Title: Hormonal Regulation in Mammalian Body

Introduction
Hormonal regulation in the mammalian body is a highly complex and crucial system that intricately oversees
numerous physiological processes, acting as a pivotal element for survival. Serving as messengers within the
body, hormones, originating from glands like the pancreas, thyroid, and adrenal glands, play a subtle role in
adjusting metabolic activities. This orchestration goes beyond merely managing energy metabolism,
extending its reach to control growth, handle stress responses, and facilitate reproduction. For instance, in
the regulation of blood glucose levels, insulin facilitates the uptake and storage of glucose, while glucagon
stimulates its release during periods of increased energy demand, ensuring a delicate balance between
energy utilization and storage, crucial for the overall health and functioning of the organism.

Furthermore, the Complexity of hormonal regulation is evident in its modulation of stress responses, where
hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline swiftly come into action. In stressful situations, cortisol enhances
gluconeogenesis, elevates blood glucose levels, and prioritizes survival by suppressing non-essential
functions. Simultaneously, adrenaline triggers the "fight or flight" response, mobilizing glucose and rapidly
energizing the body to confront immediate challenges. The complexity of hormonal regulation also extends
to reproductive functions, with estrogen and testosterone overseeing growth, development, and fertility,
emphasizing the widespread influence of hormonal regulation on various aspects of life.

This complicated network not only preserves homeostasis but also highlights remarkable adaptability.
Hormonal responses can adapt to changing internal and external conditions, enabling the mammalian body
to navigate diverse challenges seamlessly. Whether regulating the delicate balance of appetite and energy
expenditure through hormones like leptin and adiponectin or influencing overall metabolic rate through
thyroid hormones, this adaptability ensures optimal functioning across different life stages. In essence,
hormonal regulation emerges as a dynamic and flexible system, finely adjusting the mammalian body's
responses to an ever-evolving environment, ultimately contributing to its sustained survival and resilience.
Examples
1. Hormonal Control of Blood Calcium Levels
Regulation of blood calcium concentrations is important for generation of muscle contractions and nerve
impulses, which are electrically stimulated. If calcium levels get too high, membrane permeability to sodium
decreases and membranes become less responsive. If calcium levels get too low, membrane permeability to
sodium increases and convulsions or muscle spasms can result.
Blood calcium levels are regulated by parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is produced by the parathyroid
glands. PTH is released in response to low blood Ca2+ levels. PTH increases Ca2+ levels by targeting the
skeleton, the kidneys, and the intestine. In the skeleton, PTH stimulates osteoclasts, which causes bone to be
reabsorbed, releasing Ca2+ from bone into the blood. PTH also inhibits osteoblasts, reducing Ca2+ deposition
in bone. In the intestines, PTH increases dietary Ca2+ absorption, and in the kidneys, PTH stimulates
reabsorption of the CA2+. While PTH acts directly on the kidneys to increase Ca2+ reabsorption, its effects on
the intestine are indirect. PTH triggers the formation of calcitriol, an active form of vitamin D, which acts on
the intestines to increase absorption of dietary calcium. PTH release is inhibited by rising blood calcium
levels.
 Figure# 1

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is released in response to low blood calcium levels. It increases blood calcium levels by targeting the
skeleton, the kidneys, and the intestine.

Hyperparathyroidism results from an overproduction of parathyroid hormone. This results in excessive

calcium being removed from bones and introduced into blood circulation, producing structural weakness of
the bones, which can lead to deformation and fractures, plus nervous system impairment due to high blood
calcium levels. Hypoparathyroidism, the underproduction of PTH, results in extremely low levels of blood
calcium, which causes impaired muscle function and may result in tetany (severe sustained muscle
contraction).

The hormone calcitonin, which is produced by the parafollicular or C cells of the thyroid, has the opposite
effect on blood calcium levels as does PTH. Calcitonin decreases blood calcium levels by inhibiting
osteoclasts, stimulating osteoblasts, and stimulating calcium excretion by the kidneys. This results in calcium
being added to the bones to promote structural integrity. Calcitonin is most important in children (when it
stimulates bone growth), during pregnancy (when it reduces maternal bone loss), and during prolonged
starvation (because it reduces bone mass loss). In healthy nonpregnant, unstarved adults, the role of
calcitonin is unclear.
 2. Hormonal Regulation of Growth
Hormonal regulation is required for the growth and replication of most cells in the body. Growth hormone
(GH), produced by the anterior portion of the pituitary gland, accelerates the rate of protein synthesis,
particularly in skeletal muscle and bones. Growth hormone has direct and indirect mechanisms of action. The
first direct action of GH is stimulation of triglyceride breakdown (lipolysis) and release into the blood by
adipocytes. This results in a switch by most tissues from utilizing glucose as an energy source to utilizing fatty
acids. This process is called a glucose-sparing effect. In another direct mechanism, GH stimulates glycogen
breakdown in the liver; the glycogen is then released into the blood as glucose. Blood glucose levels increase
as most tissues are utilizing fatty acids instead of glucose for their energy needs. The GH mediated increase in
blood glucose levels is called a diabetogenic effect because it is similar to the high blood glucose levels seen
in diabetes mellitus.

The indirect mechanism of GH action is mediated by insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) or somatomedins,
which are a family of growth-promoting proteins produced by the liver, which stimulates tissue growth. IGFs
stimulate the uptake of amino acids from the blood, allowing the formation of new proteins, particularly in
skeletal muscle cells, cartilage cells, and other target cells, as shown in Figure. This is especially important
after a meal, when glucose and amino acid concentration levels are high in the blood. GH levels are regulated
by two hormones produced by the hypothalamus. GH release is stimulated by growth hormone-releasing
hormone (GHRH) and is inhibited by growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH), also called somatostatin.

Figure# 2

Growth hormone directly accelerates the rate of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle and bones. Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is
activated by growth hormone and also allows formation of new proteins in muscle cells and bone.

A balanced production of growth hormone is critical for proper development. Underproduction of GH in

adults does not appear to cause any abnormalities, but in children it can result in pituitary dwarfism, in
which growth is reduced. Pituitary dwarfism is characterized by symmetric body formation. In some cases,
individuals are under 30 inches in height. Oversecretion of growth hormone can lead to gigantism in children,
causing excessive growth. In some documented cases, individuals can reach heights of over eight feet. In
adults, excessive GH can lead to acromegaly, a condition in which there is enlargement of bones in the face,
hands, and feet that are still capable of growth.
Conclusion
The role of hormonal regulation in the mammalian body is paramount, orchestrating a highly sophisticated
system that governs diverse physiological processes crucial for survival. From blood glucose homeostasis to
stress responses, growth, and reproduction, hormones serve as dynamic messengers, finely tuning the
intricate balance between energy utilization and storage. The adaptability and precision of hormonal
regulation, evident in its response to changing internal and external conditions, underscore its
indispensability for optimal functioning across different life stages. This intricate network showcases a
remarkable interplay of hormones from various glands, exemplifying its complexity. Ultimately, hormonal
regulation emerges as a versatile and resilient system, contributing significantly to the enduring survival and
well-being of the mammalian organism.

References:
https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/18-3-regulation-of-body-processes/
 Table of Contents
1. Introduction
1.1 Overview of Hormonal Regulation
1.2 Significance in Physiological Processes
1.3 Role of Hormones as Messengers
2. Complexity of Hormonal Regulation
2.1 Source of Hormones: Glands in the Mammalian Body
2.2 Modulation of Metabolic Activities
2.3 Beyond Energy Metabolism: Growth, Stress Responses, and Reproduction

3. Blood Glucose Homeostasis

3.1 Insulin and Glucagon Dynamics
3.2 Delicate Balance for Energy Utilization and Storage
4. Modulation of Stress Responses
4.1 Cortisol and Adrenaline in Action
4.2 Prioritizing Survival in Stressful Situations

5. Hormonal Influence on Reproductive Functions

5.1 Estrogen and Testosterone Roles
5.2 Growth, Development, and Fertility

6. Examples of Hormonal Control

6.1 Hormonal Control of Blood Calcium Levels
6.1.1 Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Mechanisms
6.1.2 Effects of Hyperparathyroidism and Hypoparathyroidism
6.1.3 Role of Calcitonin
6.2 Hormonal Regulation of Growth
6.2.1 Growth Hormone (GH) Functions
6.2.2 Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGFs)
6.2.3 Impacts of GH Imbalances

7. Conclusion
7.1 Recap of Hormonal Regulation's Paramount Role
7.2 Resilience and Adaptability in Maintaining Optimal Functioning.
 Assignment # 01

Subject: Biochemistry (BME-214)

Submitted by: Hafiz Muhammad Fawad

Submitted To: Dr. Habib

Submission Date: 22- December-2023

Registration No: 2022-BME-118

Department: Biomedical Engineering