2 skipped 3: Mo stage is ever stant transformation of the stage before it 4. Each later stage incorporated the earlier stages into itself. Basically, this is a *staircase” model of development. Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development, and called them (1) sensorimotor intelligence, (2) preoperational thinking, (3) concrete formal operational thinking. Each stage is operational thinking, and (4) "1 correlated with an age period of childhood, but only approximately. The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to Age 2 In Piaget's theory, the sensorimotor stage occurs first, and is defined as the period when infants “think” by means of their senses and motor actions. As every new parent will attest, infants continually touch, manipulate, look, listen to, and even bite and chew objects. According to Piaget, these actions allow children to learn about the world and are crucial to their early cognitive development. The infant's actions allow the child to represent (i.e., construct simple concepts of) objects and events. A toy animal may be just a confusing array of sensations at first, but by looking, feeling, and manipulating it repeatedly, the child gradually organizes her sensations and actions into a stable concept: toy animal. The representation acquires a permanence lacking in the individual experiences of the object, which are constantly changing. Because the representation is stable, the child “knows,” or at least believes, that toy animal exists even if the actual toy animal is temporarily out of sight. Piaget called this sense of stability object permanence, a belief that objects exist whether or not they are actually present. Object permanence is a major achievement of sensorimotor development, and marks a qualitative transformation in how older infants (~24 months) think about experience compared to younger infants (~6 months). During much of infancy, of course, a child can only barely talk, so sensorimotor development initially happens without the support of language. It might therefore seem hard to know what infants are thinking. Piaget devised several simple, but clever, experiments to get around their lack of language, and these experiments suggest that infants do indeed represent objects even without being able to talk (Piaget, 1952). In one, for example, he simply hid an object (like a toy animal) under a blanket. He found that doing so consistently prompts older infants (18-24 months) to search for the object, but fails tonts (less than Six re hee to do so. (You can try a happen to have access to in this experiment yourself if you young infant.) Something motivates the search by the older infant even without the benefit of much languag’ and that “something” is presumed to be a permanent concePt OF Tepresentation of the object. prompt younger infa The Preoperational Stage: Age 2to7 In the preoperational stage, children use their new ability to represent objects in a wide variety of activities, but they do not yet do it in ways that are organized or fully logical. One of the most obvious examples of this kind of cognition is dramatic play, or the improvised make-believe e ever had responsibility for children of of preschool children. If you hav this age, you have likely witnessed such play. Children engaged in imaginative activities are thinking on two levels at once—one imaginative and the other realistic. This dual processing of experience makes dramatic play an early example of metacognition, or reflecting on and the monitoring of thinking itself. Because metacognition is a highly desirable skill for success in school, teachers of young children (preschool, kindergarten, and even first or second grade) often make time and space in their classrooms for dramatic play, and sometimes even participate in it themselves to help develop the play further. The Concrete Operational Stage: Age 7 to 11 As children continue into elementary school, they become able to represent ideas and events more flexibly and logically. Their rules of thinking still seem very basic by adult standards and usually operate unconsciously, but they allow children to solve problems more systematically than before, and therefore to be successful with many academic tasks. In the concrete operational stage, for example, a child may unconsciously follow the rule: “If nothing is added or taken away, then the amount of something stays the same.” This simple principle helps children understand certain arithmetic tasks (such as adding or subtracting zero from a number) as well as perform certain classroom science experiments (such as ones that involve calculating the combined volume of two separate liquids). Piaget called this period the concrete operational stage because children mentally “operate” on concrete objects and events. They are not yet able,(or think) systematically about representations of ating representations is a more abstract skill ‘adolescence. however, to operate objects or events. Manipul that develops later, during ational thinking differs from preoperational thinking in two mavehecet ot which renders children more skilled as students. One difference is reversibility, or the ability to think about the steps of a process in any order. Imagine a simple science experiment, for example, Such as one that explores why objects sink or float by having a child place an assortment of objects in a basin of water. Both the preoperational and concrete operational child can recall and describe the steps in this experiment, but only the concrete operational child can recall them in any order (e.g-, chronological, reverse chronological, etc). This skill is very helpful for any task involving multiple steps—a common feature of tasks in the classroom. In teaching new vocabulary from a story, for another example, a teacher might tell students: "1) Every time you come across a word you don’t know, write it down. 2) Then find and write down the definition of that word before returning to the story. 3) After you have a list of all the words you don’t know, have a friend test you on your list.” These directions involve repeatedly remembering to move back and forth between a second step and a first—a task that concrete operational students—and most adults—find easy, but that preoperational children often forget to do or find confusing. If the younger children are to do this task reliably, they may need external prompts, such as having the teacher remind them periodically to go back to the story to look for more unknown words. The other new feature of thinking that develops during the concrete operational stage is the child’s ability to decenter, or focus on more than one feature of a problem at a time. There are hints of decentration in preschool children’s dramatic play, which requires being aware on two levels at once—knowing that a banana can be both a banana and a “telephone.” But the decentration of the concrete operational stage is more deliberate and conscious than preschoolers’ make-believe. The other new feature of thinking that develops during the concrete operational stage is the child’s ability to decenter, or focus on more than one feature of a problem at a time. There are hints of decentration in preschool children’s dramatic play, which requires being aware on two levels at once—knowing that a banana can be both a banana and a “telephone.” But the decentration of the concrete operational stage is more deliberate and conscious than preschoolers’ make-believe. Now the child can attend to two things at once quite purposefully. Suppose you give students a sheet with an assortment of subtraction problems 5 on it, and ask them to do this: “Find all of the problems that involveam jon and that involve borrowing from the next column. Gea arid solve only those pro er ae these instructions is. quite possible for a concrete operational student (as long as they have been listening!) because the student can attend to the two subtasks simultaneously—finding the two-digit problems and identifying which actually involve borrowing. (Whe' student actually knows how to “borrow” however, is a separate question.) In real classroom tasks, reversibility and decentration often happen together. A well-known example of joint presence is Piaget's experiments with conservation, the belief that an amount or quantity stays the same even if it changes apparent size or shape (Piaget, 2001; Matthews, 1998). Imagine two identical balls made of clay. Any child, Whether preoperational or concrete operational, will agree that the two indeed have the same amount of clay in them simply because they look the same. But if you now squish one ball into a long, thin “hot dog,” the preoperational child is likely to say that the amount of clay has changed—either because its shape is longer or because it is thinner, but at any rate because it now looks different. The concrete operational child will not make this mistake, thanks to new cognitive skills of reversibility and decentration: for him or her, the amount is the same because “you could squish it back into a ball again” (reversibility) and because “it may be longer, but it is also thinner” (decentration). Piaget would say the concrete operational child “has conservation of quantity.” Notice the difference between the two younger (preoperational) and the slightly older (concrete operational) child in this video as they perform the conservation task: The classroom examples described above also involve reversibility and decentration. As already mentioned, the vocabulary activity described earlier requires reversibility (going back and forth between identifying words and looking up their meanings); but it can also be construed as an example of decentration (keeping in mind two tasks at once—word identification and dictionary search), And as mentioned, the arithmetic activity requires decentration (looking for problems that meet two criteria and also solving them), but it can also be construed as an example of reversibility (going back and forth between subtasks, as with the vocabulary activity). Either way, the development of concrete operational skills supports students in doing many basic academic tasks; in 2 sense, concrete operational skills make ordinary school work possible. The Formal Operational Stage: Age 11 and Beyondthe child becomes able to reason not nd events, but also about hypothetical or abstract ones, Hence, It has the name formal Operational stage—the period when the individual ca” »perate” on “forms” or representations. With students at this level, the teacher Can pose hypothetical (or contrary-to-fact) problems: “What if the world had never discovered oll?” or “What if the first Eu in explorers had settled first in California Instead of on the East Coast of the United States?” To answer sath guestions, students must use hypothetical reasoning, meaning that they must manipulate ideas that vary In several ways at once, and do so entirely in their minds. and the young woman in this video and notice the ason hypothetically: In the last of the only about tanglb Compare the child difference in their abilities to re The hypothetical reasoning that concerned Piaget primarily involved scientific problems. His studies of formal operational thinking therefore often look like problems that middle or high school teachers pose in science classes. In one problem, for example, a young person is presented with a simple pendulum, to which different amounts of weight tan be hung (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). The experimenter asks: "What determines how fast the pendulum swings: the length of the string holding it, the weight attached to it, or the distance that it is pulled to the side?” erson is not allowed to solve this problem by trial-and-error t must mentally reason a way to the he or she must imagine varying each the other factors that are held cility at manipulating mental id actions—precisely the skill The young p with the materials themselves, bul solution. To do so systematically, factor separately, while also imagining constant. This kind of thinking requires fat representations of the relevant objects an that defines formal operations. spect, students with an ability to think hypothetically ge in many kinds of school work: by definition, they "to solve problems. In this sense they can who rely only on As you might su: have an advanta' require relatively few ‘props’ in principle be more self-directed than students concrete operations—certainly a desirable quality in the opinion of most teachers. Note, though, that formal operational thinking is desirable— but not sufficient for—solving all academic problems, and is far from being the only way that students achieve educational thinking skills do not ensure that a student is motivated or well- behaved, for example, nor does they guarantee other desirable skills, such as ability at sports, music, or art, The fourth stage in Piaget's theory is really about a particular kind of formal thinking: the kind | success. Formalneeded to solve scientific problems and devise scientific Sree TRenY people'de nat normally deal with such problems in the Rormal course of their lives, it should be no surprise that research that many people never achieve or use formal thinking fully or consistently, or that they use it only in selected areas with are very familiar (Case & Okomato, 1996). For teachers, the Of Piaget's ideas suggest a need for additional theories about development—ones that focus more directly on the social and interpersonal issues of childhood and adolescence. The next describe some of these.eochonrrrrtn i Be ae Dose Waaad sero sgcoi r Maslow's hierarchy of needs Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a theory by Abraham Maslow, which puts forward that people are motivated by five basic categories of needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization. Key Takeaways: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs = According to Maslow, we have five categories of needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization. In this theory, higher needs in the hierarchy begin to emerge when people feel they have sufficiently satisfied the previous need. Although later research does not fully support all of Maslow’s theory, his research has impacted other psychologists and contributed to the field of positive psychology. What Is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs? In order to better understand what motivates human beings, Maslow proposed that human needs can be organized into a hierarchy. This hierarchy ranges from more concrete needs such as food and water to abstract concepts such as self-fulfillment. According to Maslow, when a lower need is met, the next need on the hierarchy becomes our focus of attention. These are the five categories of needs according to Maslow:Physiological like drinking when thirsty or eatin ic physical needs Y or eating Tse refer to as ng, to Maslow, some of these needs involve our Beate ae J for homeostasis; that is, maintaining forts to meet the body's nee‘ ntain Boia levels in different bodily systems (for example, maintaining a body temperature of 98.6°). i hysiological needs to be the most essential of our i a Ras aie 8 Mee in more than one need, they're likely to try to meet these physiological needs first. For example, if someone is extremely hungry, it’s hard to focus on anything else besides food. Another example of a physiological need would be the need for adequate sleep. Safety Once people's physiological requirements are met, the next need that arises is a safe environment. Our safety needs are apparent even early in childhood, as children have a need for safe and predictable environments and typically react with fear or anxiety when these are not met. Maslow pointed out that in adults living in developed nations, safety needs are more apparent in emergency situations (e.g. war and disasters), but this need can also explain why we tend to prefer the familiar or why we do things like purchase insurance and contribute to a savings account. Love and Belonging According to Maslow, the next need in the hierarchy involves feeling loved and accepted. This need includes both romantic relationships as well as ties to friends and family members. It also includes our need to feel that we belong to a social group. Importantly, this need encompasses both feeling loved and feeling love towards others. Since Maslow’s time, researchers have continued to explore how love and belonging needs impact well-being. For example, having social connections is related to better physical health and, conversely, feeling isolated (i.e. having unmet belonging needs) has negative consequences for health and well-being,2 Esteem+ esteem needs involve the desire to feel good about ourselves. Aassralilg to Maslow, esteem needs include two components. The first Involves feeling self-confidence and feeling good about oneself. The second component involves feeling valued by others; that is, feeling that surachievements and contributions have been recognized by other people. When people's esteem needs are met, they feel confident and eee their contributions and achievements as valuable and important. .em needs are not met, they may experience However, when their este rein ma what psychologist Alfred Adler called feelings of inferiority.” Self-Actualization Self-actualization refers to feeling fulfilled, or feeling that we are living ne unique feature of self-actualization is that it up to our potential. O' looks different for everyone. For one person, self-actualization might involve helping others; for another person, it might involve achievements in an artistic or creative field. Essentially, self- actualization means feeling that we are doing what we believe we are meant to do. According to Maslow, achieving self-actualization and his examples of famous self-actualized individuals is relatively rare, include Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, and Mother Teresa. How People Progress Through the Hierarchy of Needs Maslow postulated that there were several prerequisites to meeting these needs. For example, having freedom of speech and freedom of expression or living in a just and fair society aren’t specifically mentioned within the hierarchy of needs, but Maslow believed that having these things makes it easier for people to achieve their needs. In addition to these needs, Maslow also believed that we have a need to learn new information and to better understand the world around us. This is partially because learning more about our environment helps us meet our other needs; for example, learning more about the world can help us feel safer, and developing a better understanding of a topic one is passionate about can contribute to self-actualization. However, Maslow also believed that this call to understand the world around us is an innate need as well. Although Maslow presented his needs in a hierarchy, he also acknowledged that meeting each need is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon. Consequently, people don't need to completely satisfy one need in order for the next need in the hierarchy to emerge, Maslow suggests that, at any given time, most people a to have each of theirneeds lower on the hierarchy are typically —and thal needs partly met—and t he most progress towards. the ones that people have made t it that one behavior might meet t Additionally, Maslow pointed ou! al wo oF ite fake: For example, sharing a meal with someone meets the physiological need for food, but it might also meet the need of imi id caregiver would provid belonging. Similarly, working as 2 pal Provide Berreone ith inestns (which allows them to pay for food and shelter), but can also provide them a a sense of social connection and fulfillment. Erik Erikson’s 8 Stages Of Psychosocial Development By Saul Mcleod, PhD Updated on May 1, 2023 Reviewed by Olivia Guy Evans Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development. For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social). According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises. Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and, therefore, a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time. 4| | Developmental | Stage tieure) ‘Task Description | | Z [nae ae | Trust (or mistrust) that basic | 1 o-1 Trust vs. mistrust | Needs, such as nourishment and) | affection, will be met | | | | i Autonomy VS: | Develop a sense of independence | 1-3 | shame/doubt in many tasks | Take initiative on some activities— ; may develop guilt when | 3 3-6 _| Initiative vs. 9UlE_ | unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped | | | “ Pe Develop self-confidence in abilities | 4 7-11 an ve: when competent or sense of | ! y inferiority when not | | — = | Identity vs. | Experiment with and develop 5 12-18 | | confusion identity and roles | — = — — =! 6 19-29 Intimacy vs. Establish intimacy and isolation relationships with others 7 30-64 Contribute to society and be part | stagnation of a family 8 Son | Integrity vs. Assess and make sense of life and | despair meaning of contributions peerbar f Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust r af ¥ iIn the first stage of Erikson’s psychosocial model, infancy is crucial to our psychosocial development. During our initial 18 months, we are uncertain about the world in which we find ourselves and must develop basic trust. After all, we are entirely reliant on our caregivers for warmth, love, stability, and nurturing. If reliable and predictable, we gain confidence, a sense of security, and a feeling of safety in the world (Syed & McLean, 2018). If care is inconsistent and unreliable, then trust will fail. For example, when caregivers reject us, fail to meet our needs, or are emotionally detached, we may conclude that we cannot rely on adults. Failure in stage one results in the development of fear, mistrust, suspicion, anxiety, and, ultimately, a belief that the world is unpredictable. We may become anxious, believing we have no control or influence on our environment. A good balance between trust and mistrust means We remain open to experience and yet aware of the potential for danger. After all, it is unlikely and ill advised for a child to become entirely trusting or entirely lacking in trust. Success within stage one leads to the virtue of hope - the sense that whatever crisis we meet, there will be someone around to provide support and help. Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubtuses on early childhood 4 18 months to three years - ndependence and an increased perception of ‘al skills (Erikson, 1958, 1963). me Stage two foc when we are gaining i contro! over our physic Though early on in development, we begin to develop a heightened sense of personal control and acquire feelings of independence. Typically around this time, parents, teachers, and caregivers begin giving children some degree of choice, letting them perform actions on their own. Therefore, we become increasingly mobile and develop physically, asserting our independence, putting on clothes, and playing with other children and toys. According to Erikson, potty training is crucial to learning physical control and, ultimately, the development of autonomy. Success over bodily functions and taking control of simple choices leads to a sense of personal power, feelings of autonomy, increased independence, and a greater sense of being able to survive in the world. During stage two, parents should expect and encourage their child to explore limits, gently stretching them, while avoiding criticism when they fail. The resulting feeling of security and confidence are crucial for our progress in subsequent stages and leads to the virtue of will. However, if we are overly criticized and controlled, or prevented from asserting ourselves, we may feel unable to survive, lacking in self- teem, and excessively dependent on others. Indeed, feeling a sense of shame over toilet accidents can impact our sense of personal control and increase levels of doubt. An appropriate balance between shame, doubt, and autonomy is essential to the virtue of will - the child believing they can act with intention, rather than experience a sense of inadequacy and doubt. Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guiltro. Erikson’s third stage of psychosocial development occurs during preschool, between the ages of three and five years. At this point in our psychosocial development - when conflict occurs between initiative and guilt - we learn to assert ourselves and typically begin to direct play and social interactions. To our parents, our behavior may seem vigorous, overly assertive, or even aggressive, and yet we are exploring our interpersonal skills. If overly restricted from such exploration ~ either by parental control or through increased criticism - we can develop a sense of guilt. Similarly, while constant questioning in this stage can be tiring at times, if it is curtailed by caregivers, we may see ourselves as a nuisance, inhibiting our interactions with others. And yet, if we are successful in stage three, we learn to feel capable, secure, and able to use our initiative. If we fail, we may suffer guilt and self-doubt and become less likely to lead. Success in stage three is vital to building the virtue of purpose as opposed to feelings of guilt. However, a balance between initiative and guilt remains key to developing a healthy mindset. Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority In stage four of Erikson’s psychosocial theory - ages 5 to 12 years - we are immersed in a world of education, learning to read, write, and solve math puzzles (Erikson, 1958, 1963). Teachers play an essential role in our continued growth within this stage. At the same time, peer groups and social interactions are increasingly relevant in the development of our self-esteem, and feelings of pride arise as we successfully perform or complete tasks.Indeed, winning approval is @ motivating factor, and we soon learn to associate it with displaying specific competencies valued by our peers and adults. Over these years, demands on us increase considerably; it becomes essential for us to learn how to handle the many social and academic expectations (Syed & McLean, 2018). If successful, development leads to the virtue of competence, while failure can result in a sense of inferiority, where we feel unable to perform specific skills. Balance in stage four leads to a sense of accomplishment and competence, and we start to believe in our ability to handle existing and novel situations. Indeed, learning to fail can be a crucial element in our maturation - leading to the development of modesty - while success meets our basic psychological need for feelings of competence (Ryan & Deci, 2018). Stage 5: Identity Versus Role Confusion \ Teenage years can be daunting, both to the adolescents and parents. New opportunities, experiences, and changes to the body and mind in stage five are crucial to our sense of who we are and have a considerable bearing on our adult years. These formative years - ages 12 to 18 - provide a valuable adil depth exploration of beliefs, goals, and values while searching for personal identity and a sense of self, The transition between childhood and adulthood is crucial. We become increasingly independent and begin to consider careers, family, friends, and our place in society,h stage of According to Erikson (1963), the fift '9¢ of Psychosocial development exists “between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult.” As such, it is vital for young adults to learn the roles that we may adopt once mature - including sexually ~ aS our body image transforms. Success leads to the belief that we are staying true to who we are, expressed by virtue of fidelity. Erikson claims that we grow into our bodies and begin to form our identity as a result of our ongoing explorations. And, with appropriate encouragement and reinforcement, we move toward increasing independence and a stronger sense of control and self (Marcia, 2010). Otherwise, our inability to create a sense of identity within society (“Who am I? I don’t know what I want to do when I am older”) results in confusion and a poor sense of self. This failure can only lead to insecurity and unsureness of ourselves, our future, and where we fit. Success in stage five, according to Erikson, leads to fidelity - alignment with the standards and expectations of the social group to which we belong. After all, our conscious sense of self results from this social interaction and is crucial in our balance between identity and confusion. Ultimately identity provides us with our integrated sense of self - avoiding identity crisis - that will last throughout our lives, guiding how we behave and what we believe. Download 3 Free Positive Psychology Exercises (PDF) Enhance wellbeing with these free, science-based exercises that draw on the latest rae from positive psychology. Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation As young adults, we are motivated to explore personal relationships and our desire to form intimate relationships. In the sixth stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, young adulthood takes place between the ages of 18 and 40. During this time, major conflict can arise as we attempt to form longer term commitments outside of our family, with varying degrees of success.outcomes result in healthy, happy relationships that developing the virtue of love. Erikson’s (1963) marks the ultimate success of stage six - ful and lasting, And yet, positive are secure and enduring, view is that the ability to love when relationships are meaning! Failure ~ whether beyond or within our control ~ to form appropriate bonds or the avoidance of intimacy may result in loneliness, a sense of isolation, and depression. Those with a poor sense of self are typically emotionally isolated and less committed to relationships. The intimacy versus isolation stage builds upon the success or failure of stage five. After all, a strong sense of personal identity is crucial to developing relationships that are intimate and strong. Stage 7: Generativity Versus Stagnation f ‘a The seventh stage of psychosocial development occurs between 40 and 65 years of age. During middle adulthood, we display our need for longevity, not necessarily in a physical sense, but as life’s continuation in our children or the long-term impact we have on others. We aim to make a mark on the world, to nurture things that will outlive us. We may look for ways to be more productive and valuable to our society, with an eye on the bigger picture. Success is exemplified by virtue of care - the feeling of being useful in life, accomplishing something, and contributing to society. We are proud of who we are, what we have achieved, our children and who they have become, and the strong relationship we have with our partner. Failure looks quite different. We feel we have had little impact on the world, failing to make that dent in the universe as the late Steve Jobs described. If so, we feel unproductive, uninvolved, disillusioned, and disconnected from the world in which we live.Stage 8: Integrity versus Despair Unlike previous theories, Erikson’s Model Covered the entirety of life ‘rom the cradle to the grave." Our final stage of psychosocial development takes us from 65 years of age to death ~ known as maturity, This stage is one of reflection. We slow down, are less productive, and spend time reviewing our accomplishments throughout life. Success is in the belief that we have achieved our goals and found happiness, leading to the feeling of integrity, “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (Erikson, 1982). We feel we have achieved much and are ready to meet our end with a sense of peace, Success leads to the virtue of wisdom - a sense of completeness, On the other hand, failure may be experienced as despair and regret over things not done, completed, or mistakes made. We are bitter about the past and present, frightened about coming to the end of our life without a sense of having lived well. 2.1 Cognitive Development: The Theory of Jean Piaget Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers to long-term changes in these processes. One of the most widely known perspectives about cognitive development is the cognitive stage theory of a Swiss psychologist named Jean Piaget. Piaget created and studied an account of how children and youth gradually become able to think logically and scientifically. Piaget believed that learning proceeded by the interplay of assimilation (adjusting new experiences to fit prior concepts) and accommodation (adjusting concepts to fit new experiences). The to-and-fro of these two processes leads not only to short-term learning, but also to long-term developmental change. The long-term developments are really the main focus of Piaget’s cognitive theory. After observing children closely, Piaget proposed that cognition developed through distinct stages from birth through the end of adolescence. By “stages” he meant a sequence of thinking patterns with four key features: 1. The stages always happen in the same order. :