to go for the enabling that energy equation. So, you
have to solve the energy equation or else you will write the equation of energy and you
will be using the standard k epsilon turbulence model.
So, you have to you know write those equations, if you are solving with your own hand
written code or if you are using any computational code which is freely available or it is
available with you. Then, you know you have to select them like you can you go for a
standard k epsilon turbulence model or you can go for all you know different types of
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turbulence models which are available, like may be R and G and realizable k epsilon and
you know other low Reynolds number models.
But that depends upon the for simple you know type of flows standard k epsilon turbulence
model works better. So, we go for the standard k epsilon turbulence model. Then, what we
have to do is we have to set up the material properties. So, as we know that we are going
for the steel. So, you can have these approximate value of the density, specific heat thermal
conductivity or viscosity of the steel.
So, accordingly you that these values may be required you know for solving the equations.
Now, when you are going for the boundary conditions, so, in that boundary condition, you
will be having the option to take the values at those boundaries. So, you will have the inlet
condition and in the inlet as we you know if you know the you know casting rate or if you
know the you know mass flow rate which is going from the ladle to the tundish in that case
depending upon the you know inlet diameter or inlet dimension, you can have the
calculation of the velocity at the inlet.
So, that is known as velocity inlet and in that case, you can calculate the velocity. So, if
you know that mass flow rates, it will be you know 𝜌𝐴𝑣 and 𝜌, we know for the steel and
a is the area of the inlet. So, accordingly you can find the velocity. Then, you know
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turbulence intensity as we have discussed you know we have the expression for the
turbulence intensity and that is defined in terms of percentage.
So, and also it is basically representative of the you know turbulence which is normally 2
percent to 5 percent value is taken and it will be depending upon the fluctuating component
you know with respect to the mean component of velocity in turbulence. So, we normally
have it 2 percent you can also have the length scale. So, length scale also as you know that
is normally 0.7l; characteristic length of the tundish. So, like that you can have those
values.
Now, as we know that we have taken the inlet condition as the velocity inlet, means we
have given that velocity particular velocity at the inlet; then, you have the outlet condition
as the outflow conditions and you know there is a mass balance that will be maintaining
and the inlet temperature if you are solving for the you know temperature. So, in normal
case you take that inlet temperature value. So, that is we set some value. So, maybe if you
have a metal which is entering into the tundish of 1600 degree centigrade. So, you can take
the you know inlet temperature.
Now, as you know that you have the heat flux that needs to be provided. Now, the thermal
conditions include the you know can the boundary conditions at the walls because from
the walls the heat is being dissipated and also from the top surface, the heat is being
dissipated. So, from the top surface it will be going you know to the atmosphere and from
the walls also there will be we have discussed that there will be different way by which
the heat will flow through the walls and then, it will go to the surroundings.
So, for a simple case you can have the you know heat flux from the free surface at the
bottom wall, at the long wall and at the short wall of the tundish. You can have those you
know long wall means along the length and then short walls are on the sides. So, from
there you can have these you know heat flux values that you can take and that will be
required to study the temperature distribution, how the temperature changes.
Now, when we are; so, as we discussed that we are you know applying the boundary
conditions and normally on the walls, we apply the no slip boundary conditions.
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And we also use the standard you know log wall function in the case of you know standard
k epsilon turbulence model.
So, in the standard k epsilon turbulence model, you have to also be you know careful that
the first grid where it should be placed because we are not taking the roll low Reynolds
number values you know low Reynolds number flow. So, we are taking that to be a
turbulent in the turbulent region. So, you will have to have the first grid in that zone you
know so that care has to be taken. So, and then in the thermal conditions, you may have
the different options and you can take these heat flux condition as we have taken in this
case.
Now, when we talk about the wall boundary conditions, then many a times we can take
the low Reynolds number models also. Because they you know in the vicinity of the wall,
they take the condition that the flow to be laminar you know and in that case you will have
the more number of grids near the wall and that is why you know they sometimes take
larger time. They take larger time, because we want some number of grids will be more in
that case that time requirement will be more.
So,. So, that way you are these wall boundary conditions are to be provided you know with
proper understanding that what kind of model you are taking and how you know that will
be helpful in true manner, the flow which is you know occurring inside the domain. So,.
So, that is about the wall boundary conditions.
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Now, once you have set all these boundary conditions like inflow, outflow, wall boundary
conditions, then you have the thermal boundary condition that may be given you know in
terms of the heat flux value or maybe you can provide a specific temperature also so that
will way it will calculate the heat flux value. In this case the it calculates the temperature
value.
So, accordingly you know these values can be given and then, now before we start the
solution. So, we have to set the solution parameters. So, before that how we are going to
you know take the pressure term, you know into account. So, for that you know there are
different algorithms and then, you we use the semi implicit you know based algorithm
pressure linked equation. So, so that is used. So, you have you have simply simple you
have simply you have p. So, different type of algorithms are there.
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
So, you know pressure is very important term that minus − 𝜕𝑥 . So, that term is coming.
𝜕𝑦
So, we need to you know model that also. So, for that you have these different algorithms
and normally simple way take. So, you can have the from the drop down list, if you are
using one you know code and then, also there also you have to define that how you are
going to discretize take the discretization methods; maybe for the momentum, for this
specific rate, for kinetic energy for energy.
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So, normally we can take a first order or second order upwind you know discretization
schemes for them, we had a certain idea in our earlier lectures. Then, we are also taking
the residuals because you know the residuals this. So, you know when you have to stop
the you know solution. So, basically that will be only when you feel that the steady state
is reached, when the there is change in value which is less than certain you know set
parameter, set value.
So, because you know in that case when there will be no change and you are setting that
there is a change is less than certain value. Then, you are stopping. So, we are changing
giving certain values in standard you know codes and then, we get set these value and you
can have you know 10−3 to 10−6 for these you know parameters.
Then finally, we do the initialization for the starting of the solution and then we start. So,
normally we initialize from the inlet values and you know values are initially provided and
then, we do the iteration and that iteration goes on and when we are doing the unsteady
analysis or steady analysis, in that case time is not involved. So, we give the data for how
many iterations you have to start, we have to run the program. So, that you get the proper
flow field.
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So, if you run, then you get these, this way the residual plots.
So, as you see we have set the residual plots and this way it will come and after that after
some time, certain time if the residual conditions are met, as you see for continuity for x-
velocity, y-velocity, z-velocity generally energy turbulent kinetic energy epsilon is the rate
of dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy.
And then, you have if you are solving for even for the tracer or scalar quantity in that case
that is also solved. So, that way on the monitor you can have the visual display and then,
you ensure that this solution is complete.
So, once you do that you know in that during that process, if the geometry is simple it may
take less time, but then in most of the cases it will take a large amount of time; maybe
sometimes the convergence rate is very small or it is you know showing abnormal
behavior.
So, we have to choose the relaxation parameters also. Under relaxation parameters in that
case that will be basically changing that how much you know taking you are you know
how much in what way you are going to incorporate those changes for getting a proper
meaningful result from the earlier you know iteration value and that to the next iteration.
So, that way you know these relaxation parameters are being used.
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So, that way this ensures that equation is properly solved and converged. So, then, once
you ensure that it is completely you know you are getting a converge solution.
Then, you go to get the results. You can have a the temperature contours as you see and
although, it is showing 1.87 only; 1870 which is basically the inlet temperature. But if you
take the range that it will show what it tells that adhere the temperature is maximum and
then, you see that on the walls how it is slowly varying and here, it is minimum temperature
on these corners and it is decreasing as you see on the top surface.
And on all the walls you can have the temperature contours that will give you the idea that
how the temperature is changing you know all across the you know domain. Then, the
more important is to know the flow behavior of the steel inside the tundish.
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So, as you see these are the velocity contours at the inlet plane and this is the velocity if
you look at the inlet plane as you see this is the inlet vertical plate. So, as you see that you
have the flow which is coming on the coming in the bottom direction and then, it is moving
from here. So, that way and it is moving through here and then.
So, basically it is a the convective contour is so on. So,, but then this way it is coming and
then it is going inside you know through that domain, so, velocity is high and although it
is less on this side.
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Now, if you take that outlet plane. So, what you see that the metal you know now from
here as you see this is towards the you know near the inlet and once it has come, then the
liquid metal has the tendency to move up. So, this way it is moving and they are coming
and go passing through the outlet.
So, this is how you know you can have the this you can see the velocity of the liquid steel
and at these different you know locations and the velocity contours can be seen; maybe we
can see also later that there may be you know a kind of you know loops also you can find
when you use the flow modifier. So, that time its more visible.
But this is how you can see you know that there will be flow and as you see that the liquid
is passing through this at a very high velocity here being near to the inlet, it will be passing
and then, as the you know it is moving away from the inlet. So, certainly the velocity at
which it will be approaching that will be certainly it may changing because as you move
away from the inlet in that case the you know velocity will be changing.
So, that is at the outlet plate. You can have also the you know velocity at the bottom plane.
So, as you see the plan view the liquid metal has you know stuck the tundish bottom and
then, it is the spreading in all the directions. So, we are having a very high velocity there.
So, it is moving and then as you see that its you know slowly the velocity will be changing.
It will be in the surface you know. So, it will be going from here it is you have the first
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you know. So, you see that considerably very large velocity is coming and then, you will
have the metal coming through all these outlets.
So, the velocity can be computed. You can see that where the velocity is high, where the
velocity is low. So, these ideas can be obtained from these you know velocity vectors that
can be drawn.
So, the idea is that you know you can very well see the velocity vector you know and you
can draw the thermal contours. You can also draw the contours for the turbulence,
turbulent kinetic energy which will be indicative of the value of these parameters turbulent
kinetic energy, where it is higher. So, where over you have given the velocity higher you
likely will you will see that your that values will be more.
So, accordingly because and then you know from these velocities, you can have the idea
also that what are those reasons where the velocity is very small. Normally, if the velocity
is very small in certain region that may be a probable region for the, dead region for the
dead space because the liquid may not the liquid which is coming continuously that may
not go into that zone and so that may be the ineffective utilization of the tundish volume.
So, this can be you know seen from these velocity vector values. Now, we can see also
that when we use the you know flow modifiers, in that case this velocity vectors change.
So, what happens that as we have seen that when we start the you know solution or when
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we start looking at the velocity vector at the bottom wall or even at the outlet wall, we see
that near the outlet it is quickly entering?
So, that is known as short circuiting also many a times. So, if the liquid metal will directly
go into that then the height, the high temperature steel will not go into other zones and in
that case other zones may experience smaller temperature. So, many a times what we do
is we are to alter the flow modifier, I mean flow configuration inside. We use the flow
modifiers.
Now, these flow modifiers may be in the shape of a dam which is placed on the bottom
wall, you know which is you know it is one position is at the bottom wall at the bottom
you know z equal to 0, it will have certain height. Suppose, in this case it has a height up
to 225 mm.
So, we may have the a placement of dam just to ensure that the liquid metal which will be
striking then after that it will be deflected and it will go inside and then, it will have a loop.
So, it will go into other zones and the high temperature steel which is coming, it will be
making all the zones you know also active. So, for that we use the you know dams. We
also use many a times the weirs. So, weirs our basically used from here.
So, we use from the top at certain you know of certain height. So, that way, we can also
use the weirs in these cases and then, we also use the baffles. Baffles will have the you
know limited you know outlet area in that whole domain. So, through that the metal will
pass. So, so dams weirs baffles and even the advanced pouring boxes are, now it is
designed with the boxes are near I mean on the bottom wall and in just below the inlet.
So, they are there to see that what is that they are change on the flow alteration. So, it is a
bare tundish; tundish with dam and tundish with baffle.
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So, if you take the velocity vector, they you will see that there will be changes in the
velocity vector. We will have as you see that being the bare tundish, you will have such
kind of estimator; whereas, if you use the dam in that case the metal goes up and then you
can see that these higher velocities seen on this side. So, you will have higher velocity. As
well as if you use the baffles you can see that it is how these are altering. So, basically it
will be you know altering the flow pattern and then the.
So, they may have there may be different you know purposes for which the tundish is used.
Many a times we need you know that it should mix thoroughly; many a times we need a
quiescent flow quite flow or so. So, depending upon the situation we can use these different
you know flow configurations.
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So, if you look at the outlet plane, you know velocity vector also, there we see that we see
there are considerable changes in the you know velocity vector which we see you know in
this case, you have the you know this way the flow is going the top surface directed;
whereas, in this case is bottom surface directed flow is there. So, accordingly you can have
the feel of the change in the you know flow configuration.
You can also see the velocity vector at the bottom wall. So, as you see that in the case of
bare tundish its going like this; but in the bottom wall, you are at the bottom you see the
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higher velocities up to this zone. Whereas, in this case you see that this high velocity zone
is confined here because after that it is facing a dam. So, it is going up. So, velocity is
increasing in the upper plains, not at the bottom wall. So, as is seen in the case of dam and
baffle also.
So, this is about typically about knowing the fluid flow behavior you know in a tundish
and if you do that you know this is used even to find the you know different zones inside
the tundish like dead zone, you know plug zone, or mixing zone or so. That we will see in
our coming lectures that how we compute these mixing parameters and different tundish
volumes inside the tundish.
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Lecture- 34
Analysis of Fluid Flow and Mixing in Tundish
Welcome to the lecture on Analysis of Fluid Flow and Mixing in Tundish. So, we have
anyway talked about the fluid flow analysis and how these fluid flow you know parameters
it I mean using that fluid flow, we calculate the mixing parameters or the different tundish
volumes you know which is indicative of the mix mixing capability of tundish, you know
how much there will be the total mixing inside and you know what are the dead regions,
how the dead volume zone is calculated all that we will be discussing in this lecture.
So, as we discussed that we will be talking about a particular geometry.
So, this is the geometry of a massive six strand billet caster tundish. This is the work which
was done earlier by me, so when it is reported you know. So, what we I wish to show that
how the you know how with the help of a particular problem you can solve you know you
can show that how the analysis is to be carried out and how you understand these
computation of different parameters inside the tundish.
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So, this is a typical geometry. Again it is a six strand billet caster tundish and as you see
that you will have the three outlets 3 2 1. So, you will have in this case, you are taking
outlet 1 as a remote test 1 and 2 and 3 and this is your symmetry plane. It means there will
be a plane which is going further in this direction and this is the impact you know this is
the you know region through which the outlet is you know thoroughly through that whole
you know zones. So, anyway this is zone only for that consideration that it is
showing the outlet.
Then it is dimension of the tundish is also shown as you see the height is given and the
other dimensions are you know 2.95 meter of length or so.
So, then as usual we again define the; you know grids in the different zones and you can
have the gridded structure and further you can also use the flow modifier.
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So, we have used the flow modifier as the advanced pouring box in this case. we also used
the you know shroud which is there that can be used or that cannot be. So many a times
we used this shroud to indicate that the metal will you know be not exposed to atmosphere
and the oxidation kind of problem will not be there inside.
Now as you see this, so once you do the gridding then you can see that how the gridded
structure looks like, then after that as you see that you have to solve these equations. In
this case, we are not solving the temperature; we are solving only the continuity
momentum in turbulent kinetic energy and rate of dissipation. Apart from that, we are also
solving the concentration equation.
So, this is the equation for that concentration as it is concentration of the tracer. So, what
we do; when we do the these analysis, there are two types of you know analysis which is
being carried out and that is one is pulse input and another is step input. That is what I
think we have talked about it earlier in that Stimulus Response Technique. So, in this case
again we are going to have the discussion on that.
So, basically what we do that when we have a steady state velocity field set as we have
seen in our previous lectures that you are going to solve, you have the you know geometry
defined you are going to define the you know material properties, you are going to define
the boundary conditions at the inlet, at the out outlets, at the walls and all that, then after
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that you are going to solve the equation and for that you will have these you know four
you know categories will be there first.
So, first you have to solve it and you will be getting a velocity field. Now after that you
are going to have the you know tracer concentration solution for the concentration of the
tracer. Now what we do in this case is to know that which of the tundish, how much you
know good for the mixing and how the flow behavior is there, you know how the
concentration is changing at the outlets, when the something which is coming through the
inlet.
So, at what time it is going to start from the outlet. So, that also shows earlier we have seen
that it comes through the inlet outlet which is closer to the inlet at a lesser time. So, so that
certainly no you know that does not indicate a very good mixing capability because it must
go into the whole tundish domain and then, it should come ideally it should take the ideal
theoretical residence time. So, residence time is nothing, but volume upon the volumetric
flow rate.
So, once you know the volume of the tundish and if you know the volumetric flow rate, so
in that case the ideal volumetric you know mean residence time is that time which is should
be spent by the fluid particle which will indicate ideal mixing will be ratio of volume to
volumetric flow rate and that has to be computed.
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Now, in this case so you are first solving that and once you solve that and after that you
are again solving for in the unsteady manner. So, in the case of unsteady you know analysis
what we do is that we have to you know put the tracer which will be as some something
like a dye.
So, that is you know normally we do the experimental analysis also in this case. So, what
we do? We have a colored dye which is you know injected at the tundish.
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So, if suppose you have the inlet here, so you give these colored dye you know we are
putting it for say 10 seconds you know and then or even 4 or less and then, so because it
should not alter the flow field inside the tundish also.
So, we are putting also train in that you know same velocities which will go through that
and then it is stopped and otherwise the flow continue after that the flow continues. So,
the dye will come and then it will go inside and it will be coming out. Now we have to
monitor this concentration of the dye because whatever quantity has come inside the
tundish, it has to go out and when its first appearance is there at which outlet, so that is
indicative of the you know plug component.
Similarly, if something is taking more time more than you know 2 or 3 or 4 times the mean
theoretical mean residence time, then we call it as the dead component. So, if it goes into
certain zone, it gets trapped and it takes large amount of time to come out, then it us a dead
component. So, that we will discuss we will see. So, what is shown is that we get the
theoretical mean residence time calculation by volume of tundish to volumetric flow rate.
Now we have to calculate the actual mean residence time and normally when you have
∑ 𝐶𝑖 𝑡𝑖
only one outlet, so it will be ∑ 𝐶𝑖
is the concentration which is monitored at the outlet.
Normally it is a dimensionless concentration divided by you know what concentration you

have put in. So, that way you know amount of tracer which you have put in, so basically
accordingly you get the dimensionless concentration that is there and so, we plot a graph
between the dimensionless concentration and time.
And you know or we if we plot the graph between the concentration and time, so from that
graph basically you can also have the calculation of the actual mean residence time. So,
you get a file in normally you have to get a file which will talk about the you know these
concentration which are coming out through the particular outlet with respect to time. So,
you will have you know the; you know with respect to time you will have the
concentration. So, you have time 1 second 2 second 3 second or so and you will have the
concentration values, but will it come in here and that will be normally initially increasing
and then it will be decreasing.
Now, because when it has come and will start entering that time it will be decreasing, but
then slowly once it goes inside the whole domain, then slowly it has to decrease because
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you have only injected only a very fixed amount of tracer inside the you know inside the
tundish. So,. So, accordingly you see that you get the actual mean residence time that will
be 𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑡𝑖 , 𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑔 is taken because if you have in the outlet, you have you know more number
of cells are there.
So, it will be averaging those you know concentration values in the all the elements in the
outlet you know domain, then we calculate these different parameters like now from these
concentration and time graph a typical concentration curve will look like this. So, it will
go like that. So, you will have concentration time to see dimensionless concentration and
this delay basically initially because there will be when you are this is at t equal to 0.
So, at t equal to 0 the tracer has entered, it will say take some time to appear through the
outlet. So, that that time you know that is known as the you know the time you know that
from that is indicative of the you know plug volume. So, that is your break through time
and that is 𝑡𝑝 . So, that is first appears of tracer are the exits. So, you know and you know
you can get these different you know fractions. So, once you get the 𝑡𝑝 where the first
appearance of tracer is recorded, from there you know you can get the plug volume.
𝑣𝑝 𝑡𝑝
So, that is this is 𝑣𝑝 not 𝑣𝑑 . So, basically this is 𝑣𝑝 . So, will be . Now you know that
𝑣 𝜏
this is theoretical mean residence time. Now what we do is that once you have the
theoretical mean residence time defined and once you calculate the actual mean residence
𝑡
time, so the dead volume will be computed as 1 − 𝑟 . So, basically we calculate that as the
𝜏
dead region because any you know fluid particles is taking more time than the mean
residence time, they are said to be the dead regions you know and that is indicative of those
zones which are not effectively being you know they are not in the indicating the effective
utilization of the whole volume of the tundish.
So, once you get these dead volume and the plug volume, then the you know difference I
mean some of these values and then you take 1 minus that value that will be talking about
the fraction of the mixed volume. So, you have three kind of generally volume component
inside the tundish; you have a plug volume, dead volume and mixed volume. So, plug
volume will be that volume as we have already discussed that it will go without interfering
with other things.
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So, it will be go quietly and it will be quite flow and then you have the dead volume. So,
dead volume as you see that in the case of dead volume you have that indicates that this is
actually it should be minimum. So, if it is minimum in that case your mixed volume will
be higher that indicates the mixing you know capability of the tundish inside. So, because
that is required to have a homogeneous temperature inside the tundish and also you know
the proper you know if something is you know coming suppose through the tundish you
know if there will be no you know mixing or you know tendency, what happens that if
some inclusion comes inside and if they directly go by short circuiting process towards the
outlet, so it will go to the mold.
Now in this case if you are trying to have a loop inside the tundish, there will be chance
that this inclusion will be having a tendency to float up. So, that is also another way of
another way which we in which we can see that how you can increase you know the
productivity of the tundish. So, coming to the results.
So, if you first see the velocity vectors as we have seen earlier, so you have a you know
the outlet plane and on this if you see the velocity vectors. So, what you see that on this
outlet which is near to the inlet, your velocities quite high. It will come and then it has also
the tendency to go up and then it is moving like this.
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So, this is you know through all the outlets at now in this case we have also changed the
position. So, that is why we have 2 and 3. So, position will be one as you have seen earlier
that position 1 2 and 3 can be seen earlier if you see the results. So, in that case it will be
shown here.
This is a position 1 is close to the wall, 2 is in away from the wall and 3 is near the inlet
plane itself. So, that way you have these three positions just to show you know what you
see that in position 1 this which is close to the wall what you see it is going towards the
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wall on the top and then, it is moving from there. As we move away from the wall a little
bit to position 2, then what you see that you will you see a type of you know loops also is
shown and you know it is very evident that you have larger velocities in this zone which
is closer to the inlet and this is near the inlet plane.
So, as you see further the velocity near the inlet is quite high. It is becoming closer to the
inlet plane you know along the length direction. So, you see that there will be changes in
these velocity vectors. This Q can you know draw. Now once you draw you do the you
know transient analysis you are having the tracer concentration for some time going
through the inlet and then you stop it after the after some time. In that case you are getting
the concentration of concentration variation with time at position 1.
Now position 1 is you know as you see this is near to the you know inlet. So, near to the
of this wall this side. So, what you see that now you can see this is a called so-called C
curve. So, this is you know concentration with time. So, as it is known as C curve, now
what you see that this is you know out one out 1 is away from the inlet and out, 3 is close
to the inlet.
So, out 3 close to the inlet were to see there is a large increase in the dimensionless
concentration peak and then immediately so it is at no time you see these values and then
it has start decreasing and then it is slowly decreasing and moving towards you know these
as you move towards the time.
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Now the thing is that you know we take up to two times of dimension less time and we do
the analysis. So, what we see that this larger you know peak means that there is a short
circuiting being taken place and whatever is coming through the inlet, it is in no time, it is
just reaching most of the part most of you know it is just going through the outlet.
So, that is swing shown by a very large peak in that concentration value similarly as we
see for the second outlet. So, what happens that the fluid will be entering striking at the
wall bottom and then it will move. So, it will be some passing move will be through the
near outlet and then some will move. So, so from here you can see some lag is there from
here it is at zero time, it is increasing and here it is maximum. Now here it is delayed
because it is farther or somewhat farther from the outer edges closer to near.
Now, in this case it starts little late and you see that your peak also is somewhat you know
positively at very smaller value. This is indicative of the you know some of some amount
of the plug volume and in this case as you see you might recall that if you talk about a pure
you know mixed flow, the pure mixed flow will be like this and the plug will be like this.
So, as you see here do you see you know in this case like this. So, basically you have this
is the plug component and from here you go for the mixed components is this. So, you
know as the peak will be increasing. As the other will be higher and higher peak values, it
is indicating of the poor mixing capability of the tundish and large numbers of circuiting
is being taken place and your dead volumes in that case will be likely to be higher because
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the active metal which is coming from the tundish, it is not able to move with higher
velocity towards the remote places inside the tundish.
So, you can see that you will have a large peak here and for you know outlet 2, it is smaller
than outlet 3, it has taken a large delay. So, and then what you see is that is quite a good
mixing characteristic is being shown slowly, it is coming down. So, you know so that is
indicative of now because of this you will have the different value of the mean residence
time for the you know three outlets, but we take the average of them.
So, if you change the outlet position somewhat away from the you know wall, in that case
that is how you see that this the earlier peak which was 8 you know it was not close to the
wall. Once you have taken away from the wall, it has come down to close to 6. So, and
then your. this is your 6 you know C curve for the other two outlets which looks like this.
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So, if you have far further changing towards the inlet plane you see that is even smaller
and then that is how, so you find the value of the mean residence time in these cases and
you just see that how much because 1 minus mean residence time actual divide by exist
mean residence time theoretical will give you the dead volume region which should be
minimum you know.
So, if you go to find the variation of the ratio of mix to dead volume, now after this what
we do is that we calculate the you know mixed or dead volume. So, that will be on minus
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actual mean residence time divided by critical mean residence time, then you also calculate
the plug volume.
So, that will be indicative of the breakthrough time. So, when you have the first appearance
of tracer which is being appearing and then accordingly you will have the calculation of
the mixed volume also. So, once you know the 𝑉𝑚 and 𝑉𝑝 , you get the mixed volume and
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
you for a for the blending in terms of fraction we can have a . You can have 𝑉 , I mean
𝑉𝑑 𝑑
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
. In fact, we calculate as is one of the parameter you know which tells that we try to
𝑉 𝑉𝑑
increase 𝑉𝑚 and we try to reduce 𝑉𝑑 .
So, that will be representing a larger amount of you know mixing inside the tundish and it
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
is more desirable feature in that case. So, you will have and 𝑉 . Also we can plot and
𝑉𝑑 𝑑
𝑉𝑚
we try to increase this value of and in this case we have tried to show that how there will
𝑉𝑡
𝑉𝑚
be variation in the case of you know and how their ratio is going to you know change.
𝑉𝑑
𝑉𝑚
So, larger value of 𝑉𝑑
is largely desirable for tundish because it will be indicative of the
larger you know mixed zone and the smaller you know dead zone inside tundish.
So, you have values of mix as you see that once you change the outlet position is at 50
second is at about 200 and third is about 350 or so 300.
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So, in that case what you see is an intermediate position you get this value as the maximum.
Similarly, you have mean residance time also what you see that is a maximum. So, that is
you know so what we saw that at position 2, you can have the maximum value of the
mixing parameter calculation.
So, to have you know better characteristics in terms of mixed dead volume by altering the
flow behavior as we had discussed in our last lecture that we use certain type of you know
flow modifiers and in this case, we have used the advanced pouring box as we had just
shown and what is shown is that which usually advanced pouring box of a height of 90
mm. In that case it was the reported that you know you see now when you use the advanced
pouring box and you see out 3 is the one which is close to the inlet.
In that earlier case it had gone close to 6, but it has now come down to close to 3 or so, not
even less than 3. It indicates that when you pour it now you put a barrier before the near
outlet before they have 3 in this case, then the fluid goes and it will go into the other part
of the tundish fast and what you see that you also see a breakthrough time increased. In
the earlier case, it has started from here, but in this case you start from here and there is
also delay on this and as well as on this ah.
So, it means the first appearance of the tracer is delayed. So, that tells you the plug volume
also and the lower peak will be indicative of the larger you know a smaller dead volume
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and ultimately, you get larger mixing parameters mixed dead volume and mean residence
time. So, then even you can change the height of the APB. So, that was also changed.
And as you see that once you change the height it was for somewhat increased in this
value.
And further increased it will give you a larger value, but then the value of the mean
residence time and we mixed mix to dead volume will be more indicative of what is the
mixing parameters that can be computed.
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And you can also see the change in the velocity field.
So, when you use the advanced pouring box, so you can see that you will have the more
you know velocity moving towards the upper side and then, it is moving. You will have
some recirculation also it tells that in homogenization and mixing also of the fluids. So,
that is a good indication and it shows that your mixing is improved in this case.
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So, that is shown with these you know three types of the heights.
And if you look at the variation of the ratio of mixed dead volume, what is shown is that
at the middle you know height your mix dead volume ratio is said to be you know better,
although that was having the you know the peak was somewhat higher for one of the outlet,
but otherwise if you look at the overall calculation of the mean residence time, it was larger
in that case and then the dead volume was smaller.
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So, that is why in this case you get a better variation of the you know the mean residence
time.
So, you see that for the smaller and for the larger height, it was small mean residence time
whereas, it was more for the medium height.
Then there can be study on the shroud immersion. As we discussed if you do the shroud
immersion from the inlet, so accordingly you will have you have to do the analysis, every
time you have to find the concentration and time and from there you have to calculate these
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you know mixed dead volume, you know function of the shroud immersion depth and that
is for the different positions you can have these volumes.
So, that we what we see that what this should be the optimum shroud immersion and that
also can be computed.
With shroud immersion how the; you know velocity fields are changing. So, that can also
be seen that you know immersion depth of a with no immersion, this is how the APB with
a height of 210mm.
454
But if you do the immersion, then how the velocity field is changing?
455
So, they before the velocity field which will be seen with these different immersion depths
and once you immersion, so it shows that how the velocity is velocity field is seen changing
with the box. So, that can be seen.
So, what we see ultimately that when you do the analysis of fluid flow, then and you do
the tracer disposal analysis with that. You can have the calculation or these missing
parameters different you know volume components inside tundish like plug missed and
dead zones inside the tundish which is showing the effectiveness of the tundish.
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Lecture - 35
Non- Isothermal Flow Consideration in Tundish
Welcome to the lecture on Non-Isothermal Flow Considerations in Tundish. So, we talked

about so far the mixing and you know related phenomena inside the tundish and in that we
did not consider the you know isothermal flow considerations.
Especially that happens when there will be change in the density and because of that you
know you will have the change in that source term. So, especially it will be we will be
talking about those conditions when you will have the natural convection type of
conditions will be occurring, you know when we solve the energy equations.
So, how those things need to be taken into account and which are those dimensionless
numbers which are required to be kept in mind while we talk about the similarity
conditions. So, in this lecture we are going to discuss about that.
Now before that we have already discussed that we try to maintain the you know
similarities. We have the you know geometric similarity, we have kinematic similarity, we
have dynamic similarity.
So, we come across you know the different conditions we have you know we get so
especially we get the Reynolds similarity as well as the Froude similarity. Because of the
you know different type of forces which whose ratios we try to keep same you know
between the model and the prototype. So, based on that we you know come across few
you know dimensionless numbers: one is Reynolds number another is Froude number.
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So, Reynolds similarity, it will be important in laminar flows; however, it becomes less
important when there is turbulence. So, and also what happens that in the water modeling
when we do the isothermal flow conditions, In those cases you know the that three forces
which are mainly there; inertial and gravitational and viscous forces.
So, that gravitational force will be not affecting that you know flow field. So, what happens
we have seen that using that two similarities, if you maintain the Reynolds similarity, you
have you know if you try to maintain both of them then you have to keep the you know
the model and prototype size as the same, so that is what we have studied earlier.
But Froude similarity criteria what is you know to be noted is that it will be giving a
convenient method of modeling the melt flow and aspects of inclusion coalescence and
flotation in the tundish. Because you know whenever you have those considerations, where
you have the buoyant effects into considerations in those cases this so, the effect of
gravitation will be there.
So, in those cases when you do the inclusion you know flotation kind of modeling and all
that in those cases these Froude similarity criteria will be providing a convenient method,
because the particle inclusion particle which is going inside, now, that you know is
subjected to these buoyant forces and also when we talk about the temperature conditions,
when we talk about the you know difference in the temperature because of the either the
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heat transfer, or the you know like you know or the different temperature of the inlet stream
from the ladle.
So, when that comes, so in the continuous casting tundish steelmaking many a times your
conditions may become you know non isothermal. So, because the temperature may not
remain, the constant temperature may change. And these non isothermal you know nature
of that flow it may be due to the heat losses that is taking place from the top surface through
the walls, through the bottoms.
So, from all these places you have these heat transfer taking place heat losses being taken
place. And also in certain cases what we see that the temperature of the inlet stream which
is coming into the tundish. So, even that may be you know that may vary from the from
heat to heat.
So, suppose in one case the ladle has emptied and in that case the ladle is moving out and
another ladle will be coming. So, the ladle which is coming now that is the new ladle that
may have the different temperature. And you know or maybe with time in the same heat
also the temperature may change because the ladle is continuously you know giving the
liquid metal and slowly in the end there may be change in the temperature.
Now, because of these change in temperature there are certain changes, there are certain
considerations need to be taken, certain similarities need to be maintained and what are
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those you know extra terms which come into picture when we non dimensionalize these
you know governing equations especially the Navier-Stokes equation, or the temperature
equation. So, that will be basically interesting to know.
So, there may be difference in the temperature of the inlet stream from the ladle and that
of the molten steel which is present in the tundish. So, that is what I told you that there
may be difference in that temperature, which is already there in the tundish and that in you
know when the metal is coming from the new ladle.
So, there will be changes in the temperature and this change in temperature is basically
you know that will be affecting these flow structures, flow patterns inside the tundish. And
they will be different than the isothermal conditions and that may be you know this is quite
possible during that continuous casting process because you know in that you have
continuous movement of liquid steel and you have continuous changing and changing of
the ladles.
So, you know so in that case, you need to you know satisfy these thermal similarity in
addition to the geometric and the dynamic similarity. And for that basically you need to
you know see those criteria’s that how you will manage that. So, what happens that if you
go for the momentum balance equation for the you know turbulent flow you know
conditions.
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𝜕(𝜌𝑣𝑖 )
So, for that your equation becomes like you have and then you have the convective
𝜕𝑡
𝜕(𝜌𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑗 )
term. So, you have .
𝜕𝑥𝑗
So, that is your convective term then on this side other side you have the diffusive term.
𝜕
So, you will have 𝜕𝑥 and then you have the being the you know turbulent, you know flow
𝑗
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
you get the effective value of the 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 . And then you have 𝜕𝑥𝑖 + 𝜕𝑥𝑗.
𝑗 𝑖
𝜕𝑝
And then you get the pressure term that is 𝜕𝑥 . and then an extra term which you get will
𝑖
be because of the change in the density you know as the temperature will change. So, that
will be 𝜌 − 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 and then it will be multiplied with 𝑔𝑖 .
So, this is the extra term which is basically this will be accounting for the buoyancy term,
buoyancy force that will be per unit volume. So, you have all these you know terms we
have already seen that these are you know these what are these different terms which what
they indicate and all that.
So, you know so 𝜌 − 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 that will be your change in the density. Now if for the fluid if
the beta is the coefficient of thermal expansion, so, if β is coefficient of thermal expansion
of the fluid, in that case what happens that you can express you know β will be you know
nothing but you know the change of the density.
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1 𝜕𝜌
So, you will have − 𝜌 (𝜕𝑇)𝑝 , so, at constant pressure. So that is what you know the
𝑟𝑒𝑓.
expression for beta will be thermal expansion of the fluids that is at constant pressure.
Now, if you have very small variation in the density, so then you can write because that
way you will have 𝜌 − 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 e here. So, this 𝜌 − 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 will be −β(𝜌 − 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 )∆𝑇.
So, for small variation in density you can write this is 𝜌 − 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 and this will be basically
−β𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∆𝑇. So, that is what you can write when you have the very small variation in the
density.
Now, we can write in place of the 𝜌 − 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 we can write this −β𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∆𝑇𝑔𝑖 . So, that term
will come here and.
𝜕(𝜌𝑣𝑖 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑗 ) 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
So, accordingly we will write the equation + = 𝜕𝑥 [𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝜕𝑥 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑥𝑗)] −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑖
𝜕𝑝
− −β𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∆𝑇𝑔𝑖 .
𝜕𝑥𝑖
So, that is what you get when you incorporate this term because of the change in density
that buoyancy term.
Now, if you write this equation for the temperature, so, for the conservation of thermal
𝜕(𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑇) 𝜕(𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑣𝑗 ) 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
energy our equation will be becoming + = 𝜕𝑥 (𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝑥 ). S
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑗 𝑗
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So, this is again the effective thermal conductivity it will be for the molecular as well as
for the eddy component in the case of turbulent flow. So, that is what these two together
they will be governing the dynamics of the flow inside the tundish.
Now if we try to you know write, so before that we will have the also the boundary
condition and the boundary condition at the inlet will be T. So, that is T is a 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 that will
be your boundary condition. Now, if we try to write the dimensionless form of this
equation, so, your both the equations can be dimensionally in the dimensionless manner it
will be written, and few non dimensional parameters will be you know propping up in that
case. So, if you try to write the non dimensional form of this equation, so you will have
again the equation coming up.
𝜕(𝜌∗ 𝑣𝑖 ∗ ) 𝜕(𝜌∗ 𝑣𝑖 ∗ 𝑣𝑗 ∗ ) 𝜕 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑝∗ β𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐿 ∆𝑇𝑔𝑖

So, + = 𝜕𝑥 [𝜌 ( 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑥𝑗∗ )] − 𝜕𝑥 ∗ − − .
𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝜕𝑥𝑗 ∗
𝑗 𝑟𝑒𝑓. 𝑉𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗𝑗 𝑖 𝑖 𝑉2
.So, if you non-dimensionalize these equations, so, this 𝑣 2 term will be coming here and
then this is one of the another number that we will discuss that what is and that which is
what are those things which are coming to picture. Then if you do the non
dimensionalization of the thermal equation thermal energy equation, so, that will
𝜕(𝜌∗ 𝑇 ∗ ) 𝜕(𝜌∗ 𝑇 ∗ 𝑣𝑗 ∗ ) 𝜕 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝑇
becoming + = 𝜕𝑥 (𝜌 ).
𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝜕𝑥𝑗 ∗
𝑗 𝑟𝑒𝑓. 𝑐𝑝 𝑣𝐿 𝜕𝑥𝑗
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So, this way you will have these two equations as the one. So, we are basically non
𝑇−𝑇0
dimensionalizing the equation 𝑇 ∗ . So, we are taking that as 𝑇 . So, that is how you
𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 −𝑇0
get these non dimensionalizing of the equation. So, you must have some idea about it.
So, we are getting you know non dimensional you know numbers and what that non
𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓
dimensional group which we are getting from here? One is the 𝜌 . So, this is nothing
𝑟𝑒𝑓. 𝑉𝐿
𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓. 𝑉𝐿
but if you look at this , so, that is the reciprocal of the you know Reynolds number.
𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓
So, and also it is effective values this is for the turbulent flow. So, this is nothing but the
𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓
reciprocal of the turbulent Reynolds number here. If you look at so you will have 𝜌 .
𝑟𝑒𝑓. 𝑉𝐿
So, this is you know indicative of the turbulent Reynolds number. Similarly, if you look
β𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∆𝑇𝐿𝑔𝑖
at the further you know a number what you see, this number .
𝑉2
So, if you look at this number, this is another number which we are getting this
dimensionless group and this is suggested by the researcher Damle and Sahai. So, they got
you know they have invented this number and that number is known as the you know
Richardson number and this is basically known as the tundish Richardson number. So, that
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓
is indicated by 𝑇𝑢 , then you if you look at this number 𝜌 .
𝑟𝑒𝑓. 𝑐𝑝 𝑣𝐿
So, if you look at this, this is nothing but if you look at this is the reciprocal of so this will
𝜌𝐶𝑝
be one is and then you will have. So, it is basically it can be taken as the reciprocal of
𝑘
the product of the Prandtl, turbulent Prandtl number and turbulent Reynolds number.
So, basically you know what you see that these three numbers you know come into picture
when we tried to you know study these non isothermal you know conditions in the case of
the tundish flow.
β𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐿∆𝑇𝑔𝑖
Now, this number , so, as we discussed, so it is nothing but it is the ratio of the
𝑉2
buoyancy force to the you know inertia force, and that is why this number is you know it
is taken to be the number which whose which is very much considered for maintaining the
similarity when we are talking about the you know non isothermal conditions in the
tundish.
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So, you know this number that ratio of the buoyancy force to the inertia force, so that needs
to be you know that is tundish Richardson number so, Damle and Sahai they told that under
these conditions, if you maintain that similarity if these are taken as that criteria and in that
case you know the flow behavior which is predicted driven by the water modeling, so, it
may be treated as the similar ones you know as you know will be done experimentally, or
with the you know RTD investigations.
So, that is what you know that this is needs to be considered especially in the case of the
natural convection, or the non isothermal case especially the you will see when you do the
modeling. In those cases you will see that as compared to the non isothermal case you will
have the changes in you know these flow fields, when you have you will see that there will
be change in the temperature. So, when you do that you know case study, when you are
doing the case of suppose little change over process, or you know even in during that
process itself when you are doing the transient analysis in those cases as the time
progresses and if that temperature will be changing.
So, because of that there will be change in the density and that may lead to the you know
change in the flow field that needs to be you know considered.
Now as I was discussing that you know why what where those you know findings which
were suggested by the Damble and Sahai basically. So, they have they investigated you
know on the water mid modeling as well as on the you know numerical investigation also,
and they found that why because why we are talking about these you know even turbulent
conditions.
So, when they did the experimental studies on two kind of the tundish and the one of the
tundish was taken bigger another was taken the smaller one, and then accordingly they did
the you know water modeling studies. So, they did the pulse input.
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So they have shown that they took two cases, one was A, and another was B. And A was
60 percent of B in size. So, that is what was the case and they varied the you know flow
rates in the two cases and B was, so as you see that B was larger. And they changed they
did that pulse input study for a range of the you know flow rates which is in flow rate into
the tundish. And then they found the studies and now what was seen that for A, and B you
know normally the RTD curve was seen to be very close.
So, basically suppose if you talk about the work which is done by the Damle and Sahai,
so, they have taken the suppose As length was supposed 0.8 meter, and B’s length was
1.35 meter, so it was basically 60 percent. So, L is ratio of the length is 0.8.
Similarly you have the depth or the width they also have, so in all these length cases you
have that you know λ is taken and then you have so, when they did in that case what they
saw that as we discussed that you will have in both the cases they are getting the you know
so, they have done for many cases and actually they got the flow fields you know very
close like that.
So, when the flow rate you know or the you know it was changed from 0.13 to 0.76 liter
per second. So, this was for A and the you know top height is going close to 0.58 or so this
is 0.6. So, dimensionless concentration was measured and this is time, so this is
dimensionless time and this is dimensionless concentration.
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So, what they found that this is a time of supposed 0.5, then 1, 1.5, then you have 2. So,
like that it may go up to 3, so 2.5 and all 3. So, for A they have got and for B also they got
you know similar type of you know curve its going like that, except for so they have got
that range in which all these 0.132.
So, in that case you know they have seen. So, it was varied from 0.13 to 0.88 liter per
second, but only for the case of 0.13 liter per second, that they saw that this is for 0.13 liter
per second. So, what they saw that you know when you are tundish is bigger and you are
keeping the you know flow rate as the minimum one, in that case only otherwise these
ranges were the same.
So, the on these you know RTD’s here it was even closer to each other here they were
somewhat spares, but only one of the line which is the for the minimum of the flow, so,
that was seen to be you know having a larger peak little bit and the peak was observed to
occur little early. And then it was you know going into so it was a decreasing and
ultimately it has matched with the line later.
Now, this was only seen, and now the reason for this could be attributed to the prevalence
of the non turbulent conditions. Because you have a larger tundish and this is for 0.25, 0.88
liter per second so that was the value. So, that may be because of the you know the laminar
type of flow condition which might have been the cause for this changes. So, that is what
was basically found by these researchers.
So, you know so thus to tell you that you know these water modeling as well as the
mathematical modeling results have been proved to be matching with each other you know
when the flow is turbulent, so in those cases they seem to be you know be validating each
other.
So, that is basically the experimental work can be used as validation for the numerical
investigation, if you are doing further you know on a particular geometry. So, that is you
know these are the considerations that needs to be taken when you are going for the water
modeling in the case of non isothermal you know conditions. So, we will talk about other
aspects in the tundish flow in our coming lectures.
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Lecture – 36
Intermixing in Tundish
Welcome to the lecture on Intermixing in Tundish. So, when we talk about the tundish
flow, so in the plants the tundish will be used as a buffer reservoir and the ladle will be
pouring in the liquid steel into the tundish and from the tundish, the metal will be
continuously delivering be delivered to the respective molds.
So, the you know, so once the one of the ladle which is bringing the liquid steel from the
steel melting soap, so that once that you know finishes in that case you will have the
another ladle waiting in line and the one ladle will be you know leaving that spot and
another ladle will be pouring in the liquid metal. So, it will start pouring.
Now, there is a time lag between these two processes and that is why that results into
certain downgrading of the steel that is known as the intermixing, so that is intermixed
grade. So, you know during ladle changeover process, new grade intermixing to old grade
it will be mixing to the old grade
So, you know that can be understood by you know.
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So, you will have the tundish and you will have the inlet here. So, one of the ladle; so this
is ladle you know 1 and another ladle will be ladle 2, so that will be waiting. So, it gets
you know it will be pouring in the liquid steel to the tundish and tundish from here it is
going to the different you know mold. So, this is your continuous casting mold.
Now, the thing is that when this is gets over, so this has to be taken away and this is brought
here. So, it has the liquid steel. Now, what happens that there may be change of the grades
from here to you know in this case from, so between these two steel. Thing is that normally
when you are casting the similar grades in those cases, when you are casting those similar
grades in that case there is no such problem, however there may be variation in the grades.
Now, when that varies in that case you know normally your tundish operates at a constant
level because the free surface area of the tundish is very high and you know the level of
difference is small. Although that also you know has effect and that is your residual volume
which is there inside the tundish, so that there will be change that is expected in that case.
Now, the thing is that when suppose it has gone up to certain you know height and then,
you have brought in the another steel, so this is steel which is going inside it will be mixed
with. So, it will be going and it will be mixing with the steel which is already there of this
ladle inside the tundish. So, it will be mixing and now this new grade of steel, the steel
which will be coming out it will be of neither this composition or this composition, but it
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will be in between them because there will be some amount of this steel and stand. There
will be so large amount of this initially of this ladle and a smaller amount from this ladle.
And slowly you know its composition, the steel which was already there, it will be
depleting and then you have the new ladle steel which will be replacing that old ladle steel.
So, in this case this is known as the, now what you get the steel in between for that time
that is known as the intermixed grade steel and its composition will be neither of the ladle
1 nor of the ladle 2. So, many a times this is considered to be a downgraded steel and its
value will be normally smaller than the normal you know steel.
So, what is done is you know in the industry? So, as we see that composition of this mixed
grade is different, so there is less demand of this mixed grade and that is process. This
process is known as Grade Intermixing or they are intermixing with each other, they are
mixing among each other. So, how to you know avoid these intermixing intermixed
grades? There are certain ways by which basically you can avoid these intermixed grades.
So, one is the stopping the caster and then you will have the. So, stopping the custard
means you completely stop the caster, so you and then further you use it. So, in that case
you can completely stop the formation of intermixed grades, but then you will have your
continuity is over you do not have the you know continuous process of casting. So, and
then because there is a large amount of you know involvement of the energy and all that,
there are many bottlenecks when you start. So, all these are there when you do this take
this process.
Then you can have the flying tundish change, so that is also another way by which you can
change that and then you can start the work. There is another also way that is you know
use of great separator plate. So, there will be a plate which will be separating that grade.
So, the older grade will be allowed to leave first and then, you remove that plate and then
you allow the next grade to go. So, these are basically and the way, but they are not
practical keeping the continuity of the process in mind. These processes are not you know
viable, they cannot be think of a practical you know substitute.
So, the thing is that in the industries you will have to continue and also, you will have you
know not much of the control on changing other parameters like maybe the control in the
flow rate or maybe the residual volume amount of the steel which was there in the tundish
already. So, these you know things are the may be they may be thought of and that is why
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in normal case we go for the normal ladle changeover. So, you just change the ladle and
then, the liquid steel will come and it will start pouring the liquid steel into the tundish.
Now, this process is expected to give you the maximum amount of intermixing grade steel,
but you can certainly reduce by either by altering the flow field or by controlling other
parameters like residual volume which is there or maybe that you change the flow rate you
know ingoing or out going. So, that may have the effect on the intermixed amount volume.
So, what we do is this is how the intermixed amount is calculated. Now, this is how you
get this graph. So, we have talked about the you know getting the RTD curve. So, that is
that you solve these the continuity equation, the restore equation and then after that you
solve the you know concentration equation in the transient manner. So, that is what we
have already studied.
Now, in the case of the when you solve the concentration equation, so we use the tracer.
And tracer for tracer we can use many things like you used dye or you can have you know
NaCl or so the salt or dye, all these things are used as the tracer in the you know water
modeling. And we while we talk about the RTD you know curve that is your C curve, so
that is basically because of the pulse inputs. So, there you allow the that input for some
time and otherwise the flow is going on.
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So, in that case you get C type of curve, the RTD curve. What we do is we normally take
that new grade steel as tracer itself, so that you know replaces the old grade. So, your
concentration you know means whole liquid. So, that will be stopped and next will be the
tracer amount only.
Now, that will go into the tundish and slowly in that case it will go on, so it has to increase
you know continuously because the now the old steel is not going into the tundish. Only
the new grade steel is going into the tundish. So, slowly you know after some time, it will
start appearing and then slowly it is increasing and as you see at some amount of time the
this concentration is reaching close to 1. So, you know 1 means its it has this is the
concentration of the new you know grade.
Now, the there are grade specification that is 10 is to 60 what I mean to say because if you
say that if the new steel is you know has more than 10 percent and less than 60 percent, so
in between when you have the mixing, so the old steel should not be more than 10 percent
and new steel should not be less than 60 percent like that. So, there may be different
criterias, you have stringent lenient criterias and all that. So, based on that you can have a
you know amount of calculation.
So, basically the thing is that in that time whatever amount of steel is coming out that may
be you know a downgraded quality of steel and that needs to be rejected. So, what you do
is that by plotting this graph you see that for how much of the time which can be measured
on these ordinate axis. So, that will be multiplied with the flow rate. So, that will be giving
you the amount of the steel which is going to be of the intermediate grade and that may be
removed
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So, that is why you know now we have done certain work that you can refer and you can
also see that you have a tundish, you have in one inlet and you have three outlets and you
use the advance put in box are there the flow modifier, this nozzle bath height and all that
are there.
So, even experimental work can be done. So, and then accordingly you can have the you
know see you can you can see that how they are you know behaving, how these things are
captured, how the measurement is being done.
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So, if you try to do the modeling physically what you have to do is, you have to have two
ladles and you have a flow meter and then, you have the inlet nozzle here. So, you allow
these liquid steel to allow, so you will have the two type of fluid and one you can you
know color and another you can be it can be white or so or different color.
So, normally we one is water and another is the tracer that is salted solution or the dye,
then we allow this and once it is reaching up to certain height, both height. So, at steady
state it will be the flow will be going on and then what you do is you stop this part and
allow the liquid you know watered may be allowed to be this part. So, and you have the
conductivity meters which is fit at these outlets and that they are basically measured with
the help of this data logger. So, you have a conductivity meters by that you measure the
outlet and that is being you know measured.So, that is how this concentration comes.
So, at our different outlets you will have different lines. So, at the near outlet it will start
maybe somewhere slow and at the far outlets which is far from the inlet and that may
appear little late, so that you mean see. And then from all the outlets you can measure, so
what is the intermixed amount being calculated and that can be you know accordingly you
can have the decisions the plant may have decisions what to do with that kind of
intermediate grade of steels.
So, this is just showing one example of these Tracer dispersion and what you can see that
this is the experiment. So, you gave the you know this is how the flow is going on with
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water and then you started, you giving tracer. So, what you see that after you know after
some time when you put that tracer continuously, so it is taking and it is all going and
taking that in 168 seconds and you know that can be even understood with the help of the
expiry of the simulation also. So, that is seen that how it is progressing, how the tracer has
to proceed and in how much time it is how going. So, that can be seen using the CFD
simulation also.
So, that tells you that when you do the physical modeling it will be giving you a sense that
how the tracer is going to due to diffusion, how with their concentration will be going to
change.
Now, this is how the validation work is done and what validation means you got the work
from the you know from the experiment and similarly you got the work from the you know
the from your work that is simulation and on from the experiment.
So, what you see normally that this is how there will be some matching and mismatching
between these experiments, but they say you know for these two near and as well as the
middle you see that the there is a match at which it starts and then finally, you will have
also in between you will be so having some matching and then that is how it is showing.
So, this way you can do the validation also by controlling all these parameters and having
different conditions.
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Now, as I told you that there may be different criteria’s which may be used to calculate
that intermixed length. So, you know you because in the in the plants there may be
situations when you will have the possibility of casting two grades which are very much
different from each other. And many a times you will have those situations when they are
not very much different from each other. So, you will have the stringent requirements you
know and on both the sides you have stringent requirements that suppose 10:90 means any
you know of any one if it is more than 10 percent, then that case it is rejected like that so
10:90.
So, similarly you have different you know requirements which needs to be fulfilled to
minimize those intermixed grades. So, that needs to be kept in mind while calculating that
intermixed amount. So, you know so depending upon that; that is what it is said that how
much it is being contaminated by old or new grades. Based on that you know you will have
those two points on the F curve and then you have to take that time you know duration and
for that whatever is you know getting flowing that needs to be removed.
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So, there has been you know certain results for the different cases like inflow rate was
changed.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:52).
So, now what was seen that inflow rate if you change from 2.35 meter per second to say
3.92 meter per second. So, how you know these you know how these amount intermixed?
Amount is changing, how the graph is changing? Suppose this is your near outlet and in
this case also you have this is a near outlet.
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So, if you look at these two curves you see the difference with the change in the inflow
rate. And also with the bare tundish and also tundish with APB when you use the advanced
pouring boxes in those cases what will be the change. So, that also can be you know
calculated you know in such cases.
So, that can be calculated. So, once you you know calculate for a particular kind of grade
specification suppose for 10:60 for 20:80 or 40:60 grade specification, these data’s can be
you know calculated and they tell that if you go for case 1, you know where the you know
flow of the velocity was same and in this case flow was you know increase in case 2. Case
3 was you know further increased.
So, in those cases what is going to happen? So, you know as you see in this case you will
have the bare tundish is this one and you will have tundish with APB. So, in the bare case
as you see for 10:60 grade specification as it can be seen here for the near outlet. As you
have this case once you use the advance, put in box advance the intermixing amount is
increasing.
So, what do you see that if you use these APBs, your inter mixing time is basically
increasing does not help much the intermixed amount. It is basically because of the sense
that when you use these boxes you know otherwise it will go there will not be any mixing.
So, what you expected that if you use you know the if you go for the normal tundish, so
the old steel will be flushed first and then the new steel will come.
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Whereas, if you use this flow modifiers, both will mixed first and in that case you are
intermixed amount will go on increasing. So, that is what is evident you know at each of
the outlet in the bare tundish and the tundish with the APBs. And as you see that when you
take these different cases, in those cases you are like in 10:60, you get the maximum of
these in intermixing amount, you know in this case of the near outlet like that. So, that will
be your values of, now in this case it is this itself is a smaller one, so it is minimum in this
case. This is the linear ladle grade, it is you know hardly it is about 7 or so and in this case
it is close to 16 or so.
So, what you see that this is being a you know somewhat this 10 is stringent to 1. So, that
is why your amount is higher in this case 20:80 as you see in this case we say it is quite
higher. So, that is going up to maybe close to 30 and close to 50, so in the case of the
APBs. So, that is the result which is observed when you use the advanced putting boxes
type of flow modifiers. So, that increases basically the intermixed amount.
So, and also what you see that when you go from case 1 to 2, 2 to 3 in that case the
intermixed amount also is seen to you know decrease in this case when you take the 10 is
to 60. So, basically it all depends upon you know the kind of profile which you get the F
curve which you are getting you know when you do the mathematical modeling, when you
get the concentration you know which is they are monitored at the outlet.
So, how it is changing? Basically in normal case you know you as we have seen in normal
case you expect that it should move like this. So, this means that there will be no
intermixing and as you know as the this will be smaller and smaller in that case your
amount of intermixing will be increasing because same thing will take large amount of
time.
So, the thing is that you know depending upon the type of curve you know that amount of
intermixing will be changing and there may be many analysis based on the you know F
curve, you can analyze whether it is going to be ah you know decreasing the you know the
intermixed amount or the intermixed amount will be increasing. So, all these things can be
you know found out.
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This is the velocity vector which is you know showing that how you are increasing the you
know velocity for the three cases. In one case it is about 1.78, then it is increasing
accordingly.
So, this is about the species concentration that you can draw and you can see that with time
how your you know concentration is increasing. So, from inlet it is increasing towards the.
So, as the time is increasing how this tracer concentration is going to change after at the
time is progressing and you can see that if you increase the flow, then that case how it is
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changing. So, with APB and without APB as you see here it is there is changing that tracer
concentration which is observed.
Another study may be which has been done is you know on the residual volume of
intermixing. So, as we discussed that whatever amount is left over in the tundish that is a
residual volume. So, what is that amount and what is that its effect on the intermixed
amount? So, that may be kept smaller, it may be at a higher you know height and what is
the inlet velocity which you are maintaining, so that you can have the velocities value is
already there which is you know measured.
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So, if you what is that effect on the residual you know volume and the ones having the
residual volume means when the height is remaining at that particular volume fraction of
0.4 then you allow. In that case, when it is 0.6, then you allow or when it is at 0.8 of height
then you allow means when you are allowing the new grade of steel to fall at that time,
what is the height of the steel of that old component in the tundish.
So, that is what the residual volume fraction is and this way the curve looks like when you
will have the if you look at these velocities and these are the you know F curves for the
you know a middle outlet, near outlet and the far outlet when inflow velocity was point
2.35 meter per second. And the residual volume fractions are you know change, what you
see that when your residual volume fraction is minimum, in that case the slope is maximum
and when your slope is maximum in that case the chances of the intermixed amount will
be minimum.
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So, residual volume fraction if it is a smaller than a smaller that will be leading to the lower
value of the intermixed amounts, that is what is seen you know even with the use of APBs
also you can have that feeling.
Then that amount calculation also as you see it is smallest when your residual volume
fraction is less. So, in those cases you are likely to have the minimum of the intermixed
amount.
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So, this is again the residual. In those cases the concentration at the bottom wall of the
tundish which is shown and one is again the effect of outflow rate on the intermixing.
So, that way you know if you look at the inflow velocity that is a 2.35 meter that is constant
and your outflow velocity when you are changing two different values like 3, 4 and 5 meter
per second. So, in that case there may be change.
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So, basically thing is that you can have the different parameters changed and accordingly
you can calculate the intermixed amount. And you can suggest in the plant that if you
maintain this flow rate or if you have the proper selection of these of process parameters,
in those cases you are likely to have the minimum of the intermixed amount. And the
decrease in the value of intermixed amount will basically increase the productivity of the
plant.
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So, this study can be done you can you can work on this, you can have the you know results
and you can analyze them, you can even analyze based on the F curves because you have
you know as you see your typical F curve goes like this and it may go like this, it may go
like you know it may go like this.
Now, you see in all these cases you can be looking at this may go like this. By looking at
the curve itself you can have the idea in which case there will be maximum of the
intermixing. So, basically your you know slope higher that you see that will give you mix
from intermixed amount.
You see you might recall that when your slope will be smaller and this way when this is
pulse input now, in that case you tell that mixing is higher. In this case, when the slope is
higher in that case, you say that inter mixing will be minimum basically in that case
intermixing minimum, this will be intermixing will be maximum.
So, these studies depending upon even you can have the study based on the you know
depending upon the criteria and you can have the different zones and you can discuss about
the slope values in the different zones and you can analyze the amount of intermixed you
know intermixed amount formation. So, these studies can be calculated can be done to
have the analysis of the inter mixing process and you can do it.
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Lecture - 37
Modeling Considerations for Inclusion Removal in Tundish
Welcome to the lecture on Modeling Considerations for Inclusion Removal in Tundish.

So, we discussed about the various aspects, the way Tundish performs. And one of the
important you know work that is desired from Tundish is the inclusion removal. As we
know that in the continuous casting process the ladle will be delivering the steel to Tundish
and then from Tundish, it will go to the mold.
So, basically when you have, you know if this is the ladle and then as it from here it will
be going to the Tundish. So, you know this is your Tundish and then from here it will be
going to different molds.
So, basically you know the inclusions may be there in the Tundish that may come from
the ladle that may be formed also, because of the reaction products that may be formed,
because of the erosion from the you know Tundish lining. So, there may be you know
different regions you know, because of which there may will be inclusions that will be
there in the Tundish.
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The thing is that Tundish needs to be taken care of I mean Tundish needs to take care of
the inclusion in the way that if this is the last reservoir after that if the Tundish you know,
if that inclusions in the Tundish goes through this outlet and in the mold then it is likely
that it will go into the cast product and that will be you know permanent damage basically
that will be basically leading to the rejection of the product. So, this is the last reservoir
and that is why its function becomes very important that it should remove the inclusions
from here.
Now, as we know that the inclusions you know will be of normally, they will be of lighter
density then the, you know then the steel and they will have very fine sizes. So, in the
micrometer ranges, you know their sizes will be varying. So, they so, basically it is to be
understood that what are those mechanisms, what are those theory which will govern the
removal tendency of the inclusion or the flotation tendency of the inclusion, because this
inclusions you know depending upon the flow configuration inside the Tundish, they will
be it will be desirable that they float towards the top free surface and on the top free surface
they are likely to be trapped, because you have a slag layer. So, that may trap these
inclusions.
So, that is most likely else you know they may go and stick to the walls also depending
upon you know conditions which is prevailing inside the Tundish. So, basically you know
being lighter you know then the liquid which is there inside, it will be subjected to the
buoyancy and that force will be acting on it.
So, they will have the tendency to float up that is what we discussed in our last class also
that you know gravitational effect and the buoyancy effect will be very much applicable
in these cases,.
Then you know, so, you will have basically the, the way on the inclusions one will be
forced, because of the velocity of the existing liquid which is there in that it is there is you
know these particles. So, because of that fluid velocity component of the fluid another will
be, because of the rise velocity of the you know, this inclusion.
So, there are two components which will be responsible for you know it is you know; for
the so, they will be interacting each other they will be interacting on the inclusion particle.
And accordingly, you know in a resultant manner the inclusion will move inside the
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domain and then either they may go through the you know Tundish outlet or we will feel
that we will it will be desirable that it goes towards the top free surface.
So, we will talk about it now why it is. So, that is way we need to also do the modeling of
this we need to also develop the similarity criteria for that. We need to know the you know
the you know parameters which are of significance. How we should take the you know
density or you know how they, depending upon the scale factors how you know these
inclusions removal tendency can be predicted or can be modeled using water modeling or
even mathematical modeling.
So, that needs to be you know studied and there needs to be, you know some concept on
this topic. So, if you talk about you know the, studies of inclusions. So, what happens that
you know inclusions you will have the normally the nonmetallic inclusions and they will
be varying in sizes. And also that can be modeled by the water modeling technique also
you know, we can do in our laboratories where we make the Perspex, you know Tundish;
Tundish from Perspex seats.
And they are also we can think of having these inclusion particles, as you know either
these polyethylene particles or so, or maybe when isoline or so, that has been reported by
the researchers that these particles are used. And they have also size ranges so that can be
used for the study and people can you know inject it in the form of.
So, the simulation of the removal of inclusions in water model has been carried out with
different particles in the size range of 20 to 150 microns. So, that is reported in the book
written by Sahai and Emi.
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And they have reported that they have you know done also they have they have also done
these simulations. And there they have you know varies those size ranges from 20 to 150
microns.
Now, in that they have either given the continuous injection of these particles or maybe
the pulse injection. The purpose is that when they go inside you know their path will be
tracked normally. We also make it all different color so, that you can visualize the
movement of these inclusions and you know either there may be a pulse injection or the
continuous type of injection of these you know particles.
Then we need to know that what will be the; you know similarity criteria for these
appropriate simulation of the collisions and flotation behavior of non metallic inclusions
in tundishes.
So, that has been proposed by even Sahai and Emi and basically what happens that there
is the coalescence of the inclusion particles is also important, because they coalesce they
become bigger and then they float so, because the that tendency also depends upon the size
of the inclusion.
So, you know so, so for that you have the different criteria that needs to be you know
understood and especially as we discussed that we need to start from that velocity of fluid
for the model for the prototype similarly velocity of the rise, you know that is terminal rise
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velocity which it which it is assumed to you know go up all these inclusions inside the
domain so, that rise velocity. So, if you are doing for you know the water modeling so,
you have the fluid as water, if you do for the steel you will have the fluid is steel. So, you
have inclusions maybe for the prototype and for even for the model.
So, then that intensity difference what should be those density differences, what should be
the size differences, all these things. And what is its bearing on the you know inclusion
you know flotation behavior or inclusion of removal mechanism that we will try to
understand.
So, the normally these nonmetallic inclusions which we take you know they are lighter
than the molten steel which is found in the steel. And they will be once they go inside then
you know, you will they are and also they have the varying sizes. So,, and also they will
be rising with the stokes velocity.
So, these nonmetallic inclusions, so, they rise with stokes velocity. It is just assumed that
they rise with this absolute velocity. So, you have the velocity of the fluid also and then
you have the rise velocity. So, if you talk about the velocity of the fluid and in the
prototype, so, we call it as velocity of fluid in the prototype that is and in the prototype
tundish. Similarly, you will have the velocity of the rise in the prototype tundish.
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Similarly, velocity of fluid in the model and you will have a velocity of rise in the model.
So, you know so, this you will have the similarity of particle trajectories that is what you
would like to you know get. So, you would like to have this simulation in such a way that
the similarity of trajectories is also found and for that a condition needs to be satisfied and
𝑉𝑓,𝑚 𝑉𝑟,𝑚
that is that we you know . So, that should be same as .
𝑉𝑓,𝑝 𝑉𝑟,𝑝
So, basically velocity of the fluid you know and that is you know that and, and that that is
within the fluid. So, that and so, inclusion will be carried with this fluid velocity so, that
is 𝑉𝑓 𝑚 . And then you know 𝑉𝑓 𝑝 ’s that is for the prototype. So, this ratio should be same
as for the rise velocity for model as well as the prototype.
So, you know you will have furthermore certain assumptions and you will be assuming
that there will be Reynolds’ as well as the Froude similarity criteria being satisfied. And
you will be going for reduced scale you know model. And then what you see that you will
try to you have to go for the appropriate material of the inclusion which should be taken
as the inclusion material for the model, because for the prototype you know and you also
know the liquid that is steel. So, from there you know the changes in the density of the
inclusion as well as of the medium.
Similarly, when you know the density of the, you know working fluid in water modeling
that is water. Then accordingly, you can have you know you can have a thinking of over
what should be the, you know particle we should be taken for the water modeling studies.
Similar will be the size considerations. So, what should be the, the size of those particles
that should be you know maintained and so, that these you know criterions are satisfied.
So, if you take you know a reduce scale you know experiment so for a reduced scale
experiment.
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So, you know so, you based on these fraud similarity assumption. So, what you see in these
cases you get 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑝 √𝜆. So, that is what we have earlier seen that when you maintain
this Froude similarity, you will have the velocity in the model that will be under root
lambda times. So, that will be the 𝑉𝑝
Similarly, your if you take the length you know. So, 𝐿𝑚 = 𝐿𝑝 𝜆.. So, that is what you see
when you go for the Froude similarity, you know in those cases. Now what we do initially
we in this study they have it has been reported that the density you know the density ratio
that is for the inclusion which is taken for the water modeling. So, density ratio between
that inclusion to the water. So, it was you know, taken. So, it should have the same density
ratio and also about the size. So, you know size also appropriately if you talk about the
idealized, you know condition size should be as per you know the geometric similarity.
So, it should be reduced by a factor of 𝜆, but then you, you have to have the analysis for
that. So, if you try to have you know same rate of flotation or removal of the inclusions.
In that case, your ratio of velocities that that needs to be the same so, you need to have that
ratio of velocities due to bulk flow in model as well as in prototype.
So, that basically you know that needs to be maintained. So, for that what we do is if you
𝑉𝑓,𝑚
talk about the bulk flow liquid bulk flow. So, you will have .. So, that will be as we
𝑉𝑓,𝑝
know that the velocity will be basically having the ratio √𝜆.
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So, you if you talk about the you know, Stoke’s rise velocity for the inclusions. So, for the
water and for the; you know for the prototype, it is said to be. So, for the for the water that
2
2𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑚 𝑔(𝜌𝑤 −𝜌𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 )
is in the model tundish, you will have . So, that is your, you
9𝜂𝑤
know 𝑉𝑓,𝑚 that is stokes rise velocity and that is for the model.
And similarly, the, the, V for the prototype for that rise velocity. So, that will be can be
2
2𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑚 𝑔(𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 −𝜌𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 )
taken as equal to .
9𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
So, you know for the similarity and, and, for the same trajectory you know these ratios
what we obtain you know that should be same.
𝑉𝑟,𝑚
And if you try to do that so, what we get so, you will have the it should be same as
𝑉𝑟,𝑝
𝑉𝑓,𝑚
the that is √𝜆. So, it should be √𝜆 and it should be it will be same as. So, once you,
𝑉𝑓,𝑝
you know take the expression of from that earlier you know expression.
𝜌𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑚
2 1−
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑚 𝜌𝑤
So, if you take the ratio so, it will be 2 [ 𝜌𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝 ]. So, that is what this ratio
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝 1−
𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
is coming.
494
Now,, if we take this , so, if these ratios are taken same in that case they will be
𝜌𝑤
same. So, you will have 1 by 1. So, you will have you know this radius can be expressed
as in the form of the scale factor.
2 2
So, basically it will be 𝜆1/4 . So, that 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑚 = 𝜆1/4 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝 . So, then you can have
the selection of the inclusion sizes you know accordingly.
𝜌𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑚 𝜌𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝
So, so, that is what it, came. So, if you are considering you know = .
𝜌𝑤 𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
2 2
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑚 𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑚
In that case your thing becomes like 2 = 2 = √𝜆.
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝 𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝
So, you can write also, if you take this again square root on both the sides, you can say
2 2
that 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑚 = 𝜆1/4 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝 . So, this you know relationship indicates that if you
do the water modeling in those cases or even the modeling using the you know
mathematical formulation.
So, basically for maintaining that you know, similarity if you use those if you are trying
towards the similarity you know establishment. So, in that case if the you know if that
density ratio is same in that case the you know ratio this radius of the inclusion will be
2
lambda to the power 0.25 times. So, 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝 .
So, suppose you are going to have the modeling for the inclusion using the water modeling
and your inclusion is and you are having a one third scale of the you know water model.
In that case lambda will be (1/3)1/4 .
So, if you take once it’s square it will be close to 0.55 and another time it will take. So,
something close to 0.76 so, for a one third scale model the inclusion of the model, it is size
should be about 0.76 times the diameter of the you know inclusion in the steels, that tells
you the relationship between the steel inclusion and the inclusion, particle which you are,
I to have this simulation using the or the modeling using the water modeling approach.
Now, it may be so, that sometimes this rho inclusion, so, these there density ratios may not
be the same. So, that may be different. So, if you know.
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𝜌𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑚 𝜌𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝
So, if you are you know ≠ .
𝜌𝑤 𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
Now, in that case if you look to you know this equation if this is not the same. So, what
2 2 1−
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑚 𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑚 𝜌𝑤
you will get, you will get 2 = 2 = √𝜆[ 𝜌𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝 ].0.5, because it will
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝 𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝 1−
be getting the you know square root on both the sides. And you will have you know 5 that
is what you know you can have this one. So, this will go to that side so, that will be
reversed. So, that will come down for the model and you know for the model it will be
down and for the prototype it will be up.
So, that way you can have this expression that is ρ. So, then you can have the this ρ radius
of the inclusion for the model and, for the prototype that will be the kind of the co-
relationship. So, you can have even you know the graph also being plotted. And that graph
will tell the, you know relationship between the inclusion in the water model and in the
steel. So, that can be you know obtained and, that has also been obtained by Sahai and
Emi. And it was seen that you know if you look at the if your, this is your model inclusion
size. So, that is your 𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑚 and this will be 𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝 . So, that is for the prototype.
So, in that case if you are you know lambda is becoming you know if you have the different
𝜆 and you will have. So, if you take the 𝜆 as the 1. So, you can have you know from the
earlier expression which we got here. So, these, depending upon the different value of the
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scale factor you can have the relationship between the diameter of the inclusion which is
used in the water model and in the prototype tundish that is in the steel you know tundish.
So, for lambda equal to 1 as you see it will be the slope of 1. So, it is basically it will be
the same graph. And I mean this is this line and you may have the different you know
values like if you go for the other values. So, suppose maybe for 𝜆 is 2/3, here then you
will have 𝜆 is 1/2 or so.
So, this way your this relationship can be removed can be presented. Similarly, it has also
been you know shown that if you take this ratio as a parameter. So, if you take the ratio
1−
𝜌𝑤
you know like, if you take 𝜌𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝 .
1−
So, if you take this as one parameter. So, you can have you know a you know and also if
𝜌𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,
you take this . So, in that case you know if you take certain values so, you can
have. Now in the in this case if you know some of this value. So, you can have the value
of this if you know the λ and even you can have a generalized graph which may so, the
size you know relationship between the model sizes of the inclusion. So, you will have the
inclusion m and then you will have 𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑝 .
So, in that case for the particular value of Y you know our gamma you can say this is Y
gamma so, this for that you will have a different kind of you know. So, you will have 0 to
250 micrometer. And similarly, you will have 0 to 200 micrometer. So, in that case you
will have a graph like this will be γ equal to 1. Similarly that will be γ equal to 2 and it has
been reported like this will be γ for 3.
So, so, accordingly you know for different conditions, you will have different type of you
know these graphs by which depending upon the value of γ, you can predict the diameter
of the inclusion which can be taken for water modeling. If you know the diameter of the
you know inclusion which is used in the steel
So, we will have to, we will have to further see that when we do the mathematical modeling
analysis, in that case you will have you know these considerations as well as some other
considerations to be kept in mind as far as the, you know boundary conditions are there or
the you know other you know operating conditions. So, that we can discuss and see the
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results on you know some of the cases studies which has been carried out. So, that can be
done in our coming lectures.
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Lecture – 38
Mathematical Modeling of Inclusion Removal in Tundish- II
Welcome to the lecture on Mathematical Modeling of Inclusion Removal in Tundish. So,

in the last lecture, we discussed about the similarity considerations and especially, while
doing the modeling for the inclusion removal. And, even in the water modeling case, you
know what should be the density of the inclusion that should be selected, based on you
know the other similarity criteria’s and also you know other things taken into account like
the density of the inclusions in the steel or size of the inclusion in the steel.
So, based on that you can take those; so, from there you can have the idea that when you
model, at that time how you have to select those sizes properly so that you can have a
proper simulation. Now, we will discuss about the aspects which needs to be taken into
consideration when we do the mathematical modeling or numerical modeling of the
inclusion removal processes in tundish.
So, as we know we already discussed that the inclusions are basically going to be very
harmful, if they are coming inside I mean out of the tundish. So, we need to have the
removal of the tundish; but removal outside or it should float you know that way and you
know apart from that, there may be other conditions that may be put in so that inclusions
are trapped or inclusions are stuck to the walls or source. They are the part of the boundary
conditions.
Now, we will talk about the modeling you know issues mathematical modeling when we
talked about. So, that is normally handled using the Eulerain Lagrangian Approach, where
you have this is the discrete phase particle. So, inclusions being the particles; so, they are
the discrete you know particles. So, basically you need also to know that where these
inclusions are going. So, we need to track them and that is known as the you know tracking
of their path. So, tracking of their trajectory so, that is the aim basically when we do the
mathematical modeling.
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So, as I told that this is normally a Eulerian Lagrangian type of approach, you have the
fluid in which you are injecting the inclusion particles and this inclusion particles are
basically having. So, initially they will be given certain kind of velocity with which they
will be going inside and once they go into the fluid domain; then further, they are subjected
to the conditions which is prevalent in that fluid domain.
So, when you are going for studying the doing the flow analysis with by taking the
turbulent flow in consideration. So, you may have even you know either you can have the
mean velocity component into consideration or you can have even the stochastic
component also like you can have the fluctuating component also, you know that can its
effect can be seen.
So, basically what we do is that we will discuss that how that stochastic you know element
can be incorporated to see the trajectory path and all that. So, what we are talking that that
is what we do normally you have a Eulerian Lagrangian type of approach, where the
inclusions will be interacting with the fluid and fluid flow field.
As we know we are solving the Eulerian way and this is done in the Lagrangian manner
and we have a particular geometry we make and in that, we are injecting the you know
inclusion particles and then, you know we do that force balance. So, that is that equation
is there that is that needs to be solved.
So, basically as we have seen that the inclusions will be also experienced in the buoyancy.
So, they will be rising with the stokes rise velocity and in that case, we are tracking them;
we are wherever they are going. So, we try to have their motion and we see that how they
are being trapped or so. So, keeping you know. So, what we do is normally we make the
geometry, we you know we provide the boundary conditions.
And you know you have the normal governing equations like initially for the Eulerian you
know phase, you have the governing equation like you have the continuity equation; you
have the Navier Stoke equation. And you can have the equations of for the turbulent kinetic
energy and the rate of dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy that is k and epsilon if you
are using the standard k epsilon model. So, in that case you are solving that and then, you
are injecting the inclusion also and.
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So, in this case you are going to solve the extra equation that is you know that will be your
the force balance you know particle force balance equation in this case. So, in the normal
way, we will be creating the geometry. We will be having all these conditions. And apart
from that you need to solve the extra equation and that equation will be your particle, you
know you know force balance and that will be you know based on the force which is acting
on the particle. So, if suppose we are taking for the x direction.
So, in the x direction cartesian coordinate, we have these equation that needs to be solved
𝑑𝑢𝑝
will be 𝑑𝑡
. So, that will be you know that is standard equation which is even used by the
𝑔𝑥 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)
even commercial course. So, 𝐹𝐷 (𝑢 − 𝑢𝑝 ) + + 𝐹𝑥 .
𝜌𝑝
So, basically we solve this equation and in this case you know this 𝐹𝐷 (𝑢 − 𝑢𝑝 ). So, this is
basically the drag force per unit mass. So, this is that quantity 𝐹𝐷 (𝑢 − 𝑢𝑝 )and you know
you have the 𝐹𝑥 . So, this so, now, this 𝐹𝐷 basically will be in terms of the Reynolds number
and the 𝐶𝐷 is its coefficient. So, normally this 𝐹𝐷 (𝑢 − 𝑢𝑝 ); so, this is known as the Drag
18𝜇 𝐶𝐷 𝑅𝑒
force per unit mass and that is defined as 2 24 .
𝜌𝑝 𝑑𝑝
Now, the 𝐶𝐷 ; so, in this case rho is the density of the particle; D is the diameter of the
particle; 𝑑𝑝 and your Re is the Reynolds number. So, you know that Reynold number you
501
know based on that you this value will be taken and if you so. So, you can have the value
𝜌𝑑𝑝 (𝑢𝑝−𝑢 )
of this Reynolds number as . So, that will be your Reynolds number in this case.
𝜇
And though the 𝐶𝐷 this is the drag coefficient. So, its value also you know. So, it can be
taken you, it will be basically a function of the Reynolds number and so, you may have
different values. So, people can take these you know different values and that will be a
𝑎 𝑎
function of you know Reynolds number. So, some people may take it like 𝑎1 + 𝑅𝑒2 + 𝑅𝑒32.
So, you will have these you know 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 and 𝑎3 , they are the constants that are you know
for the smooth spherical particles and you know there are they are also expressed in terms
of you know other one another parameter like that will be 𝜑. So, that phi again will be you
know depending upon the surface area of the spherical particle taken into account.
So,. So, you may have the you know different of these values. So, this thing can be taken
and that can be incorporated into your model and you can have this that you know being
solved you can also have for the submicron particles, you have the Stokes law that is Drag
law is applicable.
18𝜇
And for the for those submicron particles, you have this 𝐹𝐷 as 𝜌 2 . So, that again you
𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝐶𝑒
have different kind of expressions you may have so that you can take from the respective
literatures and you can use them depending upon the different type of you know particles.
And further, that can be incorporated. So, once you do that, then also comes that how to
take the stochastic you know component into picture.
So, apart from that you know before going for that you can consider or other kind of also
forces lift forces or so; you know that may be considered for the force which is acting on
the particle. What is you know seen in the case of the inclusion you know modeling in
most of the codes is the use of the stochastic element and that will be you know that will
be known as the stochastic particle tracking, especially in the case of turbulent flow.
So, as you know that in the turbulent flow you have in the in the flow component, you will
have one is the you know one is the fluctuating component. So, that part needs to be you
know incorporated on the for the effect to be seen on the particle and that will basically be
taken from the you know flow value.
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So, when you are having the flow field, the Eulerian flow field, in that case you will have
the values of the turbulent kinetic energy and from that you know value, you can have the
calculation of the fluctuating component part. And, then the its effect you know so that
that will be affecting the particle trajectory you know in that case. So, you can see that if
you take that random you know component and if you do not take the random component,
there is there is a visible difference which is observed when the modeling is carried out.
So, in the case of the stochastic particle tracking; so, you will have the trajectory tracking
that is required in the case of the turbulent flow, especially and as we know that in the case
of turbulent flow your instantaneous value you know that will be; so, value will be the
mean average and then, you have this is the fluctuating part.
So, you know for you know for knowing the effect of this turbulence. So, you take, you
try to have the value of this being calculated from the turbulent kinetic energy part and
then, its you know its net effect is seen when we draw the trajectories. So, what we do is
normally when we get the value of 𝑢𝑝 . So, then what we do is when we have seen the first
equation that is your this equation. So, that is integrated and we find the value of the
velocity of the particle and then, with the help of that we can have the trajectory you know
estimation.
503
𝑑𝑥
So, that can be we that we can have by having the solution of the equation that = 𝑢𝑝 .
𝑑𝑡
So, you can. So, one wants to integrate it. So, you will get the value of x. So, then you
understand you know the what is the, where is that x. So, that is how you try to have the
tracking of the path of the inclusions.
So, what happens that you may have you know the you know approaches by which you
solve. So, you will have the trajectory equation that can be even simplified and you know
you should linearize these source terms and all that. So, what you see the trajectory
𝑑𝑢𝑝
equation which we have written earlier . So, basically it is a function of 𝑢 − 𝑢𝑝 and that
𝑑𝑡
1
is it is written as (𝑢 − 𝑢𝑝 ).
𝜏𝜌
So, you know this tau we can p we can call it as. Now, this is basically so, that is for
particle tau p and this 𝜏𝜌 is basically that is known as the particle relaxation time. So, it is
nothing but this unit of time and then, you can you know solve it. So, it will be you know
you can use these differencing schemes and discretization schemes and then, you can have
𝑛−1 −𝑢𝑛
𝑢𝑝 𝑑𝑢𝑝
𝑝
the solution like . So, that will be .
∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
So, it will be 𝜏 (𝑢∗ − 𝑢𝑝 𝑛+1 ). So, that way it will be going. So, that way you know this is
being solved and your 𝑢∗ will be nothing but the average of 𝑢 𝑛

and 𝑢 𝑛+1
. So, that way
𝑛+1
you know you have and then you have again 𝑢 will be for the you know that will be
𝑛 𝑛
again expressed in terms of 𝑢 and you know and grad of the 𝑢 part. So, that way you
know this is the normal way of solving the equations.
So, you can solve it and your ultimate aim is to have the position. So, I mean you must
know that how this x value is calculated once you know that 𝑢𝑝 . So, that is by integration
of this equation. Now, there are also you know considerations for the size distribution. So,
what should be that particle size?
So, there has been you know mentioned about different type of distribution of these sizes
and one of the you know distribution which is being used by some of the course are the
Rosin-Rammler type of distribution and other kind of distributions also are there.
So, that can be taken which talks about the you know percentage of fraction of the particle
mass which will be off certain size, if you take certain size into this. So, that particle
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distribution is you know that also can be taken into account. Now, as I was telling you that,
when we talk about these stochastic models; so, normally what we do is you find these
𝑢′ or you find this 𝑣 ′ or 𝑤 ′ so that so they are √𝑢′ 2 . So, that will be expressed in terms of
2𝑘
the kinetic energy that will be √ .
3
So, from that k value which is there in the flow field, you try to have these 𝑢′ or 𝑣 ′ or 𝑤 ′
that will be you know so that particle will subjected to this and then, accordingly their
movement will be controlled. So, that for that you will be again solving those you know
velocity equations. You know you must know also the different kind of boundary
conditions.
So, what we saw that we have the governing equations you have also the boundary
conditions. So, you have different type of boundary conditions also there are on these
discrete phases which we use. So, you will have the boundary condition for trapping or
you may have the reflection boundary condition. So, once they you know you may have
the depending upon the you know elastic or inelastic collision, they will be reflected. So,
that conditions may be given like they may escape through the boundaries or they may
trap at the walls. So, all these conditions may be incorporated as the boundary conditions
and then, we try to solve the equation and we get the results.
505
So, we try to see that how these work are done. I mean we can see one work which is done
by the group which worked with us.
So, we and that is also a published work. So, in that how we make the geometry. So, in the
geometry you have inlet, you have a symmetry plane. So, it is basically a six-strand; you
know tundish and we also have used these flow modifiers. And this is the near, middle and
far outlet from the inlet. So, that is why we have named it like that and this is the symmetry
boundary condition and this is the inlet through which the inclusions are also you know
may insert it or allowed.
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And, we have tried to have the you know use of these dams. So, we have given the different
kind of nomenclature or the case name when we have put the dam height like 300, 250 and
200. So, that will be you know PS01. So, 203 like that. So, you have the different you
know position 1, 2 and 3 so that way your different you know height of dam at different
positions have been used and you have different names for that.
So, that simply creating the geometry. So, what I was telling that when you use these
stochastic particle tracking, in that case what has been seen was that when we did not use
507
without the stochastic particle tracking you know method that is it was seen that the particle
has come and it has hit the bottom wall and then, it went you know to the top surface,
where the condition is that it will go and it will get stuck.
So, that way that condition because of that it has stuck there. Now, if you go to the other
condition where we have used these stochastic particle tracking, in that case what is seen
is that the particle has come and then, it has move to the different you know places in size.
It has a large you know movement inside and then, it is getting trapped and that is what
actually happens.
In practical case, this is more like that is what is telling that it will be coming and because
of that you know the implementation of that stochastic algorithm, that will be moving
inside for longer duration and then, it will have the chances to get floated. You know in
this case if it is on the bottom in that case, it may have the chance to go through the outlet
so that is normally a lesson in this case.
So, you know top surface is slag layer and we have kept. So, once we use these you know
the flow modifiers, how this transact this with and without you know how these
trajectories; I mean the inclusion trajectory can be plotted. So, that is one example. So, you
once you will do, you will have your own geometry and you can use this algorithm to have
the trajectory of the inclusion.
508
Then, these are some of the results. So, if you do with the different sizes of the inclusion
particle. In that case, you are you will be having certain kind of graph you know for the
bare tundish and you see that you have the fraction of clusters that is removed, that will
normally be you know very high in the case of the near outlets.
When you are not using the flow modifiers, in those cases and then lesser than that will be
the you know the middle outlet and then, you will have the far outlet. So, that is the
inclusion removal you know that will be there from the tundish.
509
Now, there has been different other parametric studies like you do with the you know the
studies for the different sizes and what has been seen that if you increase the size removal
will be higher. So, in those cases you will have the larger fraction of the inclusions getting
removed. So, this basically tells that you know if you do that, if you change the you know
operating parameters, if you change those variables, you are going to have the different
kind of results.
And that you need to be you know inter you need to interpret that as per the you know
configurations of the tundish, as per the operating conditions of the tundish. And you know
and in normal case, in normal water modeling you can have those results also, you can see
that how many have come through which of the you know outlets and based on that you
can have also the you know calculation of their residence times and then, where they are
you know getting stuck or where they are getting you know removed.
So, apart from that you can have the many parameters being studied maybe you can take
the different sizes that so that is what has been taken. You can have different densities,
even the work has been done with the different inclusion density and then, their effect also
can be seen you know that what is the removal rate when you take the different density
lower or higher value. So, these are normally this is how you know you have to do the
modeling studies on the inclusions inside the tundish. So, we will have few case studies
also a studied in our you know final lectures you know in the coming time.
510
Lecture – 39
Case Studies in Modeling of Tundish Steelmaking – I
Welcome to the lecture on Case Studies in Modeling of Tundish Steelmaking – I. So, we

are going to have the discussion now on the case studies of different type of work which
are being carried out in the modeling of tundish steelmaking process. So, in the next lecture
also we will talk about the similar type of case studies.
So, in this lecture we are going to have the discussion about some of the parametric
analysis and this is the outcome of certain of my research work and you can even see the
such kind of work in the literature which has been reported in the you know international
journals or conferences.
So, I have tried to analyze and discuss such kind of work which can be thought of you
know being tried by the researchers in the industries or in the academia and also this kind
of work is still going on. So, we will try to have discussions on certain such kind of work.
So, we talked about the mixing as well as the inclusion separation processes which are one
of the important you know duty which is performed by the tundish, but here we are going
to have the discussion on those aspects for the different configuration of tundish.
So, you know there are different kind of tundish which are reported, different shape of a
tundishes, and how they perform, how you do the analysis, how you can have the
visualization of the output results so, that can be seen in those task. So, how that we should
see them so, that we will see in this lecture.
511
So, we have basically taken you know these four different type of tundishes basically they
are the outcome of certain research work which I did for even the ministry that is DST. So,
they are the outputs also you know we got similar outputs there. So, we acknowledge the
support by the DST also.
So, this is suppose we in that the study was carried out on these four different kind of
tundish. So, normally we deal with the two the two kind of tundish that is say delta shape
and boat shape. So, this is known as boat shape. So, normal you know this rectangular type
of cross section and that is being extended. So, that is your you know boat shaped tundish,
but then the here in the case of delta shape you have on the symmetry line, you have the
larger you know cross section and then it is smaller towards both the side.
So, this is your symmetry plane it means the similar dimension will be coming on the
opposite side also. So, you will have a larger you know tundish. So, the whole turn this is
about 6 meter 6000 millimeter and in this case you have this is your V shaped tundish. So,
here actually you make a V type of you know shape.
512
So, it will be like you know this way. So, you will have the this is a 45 degree you know
angle. So, that will be your you know this is the type of shape. So, that is what you see this
is your that type of shapes this is V shape, this is inlet. So, this way you will have the
extension on both the sides.
And, another shape which is also being reported in the literature is T shape. So, in the T
shape you have in this case you have the slanting type of slope is there. So, your and in
this case your up to certain distance you have the larger you know width and then it
becomes smaller. So, that is a T shape of tundish it is known as.
So, as you see these are the four different type of tundishes were taken and it was you
know these are the geometrical parameters it was seen that the I mean normally we keep
the volume as constant. So, their volumetric flow rate also is kept constant when the inlet
size is same. So, that is what the, but now we need to know that when you do the analysis
how they perform for the you know main purpose for which the tundish is being used. So,
we will talk about it.
513
So, also you know we discussed we will use may be if possible in the this lecture or in the
coming lecture we will see that how we can describe the different cases when we use the
flow modifiers. So, when you use the flow modifier, flow modifiers will be A1 to A3, B1
to B3 or C1 to C3 and there you know placement will be you know varying so, A or B or
C.
So, A is closer to the inlet, B is somewhat you know you know distant and C is quite far
near to the outlet. Similarly, you know there the subscript 1, 2 and 3 will be talking about
the different heights we are taking. So, height of that flow modifier that is dam specially
we have taken so, that its effective will be seen on these parameters.
514
So, if you look at so, what we did again it was you know forgetting that you need to solve
these equations you treat the you know flow as turbulent. So, you have to solve the
appropriate equations even for turbulence also, if you take the case and turbulence model
you have to solve these two extra equations for k and epsilon. You can take any other
turbulence model and then ultimately you try to you know solve the concentration equation
also for the pulse input analysis for the tracer concentration which you get during the pulse
input.
And, so first of all when we solve these equations so, in that you are going to have the
velocity field steady state velocity field you are getting inside the tundish. So, we will try
to have the velocity field which you get in the case of tundishes. So, if you look at the
velocity field so, velocity field as is shown on the bottom plane.
So, this is your bottom plane, these two are the bottom planes as you see and then on one
of the side plane also the velocity field has been sown and it is seen that the tundish from
the inlet the liquid steel will be going you know down, it will be striking here and then it
is moving towards the outlet and since there is no you know flow modifier here.
So, what you see that initially the velocity is very high it will be splashing on all the
directions. So, it will be going similarly in the opposite side also. On this side it will be
going over the wall. So, that is what it is seen that it is going on over the wall and then it
is moving towards the outlet.
515
So, this way you will your flow will move towards the outlet. You will see the higher
velocity then slowly they become lesser because of the you know the stresses which occur
because of the wall and all that. So, slowly the velocity will be lesser and then ultimately
it will come through the outlet.
So, these are the you know velocity field on the bottom plane and also on the sidewall, one
of the sidewall has been shown for clarity. So, that is shown in the case of the boat shape
as well as on the delta shape.
So, if you go to the other kind of you know shape of tundish. So, it is on V shape as you
see here. So, you will have if you look at the line you know this is the velocity vector
which is showing 0.379, this is 0.379 similarly this is 0.757. So, here if you look at this is
here the velocity is quite high and you know this way it will be going and this is your you
know T type of tundish.
So, you see the velocity higher it come becomes lower in this range because it is some
more distance your inlet is here. So, it will be falling here. So, coming to this side it the
velocity will be a smaller, but then this way it will be you will have larger velocity on this
side and the smaller velocity on that wall side. So, that is you know being shown in this
case and you see the lower velocities on this side where higher velocities on this wall. So,
these are the.
516
So, this way you can have an idea about the velocity vector which you draw and you should
draw the velocity vectors on those surfaces from where you can have the clarity you can
draw certain you know inferences, you can draw certain conclusions by looking at those
velocity vectors which will tell you that where the velocity field is higher, where the
velocity is higher where it is lower. So, which if it is very low it may be like it may likely
to have certain dead zones also. So, this is how the velocity vectors are seen.
You can have the velocity vector also on the vertical planes passing through the inlet and
outlet because we have the inlet and outlet plane that is on a vertical plane. So, for the boat
shape it is showing like this is for the you know delta shape you can have this inlet and
outlet plane you can have the velocity vector going like that.
517
Similarly, on the plane of on the V shape and T shape you can have the you know view of
these velocity vectors on those vertical plane where on which the inlet and outlet is you
know situated. So, that way you can have the these velocity vectors also.
So, ultimately after having the steady state velocity field we are solving for the pulse tracer
concentration. So, that is given for a small amount of time as a pulse input and then it is
concentration will be measured at the outlet and then it is plotted.
518
So, what is seen that if you look at these you see that you have a higher peak in the case
of the boat shape, but it is coming at a later time maybe not so late the if you see the
appearance of the tracer which is there you know delayed for most time that is for the T
shape which is indicated by the blue color. And, the V shape what you see is that you have
very high very early appearance in the in case of V shape that was seen by if you refer the
velocity vector also you can see that the velocity is seen quite high and in that case it
reaches the tracer will reach to the tundish outlet early that is the indicative of this line.
So, you know that way and it is going like that and then you will have the it is, but what
you see that they are coming slowly and the value is coming smaller on this side. You have
the red shape by the delta and you have all these different tundishes will have the RTD
curves you can have these and you can then analyze by when you even you look at the it
is other parameters like mean residence time or ratio of the mean residence time.
So, if you find the ratio of the mean residence time that is actual to theoretical. So, that if
you look at you will have the minimum for the V shape that is what it is clear that the V
shape because you know it has the it is stay in tundishes minimum. So, you know short
circuiting is maximum in this case tracer has come and it had directly gone.
So, the liquid is not able to go you know to every corner it takes a path because of which
sort circuit in takes place and your are mixing capability or the way the fluid will go inside,
the residence time during which it will be moving inside that is basically minimum for the
519
V shape and it is maximum for the T shape if you look at the T shape. So, T shape is blue.
So, it is coming late.
It is coming you know in the last its appearance is seen you know at the outlet and then it
is going and it has and also you see that it is having minimum values also up to this region
after that even concentration value becomes less. So,, but then it is going quite you know
early. It is going quite late and then at early time it is value also become less and then it is
going.
So, that way it tells that the mean residence time for the T shape is maximum and for the
V shape it is minimum and then delta shape is seen to be better than boat shape, but not
better than the T shape as far as the ratio of mean residence time is concerned.
And, another thing by which you can have this you know analysis by looking at the
concentration isolines. So, you can draw these a concentration isolines you know with
time. So, because the when you solve these tracer concentration equation that is basically
in a transient manner. So, you are with time variation you are plotting these variation in
the concentration at the outlet.
So, what you see that as the time is progressing that tracer will advance towards the outlet.
So, at different times if you look at this is in the 5 second if you see the tracer has advanced
up to this point and then in the 10 say this is for the boat shape, bare boat shape tundish
520
and these are the concentration isolines that helps you to understand that how tracer is
moving towards the outlet.
So, you see that if you something is some tracer has gone its concentration is maximum at
the outlet at the inlet when the at the initial time that is 5 second. And, then as the time
progresses you see that the these are going down the value is going down because down
tracer is moving. So, if you look at 20 second the tracer is moving more here towards this.
So, concentration is more in on this and then it is coming and appearing through the outlet.
So, this is how you see that you know first appearance of the tracer will be somewhere
close to 20 second or so in the case of a boat shape and then it moves.
And, further finally, if you look at the 40 second your maximum concentration is here and
then it is moving on the towards the outlet. So, it will be moving and going directly this
stream will be going towards the outlet. So, as the time is progressing the concentration
value also will be decreasing and your tracer concentration if you look at this will be quite
small here and then it is increasing on this side.
So, then it has it is coming now through the outlet. So, this is how you now this is basically
required to study the movement of tracer how it moves. So, it will basically be going
through the as per the velocity field which is existing inside the tundish itself.
521
So, as you see that it is going by following the wall and also side wall as well as the bottom
wall. So, that way it is moving and going towards the outlet ah. Similar thing can be
observed for other kind of tundishes like the this is for the delta shape. So, here also again
the same way it is moving and then it is coming out through the outlet.
If you look at the this is the V shape tundish so, what you see now in this case you see that
quite early it has come basically in 5 in 10 second itself it has come on the outlet. So, that
is why you see that in this case basically it quickly comes. So, that is why there is short-
circuiting phenomena that can be you know observed here and you know the mixing the
mean residence time is basically seems to be is seeming to be quite small as compared to
other kind of tundishes.
522
And, if you look at this T shape tundish now, in this case you can have the idea that it is
going little late it is going from because it will be going toward this wall, then it is moving
and then ultimately after sometime it will be coming towards the outlet. So, that way you
know here the appearance is quite delayed and you know that is how you can have certain
kind of you know inferences by which you can conclude that white behaves better. So,
these are the ways by which you can do these modeling.
This is the case of T shape tundish.
523
You can also do the inclusion studies in the different kind of different shape of tundishes
inclusion particle trajectory can be calculated and that can be seen.
So, what has been seen was that the inclusion removal was minimum in the case of T shape
it was maximum in the case of V shapes. These are the studies which was there, but that
can be you know that will be depending upon many parameters and that was one of the
result which we got.
524
Now, another thing which was done was the geometrical parameters of the tundish on
mixing and inclusion separation was also studied and that has its bearing because many a
times we have shallow tundishes, we have larger tundishes or a smaller tundishes we have
a less height or less width or so. So, what will be its effect so, that also can be done.
And, in that basically there are you know five cases – one being standard. So, you have
other four cases like in one case you are decreasing the height and you have increased the
height; similarly you have decreased the width and you have increased the width and one
is standard that is h and w.
So, once you do that then you can have the idea that what are the effects of the variation
of these geometrical parameters. So, that can be seen any and you can have the analysis of
the velocity vectors if you look at when you decrease the you know height or increase the
height or you can have the decreased width cases or increased width cases.
So, you can have a primary field you know that how the velocity vectors are changing
because the you know you can see that which is being the width being a smaller it becomes
more dense here, height becomes smaller it more become more dense here as compared to
the standard or the increased dimensions.
525
So, you can also analyze these velocity vectors at the you know at the vertical planes for
the different you know standard case and then you have the other cases of smaller height
or a smaller width or larger height or larger width. So, that way you can have these drawn
and see the velocity vectors.
So, that is at the you know this is at the sidewalls also. So, that is shown here.
526
Then, you know this is for the you know this is for the that was for boat shape and this is
for delta shape. So, the how delta shape is changing then you have the boat the V shape.
So, V shape also you have the different dimensions and then you have the different type
of flow vectors.
527
And, then this is now finally, the T shape. So, in the T shape also we have change these
sizes and you can have the you know feel of these velocity vectors at the different you
know positions now based on that basically then you can you do the you know the studies
of the RTD. And, with the help of RTD you can have the calculation of the mixing
parameters and this is again on the vertical plane that is for the T shape tundish.
And, then you draw these you know RTD and based on the RTD you can have the you
know analysis and you can see that how they are you know how they these different change
in the geometrical parameters they will be affecting these RTDs. So, what you see the if
you look at the boat shape tundish so, in the boat shape tundish it is starting here delta
shape will be starting here. In the V shape we have already seen that your it will be starting
quite early and T shape will be it will be starting the most late way.
528
Now, what you see that this you know red portion is the change in height and your. So, it
will be smaller one and smaller width will be blue. So, if you look at the boat shape what
you see is that the peak is smaller in the when the height is smaller. Now, that is also seen
in the case of delta shape also where you have the peak smaller when you had a height is
smaller.
But, that is not seen in the case of V and T shape because in these cases the peak is not
small although it is in the case of T shape it is not. So, the highest what in the case of V
shape it is highest. So, you know. So, what you see that with the with a smaller height
possibly we should get the maximum you know.
529
These are parameter if you look at the you know boat shape. So, with the height smaller
height if you look at you see that it has maximum ratio of MRT because of this smaller
peak. So, that is what is seen that you have that is seen because of the this peak.
Now, again if you look at the width. So, if you see the smaller width case. So, this is again
a smaller peak. So, it will be better you know MRT that is being observed, but if you look
at these V shape in that case these smaller dimensions are not showing improved results
and that can be seen by for the V shape. So, you know in these cases your ratio of MRT is
being smaller.
So, a this is good for because in the case of V shape we have already seen that is anyway
the MRT is smaller and when you are making a smaller the more quickly the tracer will
go through the outlet. So, your short circuiting phenomena is even more aggravated. So,
that is why your MRT or the mixing parameter basically the ratio of MRT so, that is
decreased for the V shape tundish and for the boat shape it is or delta shape you see that it
is somewhat better as compared to the larger height cases.
And, standard we have already analyzed and if you increase these you know height so, this
is greener. So, increasing height will be worsening the ratio. So, in the case of delta and
boat that is what it is seen from here. So, increasing the height what you see is that normally
you do not to have improvement in the case of boat; in the case of delta you can see this is
marginal improvement. So, that is one.
530
Now, in case of V shape as you see the best you know performances by the this you know
light blue or that color. So, this is 1.2 width. So, that is showing even better result and that
may be seen for the 1.2 width you see that this is quite high 1.2 height also is showing
better result. So, that is seen from by looking at those curves.
If you will go for the T shape you see you see the 0.8 width is showing the minimum one
and that is why 0.8 you know height this is 0.8 you know height. So, that is showing that
maximum one. So, that way what you see that by looking at these graphs you can have
one feel that how these you know they these RTDs can be interpreted to have the effect on
these parameters like mean residence time or even the mixing parameters.
We also did the you know inclusion behavior and what was seen was that the you know
boat shape, delta shape, V shape and T shape so, what was seen that the maximum
inclusion removal was with the boat shape that is with this rectangular shaped line and no
this is not that this is the you know delta shape is showing the maximum with the height
and for this if you look at the V shape.
So, this is triangle one and this is your V shape. So, it is coming down and then it is further
going. So, that way it is better for the 1.2 height. So, by looking at this also you can have
one feeling that how these you know tundishes are going to perform you know when the
geometrical parameters are going to change.
So, this way you know there are different kind of you can have the you know analysis of
these results by looking at the papers in the literature and you can have a feel about you
know and confidence also interpreting these results and you know justifying a particular
shape or size of any tundish for the industrial use if you are working in the industries.
Or you can have a you know model physical model setup also there also you can have
these studies and verify them. So, that is about this and we will have a few more case
studies in our coming lectures.
531
Lecture – 40
Case Studies in Modelling of Tundish Steelmaking – II
Welcome to the lecture on Case Studies in Modelling of Tundish Steelmaking. So, we will
be talking today about the second you know type of a case studies. We discussed few case
studies in our previous lecture and these are another few examples of the case studies on
modeling of tundish steelmaking.
So, in the last lecture we talked about the inclusion behavior as well as the mixing with
the different configuration of tundish. So, that is what primarily we had you know
discussed in that class. So, further if you try to use the flow modifiers and that too in the
different configuration of tundish, then what is the effect how you are going to have the
analysis of those things. So, that is what we will discuss here.
So, this will be use of flow modifier especially dam in the different configuration of
tundish. So, specially you will have the effect of both the things like dam as well as the
with the changing configuration of the tundish. So, as you usual we have these four
configuration of tundish you know like delta boat V and T shape.
And, we have the use of the dam here and that dam is kept at three positions at the position.
So, it will be A1, A2 and A3. So, 1, 2 and 3 will be related to also the height and then you
have also A, B and C positions. So, C will be close to the outlet.
532
So, so that is how you see you will have these three positions. So, so, now, what we will
show I think n will be here A3 is certainly 300, n is more 3 means it is 300 and 1 means it
is 100.
So, if you look at the boat shape so, for the bare and when you are using the you know
dam at a position. So, that is closer to the inlet so, closer to the inlet what you see is you
are getting the you know these are the RTD curves. So, this is closer to the inlet, this is at
intermediate position and this is at the you know position which is close to the outlet.
533
So, that is and then you have 1, 2, 3 is with the change in the height of the dam. So, now,
if you look at the mean residence time now, mean residence time is shown to be maximum
for this case for the green; green is position C and this is your boat shape tundish. So, it
will be at position C, and the dam height is 3.
So, if you see this one if you can look at the RTD among these RTDs you see that this is
having the largest plug volume also and it has minimum of the peak. It is delayed also. So,
delaying means and then you have. So, this graph that is your blue line position C. So, and
that too so, for the boat shape and that too of the height 3. So, this is giving you the best
you know value of the mean residence time for the boat shape tundish and, if you look at
the bare case.
So, in the case of bare you see that it is normally you know this is bare. So, in certain case
even it is somewhat worse also if you look at these positions so, here for the position A
and for the 2 height. So, if you look at position A and for 2 height it is you can see that this
is a green line. So, green line is even starting early and it has a somewhat even higher peak
same peak going and then it has it is going.
So, that indicates that the mean residence time becomes very small in the case of this bare
tundish. You know and that to for the second height. So, from the graph you know you
can have a comprehensive understanding of what is happening, how the RTD curve is
changing and by looking at the variation in the RTD curve you can have a feel that where
the mean residence time will be higher or lower. So, this is about the boat shape tundish.
534
Now, if you go to the delta shape tundish. So, in the delta shape tundish again you see that
similar kind of you know curve you see for the bare tundish and then you have again
further the you know the changes in the C curve as you increase the dam height at different
positions like A, B or C.
Now, in this case also it is similar to the you know boat shape it behaves and it here also
you have the maximum mean residence time seen for the position C and that to for the
largest dam height. So, position C and largest dam height C3 are indicated by the blue
color so, that gives you the you know most delayed appearance of tracer. So, that is
maximum value of the plug time.
And, then you have the smaller value of the peak and then it is slowly decreasing. If you
look at the red line that is 1; so, for 1 you know for 1 here it is this value. So, certainly it
is somewhat better than this one.
So, the thing is that if you see you know for this also here this is somewhat better, but then
it is further increasing. So, the thing is that boat tundish and the delta shape tundish
somehow behave in the similar fashion and the maximum mean residence time is seen at
the position C and that is of the dam height of maximum value.
535
So, in this case what you can expect that the fluid which is moving so, when it is going
towards the you know that you can understand like if you have a tundish and then this is
your outlet and this is your inlet. So, the thing is that if you are move if you if you allow.
So, in normal case it will move earlier it will be appearing.
Now, if you are having the dam you know here, so, the possible flow will be from here
and it will move and then it will go like that not very much helpful. However, if you put
the dam somewhat you know if your outlet is here and if you put the dam here. So, in that
case you know the fluid goes and then it will be moving and then it will go and move like
this.
So, basically there will be a kind of you know larger you know loop the fluid particles will
cover when you are putting a dam just before the outlet that is at position C and also that
to especially when you are putting that of higher dam. So, it will have a larger loop.
So, that is the reason because of which you see in these two kind of tundishes the maximum
value of mean residence time at a position C and of the dam height being maximum.
536
Then, you know if you look at the V shape tundish now here you see in the case of V shape
tundish the contrary to the boat and delta shape you here you see the maximum value of
mean residence time that is for position A means just after the inlet.
You know you are having the placement of the dam in that case it is giving the maximum
amount of mean residence time. That is what is seen that if you put like that you see that
it is a delayed and as well as the height is very much smaller. It means the it is completely
mixing inside and only smaller value of the tracer is moving towards I mean coming out
of the outlet.
So, concentration value dimensionless concentration value if you see which is very small
as compared to all these cases. If you see in these cases average if you take up to 0.5 times
so, it is it is going about 1.5 or may between 1 and 1.5 here if you look at it will be close
to 1 and 1.2. But, here if you look at it is even less than 0.5 that indicates that in the case
of V shape tundish what is happening that when the metal is moving down and then it is
you know allow to go at 45 degree this way it has to be diverted.
And, suddenly if it has the dam so, maybe that by looking at the we have already seen the
velocity vectors. So, basically that pushes the liquid steel to or the tracer which is there.
So, it will be going towards the other sides and it will be taking a larger loop and then it
will be coming out through the outlet. So, in between it has mixed and then very small
amount of concentration of the tracer is observed at the you know outlet when it is just
537
smaller. Whereas, when and maybe that the fluid has a tendency to move towards the upper
portion and then it after moving it is coming through the outlet so, it is taking larger time.
Whereas, if you are increasing moving the dam towards the outlet to B poison or even to
the C position; so, for B position it looks somewhat better you know at all the dam height
you know it is better than at C. So, this is because you see that you know the here the
height is smaller. So, that is why these values are larger and these heights are somewhat
bigger.
So, they are giving you the smallest value of the mean residence time in these cases and
maybe it is because of that and the loop of the you know this is the fluid path and that is
in such a way that you know in these cases your the dimensionless concentration height is
becoming somewhat higher than you know the other cases other even this case.
So, so that is why you see that the mean residence time will be maximum here then
followed by this that is your position B and then finally, at C. So, basically we have seen
in the case of you know the boat and V shape. So, what you see that it is coming closer to
the 345 or 50 whereas, the maximum value here it is smaller. So, what you see in these
two cases it is smaller, but in case of boat and in the V shape it is becoming maximum.
So, when your you know the dam is closer to the inlet and also it is maximum among that
also when the height is the maximum.
538
Coming to the T shape tundish as you see now in the case of T shape tundish if you see
except for this position A where there is improvement over the bare shape and that to with
a smaller dam height so that can be seen here that is bare. And, A1 is somewhat delayed,
so, it is going here, but except that if you look at all the case in all the cases the mean
residence time is seen to be smaller and the maximum value is certainly coming closer to
335 or so.
But,, but what you see here is that even for the you know bare case your value is quite high
320 whereas, in this case your when you use the dams you get these value of close to 320
or so. So, in this case you are getting for the bare itself 320 and maybe 335 you are going
but, for bare tundish if you look at the best one is as far as the mean residence time is
concerned the best configuration tundish is the T shape where in the bare case itself you
got close to 320 or little bit more than that value of the mean residence time in seconds.
And, in this case what you see is that you are not going to have much of the advantage by
having the placement of dam. So, if you are placing the dam you know and that to you see
that how adversely it is affecting when you are increasing the height of the dam especially
at position A. So, in that case you know it is completely coming down, maybe still it is
better than boat and all. But, if you look at the boat here you are getting having not even
that, but you know this is your.
So, this is it is getting smaller. So, that is what we mean to say that for the T shape it is
coming down with the help of flow modifiers. So, for the T shape what we suggest that it
is better not to use the dams or the flow modifiers it works in a bare way better than all the
configuration of tundishes whereas, in case of V shape you should use the flow modifiers
at the position A and for the you know boat and delta shapes you should use it at position
C closer to the outlet.
So, that is what the is the outcome of these configuration of tundishes and with the use of
flow modifiers. If you go for the percentage inclusion removal for these boat and delta
shape what you see normally the trend looks somewhat similar except that when you have
10 microns. So, that way for the delta shape it is having maximum removal otherwise they
have a similar kind of trend for the boat and the delta shape.
539
And, the only one trend which you see normally is that if you have the increased diameter
of the particle so, removal chances are more because they will be expected to have more
buoyancy and more strokes velocity. So, that way.
Now, the next kind of study which has been done is related to the influence of the tundish
shape on the wall shear stress. So, if you have a tundish which is you know of you know
different shapes in that case what will be the effect on the wall shear stress. Now, wall
shear stress: why it is important because many a times we have the tundish lining and that
lining has a particular life and that will be depending upon how much shear stress it is
experiencing because of the flow of the metal over that.
So, it has been done for these tundishes and if you look at the you know this is how
typically the velocity vector looks like. You see that how the metal is approaching over
the you know walls. So, how they have the vector you know this vector. So, that they are
having that kind of. So, that way they will also go on the walls and then they will have a
shear stress because the velocity will be more.
540
So, more velocity gradient that will lead to the larger value of the shear stresses. So, this
is for the boat shape tundish and you see that it is moving and then you have a loop here
and then metal is going out.
And, if you calculate these shear stress values wall shear stress values at the front wall and
the boats of the boat shape tundish and also the bottom wall of the boat shape tundish. So,
this is your bottom wall and this is your front wall.
541
So, if you see that in the on the front we have seen that it is it is raising. So, that way you
know it is increasing the value now what do you see that on the bottom these values are
quite high as compared to the value on the front wall because it is it is getting some time
it is going and then it is moving towards the wall. So, that way it is taking that.
Now, on the bottom when it is hitting it is splashing and there is large value of shear stress
that is generated. Now, you see the maximum value here 1 Pascal here. So, that indicates
that the bottom wall is subjected to very high value of wall shear stress. And, that is the
reason many a times we provide the impact pad type of you know arrangement so that the
kind of erosion it is likely to generate because of this large velocity you know at the bottom
and then splashing on all the sides and having the generated large value of wall shear stress.
So, this you know variation tells that you have the chance maximum chance of erosion of
the you know the wall refractory on the bottom side and that is on the boat shape tundish.
Come to the you know the T shape tundish and we have seen that how the velocity vector
looks like you know on the symmetry plane if you see so, you will have this is the velocity
vector and this is the you know velocity vector on the T shape tundish.
542
And, here when it was drawn the you know wall shear stress contours on the you know
bottom wall as well as on the front wall. So, what you see that it is coming little bit higher
as compared to the boat shape tundish this is 2.30 there it was 1.08 or so.
Now that is because the out inlet is here and this is closure. So, it will have a larger you
know if you had their inlet with somewhat distant that will certainly be creating less
amount of wall shear stress on the front wall. But, the most notable feature is the wall shear
stress value again in this case on the bottom wall and on the bottom wall what you see is
that this is your maximum value of the wall shear stress which is close to 6.7.
So, again in this case 2 you are likely to have the very large value of the you know wall
shear stress and also more chances of the erosion from the bottom wall coming to the this
is the velocity vector for the T shape tundish.
543
And, this is again this is for the V shape tundish and for V shape tundish as you see we
have got the V shape tundish is this is the back wall and then you have the front wall and
this is the bottom. So, on the bottom it is somewhat smaller than other two kind of
tundishes and on the back walls it has somewhat of the similar order as you see in the case
of the boat shape tundishes or delta shape tundishes. So, it is coming closer to that order.
And, this value is also somewhere coming of the similar order, but somewhat less in the
case of V shape tundish.
544
So, that is what we see that normally you can predict depending upon that you can have
the prediction of the learning lap and even in those places you can have and additional you
know refractory lining so that your lining life becomes more in the tundish than in the
usual case.
So, that has been even you know studied with the help of the these graphs and you see that
you have the maximum wall shear stress. So, that is in the T shape tundish that is what you
see in these cases on the front wall. So, here also T shape tundish it will be seeing
somewhat you know away so, maximum is in T shape.
And, if you look at the bottom you see that it is quite high in the case of T shape tundish
as compared to other cases. So, with the length you can have that measured that how your
you know wall shear stress value is varying. So, by that you can have one you know
understanding and you can suggest in the plant.
Next part is about one of the work which the group has done is related to the influence of
nozzle blockage on flow behavior. And, what happens that many a times you have the
situation that you have to open close certain caster in the continuous casting unit. So, one
of the because of clogging or because of maybe you know other reasons like a productivity
you has to you have to slow down the process or so.
545
So, in that case it was it has seen that how the you know tundish behaves in that case and
how the RTD behavior will look like and how the tundish will perform. So, that is because
of that transitory opening case.
It is a curved type of you know tundish which is a typical industrial size tundish.
And, you know in that you know this is how some experimental work was done for the
validation work.
546
So, that was seen that validation is somewhat better in these two tundishes outlets.
So, this is one part of the numerical modeling when you do. So, you do the validation and
you can have also the feel when you do the physical modeling. So, how the dye is you
know dispersing on both the sides. So, that is seen you know in this case. So, that is and
one of the study.
547
However, then what we mean to say that what we did is there are few cases like one is
when all the outlets are open in that case 2 you open outlet 1 which is the farthest one; in
case 3 I mean you close it in case 3 you are closing outlet 3 that is middle outlet- middle
outlet you are closing and in this you are near outlet you are closing. And, 4, 5, 6 is you
are open closing two outlets 1 and 4 similarly you have 1 and 5 and you know 3 and 4 like
that. So, you have these you can have different cases.
548
And, you can do the RTD analysis. So, this is RTD when you are having the outlet 1, 2
and 3 you can see 1 is the far outlet so, black one and then you will have. So, and then you
will have the 3 and 4 will be you know green and blue. So, they will be because it is
symmetry. So, green and blue you know will be together and you see that this is the bigger
height.
Similarly 2 and 5 will be same. So, that is 2 and 5 will be this one and 1 and 6 will be by
this one. So, that way you have the three these outlets on these outlets if you draw the RTD
it behaves like this. Now, if you close the outlet 1 so, in that case you see that the outlet 4
which is near the inlet.
Now, in that case you see that there is increase in the peak you know at value more than
3. So, in earlier case it was less than 3 it was quite to 2.75 or so. So, it is decreasing and
otherwise it looks somewhat similar, but then that is affecting it means it is affecting the
fluid flow pattern. Now, in this case you are keeping outlet 2 closed, 3 closed.
So, this way you know if you change then your overall ratio of the mean residence time
𝑉𝑚
you can have the calculation and you have to see that overall is maximum when you
𝑉𝑑
are closing 4 outlet four. So, outlet 4 when you are closing that is close to outlet the 3
basically in case 4 that the outlet 3 is closed this is the case which is giving you the best
result because this is a near outlet and that leads to the best result.
549
𝑉
So, because that you know that avoid short circuiting and that is how your 𝑉𝑚 is maximum.
𝑑
So, that is you can have the velocity vector you can see this is all the outlets are open here,
you have closing this, then you have just closed this and then you have close this. So, your
velocity vector you can have the analysis and you can see that how you know changes are
there in the you know you see that this is a symmetrical case you have here and here and
here you have all that symmetrical you have a closed loops.
Now, in this case after why you when you close it on this side you see a loop whereas, on
this side you do not see. So, here similarly you do the closing here you see a loop here. So,
like that in the smaller one in the larger region. So, this is like you know the change in the
velocity vector which you observe in such cases.
550
So, for 5 to 7 also when two outlets you are closing. So, you know in that case how your
velocity vectors RTD is changing.
𝑉𝑚
And, how their effect will be there on the overall you see maximum value here in the
𝑉𝑑
case of 7.
So, this is one of the you know case where you can have certain studies on these cases this
is about the analysis of velocity vectors that is changing.
551
Now, in this case you are changing these two outlets and this and this outlet and then this
and this outlet like that.
Now, there is another work which is very much going in the tundish is of importance is
the interface level fluctuation and that is done using the VOF model and that is also one of
the work which has been done by our group.
So, it is about you know the prediction of this level. So, as you see that you know this is
was done for the grades and analysis and as you see that level is decreasing and you can
552
see that here also the level is being decrease and you can have you are having an interface.
Now, that is with different scheme you know now you are predicting that interface.
And, for that also you have the different kinds of scheme which are available like you have
the you know HRIC scheme high resolution you know image capturing the scheme and
you have the geo recurs schemes. There are many a schemes where available in the
softwares like fluent also there. So, you know and other softwares like you have the
phonics and all other softwares are there. So, they will have the different you know
schemes.
So, you can have the prediction and what you see that you see this sharp interface in this
case. So, that is what is observed you know. So, these are you know some of the examples
of the you know the work case studies which are done on the tundish and you can have the
these modelling work you can practice and have more and more confidence and you know
work for the industry or they or for the or you know own research.
So, thank you for the patient listening to the lectures and I hope that you are going to get
benefit and you are having satisfaction of the lectures which has been told. But, what I feel
that you should have a practice of on the course and either developed by you or on the you
know software codes and you should try to solve these problems you know live you solve
the problems and try to get the solution. So, that will increase your confidence and you
will be benefiting most out of these courses. So, thanks once again.
553
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INDEX

Hello friends welcome to these MOOCs online course on Modeling of Tundish

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Thank you very much.

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Thank you very much.

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Thank you very much.

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Thank you very much.

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Thank you very much.

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In physical modeling, a given phenomena is investigated in a replica of the actual industrial

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If we talk about the mathematical modeling, so as we know it is a mathematical model is

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Numerous idealizations are applied to formulate reasonably realistic process models in

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Thank you very much.

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So, you have a characteristic length, you have a reference velocity.

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