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Literary Techniques
Once you’ve understood how to go
about answering your Paper 1 and
Paper 2 questions, take a look at the
following list (which is in no particular
order, by the way). While this is not a
complete list of literary techniques
(there are absolutely TONS in the
English language), it is comprised of
many techniques that you may find in
Paper 1 passages and may use yourself
in Paper 2 questions.

Brace yourselves, though, because this

is one LONG list, and I may keep adding
to it if I think of any more relevant
literary techniques.

Just a little note: while I’ve used the

words ‘writer’, ‘reader’ and ‘text’
throughout this list, remember that it
can be a ‘speaker’ and a ‘listener’, too, in
some cases (e.g., voiceovers, T.V.
broadcasts, podcasts, speeches etc).

1. Similes and metaphors

This is when the writer likens one

thing to another using words such
as ‘like’ or ‘as’. Examples include ‘The
little boy’s golden locks framed his
face like a lion’s mane.’ or ‘She
looked as thin as a beanpole.’ These
allow the reader to vividly picture
what the author is trying to say. In
the example above, for instance, it is
implied that the boy’s hair does not
simply sit on his head; it is
voluminous and, perhaps, allows to
give him an intimidating image. In
this way, even though we do not
know much about the boy’s
appearance initially, the writer is
trying to help us understand using
the image of ‘a lion’s mane’,
something we are already familiar
with.

Metaphors are similar to similes, but

a more direct comparison is made.
Therefore, writers may use them to
create a much more striking image.
For example, ‘The stars were
diamonds in the midnight sky.’
Notice how there is no ‘like’ or ‘as’ in
this sentence.

When a metaphorical idea is

developed as a text progresses, it is
know as an extended metaphor or
an extended image.

2. Personification

This is when a writer describes

something non-human using
human-like actions and emotions.
(When these characteristics are
applied to aspects of nature,
specifically, it is known as a ‘pathetic
fallacy’.)

An example would be ‘Amanda

watched as the sea roared in fury.’

Of course, we know that a sea

cannot actually roar and be furious,
but since we are, quite obviously,
humans, we can imagine what the
sea was like because human
emotions are attributed to it; we
have all become furious at some
point, and it is a feeling we are very
likely to be familiar with.

3. Symbolism

This is the use of symbols to portray

an idea.

For instance, a white dove is a

symbol of peace.

Usually, what the symbol looks like

is a key to helping us understand the
idea that it symbolises. In the case of
the dove, the colour white is one
that brings a sense of serenity to our
minds.

4. Using the five senses

Writers often describe settings by

appealing to the reader’s senses.

They do this by mentioning the

sounds, sights, smells, tastes, and,
less commonly, the feel or texture of
things.

This allows the text to have some

‘depth’. Plus, going on and on about
only what you can see is extremely
boring!

5. Foreshadowing

This technique involves the writer

hinting that something is going to
happen, usually something bad.

A very common example in fiction

would be the appearance of a
stormy sky.

This acts as a sort of ‘sneak peek’ for

the readers and may even be used as
a cliffhanger at the end of a chapter,
for example, to create suspense and
leave readers hanging.

6. Tone

This is the writer’s attitude towards

what he is writing or to his readers.

Different tones allow writers to

convey messages differently.

In some passages, the tone can

change suddenly, e.g. with the
introduction of a new character. In
others, the tone may not even be
very apparent or might be very
understated. Make sure to write
about this in your commentary.

In Paper 2, remember to adopt a

tone that is appropriate to your
audience and the kind of literary
piece you are writing.

In Paper 1, when commenting on the

writer’s tone, make sure to not just
say that it is ‘happy’, ‘sad’ or ‘angry’.
Avoid words like ‘negative’ and
‘positive’, too. These words are quite
vague and do not reflect careful
reviewing of the text. Instead, use
words such as ‘jovial’, ‘light-hearted’,
‘affectionate’, ‘nostalgic’, ‘tongue-in-
cheek’, ‘dismal’, ‘disapproving’ and
‘exasperated’, to name a few.

7. Punctuation and font

Commas can be used to create a

feeling of abundance, e.g., ‘The
tables were laden with platters of
rice, bowls of delicious fruit, freshly
baked bread and mouth-watering
curries.’ Commas can also be used to
create a sense of urgency; ‘With a
piece of toast in his mouth, he
pulled on his socks, slipped into his
shoes, grabbed his keys and….’

Colons and semi-colons create a

sort of break in the sentence and
may allow the writer to divert the
reader’s attention to the words
placed after the colon or semi-
colon. An example would be ‘As I
entered the living room, I was met
with a horrific sight: a pool of blood.’

Capital letters, exclamation marks

and large, emboldened fonts, too,
serve the purpose of capturing the
reader’s attention, especially in titles
and subtitles.

Hyphens and brackets may help

writers to provide additional
information, e.g., ‘Mohammed had
no real interest in algebra – or any
Mathematical topic, for that matter
– and he fell asleep as he soon as he
opened his book.’ In some instances,
hyphens and brackets also make it
seem like a connection is being
formed between the writer and his
audience; he seems to be telling us
things we would, otherwise, not
have known.

8. Rhetorical questions

Rhetorical questions are questions

posed to the audience to make them
think more deeply about an issue, to
question their conscience or to
prove a point, rather than to receive
an answer.

In some narrative pieces, they may

even suggest that a character is
confused, scared or going through
some sort of internal struggle.

These types of questions are

especially helpful in Paper 2 for
speeches and persuasive articles,
but make sure you don’t use too
many of them, which might make
your writing seem awkward.

9. Repetition

Another technique that is useful in

speeches and persuasive articles is
repetition.

It is quite similar to rhetorical

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questions in the fact that it is used

to prove a point. And, just like
rhetorical questions, do not repeat
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10. Alliteration

This is when words starting with the

same letter or having the same
sounds are placed together.

It is a technique that is often used to

mimic sounds or to create rhythm.

One example would be: ‘The serpent

slipped and slid through the cracks.’

Here, the repeated ‘s’ sound may

reflect the hissing of the serpent,
perhaps to build up a sense of
danger and to invoke fear in the
reader.

Sometimes, writers alliterate

unintentionally so in Paper 1, so
make sure you pick out an example
only if it is blatantly obvious that
alliteration has been used and that it
has been used to create a particular
effect.

11. Onomatopoeia

This refers to a word that is formed

from a sound.

‘Thud’, ‘crash’ and ‘slam’ are common

examples.

Onomatopoeia helps to create a

lively atmosphere, especially when
describing noisy scenes.

Once again, if you’re going to use

these, do so sparingly.

12. Juxtaposition and oxymorons

Juxtaposition is when contrasting

ideas or words are placed close
together (but not necessarily right
beside each other). For instance, a
calm, quiet character could be
passing through a chaotic
marketplace.

Oxymorons are phrases in which

contradicting words are placed side-
by-side, e.g., ‘deafening silence’.

Both the use of juxtaposition and

oxymorons may help to place
emphasis on one (or both) of the
words or ideas described. In the
example above, for instance, the
character’s calmness may appear to
be more striking because he is
placed in a setting that is nothing
but calm.

13. Hyperbole

A hyperbole is an exaggerated
statement.

An example would be ‘You’ve told

me this story a million times before!’
Of course, ‘a million times’ is
impossible, but it helps to reflect the
writer’s feelings, which, in this case,
seems to be annoyance.

14. Allusion

This is when an indirect reference is

made to a person, place or event.

Take this sentence for instance: ‘He

stood with his paintbrush poised in
mid-air, almost as if he was going to
yell ‘Expelliarmus!’ at us.’ This is, as
many of you will know, a reference
to Harry Potter.

Like similes and metaphors,

allusions provide an idea that is
familiar to us to describe something
or someone that is not as familiar.

15. Tense

Different tenses may be used to give

a writer’s tone a different quality.

For instance, while the past tense

may be used in flashbacks and
suggests that the writer is nostalgic,
perhaps, the present tense creates a
sense of urgency and, sometimes,
fear and suspense. The present
tense also makes us feel more
connected to the text because we
may feel like we are experiencing
whatever the character is
experiencing along with him or her.

The future tense is not as commonly

used as the past and present tense,
but it, too, can be quite effective in
your writing. It can, for example, be
used to create a sense of
determination; ‘I will wake up at 4
a.m. tomorrow and do some cardio.’

16. Sentence length

Long, winding sentences can be

used to describe things that are,
well, long and winding. For instance,
a journey through a village could be
described like this: ‘The bullock cart
rocked back and forth, and up and
down, and we rode over every single
pothole on the road, the wheels
rattling noisily and dangerously, as if
threatening to fall apart and relieve
the cart of its passengers.’ From this,
we can infer that the ride was
probably a very exhausting (an even
slightly scary) one.

Short sentences are often used to

catch the reader off guard or to
create suspense and fear, e.g., ‘I hear
a knock. Then, the door creaks. A
shadow. A footstep.’

17. Point of view

First person – when the writer uses

words such as ‘I’ and ‘myself’ while
describing what he or she is
experiencing. This may help
audience to look at the happenings
of the text through the writer’s eyes.

Second person – uses personal

pronouns, words such as ‘you’, ‘your’
and ‘you’re’. This can help writers to
make their work more engaging by
appearing to speak directly to their
audience. They are particularly
effective in speeches and persuasive
writing. Just like rhetorical
questions, personal pronouns help
to question the conscience of the
audience.

Third person – writing that

describes another person’s feelings
and experiences using pronouns
such as ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘they’ etc. This
point of view is, perhaps, better at
giving an overview of a setting,
something that one character alone
might find it difficult to do.

18. Puns

A pun is a type of word-play that

uses words or phrases that sound
similar but mean totally different
things.

For instance, when I say that ‘I’m so

fed up with chocolate’, I could either
mean that I am full to bursting with
chocolate, or I’m bored of/annoyed
by the extensive use of chocolate,
perhaps.

Puns may help create interest by

focusing our attention on just one
word or group of words.

19. Jargon

This refers to any technical term to

do with a particular field that people
outside of the field may find hard to
understand.

Jargon is mostly used in text that is

targeted towards a very specific
audience so a game review, for
example, could contain phrases like
‘glitching’ and ‘easter eggs’ that
others may be confused about.

This, too, is a technique that seems

to create a bond between the writer
and reader because it uses terms
only they are familiar with.

20. Neologism

A word newly coined by the writer is

known as a neologism.

For instance, in a Paper 1 question,

the term ‘eater-tainment’ had been
used to describe the idea that
people are now eating food ‘to feel
good for a few minutes or to relax’;
it is becoming a form of
entertainment rather than a way in
which we can nourish ourselves.

21. Asyndeton

This is when conjunction is omitted

from a sentence.

An example would be ‘I stopped,

turned, waved goodbye at him.’

This increases the pace of the story,

and I remember an Examiner
Report, where it said that this makes
the writer sound ‘breathless’.

22. Irony