Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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DEVELOPING LANGUAGE
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EXAMINATION CRITERIA
1. High level students use precise terminology in order to describe and explain data.
It is suggested that language development may start in the womb. This is because babies become familiar with the sounds,
rhythms and intonations of language.
Fitzpatrick (2002) found that the heart rate of an unborn baby slowed when it heard its mother’s voice.
Babies use their vocal sounds straight away (this is during the vegetative stage) as one of the discomfort sounds known is crying-
this is instinctive to how a baby feels.
Two words 18-24 months Phonology, semantics and Two word combinations.
lexis
Petitto and Holowka (2002) videoed infants and noted that most babbling came from the right side of the mouth
which is controlled by the left side of the brain. This side of the brain is responsible for speech production; their
findings suggest that babbling is a form of preliminary speech.
When babies begin to babble, the number of different phonemes they produce increase- this is known as phoneme
expansion. Later in the babbling stage, they reduce the number of phonemes they use- this is known as phoneme
contraction. At the 10 month stage (approximately) during babbling is where children of different nationalities start
to sound different.
Some babies during the babbling stage begin to use rhythms that resemble speech patterns; they use recognisable
intonation.
The stages of development are just guides. They are not suggesting that children automatically
mature to the next stage. In the data in the exam, children are likely to not follow the stage to the
table. The most commonly assessed stages are telegraphic – post-telegraphic.
Sounds are produced by air from the lungs passing across the vocal chords.
UNVOICED-This is where the sound does not vibrate the vocal chords.
/dog/
Consonant final positions are more difficult than consonant initial positions because of the motor movements in the mouth are
difficult.
PHONOLOGICAL ERRORS
Phonological errors are used to simplify lexis in order to make it easier for children to speak.
PHONOLOGICAL ERRORS
SUBSTITUTION Instead of dropping a consonant, a child might replace it with ones that are easy to say.
E.g. /dog/dod
DELETION Sometimes a child drops a consonant altogether particularly at the end of the lexis (consonant final position).
E.g. /dog/do
CLUSTER REDUCTION This is where there are consonant clusters; a child may drop one of the consonants.
E.g. /green/geen
ADDITION This is where children add (usually a vowel) to make the final position easier to say; easier than a consonant.
PLOSIVES
Bilabial P, b
Alveolar T, d
Velar K, g
Using the throat.
NASALS
Bilabial M
Velar N
FRICATIVES
Airflow is only partially blocked and air moves through the mouth. It is caused by friction.
Labiodental F, z
Dental Sh, ch
Alveolar S, z
APPROXIMANTS
Alveolar W, r, j
VOWELS
He investigated if young children could understand varying intonation. He compared adults and children to see if they could
predict football results from listening to the scores. He found out that adults could successfully predict winners by the intonation
placed by the first team, but children (up to the age of 7) were less accurate.
LEXICAL DEVELOPMENT
PROTOWORDS
Examples
Moc-milk
Moo-cow
Boc-bottle
HOLOPHRASE
(Pragmatics is important-requires context- it allows the caregiver to understand the child; contextual cues).
VOCABULARY SIZE
(number of words)
12 months 50
24 months 200
36 months 2000
NELSON-KEY THEORIST
Katherine Nelson (1973) identified four categories for first words (50):
First words are often proper or concrete nouns (content words); it appears that children find it easy to link a word to
a referent (the object it describes). Naming words are encountered on a daily basis and can rarely be substituted.
- Link to Piaget cognitive development.
Modifiers (function words) are not usually necessary and because the grammatical construction is more difficult.
The social and interactive nature of the first 50 words suggests the importance of interacting with others.
Higher focus on semantic development than grammatical at the time of lexical development.
SEMANTIC DEVELOPMENT
E.g. calling a rubber duck a duck but not calling a live duck a duck.
Overextension is the most commonly used error because of how a child experiences lexis.
She also found that common adjectives (e.g. nice and big) are developed in the first 50 words, however, spatial adjectives are
acquired later (e.g. wide/narrow).
Overextension
Mismatch
Categorical Analogical
statement
Categorical extension (“category”)-the name for one member of a category is extended to all members of the category.
E.g. stars being called moons as they are in the same category of space.
Analogical overextension (“physical/functional”)-a word for one object is extended to one in a different category but based on a
physical or functional connection.
JEAN AITCHISON
1. Labelling
2. Packaging
3. Network-building
LABELLING
PACKAGING (HYPERNYM)
NETWORK-BUILDING (HYPONYM)
GRAMMATICAL DEVELOPMENT
TELEGRAPHIC STAGE
QUESTIONS
YES/NO INTERROGATIVES
Yes/no interrogatives are easier to articulate than wh-questions. This is because of their construction.
Yes/no interrogatives only require the addition of ‘can/may’ to the declarative, e.g. ‘Can (I have the sweet)?
WH- QUESTIONS
Where? This is linked to Piaget’s idea of object permanence-objects exist out of sight. Sensorimotor
PRONOUNS
NEGATIVES
POST-TELEGRAPHIC STAGE
MORPHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
VIRTUOUS ERRORS-syntactical errors made by young children in which the non-standard utterance reveals some understanding
through incomplete of standard syntax.
OVERGENERALISATIONS-this is a learner’s extension of a word’s grammatical rule beyond its normal use.
E.g. mouses/mice.
This is common with irregular lexis that does not conform to the rules.
Chomsky supported because children have never heard an adult say it-rejects Skinner’s idea that repetition and imitation work;
children often still use the irregular verbs.
She proved overgeneralisations. This is where she conducted a study and she gave the children an image of an imaginary
creature known as a wug. She asked what would there be if there was more than one wug and ¾ of the 4-5 year olds formed the
plural ‘wugs’.
AS GRAMMAR REVISION!!!
This will allow you to be more precise rather than saying: child A uses ‘must’ because… You can say: child A uses the
modal auxiliary verb ‘must’ which shows possibility and this may suggest that…
WORDS
NOUNS
VERBS
Verbs
Shows feelings,
They support the They physically Shows states of
They show They show They constantly Change occurs, thoughts and
main verb, e.g. happen, being, e.g.
certainty. possibility occur, e.g.'love'. e.g. 'paint'. perceptions, e.g.
'be'. e.g.'jump'. 'become'.
'feel'.
PHRASES
CLAUSES
PRAGMATIC DEVELOPMENT
GRICE'S MAXIMS
Positive face two ways: as "the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others", or alternately, "the
positive consistent self-image or 'personality' (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved
of)".
Positive face = desires to be liked, admired, ratified, and related to positively, noting that one would threaten positive face by
ignoring someone
Face saving acts.
Negative face was defined as "the want of every 'competent adult member' that his actions be unimpeded by others", or "the
basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction--i.e. the freedom of action and freedom from imposition".
• Not imposing
• giving options
Vygotsky observed children’s play and linked it to both cognitive and social development. Young children often use props as
‘pivots’ to support their play, whereas, older children use their imagination.
Garvey’s study of pairs of children playing found that children adopt roles and identities, acting out storylines and inventing
objects and settings as required in a role-play scenario. This is termed ‘pretend play’ and fulfils Halliday’s imaginative function.
Children play together because it is enjoyable, but it also practices social interactions and negotiation skills, with player’s roles
and responsibilities often decided as they play. Sometimes this is known as socio-dramatic play, it often involves both social and
dramatic skills with rules that reflect real life behaviour.
Sociodramatic play usually begins when children are around 4 years old, possibly linking to their cognitive understanding as they
understand the different roles people have and how these affect language. In the children’s re-enactments use field-specific lexis
and structure those in some of the ways that adults use in situations, suggesting that they can imitate behaviours.
CHILD-DIRECTED SPEECH-any of various speech patterns used by parents or care givers when communicating with young
children, particularly infants, usually involving simplified vocabulary, high pitch, repetitive questioning and a slow/deliberate
tempo.
Some people argue using CDS teaches children the basic function and structure of language. However, not all cultures use CDS,
either through not speaking to their children (e.g. in Papa New Guinea), or not simplifying an adult language for children.
Chomsky argued that language structures cannot simply be acquired from repeating language (i.e. through CDS) because of the
random nature and using incomplete grammatical structures. However, studies of CDS have shown that register is more
structured and regular.
Men seem to use more direct questioning styles, seek more information and use a wider vocabulary than women.
Clarke-Stewart found children had a larger vocabulary if their mothers talked to them. However, Roger Brown found that
children were rarely corrected for grammatical mistakes, though they were for their lexical errors or for their content of the
speech. Therefore, CDS cannot explain children’s acquisition of language, but may affect their linguistic competence.
BRUNER’S LASS
The LASS is a Language Acquisition Support System and Bruner believed that ritualised activities that occur in young children’s
lives: mealtimes, bedtimes, reading books- and how carers make the rules and meanings of these interactions explicit and
predictable so that children can learn.
SCAFFOLDING
This refers to the ways adults (such as caregivers) help children advance cognitively. He observed that adult withdraw support as
children’s skills develop.
VYGOTSKY’S ZPD
This describes how adults and children work together to move children towards independence, knowledge and competence.
Be open-minded with your conclusions. Don’t suggest that your data conclusively ‘proves’ or
‘disproves’ particular theoretical viewpoints. Using words like ‘could’ and ‘might’ implies links
between features of child language and certain theories, and helps to avoid sweeping judgement
about the soundness of Chomsky’s or Skinner’s theories.
Berko and Brown Phonological development This is the idea that children understand
a wider range of phonemes than the
Fis phenomenon ones produced because of the lack of
development in the mouth; unable to
articulate.
Roger Brown Grammatical development These are the combinations that children
make when they are in the two word
Meaning relations in the stage. This includes agent and action,
two word stage agent and affected, entity and attribute,
action and affected, action and location,
entity and location, possessor and
possession, nomination, recurrence and
negation.
Chomsky believed that learning takes place through an innate brain mechanism in order to acquire grammatical
structures. This means Chomsky believed that children did not pick up the grammatical structures from the
environment, e.g. their parent’s speech.
He also considers that although human languages across the world may seem different, they share many similarities;
he describes this as universal grammar.
Positive Negative
All children roughly gain the same language features at the No location of the brain mechanism has been found.
same time.
On a lexical level, words may be similar through languages. Case studies of people with no social interaction until the age
of adolescence do not speak properly.
Stroke victims find it difficult to speak because of brain
damage.
BEHAVIOURISTS
Children learn language through positive reinforcement. This was introduced by Skinner who believed that children learn
through imitation.
SOCIAL INTERACTIONISTS
Key assumptions:
Children are active learners who use their environment and social interactions to shape their language.
Piaget linked linguistic development with an understanding of the concepts surrounding the words meanings. This
suggests that children cannot be taught before they are ready.
Contradicts Skinner’s imitation theory.
Pre-operational 2-7 years old Language and motor skills develop. Language
is egocentric (focused on themselves).
ACQUISITION OF READING
Heath (1980) conducted a study and found early language is shaped by community and home, reading is developed as a result of
children’s experiences. Heath studied three America communities: two are working class and one is middle class. The working
classes’ community are much more cultural and oral focused, e.g. through the use of singing. The middle class community is
more focused on sharing and reading books with parents.
Narratives
Classics
Reading schemes
Novels
Fiction/non-fiction
Short stories
Bedtime
Fairy-tales and fables
Independent reading
They are read to children and aid them with their speech development.
Also, it assists Jean Aitchinson’s linking lexical and semantic development through lexical and semantic development: labelling,
packaging and network building.
They are read to children and this allows the child to obtain lexical and grammatical structures.
TECHNIQUES USED
Interacting with the audience- this engages the child with the book and tries to make reading fun. It also allows a creation of a
relationship and this is through the use of rhetorical device: it allows a converging relationship.
Varying sentence moods- declaratives and exclamatives- declaratives are used to help label the character and this could relate
to Jean Aitchinson, as it often allows children to label objects and so make connections. Exclamatives are often used to create
tension and excitement throughout the story.
Depicts characters (animals/humans) - animals are used because they can be fun; they are able to personify emotion and often
subvert the stereotype.
Colour ratio-often a high colour ratio makes the story more exciting and often allows the child to engage further.
Submit values- this is often common in fables because there is often a secondary purpose to educate and this is used to teach
children essential principles, e.g. politeness.
BRUNER’S LASS
There are four stages of parent and child interactions with reading books:
Vygotsky believed that children cannot learn automatically, they need to learn when they’re ready.
FEATURES OF BOOKS
CHARACTERS
Animals as the characters are often used to subvert the stereotypes and there is a change in the food chain (which
focuses on the prey and predator relationship), this highlights the morals, e.g. politeness.
PHONOLOGICAL DEVICES
PICTURES
It allows children to understand how they are read from left to right.
It follows the plot.
Text to image cohesion and they have to read the text in order to give them contextual cues. Explicit referral from
the text to the picture and this is shown through Aitchinson.
Sentence spaces are able to identify they are different sentences.
DIRECT SPEECH
Whole word approach- the look and say approach. They learn the shape of the word so they can recognise the word
in a sentence through the use of flashcards.
READING CUES
1. Graphophonic-this looks at the shape of words, linking to similar graphemes/words to interpret them.
2. Semantic-this is the understanding of the meaning of words and making connections between words and making
connections between words in order to decode them.
3. Visual-this is looking at the pictures and using the visual narrative to interpret unfamiliar words or ideas.
4. Synthetic-this is applying knowledge of word order and word classes to work out it if a word seems in the right context.
5. Contextual-this is searching for understanding in the situation of the story –comparing it to their own experience of
their pragmatic understanding of social conventions.
6. Miscue-this is making errors when reading: a child might miss a word, or substitute another that looks similar, or guess
a word by accompanying pictures.
‘Pretend reading’-looking at
texts they have previously
read.
ACQUISITION OF WRITING
\WHY DO WE LEARN TO WRITE?
Prosodic features.
Link vocabulary to associative meaning.
Create sentences to form meaning.
Social conventions with a text.
Cohesive structures.
Variations in language to suit audience, purpose and context.
Recognising audience
ASCENDER-this typological feature is where a portion of the letter goes above the usual height for the font, e.g. d.
DESCENDER-this typological feature is where a portion of the letter goes below the baseline of the font, e.g. g.
VYGOTSKY
He argued that symbols were internalised as a result of the appropriation of the symbols that are meaningful as a way
of improving their understanding.
They need to understand the link between symbols and communication.
Vygotsky believed that language leads to development and this leads to learning.
Interactions (not always with people) can lead to internalisation.
MULTI MODALITY
There are interactions between images, words and sounds; this can be accomplished through technology and internet.
- Doesn’t include environmental factors such as support from parents, i.e. cultural factors.
- Not all children follow these levels; they may be more/less developed.
GENRE
Children need to understand that register, vocabulary choices and grammatical choices contribute to the overall one.
It is important to understand the purpose and relationship between the reader and writer.
Pragmatic skills also become more sophisticated through strategies such as politeness.
ROTHERY’S CATEGORIES
PERERA
This complements Rothery’s categories; Perera distinguished between chronological (the use of connectives and action words)
and non-chronological genres.
SPELLING
BEYOND SPELLING
Break it down into syllables and this is known as using SOUND CLUES.
Use of dictionaries, spell checkers and computers.
Clues from meaning by linking it to similar words.
Grammatical knowledge through the knowledge of affixes, e.g. understanding the prefix ‘bi’ means two.
Writing it down to see if it is right.
Pronunciation sounds like a different letter, e.g. the vowel ‘e’ sounds like the vowel ‘i’ in a word.
Silent letters.
Homophones.
Spelling rules.
Different phoneme to grapheme representation, e.g. ‘ph’ sounds like ‘f’.
Double letters.
Individual graphemes represent the sound or if a DIAGRAPH (two letters representing a single sound) is present.
Accent and dialect.
Misunderstanding of whether it is a noun or verb, e.g. practice/practise.
Addition of inflections, e.g. ‘ing’/ ‘ed’.
Stage Summary
Term Definition
Salient (key) sounds Writing only the key sounds, e.g. ‘expensis’.
LANGUAGE CHANGE
Context
‘Take a diachronic approach’ (comparing two texts from different time periods) OR ‘take a synchronic approach’ (looking at one
text and the context surrounding it).
1. Wars and invasions-the Norman invasion in the 11th-14th century and the invasion of Germanic tribes (Vikings and Anglo
Saxons). This developed language and the lexicon of war, e.g. ‘neutralised’.
2. Migration, travel, British Empire and globalisation-language becomes dominant in colonised countries-power and
government. English borrowed to accommodate the new foods and cultures. Globalisation in the late 20 th century has
developed due to technology and American English.
3. Science and technology-in the 18th-19th century, scientific advances occurred and so neologisms were needed. Due to
the academic prestige from Latin and Greek, many of the lexis are derived from there.
4. Travel, working practices and inventions-people’s occupation and technological development leads to the formation of
propitiatory names, eponyms and neologisms.
5. Social, ideological and cultural changes-there are changes in attitude and it is also to accommodate gender, ethnicity
or sexual equality-in order to be politically correct.
6. Media-print, TV, internet and mobiles have influenced language and this is especially because of its interactive nature.
LAKOFF (SYNOPSIS)
Lakoff may be useful synoptically because it can be used to represent the social changes. In addition, if there is a contrast
question then you can suggest the alternate explanations.
She believes that women are inferior (deficient) to men who lacks authority compared to male speech and this is shown
linguistically in their speech.
DEFICIENT SPEECH
Tag questions
Hedges
Weak expletives- using ‘oh dear’ instead of taboo. Lakoff suggested that women are discouraged against forcing
opinions as men are more powerful.
Empty adjectives, e.g. ‘adorable’, ‘sweet’, ‘lovely’ and ‘divine’
Precise colour terms.
Euphemisms.
Intensifiers.
However, you can suggest that it is an overgeneralisation and maybe women aren’t deficient in their language but they are
trying to be polite and cooperative in the conversation.
PRE 1 S T CENTURY
1 S T -5 T H CENTURY
8 T H -11 T H CENTURY
Norman invasion was led by William the conqueror. During this period, Norman French and English co-existed.
Grammar changed radically; loss of Old English inflections (word endings) and many were replaced by prepositions.
Beginning of the change in English pronunciation: Great Vowel Shift.
In the 12th century, English used by the upper classes and by 1425, English was used universally.
15 T H -17 T H CENTURY
Printing was a step towards standardisation. Caxton (inventor of the printing press) decided printing should be from
the courts, universities (Cambridge) and London. This is associated with authority and learning, the ability to print
books gives a feeling of prestige and permanence.
Greek and Latin texts were translated into English.
The Great Vowel Shift was finished.
Word order becomes more fixed in a subject, order pattern.
Developed auxiliary verbs.
Exploration in Africa, Asia and America.
Shakespeare influenced drama and poetry as he was the greatest playwright.
18 T H – 19 T H CENTURY
“Standard English”
LEXICAL CHANGE
Making new words from old ones and adding to existing words are a type of derivational morphological change.
Phoneme
Morpheme
Free/base/stem Affix/bound
morpheme morpheme
Prefix Suffix
Diminutive suffix
PHONEME
MORPHEME
Examples
FREE MORPHEMES
They are usually grammatical, i.e. they change the lexis’ grammatical function.
Affix
Prefix Suffix
Affixes are sometimes linked to contemporary tastes. E.g. ‘supermodel’. This highlights the changes in tastes to fashion and the
focus on fashion shows across the world: London, Paris and New York.
Prefixes and suffixes are derived from Latin and Greek. During the 18 th century, there was a desire to use Latin and Greek affixes
(contra-/-otic) to show intellectual status and an elevated register (formality).
PREFIX
SUFFIX
DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX
They are used to soften the meaning compared to suffixes. Examples include doggie, wifey and choccie.
CREATING WORDS
Neologism/coinage- creation of a new word, e.g. Google: to use an online search engine as the basis for looking up
information on the World Wide Web.
Acronym-sounded as one word, e.g. radar.
Clipping-a new word produced by shortening an existing one, e.g. (tele) phone.
BORROWING/LOANING WORDS
Introduction of a new word from one language to another, e.g. chocolat (e).
ADAPTING/REUSING WORDS
DISCARDING
SEMANTIC CHANGE
DRIFT- a process of linguistic change over a period of time. It occurs because old meanings are forgotten, in response to new
context or when a particular social group takes ownership.
AMEILORATION-this is where lexis takes on a more positive meaning, therefore gaining status. E.g. pretty (slyattractive).
PEJORATION-this is where lexis takes on a more negative meaning, therefore losing status. E.g. idiot (private citizen someone
stupid).
WEAKENING- this is where a word loses the strength of its original meaning. E.g. soon (immediately in a short while).
NARROWING (SPECIALISING)-this is where a word becomes more specific in its meaning. E.g. wife (any womanmarried
woman).
BROADENING-this is where a word keeps its original meaning but acquires others. E.g. place (broad street an area).
METAPHOR-this is where lexis acquires new meaning because it is used metaphorically. E.g. a bug (insect and annoying).
EUPHEMISM-this is a view of describing something in a pleasant manner. E.g. passed away [dead].
ORTHOGRAPHICAL CHANGE
GRAPHEME-a written symbol, letter or combination of letters that is used to represent a phoneme.
WHAT ARE THE KEY ORTHOGRAPHICAL CHANGES ACROSS LATE MODERN ENGLISH?
Loss of the ſ - it was initially at the beginning of a word and then to the middle but the short s was used at the end of
the word. It was left over from Old English and continued into Late Modern English.
Spelling became more registered although it is still idiosyncratic.
Standardised spelling rules and more recently non-standard forms have been used.
Printing practices as Francoise Ambroise Didot in Paris, who in 1781, initiated the cutting of the letters known as the
‘modern face’. The ſ could have been confused with the grapheme ‘f’. The examples were followed from printers’
influences. One of the influences was John Bell who was given credit for the removal of the long s.
Dictionaries as the availability led to the standardisation of spelling.
Standardisation.
Schooling as it was offered to all children for free.
Educational practices and governmental intervention.
Information and technological advances as text messages and instant messaging
Phonetically playful as an example, this is often related to advertising campaigns, e.g. Beanz Meanz Heinz.
Removal of the terminal –e on words as there was a confusion in pronunciation, e.g. soote/soot.
PUNCTUATION CHANGE
As writing becomes more important, the number of punctuation is required in order to fulfil the functions. As a more informal
style becomes more popular; it becomes simpler.
In the 15th century, Caxton used the period (.), colon (:) and the virgule (/) - its function was replaced by the comma
in the 16th century.
1. Commas are used more often to link extended clauses and full stops were replaced by commas.
2. Colons and semi colons were used to separate classes and create complex sentences.
3. Apostrophes signified possession and missing letters.
4. Speech marks differentiate between speech and writing.
5. Contraction of words.
GRAMMATICAL CHANGE
TYPES OF CHANGE
DIACHRONIC-taking a diachronic approach involves examining the changes that have occurred in language over a period of time.
E.g. comparing the car adverts from 1950 and 2010.
In the introduction of the exam if you choose the comparison question, mention ‘diachronically’ when referring to the change of
language over a period of time.
SYNCHRONIC-taking a synchronic approach which involves examining language at a period of time. E.g. compare a conversation
between a pupil and teacher with a conversation between two pupils.
SYNTAX-word order.
Grammar Syntax
Pronouns
Length of clauses
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Interrogatives
Contractions
Question formation The word order may be altered.
Prepositions
Modal verbs
Auxiliary verbs
Punctuation isn’t grammar! However, clausal sentences will link to commas and semi colons.
NEGATION
Previously, they didn’t use the dummy auxiliary ‘do’, whereas, this is now how we construct a negative, e.g. ‘I don’t know’
instead of ‘I know not’. This could be linked to the impact of standardisation because in the 18 th century authors such as Lowth
and Murray created grammar books. Grammar books contained the rules of grammar and became popular in the 18 th century.
This is because it allowed people to show off their intellect and power. Grammatical books are part of the gradual process of
standardisation. Over time and through education, these rules became available to everyone. There is prestige and power
associated with high levels of grammar.
Sentence length can be associated with power and prestige in order to diverge (Howard Giles) away from the different classes of
society. However, there has been a movement to concise and precise expression as a result of “fashions” in education.
The influence of the ‘Plain English’ campaign caused formal writing to become less elaborate.
ELLIPSIS
This may be linked to Informalisation (Norman Fairclough) as language is becoming more informal and is highlighted through the
shortening of a sentence.
PRESCRIPTIVISTS/DESCRIPTIVISTS
JEAN AITCHINSON
Aitchinson disagrees with this and believes the only lazy language is alcohol because of the difficulty in articulation.
This metaphor was suggested by John Simpson and believes that language should be preserved like a stately home or a castle.
Simpson believes that language is decaying (crumbling).
Aitchinson disagrees with this because you can’t find the peak of language- it is subjective.
You can catch language change and this view suggests that this is a bad thing; you need to be able to fight it. This occurs as you
adapt to fit into social groups.
JOHN HUMPHRIES
He wanted to safeguard grammar. He believed it should be taught in schools to ensure everyone has a basic grammar If
grammar is not taught then we will become illiterate.
JONATHAN SWIFT
Language is decaying: contracted words, shortening verbs, monosyllabic verbs and barbarism.
He wants them to return to the Shakespearean language during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I to Civil War. He wants to purify
and protect language.
DR. JOHNSON
Most popular dictionary and was part of the process of standardisation. The dictionary was developed in 1755. He wanted to
preserve language to ensure its purity.
STANDARDISATION
INFORMALISATION
FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
FUNCTIONS OF INFORMALITY-to build and maintain social bonds/relationships to present yourself as more accessible to others
of an equal status.
Languages undergo a structural change through blending, abbreviating and altering spelling. Examples include ‘fortnight and
‘innit?’
Innit?
Abbreviated spelling
Altered spelling by removing the s and i.
CHOICES OF REGISTER
PRESTIGE FORMS-well established standard forms and they are associated with powerful social groups: law, education and the
government.
COVERT PRESTIGE-this is in touch with society to make links and connections with people.
CONVERSATIONALISATION
This was introduced by Norman Fairclough; it is used in language produced to the public which has features of informal,
conversational language.
SYNOPTIC TOPICS
HOWARD GILES
This was introduced by Giles; convergence is when the speaker/writer tries to match the language of a particular group.
Divergence, however, is when the speaker/writer adjusts their language to be distinct from a particular group.
NORMAN FAIRCLOUGH
SYNTHETIC PERSONALISATION
This was introduced by Norman Fairclough, it is the process of addressing mass audiences as if they were individuals and this is
usually through the first person, plural pronoun ‘we’.