LESSON 8.

Language Families:
Definition: Groups of languages sharing common origins, characterized by similarities in word
stock and grammars.
Example: Indo-European family includes languages like English, German, and Russian.
Celts:
Definition: An ancient European people inhabiting regions like the British Isles.
Example: Celts used a language belonging to the Indo-European family.
Anglo-Saxon Society:
Definition: The society formed by the Germanic tribes, including Angles, Saxons, Frisians, and
Jutes, during their settlement in Britain.
Example: Anglo-Saxon society emerged after Germanic tribes stayed in Britain for 200 years.
Old English:
Definition: The earliest form of the English language, used from the 5th to the 11th centuries.
Example: "Beowulf," an Old English epic poem, dates back to around 1000 CE.
Middle English:
Definition: The stage of the English language used from the 11th to the 15th centuries.
Example: Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales" is written in Middle English.
Early Modern English:
Definition: The stage of English from the late 15th to the late 17th centuries.
Example: The works of William Shakespeare are written in Early Modern English.
Modern English:
Definition: The current stage of the English language from the late 17th century to the present.
Example: Contemporary novels, newspapers, and everyday communication use Modern
English.
Native English Vocabulary:
Definition: Words of Anglo-Saxon origin still in use.
Example: Anglo-Saxon words include body parts (arm, bone), domestic terms (home, house),
and natural landscape elements (field, hill).
Celtic Influence:
Definition: The impact of Celtic languages on English vocabulary.
Example: Some Celtic-influenced words include "bin" and "lake" used in regional dialects.
Borrowing (Loanword):
Definition: The process of adopting a word from a foreign language.
Example: "Chess" is a borrowing from Persian, passed through Arabic and Middle French.
Latin Words in English:
Definition: Words borrowed from Latin, showing variable influence across historical periods.
Example: "Road" (straet), "belt," "wall" (weal), and "mass" (maesse) are Latin borrowings.
Scandinavian Loanwords:
Definition: Words borrowed from Scandinavian languages during Viking raids and Danish rule.
Example: Nautical terms like "buoy," personal names, and general words became part of
English.
Greek Loanwords:
Definition: Words borrowed from the Greek language, noticeable in Modern English.
Example: "Chaos," "dilemma," and "democracy" are Greek loanwords.
German & Dutch Loans:
Definition: Words borrowed from German and Dutch languages.
Example: "Buoy," "cruise," "jacket," and "waffle" are examples of German and Dutch
loanwords.
Loans from the East:
Definition: Words borrowed from languages in the Eastern region.
Example: Arabic words like "cotton," Persian words like "caravan," and Japanese words like
"kimono."
Loans from Other Sources:
Definition: Words borrowed from diverse languages like West African, Native American, Czech,
Turkish, Russian, etc.
Example: "Banana," "moccasin," "polka," "kebab," and "mammoth."
Characteristics of Modern English Vocabulary:
Definition: Features that define the vocabulary of present-day English.
Example: Modern English vocabulary includes a mix of native and borrowed words.
Frequency of Occurrence (Anglo-Saxon Words):
Definition: The prevalence of words of Anglo-Saxon origin in everyday use.
Example: Common Anglo-Saxon words include body parts, adjectives, verbs, and prepositions.
Summary - Native Words:
Definition: Words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought by Germanic tribes.
Example: Nouns (father), verbs (make), adjectives (old), adverbs (seldom), pronouns (I),
determiners (this).
Summary - Borrowed Words:
Definition: Words taken from other languages during historical developments.
Example: Borrowed words include "kangaroo" and "calques" (word-for-word translations).
Assimilated Borrowed Words:
Definition: Borrowed words fully integrated into English, showing no foreign indication.
Example: "Wall" and "wine" are fully assimilated borrowed words.
Not Fully Assimilated Borrowed Words:
Definition: Borrowed words not fully integrated, showing foreign influence.
Example: "Sombrero," "nucleus," and "ballet" are not fully assimilated words.

LESSON7
Meaning Relations (Sense Relations):
Reference: An external meaning relation between a word and the entity it refers to in the
physical world.
Sense: An internal meaning relation between words in the vocabulary.
Example: Synonymy and antonymy are examples of sense relations.
Semantics Field / Lexical Field:
Definition: A set of words that belong to a defined area of meaning.
Example: The semantic field of "education" includes words like school, teacher, and learn.
Paradigmatic vs. Syntagmatic Relations:
Paradigmatic Relations: Between lexemes used in the same position within a syntagm.
Syntagmatic Relations: Among linear-ordered lexemes of a syntagm.
Example: In the phrase "big house," "big" and "house" have a paradigmatic relation.
Synonymy:
Definition: Sameness of meaning between two words.
Example: "Glitter" and "sparkle" are synonymous, as are "near" and "close."
Strict and Loose Synonymy:
Strict Synonymy: Words interchangeable in all contexts without a difference in meaning.
Loose Synonymy: Words with an overlap in meaning but not completely interchangeable.
Example: "Sky" and "heaven" demonstrate a shift in meaning, illustrating loose synonymy.
Distinguishing Synonyms:
Differences Due to National Standards: e.g., "Bonnet" (UK) vs. "Hood" (US).
Differences Due to Context: e.g., "Cross" vs. "Traverse."
Differences Based on Connotation: e.g., "Recollection" vs. "Reminiscence."
Antonymy:
Definition: The meaning of oppositeness.
Example: "Light" and "dark," "deep" and "shallow" are antonyms.
Types of Antonyms:
Gradable Antonyms: e.g., "Beautiful" - "Ugly."
Contradictory Antonyms: e.g., "Asleep" - "Awake."
Converses: e.g., "Above" - "Below."
Hyponymy:
Definition: A more specific lexical item included in a more general one.
Example: "Oak" is a hyponym of the more general term "tree."
Meronymy:
Definition: Part-of relations between terms.
Example: "Wheel" is a meronym of "car."
Lexical Gaps in Hierarchies:
Definition: Absence of lexical items in semantic hierarchies.
Example: Hierarchies may have gaps, e.g., missing words between hypernyms and hyponyms.
Homonymy vs. Homography:
Homonymy: Words with the same form but different meanings (e.g., "Bank1" and "Bank2").
Homography: Words with the same form and pronunciation but different meanings (e.g.,
"Project" as a noun and verb).
Homophony:
Homophones: Words with the same pronunciation but different spellings (e.g., "Sun" and
"Son").
Example: /sʌn/ (sun - son), /bi:tʃ/ (beach - beech).
Collocations:
Definition: Predictable co-occurrence of words forming a semantically transparent phrase.
Example: "Early lunch," "feel love for," "at the weekend."
Lexical vs. Grammatical Collocations (Colligation):
Lexical Collocations: Syntactic elements with predictable co-occurrence (e.g., "Rely on").
Grammatical Collocations (Colligation): Syntactic elements that must accompany a word (e.g.,
prepositions with certain verbs).
Idioms:
Definition: Multi-word prefabricated combinations with a more or less metaphorical meaning.
Example: "Kick the bucket" (meaning: to die).
Types of Idioms:
Proverbs: Folk expressions expressing wisdom or truth (e.g., "No news is good news").
Phrasal Verbs: Multiword verbs with a metaphorical meaning (e.g., "Pass away").
Sayings: Folk expressions stating facts or describing situations (e.g., "Talk is cheap").
Binomials/Trinomials: Expressions with two/three words separated by a comma (e.g., "Hop,
step, and jump").
Similes: Comparisons for emphasis (e.g., "As light as a feather").
Social Formulae: Expressions with a distinct social function (e.g., "Right back at you").
Idioms Proper: Expressions not fitting into other categories (e.g., "Piece of cake").
Semantic Fields:
Definition: Sets of words sharing some component of meaning.
Example: Verbs of communication form a semantic field with words like "speak," "promise,"
and "warn."
Semantic Field Arrangement Example:
Example: Roget's Thesaurus organizes words into classes like abstract relations, space, matter,
intellect, volition, and affection.
Semantic Field Analysis:
Example: Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English categorizes words into 14 fields.
Collocations:
Definition: Predictable co-occurrence of words forming a semantically transparent phrase.
Example: "Early lunch," "feel love for," "at the weekend."
Fully Transparent Collocations:
Example: "Pouring rain," "bake a cake" where every word is used in its literal meaning.
Quasi-Transparent Collocations:
Example: "White wine" (describing color), "hot chili" (produces a hot sensation).
Idioms:
Definition: Multi-word prefabricated combinations with a more or less metaphorical meaning.
Example: "Kick the bucket" (meaning: to die).
Types of Idioms:
Proverbs: Folk expressions expressing wisdom or truth (e.g., "No news is good news").
Phrasal Verbs: Multiword verbs with a metaphorical meaning (e.g., "Pass away").
Sayings: Folk expressions stating facts or describing situations (e.g., "Talk is cheap").
Binomials/Trinomials: Expressions with two/three words separated by a comma (e.g., "Hop,
step, and jump").
Similes: Comparisons for emphasis (e.g., "As light as a feather").
Social Formulae: Expressions with a distinct social function (e.g., "Right back at you").
Idioms Proper: Expressions not fitting into other categories (e.g., "Piece of cake").

LESSON 8
Core Vocabulary:
Definition: Words that belong to the common core of language.Example: Everyday words like
"book," "tap," etc.
Specialist Vocabulary: Words that belong to specialist subsets.Ex. Technical terms like
"phoneme," "radar," etc.
Dimensions of Variation: The ways in which language varies according to context and leads to
specialist vocabularies. Ex. Differences between formal and informal discourse.
Historic Dimension: Obsolete Words Example: "thee" (no longer in use)
Archaic Words Example: "thou" (in the process of disappearing)
Geographical Variation: Regional dialects within a country and national varieties of English.
Example: "Tap" in British English vs. "Faucet" in American English.
Occupation: Encompasses language associated with various professions.Ex. Medical jargon - "IV
drip."
Variation Related to Formality: Variation due to the formality of the context influencing
language style. Ex. Formal writing - "thereby" vs. informal writing - "there."
Literary Words: Formal words used in descriptive passages of fiction, scientific texts, etc.
Ex. "Solitude," "cordial," "endeavor."
Colloquialisms: Informal expressions used in everyday conversation. Ex."Brill" for brilliant,
"dad."
National and Regional Vocabularies:Varieties of English specific to regions or countries.
Ex: American English - "gas station" vs. British English - "petrol station."
Antipodean English:Distinctive vocabulary in Australian and New Zealand English.
Ex. Australian English - "cobber" (friend), New Zealand English - "state house."
South African English: English in South Africa with influences from Afrikaans and native
languages.Ex. South African English - "bakkie" (basin), "gogga" (insect).
Indian English:English spoken in India with borrowings from local languages.Ex."Anna" (elder
brother), "pundit" (learned scholar).
Subcultures and Special Vocabulary: Unique vocabularies formed by groups with common
interests.Ex Aviation English - specific phrases for pilots and controllers.
Style:The situational choice of linguistic forms based on the speaker's attitude.
Ex. Formal vocabulary - "chromosome," Informal vocabulary - "brill."
Occupation Example: Police jargon - "collar" (arrest), "code" (emergency response).
Age Example: Teenage slang - "fam" (close friends), "TBH" (to be honest).
Lesson 9

Vocabulary:
Core Vocabulary: Words that belong to the common core of a language, widely used across
various contexts.
Example: Common nouns like "table" and "book."
Specialist Vocabulary: Words belonging to specific subsets or domains, often used within
certain professions, social groups, or contexts.
Example: Technical terms such as "phoneme" or "radar."
Dimensions of Variation: The ways in which language varies based on context, leading to the
development of specialist vocabularies.
Example: Distinction between formal and informal discourse.
Historic Dimension:
Obsolete Words: Words no longer in use, present only in old literature. Example: "Thee" and
"thou" in old English.
Archaic Words: Words still in use but in the process of disappearing, considered old-fashioned.
Example: "Henceforth" or "thine."
Geographical Variation:
Regional Dialects: Varieties of language specific to a region. Example: "Tap" in British English vs.
"Faucet" in American English.
National Varieties: Distinct forms of English associated with countries like Australia, Canada,
and India.
Occupation:
Jargon: Specialized language within professions or social groups. Example: Medical jargon like
"IV drip" or police jargon like "collar."
Formality Variation:
Formal Discourse: Language associated with formal contexts. Example: "Commence" and
"hereby" in business correspondence.
Informal Discourse: Colloquial, slang, or taboo words used in informal settings.
Medium Variation:
Spoken vs. Written Medium: Differences in language usage between oral and written
communication.
Literary Words:
Bookish Words: Formal, often of foreign origin, used in literature or official documents.
Example: "Fascination" or "heterogeneous."
Barbarisms: Words borrowed without significant change. Example: "Chic" for stylish.
Colloquialisms:
Literary Colloquial Words: Used in everyday conversations and written texts. Example:
"Granny" or "put up."
Non-literary Colloquial Words: Includes slang, jargon, and professionalisms. Example: Slang like
"wasted" or professionalisms like "Hi-Fi."
National and Regional Vocabularies:
Lexical Differences: Variations in vocabulary between different English varieties. Example:
"Caravan" with different meanings in British and American English.
Neologisms: Newly coined words or phrases. Example: "Teledish" or "graviphoton."
Methods for Investigating Vocabulary:
Introspection: Linguists using their own knowledge of a language for describing words,
meanings, and vocabulary.
Elicitation: Collecting specific data on language aspects through direct questioning or
interviews.
Corpora (Text Corpora): Large collections of texts used for linguistic analysis. Example: The
British National Corpus or the Corpus of Contemporary American English.
Electronic Resources:
Electronic Dictionaries: Online dictionaries allowing sophisticated searching and lexical field
analysis.
Computer Corpora: Large collections of text data used for linguistic research, e.g., Brown
Corpus or British National Corpus.
Tools of Analysis:
Concordancer: A computer program producing a concordance, a list of occurrences of a word
with context.
Sketch Engine: Provides a word sketch of a selected lexical item with frequent collocates.
Tagger/Parser: Computer programs assigning word class labels to items in a corpus.
Type/Token Ratio: A tool measuring lexical density or richness based on the number of types
and tokens.
Machine Readable Dictionaries (MRD): Electronic dictionaries with some inconsistencies and
limitations.
Lexical Databases (LDB): Represent relations between lexical entries, e.g., WordNet.
Lexical Knowledge Base (LKB): Complex computer representation of meanings, relationships,
and interpretations of lexical items.
Lexicography:
Practical Lexicography: Compilation, writing, and editing of dictionaries.
Theoretical Lexicography (Meta-lexicography): Analyzing semantic, syntagmatic, and
paradigmatic relationships within a language's lexicon.
User Research: Focus on theories and methods for examining dictionary use.
Dictionary Criticism: Evaluation of existing dictionaries and development of assessment models.
Systematic Dictionary Research: Formulation of novel theories and principles to enhance future
dictionaries.
General and Specialized Lexicography:
General Lexicography: Focus on dictionaries describing language in general use.
Specialized Lexicography: Focus on dictionaries devoted to specific linguistic and factual
elements in specialist subject fields.
Historical Overview of Lexicography:
The first dictionary in Chinese language.
Roots of British lexicography trace back to the 7th-8th centuries.
Bilingual dictionaries in the 15th century.
Modern Trends in Lexicography:
Corpus Linguistics: Using corpora to analyze language conventions.
Computational Lexicography: Involves electronic dictionary design and use.
Corpus-Based Lexicography:
Utilizes corpus information for dictionary compilation and revision.
Helps extract authentic examples, select entries based on frequency, and provide more
accurate descriptions of word usage.
Electronic Dictionaries and Corpora:
More accessible and portable than traditional dictionaries.
Incorporates millions of words.
Computerized tools like concordancers and taggers aid lexicographers in analysis.

LESSON 10

Dictionary:
Definition: A book listing words of a language with their meanings and often including data on
pronunciation, usage, and origin.Example: Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary.
Glossary: An alphabetical list of terms in a specific domain of knowledge with definitions for
those terms.Example: A glossary of terms used in computer programming.
Thesaurus:A reference work that lists words grouped together according to similarity in
meaning.Ex. Roget's Thesaurus.
Text Reception: Understanding written or spoken text.
Text Production: Creating written or spoken text.
Text Revision: Reviewing and editing text.
Translation: Converting text between languages.
Knowledge-Oriented Functions:
Acquiring Specific Knowledge: Using the dictionary to gain information about a particular
subject.
Acquiring General Knowledge: Obtaining general information about a topic.
Optimal Dictionary:
Contains information directly relevant to users' needs related to communication and
knowledge functions.
Presents information in a way that minimizes lexicographic information costs.
Dictionaries Classified by Purpose & Size:
General-Purpose Dictionaries:
Aimed at native speakers.
Available in desk, concise, or pocket sizes.
Children’s Dictionaries:
For children acquiring English as a first language.
Vary in size and form, including picture dictionaries.
Learner’s Dictionaries:
For those learning English as a second or foreign language.
Designed for intermediate, upper-intermediate, or advanced learners.
Quantification of Dictionaries:
Number of Words or Headwords:
One headword may have multiple word cases or separate entries.
Example: "Middle" – noun, adjective, verb.
Number of Definitions or Meanings:
Quantified in terms of 'references.'
Reference = headword + additional word classes + inflected forms + derivatives + variable
spellings + idioms + other expressions.
Selection of Vocabulary:
Common Core Vocabulary:
Words widely used across contexts.
Specialized Vocabulary:
Vocabulary specific to certain fields like science, technology, medicine, etc.
Popular Culture, Slang, and Neologisms:
Includes words from popular culture, slang, and newly coined words.
Arrangement of Vocabulary:
Alphabetical Arrangement:
Most common, enables quick lookup.
Thematic Arrangement:
Groups words by lexical field.
Useful for language teaching.
Found in some online dictionaries.
Information About Words:
Comprehensive Lexical Information (Prof. Dick Hudson):
Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Context, Spelling, Etymology, Usage.
Detailed Information:
Phonology:
Pronunciation provided with IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet).
Morphology:
Focuses on irregular inflections and derivatives.
Morphemic relations evident through alphabetical order and nesting practices.
Syntax:
Provides information on word classes, transitivity, countability, etc.
More detailed in learner's dictionaries.
Semantics:
Includes definitions and distinguishes polysemous words.
Analytical definitions assign words to a class and distinguish them from others.
Context:
Marks words as formal, informal, colloquial, slang, or context-restricted.
Spelling:
Offers alternate spellings due to prefixes/suffixes.
Indicates alternative spellings in American English (AmEn) and British English (BrEn).
Etymology:
Provides word origin and history.
Usage:
Includes frequency of use, age of acquisition, and occasions of use.
Selection of Vocabulary (Continued):
Homographs:
Words with different meanings but the same spelling.
May have separate entries or one entry with traced etymological background.
Polysemy:
Recognition of different senses of a word.
Definitions mechanically derived using computer-based applications.
Order of Senses:
Arranged by frequency of use, historical order, central to peripheral meanings, or concrete to
abstract meanings.
Derivatives:
Separate entry for derivatives with different spelling or divergent meanings.
Inflected forms often included in a single entry.
Compounds:
Can be solid, hyphenated, or open.
Some dictionaries include only solid compounds as separate headwords.
Treatment varies among dictionaries.
Multiword Lexemes:
Phrasal Verbs: Verb + particle, usually included within the verb entry.
Idioms: Never added as headwords, placed under the first word they contain.
Fixed Expressions: Defined through phrases or sentences.
Meaning Relations:
Rarely explicit in dictionaries.
Indirectly indicated through definitions.
Collocation:
Constitutive of word meaning.
More frequent in online dictionaries.
General-purpose dictionaries include grammatical collocations.
Dictionaries, Vocabulary & Lexicography:
Vocabulary is a system defined by interconnections.
Alphabetical order presents systematic interconnections.
Electronic dictionaries offer more space and search capabilities.
Classification of Dictionaries:
Diachronic Dictionaries:
Reflect the historical development of the English vocabulary.
Example: The Oxford English Dictionary.
Synchronic Dictionaries:
Concerned with present-day meaning and usage.
Example: Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English.
Encyclopedic Dictionaries:
Cover various branches of knowledge, not just words.
Example: Encyclopedia Britannica.
Linguistic Dictionaries:
Focus on lexical units and their linguistic properties.
Divided into general and specialized dictionaries.
General Dictionaries:
Cover lexical units in ordinary use across various spheres of life.
Aimed at a general audience.
Specialized Dictionaries:
Cover specific parts of the vocabulary, such as terminological, phraseological, slang, etc.
Can be maximizing or minimizing.
Multi-Field Dictionaries:
Cover terms within two or more subject fields.
Sub-Field Dictionaries:
Cover terms of one or more sub-fields of a subject.
Single-Field Dictionaries:
Cover terms of one particular subject field.
Phraseological Dictionaries:
Accumulate idiomatic or colloquial phrases and word-groups.
Dictionaries of Slang:
Contain elements from substandard speech.
Pronouncing Dictionaries:
Record contemporary pronunciation in detail.
Etymological Dictionaries:
Trace present-day words to their oldest forms and other languages.
Monolingual Dictionaries:
Words and information about them are in the same language.
Bilingual Dictionaries:
Explain words by giving equivalents in another language.