Unit One: An Overview of Technical Report Writing

1.1. Definition of Report

 A report is a statement of the results of an investigation or of any matter on which definite

information is required. (Oxford English Dictionary)
 A report is a form of communication that will do one or more of the following:
 describes
 analyses
 summarizes
 criticizes or praises
 makes predictions about a subject and is based on an analysis of current or past events
or identifiable phenomena.

 If you are studying on an undergraduate or postgraduate course you will be expected to write
reports and to present findings in written and verbal and/or audio/visual forms. You will, for
example, write reports:
for module assignments, e.g. case study reports
presenting the results of an individual research project
summarizing the result of a group project and presentation
reflecting on a work experience or other placement you were involved in
 Reports are a highly structured form of writing often following conventions that have been laid
down to produce a common format.
Structure and convention in written reports stress the process by which the information was
gathered as much as the information itself.
• Technical writing is communication written for and about business and industry, focusing
on products and services: how to manufacture them, market them, manage them, deliver them,
and use them.
• Communication is part of the life of every creature on this planet.
• How that communication is carried out however, is varied, and different communications
are suitable based on –the type of information that needs to be conveyed.
• One specific area of communication involves: transmitting, understanding, knowledge of
a technical subject to others that need to know the basics and details of the subject in question.
• In written form, this type of communication is called technical writing.

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• Therefore, technical writing conveys scientific information about technical subject to a
specific audience for a specific purpose.
• It is also scientific report. It is a document that describes the process, progress, results of
technical or scientific research or the state of a technical or scientific research problem.
• It might also include recommendations and conclusions of the research.
• Unlike other scientific literature such as scientific journals, and the proceedings of some
academic conferences, technical reports rarely undergo comprehensive independent of peer
review before publication.

Technical writing Vs. Creative Writing

Creative Writing

1. Creative writing is fictional and imaginative;

2. Creative writing is entertaining, provocative, and captivating.

3. Creative writing can be artistic, figurative, symbolic, ambiguous, and even vague.

4. Creative writing is subjective with the thoughts, opinions, & attitudes of the writer.

5. Creative writing uses a general vocabulary understood by the general audience narrowed
somewhat by age group or interest.

6. Creative writing can be lucrative for the few who create best sellers,

Technical writing

1. Technical writing is factual.

2. Technical writing is informative, instructional or persuasive.

3. Technical writing needs to be clear, precise, & straight forward leaving no room for
misinterpretations. It needs to follow accepted standard, for grammar, and format while creative
writing breaks the rules.

4. Technical writing must be objective.

5. Technical writing uses specialized vocabulary dependent on the topic as well as on the
familiarity of the target audience with the topic.

6. Technical writing provides career opportunities with good salaries for thousands and
thousands of writers in all kinds of business and industries.

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Purposes of Report Writing

Defining the purpose

First, the purpose - the major aim - the reason why you are writing the report at all. This will
determine what kind of report you write.
a) Factual report For example, it may be to inform - when, say, there's been an accident, or a
new programme of work. What's needed here is a factual report - a straightforward statement
of the facts - to give people an accurate record.
b) Instructional report Or, it may be to explain - for example, when some change is
introduced, like a revised appraisal system, or a new job evaluation scheme. Here you write
an instructional report - a step-by-step description - to tell people about the new procedures.
c) Leading report Lastly, it may be to persuade - when you are trying to sell your ideas. This
kind is usually called a 'leading' report, because you are leading the reader towards making a
decision - the one you want him or her to make.

Identifying the reader But who is the reader? What do we really know about them? Often,
they are just a dim and shadowy figure in the mind, but we can usually get a clearer picture
by asking three questions:
a) What does the reader know? Two common mistakes in report writing are to overestimate a
reader's knowledge-and blind them with science, or to underestimate it - and bore them to
tears. We must always try to discover how much the reader knows already, so that we can
communicate at their level of knowledge.
b) What are the reader's attitudes? However good our ideas, they may get thrown out if we
don't take account of these, the reader's special interests, likes, and dislikes. The truth has
many faces, and it is only sensible to feature the one most likely to appeal to them.
c) What does the reader really want? We'll need to find out just what their hopes and
expectations are. Then we shall know what we're up against, and can prepare our case
accordingly.
Setting the objective Matching the purpose to the reader, we are now ready to set our
objective. In other words, what do we want the reader to think and do after reading our
report? Here is an example: To persuade the managing director to authorize a proposed
system of flexible working

 Reports communicate information which has been compiled as a result of research and
analysis of data and of issues.
 Reports can cover a wide range of topics, but usually focus on transmitting information with
a clear purpose, to a specific audience.
 Good reports are documents that are accurate, objective and complete.
 They should also be well-written, clearly structured and expressed in a way that holds the
reader's attention and meets their expectations.
 The true value of the research may be accessed through a report since the written report may
be the "only tangible product of hundreds of hours of work.

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 Rightly or wrongly, the quality and worth of that work are judged by the quality of the
written report - its clarity, organization and content" (Blake & Bly, 1993: 119).
 Often reports are structured in a way that reflects the information finding process and the
writing up of the findings: that is, summary of the contents, introduction or background,
methods, results, discussion, conclusion and/or recommendations.
 The inclusion of recommendations is one reason why reports are a common form of writing
in industry, as the informed recommendations are useful for decision making.
 The scope and style of reports varies widely.
 It depends on three key factors:
 the report's intended audience,
 the report's purpose and
 the type of information to be communicated; for example, technical reports communicate
technical information, so the degree of technicality in the report will depend on the
reader's familiarity and understanding of technical concepts.

At university, you may be required to write different types of reports.

1) Technical and Business reports-

 Disciplines with an applied focus such as:

a) Engineering,

b) Information Technology,

c) Commerce,

d) Accounting and Finance,

Will set report writing assignments that simulate the process of report writing in industry.
Assignments are set in the form of a problem or a case study. The students research the
problem, and present the results of the research in a report format to an imaginary client.

2) Field reports-

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Observation studies can be participant or non-participant. In participant observation the researcher
directly observes and participates in small scale social settings in the present time. Such a study is
also referred to as field research study.

Here the researchers:

• Study people in their natural settings, or in situ.
• Study people by directly interacting with them.
• Gain an understanding of the social world and make theoretical statements about members’
perspective.

Field researchers study people in a location or setting. It has been used to study entire communities.
Field researchers directly observe and interact with community members in natural settings to get
inside their perspectives.

What Do the Field Researchers Do?

A field researcher does the following:
1. Observes ordinary events and everyday activities as they happen in natural settings, in addition
to unusual occurrences.
2. Becomes directly involved with people being studied and personally experiences the process of
daily life in the field setting.
3. Acquires an insider’s point of view while maintaining the analytic perspective or distance of an
outsider.
4. Uses a variety of techniques and social skills in a flexible manner as the situation demands.
5. Produces data in the form of extensive, written notes, as well as diagrams, maps, pictures to
provide very detailed descriptions.
6. Sees events holistically (as a whole, not in pieces) and individually in their social context.
7. Understands and develops empathy for members in a field setting, and does not just record
‘cold’ objective facts.
8. Notices both explicit (recognized, conscious, spoken) and tacit (less recognized, implicit,
unspoken) aspects of culture.
9. Observes ongoing social processes without upsetting, or imposing an outside point of view.
10. Copes with high levels of personal stress, uncertainty, ethical dilemmas, and ambiguity

 Are common in disciplines such as:

a) Law,

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 b) Industrial Relations,

c) Psychology,

d) Nursing,

e) History and Education.

 These types of reports require the student to analyze his or her observations of
phenomena or events in the real world in light of theories studied in the course.
 Examples of field reports are a Court observation report, an observation report of a
child or a patient for Developmental psychology or Nursing, a History site report,
and a teaching observation report for Education.

3) Scientific reports (also called laboratory reports)-

 Are another kind of report.

 They are common in all the Sciences and Social Sciences.
 These reports use a standard scientific report format describing methods, results
and conclusions to report upon an empirical investigation.
 A more detailed and extensive type of this report is the research project report for
fourth year honors students or research students involved in postgraduate studies.

_____________________________________________________________________________

1.3. Characteristics of Report

 Accurate and specific

• Factual

• Objective

• Clear

• Complete

• Concise

• Well-organized

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 • Grammatically correct

• Light on abbreviations

1) Accurate and specific

 Accurate means specific.
 Vague reference does not give readers much information.
 Proofread your report again.

 Example of vague/specific references

• The patient had a high fever. ( Vague)

• The patient had a fever of 103˚F.(specific)

2) A Good Report Is Factual

 An inference becomes believable if supported by facts.
 Do not include an opinion unless it is identified
 Examples of inference/fact and opinion/fact

• We suspected that he was driving under the influence because we could smell
alcohol on his breath. (inference)

• Blood tests confirmed he had a blood alcohol level that was twice the legal limit.
(facts)
3) A Good Report Is Objective

 A good report should be objective, not subjective.

 A good report should be objective not slanted.
 Examples of objective/subjective objective/slanted sentences

• The man attacked an elderly homeless woman.(Objective)

• The man attacked an old bag lady. (subjective)

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 • Several witnesses reported hearing the couple arguing about money. Mr. Robert
allegedly hit his wife in the face during the argument. We found Mrs. Robert with
a bloody nose and a swollen cheek. (objective)

• Numerous witnesses reported that the couple had been fighting because Mr. Robert
couldn’t hold down a job. Mr. Robert slugged his wife in the face because he was
furious that she brought up the subject. We found Mrs. Robert with severe injuries
to the face, including a bloody nose and a badly swollen cheek. (Slanted)

4) A Good Report Is Clear

• Statements from other people may not be objective, however, when you include those
statements in your reports, you need to make it clear that you are quoting someone else.

• If different people can read the same report and come up with different interpretations,
the report is not clear.

5) A Good Report Is Complete

• A good report covers six important questions:

• Who? What? Where? When? Why? How?
• Remember, if it isn’t documented, it didn’t happen.
6) A Good Report Is Concise

• Concise means using words economically and omitting words that do not add value.

Examples of wordy/concise

• The engine company that arrived first on scene immediately began operations to search
the first floor of the hotel and rescue anyone who might be trapped (wordy)

• The first-in engine company immediately began search and rescue operations on the first
floor of the hotel. (concise)

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7) A Good Report Is Well-Organized

• A simple incident report might work best if organized in chronological order.

• An inspection report, might flow better if organized by type of violation.

8) A Good Report Is Grammatically Correct

• Errors in grammar and punctuation can affect both the clarity and accuracy of your report

• Use the active voice as much as possible.

9) A Good Report Is Light on Abbreviations

• Using too many abbreviations or using them inappropriately can detract from your
message and give readers the impression that you do not know how to write

________________________________________________________________________

1.4. Classification of Report

1.4.1. Formal reports and informal reports

1) Formal Reports

 Formal reports contain information with more detail and content than the shorter report forms (memo).
 A formal report is usually submitted at the end of any major investigation.
 Many companies have a standard form that is to be followed when writing a formal report.
 For the purpose of this lab or course, the following elements of a formal report are to be included:
1. Title Page (optional – does not have to be on a separate page)
2. Abstract
3. Table of Contents (optional)
4. Introduction
5. Theory
6. Procedure
7. Discussion of Results
8. Conclusion and Recommendations

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 9. Appendix (optional)
10. References

1. Title Page
Optional, not necessary if the report is relatively short (6 pages or less).
2. Abstract
 The abstract contains only enough information about the work reported on to enable someone
who is searching for information to quickly determine the relevance of the report.
 Therefore, the abstract should contain a concise summary of the problem, important findings
(results), and significant conclusions and recommendations.
 The abstract is usually limited to approximately 100 words.
 The abstract must be useful, independently of the report (no reference to figures or tables).
Nothing should be in the abstract that is not in the report and nothing should be omitted from the
report because it is in the abstract.
 The abstract is often reproduced, circulated, published, and filed independently of the report.
3. Table of Contents
 Optional, not necessary if the report is relatively short.
4. Introduction or Background information
 The purpose of the introduction is to prepare the reader for the body of the report by giving a
clear statement of the background and objectives of the report, elaborate as to why the work is
significant, and provide historical context regarding the work.
 All statements should be clear and complete because the reader may be less familiar with the
subject matter than the writer.
5. Theory
 If the discussion of theory and engineering principles involved is not extensive, it can be included
in the procedure; otherwise, include a separate section.
6. Procedure or Description of Work
 Experimental equipment and techniques should be described accurately and completely so that
someone else could repeat your work.
 Drawings are appropriate. Give normal dimensions of test specimens, range of variables, and a
list of constraints on the experiment (such as fixed parameters).
 Important mathematical expressions used in the work should be presented or referred to here.

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7. Discussion of Results
 This is a major part of your report and will vary in scope, length and complexity
according to the nature of the investigation.
 Basically, the discussion evaluates the results, interprets them and investigates their
significance.
 It is the bridge that leads from the results, (tables, graphs, etc.) to the conclusions.
 The statement of general conclusions and recommendations is reserved for the
Conclusion and Recommendation section.
Use tables and graphs to highlight significant results. If the results are not extensive, they
may be placed within the discussion text. All graphs and tables should be referred to in the
text of the discussion.
The discussion should include:
1. Major inconsistencies.
2. Your interpretation of the tabular and graphical results.
3. Error sources and possible corrections.
4. Comparison of results with published values.
5. Equipment failures.
6. An accounting for unexpected results.
7. Comparison of test with standard tests.
Tables
 Tables are useful to present results in the text of the discussion. Refer to tables by number.
Every table must be mentioned in the text. Include on each table:
1. A number and title.
2. Labels for all rows and columns.
3. Units for all rows and columns.
4. Identification of all symbols.
Figures (graphs, diagrams)
 Only use graphs if they supplement, complement, simply or clarify the text.
 If they do not do this, then they probably should be omitted. Use Excel for all graphs.

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8. Conclusions and Recommendations
Be brief and to the point about making conclusions and recommendations. You may list the
important results.
9. Appendix (optional)
The appendix contains:
1. Sample calculations.
2. Supplementary data.
 Each item in the appendix has an identifying letter which is listed either under II Appendix" in
the Table of Contents, or on a special table of contents preceding the appendix.
 Every item in the appendix is keyed to the text by a specific reference to the item by letter.
 Whenever possible, the order of items in the appendix should be the order in which they are
referred to in the text.
10. References
The original sources of any literature referred to in the report should be provided. The references
are usually listed in order of reference within the text. There are several ways to format
references, please be consistent.
______________________________________________________________________________
2) Informal Reports

 Contain about two to five pages of text, not including attachments

 Contain more substance than a simple letter or memo but less than a formal report
 Directed to readers outside (letter report) or inside your organization (memo report)

General Guidelines for Informal Reports

 Plan Well Before You Write

 Use Letter or Memo Format
 Make Text Visually Appealing
 Use the ABC Format for Organization
 Call the Abstract an Introductory Summary
 Put Important Details in the Body
 Separate Fact from Opinion
 Focus Attention in Your Conclusion
 Use Attachments for Less Important Details

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  Edit Carefully
___________________________________________________________________
 Plan Well Before You Write
 Use the Planning Form to record specific information about these points...
 Document’s purpose
 Variety of readers who will receive document
 Needs and expectations of readers
 Outline of main points
______________________________________________________________________
 Use Letter or Memo Format
 Make Text Visually Appealing
 Use bulleted points
 Use numbered points for ordered steps
 Use frequent headings and subheadings
______________________________________________________________________
 Use the ABC Format for Organization
 Abstract
 Body
 Conclusion
______________________________________________________________________
 Call the Abstract an Introductory Summary
 Include three essential pieces of information
 Purpose for the report
 Scope statement
 Summary of essentials
______________________________________________________________________
 Put Important Details in the Body
 Use headings generously
 Precede subheadings with a lead-in passage
 Move from general to specific in paragraphs
______________________________________________________________________
 Separate Fact From Opinion
 Report facts you uncover
 Provide ideas or beliefs you develop from your findings
 Recommend or suggest action items based on your conclusions
______________________________________________________________________________

 Focus Attention in Your Conclusions

 Briefly restate your conclusion or recommendation to reinforce importance
 Give more detail if not covered earlier

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  Use Attachments for Less Important Details
______________________________________________________________________________

 Edit Carefully
 Keep most sentences short and simple
 Proofread several times
 Triple-check all cost figures for accuracy
 Make sure all attachments are included
 Check the format and wording of all headings and subheadings
 Ask a colleague to check over the report
______________________________________________________________________________

Specific Guidelines for Five Informal Reports

 Problem Analyses
 Recommendation Reports
 Equipment Evaluations
 Progress/Periodic Reports
 Lab Reports
______________________________________________________________________________

 Problem Analyses
 Presents readers with a detailed description of problems
 Follow ABC Format for Problem Analyses
______________________________________________________________________

 Abstract
 Purpose/Summary of problems
 Body
 Background/Description of problems/Data
 Conclusion
 Brief restatement/Degree of urgency/ Suggested next step
______________________________________________________________________
 Recommendation Reports
 Presents readers with specific suggestions that affect personnel, equipment,
procedures, products, services, etc.
 Use ABC Format for Recommendation Reports
 Abstract
 Purpose/Brief reference to problem/Capsule summary of recommendations
 Body
 Details about problem/Recommendations/Data that support
recommendations/Benefits/Drawbacks
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  Conclusion
 Brief restatement/Main benefit/Your offer to help with next step
______________________________________________________________________
 Equipment Evaluations
 Provides objective data about how equipment has, or has not, functioned
 Use ABC Format for Equipment Evaluations
 Abstract
 Purpose/Capsule summary
 Body
 Thorough description of equipment/Well-organized critique/Additional
supporting data, with reference to any attachments
 Conclusion
 Brief restatement of major findings, conclusions, or recommendations
______________________________________________________________________
 Progress Reports
 Provides your manager with details about work on a specific project
 Use ABC Format for Progress/Periodic Reports
 Periodic Reports
 Summarizes your work on diverse tasks over a specific period of time
 Use ABC Format for Progress/Periodic Reports
______________________________________________________________________________

 Progress/Periodic Reports
 Abstract
 Purpose/Capsule summary/Main progress to date
 Body
 Description of work completed/Clear reference to any dead ends/Explanation of
delays/Description of work remaining/Reference to attachments
 Conclusion
 Brief restatement of work/Expression of confidence or concern/Willingness to
make suggested adjustments
______________________________________________________________________________

 Lab Reports
 Describes work done in any laboratory –with emphasis on topics such as purpose
of work, procedures, equipment, problems, results, and implications
 Use ABC Format for Lab Reports
 Lab Reports
 Abstract
 Purpose/Capsule summary

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  Body
 Purpose or hypothesis of lab work/Equipment needed/Procedures or
methods used in lab test/Unusual occurrences/Results of test
 Conclusion
 Statement or restatement of main results/Implications of lab test for further work

Table 2: Contrasting Features of Informal and Formal Reports

Informal Formal
Reader often internal often external or distant within
organization
Length  usually short  usually long (3 pages or more)
 several sections  sections and subsections

Tone  Personal  more impersonal

 Contractions  no contractions
Summary Integrated on separate page
Introduction no heading can have one or more headings
Title appears as subject line in appears on separate title page
memo heading
Transmittal Optional covering letter or memo
page
Contents page None useful if report is over 5 pages

1.4.2. Informational Reports

Informational reports provide data, facts, feedback, and other types of information without
analysis or recommendations. There are four uses for these types of reports:

 Decision-making reports are a use of informational reporting that contains facts about
monitoring and controlling operations.
 Additionally, these reports provide specific feedback on a company's operations.
 Fred provides these types of reports to Crazi Toys' managers every day through the
submission of production record reports.

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  These informational reports contain up-to-the-second information on toy production
summaries to help managers in short-term decision making.

Policy reports-

 Are another use of informational reporting that provides procedures and guidelines for
an organization.
 Fred has also written extensive policy reports detailing new corporate initiatives, such as
tuition reimbursement and sexual harassment policies.
 His latest report provided updated, automated procedures for sales representatives to
receive reimbursements for traveling expenses.
 These reports help with determining budgets and provide checks on spending allotments
for companies.

Compliance reports-

 Are the third use of informational reporting that reveals a company's consent to regulators
or governments that the company is abiding by regulations.
 A common example would be any financial reporting produced by a company.
 Fred works with Crazi Toys' accounting department to ensure that they produce quarterly,
midpoint, and year-end financial reports that are requested by regulators and the
government.
 This information is necessary for shareholders to make decisions, as well as an integral
part of corporate decision making.

Finally, status reports-

 Are uses of informational reporting that provide critical feedback and updates on
projects? These reports are used on a daily basis by most employees.
 For example, Fred provides weekly status reports on the new toy line to all of
management in a report titled: 'Week ending January 25, 2020 Toy Line Status Update.'
 His report details any issues in development along with product successes with
estimated delivery dates.

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  Companies rely on status reports to report project updates to all levels of management.

1.4.3. Analytical Reporting

 There is another type of business reporting that is used to make decisions.

 Analytical reports offer both information and analysis, but they also include
recommendations.
 Offering recommendations is the biggest difference between informational and analytical
reporting.
 The first use of analytical reporting focuses on investigating business opportunities
within the marketplace.
 This type of report provides advantages and disadvantages of taking a specific course of
action whether investing in a company, buying a competitor, or investigating a new
product venture.
 Fred excels in this version of reporting as he spends most of his time conducting
investigations into product development.
 The last report he wrote was a marketing research analysis to determine if there was
consumer interest in robotic pet toys.
 This reporting is essential in making sound business decisions on weighing opportunities.

Problem-solving reports-

 Are generated as well by internal teams to help solve corporate issues and offer a
specific solution through troubleshooting analysis.
 Fred works with the quality assurance teams to help develop reports on whether a toy
problem can be fixed.
 In one instance, it was found that one robot toy had a piece that kept breaking off.
 The size of the piece would make it a danger to small children as they could swallow the
piece and have breathing difficulties.
 The report detailed how the robot could be redesigned to eliminate the structural
weakness and parts breaking. This report solved the problem and protected their
customers.

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  The final use of analytical reporting is to justify decisions through examining the
success of past or current decision making.
 These types of reports are called feasibility studies or justification reports.
 Fred's team has produced feasibility studies to determine whether or not a toy product
idea is able to be produced.
 His last published report showed that the new hologram toy idea was not feasible and a
poor idea due to the complicated technology, which would have made the toy too
expensive for the target market.

1.4.4. Recommendation Reports

 The meaning of recommendation Report

The elements contained in a recommendation report include:

 Identification of the problem, an overall comparison of several solutions, conclusions

drawn from study and comparison of the solutions and a recommendation.

A recommendation report should state facts rather than popular opinions. Additionally, a
recommendation report should include a solution that is specific to the problem and takes into
account chance and human nature. Also, it should be supported with research and devised after
consideration of economic factors. By considering these factors and presenting a solution in the
proper format, a recommendation report can be used to influence others.

Luis is a vice president for a software company. His CEO thinks the company might be better if
they change the computers their programmers use. He's asked Luis to compare their current
computers with a couple of others and write a report recommending which type of computer they
should buy.

A recommendation report is a paper that compares two or more products or solutions and
makes a recommendation about which is the best option. Because the purpose of the report is to
recommend a course of action, it is called a recommendation report.

Let's follow Luis as he researches and writes his recommendation report.

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Content

Luis needs to write a recommendation report for his CEO, letting the CEO know which type of
computer Luis thinks would be best for the company to buy. There are several parts of a
recommendation report. To help Luis make sure he includes all of them, let's go through each
one.

1. Introduction

In the opening section, Luis will want to describe the problem or situation and mention the items
that will be compared. For example, in his introduction, Luis can talk about how the purpose of
the report is to decide whether to continue using the same computers or to switch to another
brand. It's up to Luis to decide whether to mention the specific computers he will be comparing,
but he at least needs to mention that he's comparing computers.

2. Background

Luis will also want to include any relevant background information that the reader will need to
know to make sense of the report. This background information could include a description of
the company, the history and context of the problem being addressed, any technical background
information, or any other information that is important.

For example, Luis might want to talk about why the company first started using the computers
they do, as well as address why they are considering changing computers now, like because the
brand they've been using has raised the prices. He'll also want to include information on
technical specifications needed for the programmers. For example, if they need a certain amount
of memory, he will want to introduce that and talk about what RAM is.

3. Requirements

This section is sometimes called the criteria section. In this section, Luis will want to describe
how he is evaluating the products or solutions that he's comparing. For example, he might say
that he's comparing the cost of the machines, the amount of RAM, the screen size, and so on.
Note that he's not actually comparing the items yet; he's just listing and describing how he will

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evaluate them, kind of like a teacher offering a rubric to a student, so the student knows how he
or she will be graded.

4. Options

In the options section, Luis will want to offer a brief description of each item he is comparing. In
this case, he will include a brief description of each type of computer that he is considering. If he
has decided not to consider any computers because of something that was not mentioned in the
requirements section, he will need to explain why in this section, as well. For example, if he
eliminated a couple of computers because they are not offered by the company's preferred
vendor, Luis can explain that here.

5. Category-by-category comparisons

This is, in many ways, the heart of the paper. Luis will divide this section into subsections, one
for each requirement he listed before. In each subsection, he will compare all options based on
that requirement. For example, in the cost subsection, he can talk about the different costs of
each computer he's comparing, including which one costs the least. Likewise, in the RAM
subsection, he can compare the amount of RAM for each computer, including which one offers
the most RAM.

6. Conclusions

In this section, Luis will want to sum up the conclusions he's reached about the proposed options.
For example, he might remind the reader that computer X is the cheapest, but computer Y has the
most RAM.

7. Recommendation

By now, Luis' recommendation is probably pretty clear. After all, he's already outlined which
computers are better in each category, as well was summed up the conclusions about the
computers that he's come to. But in the recommendation section, he'll explicitly say which
computer he recommends choosing.

Organization

22
Luis has done a lot of writing, and he has a very long paper! He's wondering if he has it
organized in the best possible way.

Unit two: Conventions of Technical Report Writing

 Convention refers to the common and repeated uses of rules, conditions, guidelines,
characteristics for products or relative process and production methods and related
management system practices in report writing.

Technical Writing Layout

 Clear layout and presentation will make your report more accessible to your readers.
 Some key considerations in layout include:
 Headings,
 Illustrations
 And other strategies that could be classified broadly as “mechanics” of report
writing.
 These latter are not solely layout concerns, but are included in this portion of form and
style for the sake of convenience.

(a) Headings
 Headings are the writer’s direction to the reader.
 They form a major contribution to your report’s readability.
 All headings should be followed by: text before the next sub-heading.
 Headings should not be part of the text- the text should be able to stand alone.
 As a result, you should never refer back to the heading from the text but rather write the text
so that its meaning does not depend on the heading.
 Add headings to make the text more accessible.
 In sum headings:
 are the writer’s direction signals to the reader;
 help readers to follow a text with ease and understanding;
 reflect accurately the material that appears beneath them;
 are numbered; form and style requires the use of a decimal numbering system to
number your headings.

E.g. – First level (chapter): 1, 2, 3, etc.

- Second level: 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, etc.
- Third level: 2.1.1, 2.1.2. , 2.1.3. etc.
- Fourth level: 2.1.1.1. , 2.1.1.2. , 2.1.1.3. etc.

23
(b) Mechanics
 The mechanics document layout include a range of considerations that contribute to:
 pagination conventions;
 text spacing conventions;
 quotation marks, and
 other punctuation conventions;
 guidelines for incorporating equations in to your texts;
 capitalization conventions;
 type face and style considerations;
 “widow” and “orphan” problems;
 Binding guidelines.

(i) Pagination
 Pagination of the report can be divided into that for the main body and end matter,
and that for the front matter.
1) Main body pagination
 The pages of the body of the report are numbered 1, 2, 3, etc. starting with the
first page of the introduction and including all subsequent pages.
 Through the appendices to the topic approval.
 The number “1” of the first page of the body is centered at the bottom of the
pages; however all subsequent numbers are placed at the upper right corner of
the page.

2) Front matter Pagination

 For the front matter, a different numbering is used;
 The abstract is not included in the pagination at all;
 The title page counts as the first page of the reports’ front matter, but is not
numbered;
 The table of contents is the second page of the front matter, and it receives a
small Roman number “ii” centered at the bottom of the page;
 The front matter pages that follow are all numbered with small Roman
numerals: iii, iv, v, vi etc.
 All front matter pagination is centered at the bottom of the page.

(ii) Spacing
 The text of the report should be double-spaced, printed on one side of the page only;
 Entries on the reference page should be single spaced, but each entry should have a
double space before the next entry;

24
  In the text itself, you should leave on space after commas and other forms of internal
punctuation e.g. colons, semi-colons.
 Sometimes diagrams outgrow their pages, and this is dangerous;
 Margins must be sufficient on all sides to allow:
 for clarity,
 to carry as appropriate the page numbered,
 figure number and title, and
 for the binding of the document.

(iii) Quotation marks and other Punctuations

 You should use quotation marks whenever you quote directly from a source;
 Punctuation should be placed inside quotation marks;
 Reference numbers; however, should be placed outside of quotation marks.

(iv) Equations in the text

 If you are including equations in your text, you should treat them as part of the
sentence which leads into the equation;
 That is, you should incorporate equations smoothly into your sentence structure;
(v) capitalization of words

 As a general rule, you should capitalize only proper names of individuals or

organizations;
 Words such as “kilogram” and “civil engineering” do not require capitals (although
department of Civil Engineering does, as it refers to a specific organizations);

(vi) “Widows” and “Orphans”

 The terms “widow” and “orphan” refer to typographic anomalies that can occur when
you are preparing a final document for presentation.
 An “orphan” is a word or short section of a line isolated at the bottom of a paragraph
or page;
 Occasionally, reports will have orphan headings, that is headings which are at the
bottom the page, with the text that follows them on the next page;
 A “widow” is a word or sentence isolated at the top of a page (especially, on otherwise
blank page).
 You should try to avoid these, as they disrupt your layout, are unattractive, and can be
confusing.

25
 (vii) Typeface and Size

 Use a standard typeface such as “Times New Roman” , “Geneva”, “New York” ,
“Platino”, etc.
 Avoid using fancy scripts, but use italic or bold type sparingly, for emphasis;
 You should use 12 point typeface;
 10 point is too small to read comfortably and larger sizes make it appear as if you
were simply trying fill up space;

(viii) Binding
 Submit your report in use spiral binding or plastic spine binding;

C) Illustration

(i) Tables
 Are the most common form of a diagram in technical report;
 Tables can give a good deal of accurate information if they are effectively presented;
 Vertical and horizontal rulings can be untidy and confusing: the use of space is a
much more successful alternative;
E.g. - An annual financial breakdown could have the months grouped into quarters
(January to March) etc. and no horizontal lines would be necessary;
 It is; however, possible to give too much space, so that the reader loses track across
the paper;
 Colleagues are useful people on whom to test the ease with which a table can be used;
 It is, as always, the need of the reader which is all-important;
 The report writer might have data which are of far greater detail than the reader could
possibly need;
 In this case, figures should be rounded to the appropriate accuracy, and perhaps some
might be omitted altogether;

(ii) Graphics

 Graphic elements of the report include:

 all illustrations,
 drawings,
 maps,
 graphs,
 charts, are considered to be figures
 should be included in the list of figures.
 Place the number and caption at the figures base;

26
  However, for tables, the numbers and headings go above the table;
 All the tables and figures should be referred to in your text at the relevant point;
 the textual reference should precede the graphic;
 if a particular graphic is mentioned more than once;
 then the graphic should be incorporated into the text;
 Figures and tables should be incorporated into the text;
 Ensure that all images, figures and tables are clear and legible;
 Do not include poorly photocopied images, or
 Images that have been downloaded from the worldwide web &
 Finally, ensure that you give each graphic a comfortable amount of space on
the page;
 Graphics should not be crammed between text or squeezed into the margin;
 All figures and tables should be referenced unless they are your own original work;
 Graphics are used either to show trends or to give accurate technical information;
 All graphs must be clearly labeled and scales identified;
 If graphs are to be compared, the same scale must be used for each; as before,
 The detail needed by the reader must be included and not necessarily all that
available to the writer;

D) Basic Structure of a Report

 Technical reports have an organized format because- a majority of your audience may
not read the entire report in one reading;
 This specific format allows readers to quickly locate the information they need;

1) Title page
 A technical report should always include clearly identifying the report;
 A title should be descriptive and accurate but not wordy, verbose, or too tense;
 This page gives:
a) the title of the report
b) the author’s names and Id number
c) the course name and number, the department & University;
d) the date of submission.
2) Abstract
 The abstract is extremely important because it helps readers decide what to read and
what to pass on ;
 The idea of the abstract is to give readers :
 an honest evaluation of the report’s content,
 so they can quickly judge whether they should spend their valuable time reading
the entire report,

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  this section should give a true, brief description of the reader’s content,
 the most important purpose of the abstract is: to allow somebody to get a quick
picture of the report’s content and make judgment;
 since an abstract is a brief summary of your report, its length corresponds with the
report’s length;
 so for example, if your report is eight pages long, you shouldn’t use more than 150
words in the abstract;
 generally, abstracts define the report’s purpose and content;
 it provides a brief overview of the substance of the report usually not more than
half a page;
 an abstract is not the introduction to the topic,
 the summary should outline all the key features of your report:
 including the topic,
 what you did,
 how you did it,
 the main outcomes of your work.

E.g. A busy manager who might not have time to read the full report should be
able to get the gist of the whole report by reading the summary.

 This brief summary:

 states the topic of the report,
 outlines your approach to the task if applicable,
 gives the most important findings of your research or investigation or the key
aspects of your design;
 states the main outcomes or conclusions.
 However, it does not
 provide general background information ,
 explains why you are doing the research investigation or design,
 refer to later diagrams or references.

3) Table of Contents
 The content page stets out:
 The sections / headings &
 Sub-sections / sub-headings of the report,
 Their corresponding page numbers.
 It should clearly show the structural relationship between the sections and sub-
sections,
 A good table of content
 Distinguishes headings from sub-headings &

28
  Aligns these with the appropriate page numbers.
 This also means you should pay attention to:
 Capitalization,
 Spacing,
 Indentation.
 A reader looking for specific information should be able to identify the
appropriate section clearly from the table of contents.
 The conventions for sections and page numbering are as follows:
A) Number the sections by the decimal point numbering system.
1. Title of the first main section (usually introduction)
1.1. First sub-heading
1.2. Second sub-heading
2. Title of the second main section
2.1. First sub-heading
2.2. Second sub-heading
2.2.1. First division in the second sub-heading
2.2.2. Second division in the second sub-heading
3. Title of third main section etc.

B) Number all preliminary pages: acknowledgments, abstract, table of contents,

list of figures. In lower case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi etc.).
 You don’t have to place the number (i) on title page.
 Just count it and put (ii) on the second page of your report.
 Preliminary pages are any which come before –the introduction,
including the summary, where applicable acknowledgments.
C) Number all the remaining pages of your report with Arabic numerals
(1,2,3,4…)

 Thus, the report proper begins on the page 1 with your introduction, which
is usually section 1.

D) Provide a title in your table of contents to describe the contents of each

appendix (note: one appendix or more appendices). Don’t just call them
Appendix 1, Appendix 2 .

4) List of tables and list of figures

 These separate lists assist readers in locating your photos, drawings, tables,
graphs and charts.
 Like the table of contents, you need to present both of these in an organized,
appealing format.
 Typically, you can shorten a figure or table’s title when you create these lists.

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5) Introduction

 The introduction provides the background information needed for the rest of your
report to be understood.
 It is usually half to three-quarters of a page in length;
 The purpose of the introduction is to set the context for your report
 to provide sufficient background information for the reader,
 to be able to follow the information presented & inform the reader about
how that information will be presented.
 The introduction includes:
 the background to the topic of your report to set your work in its broad
context,
 a clear statement of the purpose of the report, usually to present the results
of your research, investigation or design.
 A clear statement of the aims of the project.
 Technical background necessary to understand the report e.g. theory or
assumption.
 A brief outline of the structure of the report if appropriate (this would not be
necessary in a short report).

6) Report Body

 In a technical report-the body typically presents- an introduction, various other

sections depending on your topic & a conclusion.
 Throughout the body, you should include text both your own and research from
other sources, graphics and lists.
 Whenever you cite information or we use graphics from other sources – you
must credit these sources with your text.
 In other words, it is main part of the report where you present your work.
 The introductions and conclusions act as a frame for the body; therefore, all the
details of your work (including a summarized version of material in the
appendices) must be included here in the appropriate section.
 You will need to put some thought into the ordering of the sections the
presentation of information should flow logically so that the reader can follow
the development of your project.
 It is also essential that you choose concise but informative headings and sub-
headings so that the reader knows exactly what type of information to expect in
each section.
 The body of the report presents the information from your research, both real
world and theoretical, or your design.
 Organizes information logically under appropriate headings.
 Conveys information in the most effective way for communication: uses figures
and tables, can use bulleted or numbered lists, can use formatting to break up
large slabs of text.

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7) Conclusions

 The conclusion section provides an effective ending to your report.

 The content should relate directly to the aims of the project as stated in the
introduction, and sum up the essential features of your work.
 This section:
 states whether you have achieved your aims, give a brief summary of the
key findings or information and their significance.

8) Referencing

 Whenever you cite information (this includes graphics) from other sources, you
must credit the source in your reference; you must credit the source in your
references.
 (Always check with your instructor to determine which reference style to use).
 Proper documentation involves referencing all of your sources clearly.
 Different professional organizations and corporations have developed their own
formats for referencing sources although most formats include the same
information.
 As a result, you will see a number of different referencing styles in use
professionally.
 The two types to referencing are:
 citations in the text of the report,
 a list of references in the final section.
 A citation shows that information comes from another source.
 The reference list gives the details of these sources.
 You need to use in-text citations and provide details in the references section
when
(i) you incorporate information from other sources;
e.g. -financial material,
- graphics and tables of data,
- pictures and diagrams;
(ii) you quote word-for-word from other work. When you do this the page
number must be given in the text citation.

 However, if you do not acknowledge the sources you have used in your report
and use others ideas as if yours,
 It is considered as an academic theft known as plagiarism.
 “Plagiarism” refers to the acknowledged use of other people’s work, whether
this work is in the form of ideas taken without acknowledgement, or Sentences copied
without documentation.

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Reasons for Citations

 There are three reasons to cite the materials you use:

(i) To give credit to others’ works and ideas, whether you agree with them or
not. When you use their words, you must give them credit by using both
quotation marks and citations.
(ii) To show readers the materials on which you base your analysis, your
narrative, or your conclusion.
(iii) To give readers to the materials you have used so they can examine it for
themselves, their interest might be to conform your work, to challenge it, or
simply to explore it further.
 Taken together, these citations fully disclose your sources.
 That is important for academic integrity in several ways.
 First, good citations parcel out credit.
 Some belongs to you for the original work you did,
 You need to take full responsibility for it.
 Some belongs to others for their words, ideas, data, drawings, or other work.
 You need to acknowledge it, openly and explicitly
 Second, if you relied on others’ works in order to tell your story, explain your
topic, or document your conclusions:
 you need to say exactly what you used.
 take a simple paper about World War I. No one writing today learned
about it firsthand.
 what we know, we learned by reading books and articles,
 by examining original document and news papers,
 by listening to original histories,
 by reviewing data compiled by military historians, and
 perhaps by viewing photographs or movies.
 When we write about the war, then, we should say how we acquired our
information.
 The only exception is “commonly known information” something that everyone
in the field clearly understands and that does not require any substantiation.
 There is no need for footnote or to prove Woodrow Wilson was actually
president of the United States.
 But if you referred to his speech declaring war, you would need a proper citation.
 If you used this word, you need quotation marks, too.
 Third, you readers may want to pursue a particular issue you cover,
 Citations should lead them to the right sources, whether those are books,
interviews, archival documents, websites, poems, or paintings.
 That guidance serves several purposes. Skeptical readers may doubt the
basis for your work or your conclusions.
 Others may simply want double-check them or do more research on the
topic.
 Your citations should point the way.
 Good citations should reveal your sources, not conceal them.

32
  They should honestly show the research you conducted
 That means they should give credit whether credit is due, disclose the
materials on which you base your work &
 Guide readers to that material so they can explore it further.
 Citations like these accurately reflect your work and that of others.
 They show the ground on which you stand.
9) Appendices

 An appendix is for added or appended material that may be relevant to your

report, but which cannot be placed comfortably in the body of the report.
 Use it for supplementary material which, if included in the body of the text, would
interrupt the flow.
 For example, a lengthy derivation of an equation (unless the derivation is the
subject of your report), a complete computer program, or a laboratory log of an
experiment would be included in the appendix.
 A bulky folded map or drawing should also be put in an appendix, as should
corporate or commercial material, such as product specification or promotional
documents.

The Basics for Citation

 Acknowledging your sources is crucial to doing honest academic work.
 That means citing them properly, using one of several styles.
 The one you chose depends on your field, your professor’s advice if you are a
student, and your own preferences.
 There are three major citation styles:

1) Chicago (or Turabian) used in many fields

2) MLA (Modern Language Association) used in humanities,
3) APA (American Psychological Association), used in social sciences,
education, engineering and business.

Features of Technical Report Writing

 As it has been discussed earlier in this unit, technical writing discusses or
explains something in a factual, straight forward manner.
 And it has many features. The following are some of the more common features
of technical writing as can be understood from the definition given.

1) Objectivity
 Technical writing strives for objectivity, - as an impartial and
unemotional weighing of evidence, sometimes called the scientific point
of view.
 Objectivity is thus one vital feature of technical writing.

33
 2) Defined Audience
 Because so many reports, documents and memoranda are designed for
small groups with a company or scientific organization,
 Writers must tailor documents to meet the needs of the readers,
 For example, the executive who must choose between two alternatives
receives the feasibility report that explains them.
 Knowing this, good technical writers always generate documents whose
goal is to address the need for specific readers.
3) Technical Style
 Good technical writing is economical, clear, concise, and concrete.
 It goes to the point with little fanfaire.
 Read the examples below and decide which one is economical, clear ,
concise, & concrete.
E.g.1. In the areas of technical writing and of business writing for
college classes, most of the text books available are out of touch
with the reality of the work place.
E.g.2. For business and technical writing, most college texts do not touch
the reality of the work place.

 As can be seen from the examples above, in the first example, many of
the twenty nine words are unnecessary.
 In particular, there are several prepositional phrases. In the revised one
the unnecessary words are omitted so that the text is clear and easy to
understand.
4) Common Formats
 Technical reports, business letters, and memoranda use their own
formats.
 To understand technical writing you must recognize and use these
common formats.
5) Technical Vocabulary
 Because technical writers deal with specialized subject matter, their
writing is characterized by:
 numbers
 scientific symbols,
 specialized vocabulary of acronyms, abbreviations made into
words such as NASA, (National Aeronautic and Space
Administration).
 In addition to this, effective technical report writing has the following
characteristics:
a) Clarity- easily understood by indeed audience.
b) Accuracy- factual, correct , free from bias.
c) Comprehensive- all necessary information included.
d) Accessibility- headings, indexes, table of contents.
e) Conciseness- clear without excess verbiage.
f) Correctness- grammatical and follows conventions.

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Styles in Technical Writing

1 Economy: Report writing should be concise using only the necessary words so that the text is
clear, but every word must be used with a definite meaning avoiding simplicity. In order to be
consistent with economy the writer should: a) Combine sentences, b) Cut repeated words, and c)
Prefer the active voice.

a) Combining sentences: Sometimes the writer can combine several short, repetitive sentences
into a single, more concise sentence. He/she only has to ask himself/herself the following
questions:

1. Do any sentences contain wordy or empty phrases, redundancies or other unnecessary

repetitions?

 The fact is that at this point in time more women than men attend college.

Correct: More women than men now attend college.

b) Cut repeated words: Repeated words and redundancies should be eliminated. Redundancies
are meaningless repetitions that result in wordiness. Be on the lookout for such commonplace
redundancies as first and foremost, full and complete, final result, past histories, round in shape,
and refer back.

 Students living in close proximity in the dorms need to cooperate together if they want to
live in harmony.

c)Prefer the active voice: Verbs can be in the active or passive voice. In the active voice, the
subject of the sentence acts; in the passive voice, the subject is acted upon.

 Active The Senate finally passed the bill.

 Passive The bill was finally passed by the Senate.

2. Clarity: This is very important for the reader`s understanding. In this course two main
aspects will be studied: Wordiness and jargon (The common sentence errors are also studied to
prevent misunderstandings)

Wordiness: This term usually refers to the use of words and phrases which are rhetorical or
empty in meaning. It is advisable to replace these wordy phrases by making them more concise,
e. g.

~ It is necessary at this point in time that tests be run for the purposes of measuring the switch`s
strength.

Correct: Tests must now be run to measure the switch`s strength.

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3. Emphasis: It is a way to stand out the meaning of a sentence clearly. There are different ways
to emphasize an utterance, these are the main ones:

Parallel structure: To give two or more parts of the sentence a similar form so that the whole
has a definite pattern.

Change in the natural order of words: The most emphatic positions in a sentence are the
beginning and the end; the middle is emphatic. The beginning because it is the first part that
strikes the eye and the end because it is the climax. The end is more emphatic than the beginning.
So if words are changed to these positions they are emphatic.

E.g. Silver and gold have I done, but such as I have given you.

Repetition: It means repetition of words and phrases, e.g. Scooge was his sole executor, his sole
administrator, his sole assign, his sole residuary, legatee, his sole friend, and his sole mourner.
(Dickens)

The use of correlative conjunctions: Those conjunctions that are used in pairs, e.g.

The sentence—“He said that he wanted them to listen to what he had to say and to act upon it”
might be made more emphatic if it is changed in the following way:

He said that he wanted them not only to listen to what he had to say, but also to act upon it.

Balance and antithesis: Antithesis is obtained by balancing contrary ideas or terms so as to

produce an effective contrast, e.g.

People who never look backward to their ancestors will not look forward to prosperity.
“Forward” is opposed to “backward”, and “prosperity” to “ancestors”.

E.g. God made the country and manmade the town.

Cares that should be taken in Technical Report writing

1. Avoiding Plagiarism

Plagiarism (from Latin word for “Kidnapper”) is the presentation of someone else’s idea or
words as your own. Whether deliberate or accidental, plagiarism is a serious and often
punishable offense.

 Deliberate plagiarism includes downloading a sentence from a source and passing it off
as your own , summarizing someone else’s idea without acknowledging your debt, or
buying a term paper and handling it in as your own.
 Accidental plagiarism includes forgetting to place quotation marks around another
writer’s words, omitting a source citation because you are not aware of the need for it, or
carelessly copying a source when you mean to paraphrase.

36
2) Revising words

Make sure you know what a word means before you use it. Using a wrong word can create
confusion or unintentional humor. The exact meanings of words are their denotations (definitions
in dictionary). Look at the following examples.

1) Misused word: Because of past problems, the young candidate is venerable.

Word intended: Because of past problems, the young candidate is vulnerable.

Venerable means “old and respected” obviously not the meaning intended. The intended
meaning, “vulnerable” means “open to attack”. Though the two words look and sound
similar, they have almost opposite meaning.

2) Misused word: A tribe of lions has a distinct social order.

Word intended: A pride of lions has a distinct social order.

A tribe is group of human beings. A group of lions is known as a pride.

Use words with precision. Do not mistaken one word

for another

a) Select words with desired connotations

Connotations are associations or emotional over tones that go beyond denotations. They evoke
particular emotional reactions. Be sure that your words give the meaning (suggestion) you want
to convey. Connotation of a word is often either positive or negative

General word leader

Specific word chief, president, director [positive]

tyrant, dictator, boss, ring leader [negative]

b) Generally, avoid colloquialisms and contractions in formal writing.

A colloquial word or expression is one suitable in everyday conversation and in some informal
compositions. They are appropriate in a formal writing.

Colloquial: Fussing at kids in public is a no-no.

Appropriate in a formal writing: Correcting children in public is impolite.

Contraction is a word formed from two words by the omission of one or more letters. An
apostrophe indicates the omission.

Informal: She didn’t

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Formal: She did not

c) Do not be wordy

Avoid wordiness and unnecessary repetitions.

Look at the following examples.

1. Another element that adds to the effectiveness of a speech is its emotional appeal. [14
words]

2. Emotional appeal also makes a speech more effective. [8 words]

The two example sentences mean the same. However, the second sentence is more effective
because it conveys the same meaning with a fewer words.

3. The fundamental and basic point is …

Using the two words ‘fundamental’ and ‘basic’ together is unnecessary repetition. Avoid one of
the two.

“The fundamental point is …” or “The basic point is … “

3) Revising sentences

a) Use variety of sentences

Several sentences of the same length can make your reader loose interest in reading your
paragraphs and essays. Use sentences of different length.

b) Vary sentence openings

If too many sentences start with the same word, especially ‘The’, ‘It’, ‘This’, ‘I’ and so on, they
will become tedious for readers, so changing opening words and phrases can be refreshing. Look
at the following example.

1. Alemu hit the ball with great force.

2. With great force, Alemu hit the ball. (Varying sentence beginning)

a) Combine sentences that go together.

b) Check that all the sentences have complete meanings. (check for subject and predicate)

c) Correct faulty sentences and avoid jargon/ slang/terminology

Identify and correct fragments, run-ons, dangling modifiers, misplaced modifiers and
agreement problems.

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Unit Three: Application of Technical Report Writing
3.1. Steps in Technical Report Writing

 Technical communication is sometimes considered a professional task:

 for which organizations either hire specialized employees, or
 outsource their needs to communication firms.
 for example, a professional writer may work with a company to produce a user
manual.
 Other times, technical communication is regarded as:
 a responsibility that technical professionals employ on a daily basis,
 as they work to convey technical information to coworkers and clients.
 For example, a computer scientist may need to provide soft ware documentation to fellow
programmers or clients;
 The process of developing information products in technical communication begins by
ensuring:
 the nature of the audience, and
 their need for information is clearly identified.
 From there, the technical communicator-
 researches and structures the content into framework that can guide the detailed
development.
 As the information product is created, the paramount goal is ensuring that-
 The content can be clearly understood by the intended audience; &
 Provides the information that the audience needs in the most appropriate format.
 This process is known as the writing process that has been a central focus of writing
theory since the 1970s,
 and some contemporary textbook authors have applied it to technical
communication.
 The technical writing process can be divided into six steps:
1) Selecting a topic
2) Determine purpose and audience
3) Collect ideas / information
4) Organize and outline information
5) Write the first draft
6) Revise and edit.
3.2. Determining Purpose and Audience
 All technical communication is done with a particular end in mind.
 The purpose is usually to facilitate the communication of ideas and concepts to the
audience,
 but may sometimes be used to direct the audience in a particular course of action.

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 The importance of the audience is in the notion that- meaning is derived from the
audience’s interpretation of a piece of work.
 The purpose may be something as simple as having the audience-
 understands the details of some technological system, or
 to take a particular action using that system.
 For example, if the workers in the bank were not properly posting deposits to accounts,
 someone would write the procedure, so these workers might have correct procedure.
 Similarly, a sales manager might wonder which of two sites would be a more appropriate
choice for a new store,
 so he would ask someone to study the market and write a report with the
recommendations.
 The sales manager would distribute the report to all parties involved in making that
decision.
 In each of these instances, the person who is writing is transmitting knowledge-
 from the person who knows to the person who needs to know.
 this is the basic definition of technical communication.
 The identification of the audience affects many aspects of communication,
 from word selection and graphics usage to style and organization.
 A non-technical audience might not understand, or
 worse, not even read a document that is heavy with jargon,
 While a technical audience might cause extra detail because it is critical for their
work.
 Busy audiences do not have time to read an entire document,
 So content must be organized for ease of searching –
 for example, by frequent inclusion of headers, white space and other cues
that guide attention.
 Other requirements vary on the needs of the particular audience.
a) Purpose
 Technical reports are designed to quickly alert researchers-
 to recent findings in scientific and technical research.
 These reports are issued for a variety of purposes:
 to communicate results or
 to describe progress of a research project,
 as a background information on an emerging or critical research topic,
 to provide a list of instructions or procedures for current practices,
 to determine current feasibility of a technology, and
 to if the research should be continued and (how to evaluate progress that is
made).

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  Finally to detail financial specification- materials, functions, features,
operation, market potential etc.
 In general, you need to develop rhetorical problem statements.
 You, as technical writer, have an important job defining the theoretical purpose
of your report and each of the parts.
 Ask yourself first, why I write this report.
 The reasons will usually fall into the following general categories.
 to persuade or cause change,
 to inform or report results
 to support a decision to be reached
 to obtain funding or support for future work or research.
 Remember that your reader wants to know first, why should I take my value and
time to read this report?

b) Audience
 Are your audiences professionals or public, specialists in the field, non-
specialist, but related fields or common people?
 Analyzing your audience helps you decide:
 The language you use and
 Write your report based on the various readers’ background, level of
understanding your language.
 As a student, you might assume that your technical report’s audience is your
instructor; however, this may not always be the case.
 Your instructor may ask you to produce a report for your peers or for
others.
 As a professional in particular field, the most likely audience for the technical
reports you produce is other professionals –
 with the background similar to you,
 this audience is more likely to understand the terminology you used.
 However, you should always evaluate who your readers will be, before assuming
they will understand your jargon.
 Consider how your readers will use your report.
 For instance, you might submit a technical report to a publication, or
 Your technical report may present a specific design.
 The audiences in each situation have different needs.
 Audiences may read the publication for information and insight,
 while audiences reading about your specific design may critique your
design based on its content.

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3.3. Gathering Information

 The sheer volume of information needed for many reports and proposals requires:
 careful planning—and
 may even require a separate research project just to acquire the data and
information you need.
 To stay on schedule and on budget,
 be sure that you review both your statement of purpose and
 your audience's needs so that you collect all the information you need—
and only the information you need.
 In some cases, you won't be able to collect every piece of information you'd like,
so prioritize your needs up front and focus on the most important questions.

3.4. Organizing Your Information

 The direct approach is by far the most popular and convenient for business reports;
 it saves time,
 makes the rest of the report easier to follow, and
 produces a more forceful report.
 When you outline your content,
 use informative ("talking") headings rather than
 simple descriptive ("topical") headings (Ms. Hurley's suggests them in the
description of the writing assignment.)
 When in question or summary form, informative headings force you to really
think through the content,
 rather than simply identifying the general topic area.
 The following sections provide specific advice on how to plan informational reports,
analytical reports, and proposals.

3.5. Drafting Your Report Content

Your credibility and career advancement are on the line with every business report you write, so
make sure your content is:

Accurate
 Be sure to double-check your facts and references in addition to checking for typos.
 If an audience ever gets the inkling that your information is shaky, they'll start to view
all your work with a skeptical eye.
Complete
 To help colleagues or supervisors make informed decisions; include everything
necessary for readers to understand the situation, problem, or proposal.

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  Support all key assertions using an appropriate combination of illustrations,
explanations, and facts.
 But remember, time is valuable, so don't tell the readers more than they need to know.

Balanced
 Present all sides of the issue fairly and equitably, and include all the essential
information, even if some of the information doesn't support your line of reasoning.
Omitting relevant information or facts can bias your report.
Clear and logical
 Clear sentence structure and good transitions are essential.
 Save your readers time by making sure your sentences are uncluttered, contain well-
chosen words, and proceed logically.
 To help your readers move from one point to the next, make your transitions just as clear
and logical.
 For a successful report, identify the ideas that belong together, and organize them in a
way that's easy to understand.
Documented properly
 If you use primary and secondary sources for your report or proposal, be sure to properly
document and give credit to your sources, as you learned in freshman composition
classes.
 Keeping these points in mind will help you draft the most effective introduction, body,
and close for your report.

3.6. Editing and proofreading

Check through your work for style and correctness.

Use the checklist below to help you correct and improve your report.

Editing Checklist
Have you:
• clarified the purpose and audience?
• selected the most appropriate text type (memo report, long report, etc)?
• used the correct format?
• explained the purpose of the report?
• defined the problem?
• included all the information needed?
• deleted unnecessary information?
• presented factual and objective information?
• organized the information logically and clearly?
• formatted appropriate headings and subheadings?
• written language appropriate to the purpose and audience?

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• used ‘spell check’ and ‘grammar check’?
• written paragraphs with clear subjects and purposes?
• summarized the contents and findings?
• made recommendations that offer solutions to any problems mentioned?

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Chapter Four- The Nature of Research and Research Methods

4.1. What is Research?

 In the most profound sense, “research” simply means trying to find answers to questions,
an activity every one of us does all the time to learn more about the world around us.
 Research in the scientific sense is the organized, systematic search for answers to the
questions we ask.
 Simply it refers disciplined inquiry. Such inquiry, in research, can be answered in to two
ways:
1) By looking at what other people have said about a particular issue: this is usually
considered ‘secondary’, ‘conceptual’, or ‘library’ research and it is an essential
form of inquiry because it would be a waste of time and energy to ignore other
people’s work and ‘reinvent the wheel’ again and again.
2) By conducting one’s own data-based (in research terms, ‘empirical’) investigation,
which involves collecting some sort of information (data) and then drawing some
conclusion from it. This is called ‘primary’ research.

 What are the qualities of a good researcher?

 There are four fundamental features of a researcher that will help him/her to achieve
excellence:

 Genuine curiosity
 A lot of common sense (basing the reality around us)
 Having good ideas (creative/logical thinking grounded in reality)
 Discipline and Responsibility (in the process of data gathering, analysis and
accountability to the field and the world around us)
 knowing how to communicate research findings.

4.2. Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Research

 Such classification is made when we see research in light of its methods.

 The basic dichotomy is between qualitative and quantitative research.

 They vary in terms of ideological orientation underlying the study, the method of data
collection, the nature of the collected data and the method of data analysis used to process
the data and to obtain the results.

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 They represent two distinct approaches to understanding the world, that is, the
phenomena being researched.

 Qualitative research is an inductive process, reasoning from the specific situation to a

general conclusion.

 Quantitative research, on the other hand, is more closely associated with deduction,
reasoning from general principles to specific situations.

 Qualitative research describes phenomena in words instead of numbers or measures.

 Quantitative research, on the other hand, describes phenomena in numbers and measures
instead of words.

 Qualitative research, in its purest form, follows the naturalist paradigm, that research
should be conducted in the natural setting and that the meanings derived from research
are specific to that setting and its conditions.

 The emphasis is on facts, relationships and causes.

 Quantitative researchers place great value on outcomes and products; qualitative

researchers have great concern for the impact of the process as well.

 Qualitative research does not emphasize a theoretical base for whatever is being studied
at the beginning of the research.

 A theory may develop as the research is being studied. If we get a theory in the due
course, we will have a “grounded theory”-grounded in the data rather than based on
some a priori constructed ideas, notions or systems; if not, the research will be a
theoretical, but will retain its descriptive value.

 Quantitative research on the other hand, because of its deductive nature, tends to be
more theory-based from the onset.

 Another distinction is that qualitative research is context specific (the belief that the
particular physical and social environment has great bearing on human behavior) and
includes the researcher in the context.

 Quantitative researchers rather look for more context-free generalizations. They are
much more willing to focus on individual variables than to concentrate on a holistic
interpretation.

 Quantitative researchers are also more attuned to standardized research procedures and
predetermined designs than qualitative researchers.

 The latter are more flexible once they are into the research.

 They also vary in purpose. Qualitative research is done for understanding social
phenomena, while quantitative research is done to determine relationships, effects, and
causes.

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Summary

Qualitative Quantitative

Inductive inquiry Deductive inquiry

Understanding social phenomena Relationships, effects, causes

A theoretical or grounded theory Theory-based

Holistic inquiry Focused on individual

variables

Context-specific Context-free (generalizations)

Observer-participant Detached role of researcher

Narrative Descriptive Statistical analysis

 Though dichotomy of quantitative and qualitative research represents two different

approaches to empirical research, they are not necessarily exclusive.

 Their principled combination has led to an emerging third research approach: mixed
methods research.

Mixed Methods Research

 It involves different combinations of quantitative and qualitative research either at the

data collection or at the analysis levels.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Each Method

 Quantitative

Strengths Weaknesses

Is systematic, rigorous, focused and tightly Average out responses and thereby neglecting
controlled, involving precise measurement subjective variety of an individual’s life;
and producing reliable data that is Exploratory capacity is rather limited
generalizable to other contexts

Quick research process (save time and Is not sensitive in uncovering the reason for
money) particular observations or the dynamics
underlying the examined situation or
phenomenon

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  Qualitative

Strengths Weaknesses

Exploratory nature- effective way of Sample size and generalizability

exploring new, uncharted areas; if very little
about something, the method is good.
Because it does not rely on previous
literature.

Making sense of complexity Too narrow or too complex theories: rich data
causes overly complex theory; individual cases
may lead to too narrow theories too

Answering why questions Time consuming and labor intensive

Broadening our understanding- the rich data Lack of methodological rigor

found from participants’ experience can
widen understanding

Flexibility when things go wrong- research is Researcher role in analyzing the data- strength
a journey to the unknown. Thus breakdowns of the research rests on the competence of the
are expected and flexibility can alleviate such researcher; personal biases and idiosyncrasies
problems. are hard

 Mixed Methods

Strengths Weaknesses

Increasing the strengths while eliminating the “When in doubt-mix methods” is not apt
weaknesses

Multi-level analysis of complex issues: words The question of “how many people are well-
can be used to add meaning to numbers and trained in both methods?” is questionable
numbers can be used to add precision to
words

Improved validity: due to triangulation. Lack of principled approach for guiding the
Generalizability (external validity) is also combination of the variety of approaches
high.

Reaching multiple audiences: final results are

usually acceptable by wider audiences in the
current supportive climate

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4.3. Data Gathering Instruments

4.3.1. Types of data collection instruments

In research there are a large number of data gathering instruments. In this section we will see
some of the commonly used data collection tools. These include:
a. Questionnaires
b. Interviews
c. Observations
d. Tests
e. Focus Group Discussions
f. Documents

1. QUESTIONNAIRES
For many good reasons questionnaire is the most widely used technique for obtaining
information from sample subjects.

A questionnaire has the following advantages:

1. it is relatively economical, i.e., the researcher can collect large amount of data within a
limited period from large number of participants
2. it simultaneously presents the same questions for all subjects,
3. it can ensure anonymity, and
4. it contains questions written for specific purposes
Questionnaires can use statements or questions, but in all cases the research participants will respond
in writing.

1.1. FORMS OF ITEMS

 In questionnaires, questions may be responded by placing a mark [“√” or “X”] on some
alternatives provided or by writing responses in words.

 The questions that require putting a mark are called closed-ended questions, and those
which require the subject write responses are known as open-ended questions.

 It has to be noted that there are no correct answers for questions in a questionnaire.

 The first consideration in questionnaire item development is to decide whether the item will
have a closed form or an open form or the use of both formats in combination.

 The choice of the form to use depends on the objective of the item and the advantages and
disadvantages of each type.

49
  Closed ended questions (also called structured or selected response items) are easy to
respond, take little time to fill out, easy to tabulate and analyze etc.

2. INTERVIEWS
What is interview? Try to describe it, please.

 Interview is the process of interaction or communication in which a sample subject gives

the needed information verbally in a face to face situation.

 Interviews are essentially vocal questionnaires.

 The obvious difference is that the interview involves direct interaction between individuals.

Some of its advantages are:

 The interview technique is flexible and adaptable. It can be used with many different
problems and types of persons, such as those who are illiterate or too young to read and
write.
 Responses can be probed, followed up, clarified, and elaborated to achieve specific, accurate
responses.
 Nonverbal as well as verbal behavior can be noted in face-to- face interviews, and the
interviewer has an opportunity to motivate the respondent.
 Interviews result in a much higher response rate than questionnaires
The primary disadvantages of the interview are

1. It is time consuming and costly. When we interview subjects, we meet them individually /one
by one/. So we need longer time to finish our interview
2. There is high potential for subjectivity and bias. The type of questions the interviewer asks,
the way he/she presents the questions and the way he/she interprets the responses of the
sample subject may be influenced by his personal bias.
3. It is impossible to keep anonymity of the respondent. The subject giving his/her answers
to the questions may not want to be exposed or known. However, this is impossible in
case of interview.

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 a. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
 This is the one in which the procedure to be followed is determined before conducting the
interview.
 The same types of questions are presented in the same order to each subject.
 The interviewer has no freedom to rephrase or modify the questions, to add extra ones or
to change their order.

 Presenting similar questions to all subjects in the same sequence will enable the
researcher to compare their responses.

 So that variations in responses will be attributed not due to variations in the interview but
due to actual differences between the respondents (subjects).

 Structured interviews may also present to the interviewee questions that do have
alternative responses.

 For example in a study to discover the types of conflict between parents and teenagers, a
researcher may raise the following question to the interviewee.

“Have you ever had any disagreement with either of your parents (your father or your mother)
because of:

 drinking
 too many friends
 dating with opposite sex
 smoking

b. UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
 Like open-ended questions in a questionnaire, unstructured interview provides greater
flexibility.

 Although the series of questions to be asked and the procedure to be followed are decided
beforehand, the interviewer is largely free to arrange the form and timing of the
questions.

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  He/she can thus rephrase the questions, modify them, and add some new questions to
his/her list while conducting the interview.

 One is that they allow the respondent to express his/her views in the way he/she likes.

 It permits much freedom to the interviewees to talk about the problem under
investigation; as a result the researcher will be able to get in-depth information.

 But unstructured interview is not without limitations.

 The researcher may face problems of organizing, categorizing and analyzing information
obtained through unstructured interview.

3. OBSERVATION
 In a sense, all techniques of gathering data involve observation of some kind.

 As a general term, then, the word observation is used to describe the data that are collected,
regardless of the technique employed in the study.

 Observational research methods also refer to, however, a more specific method of collecting
information that is very different from interviews or questionnaires.

 As a technique for gathering information, the observational method relies on a researcher’s

seeing and hearing things and recording these observations rather than relying on subjects’
self-report responses to questions or statements.

What are the possible advantages of Observation as a tool of data gathering?

 First of all, observation gives direct experience.

 It makes it possible to study a certain behavior as it actually occurs.

 The researcher, rather than asking questions in different ways, will simply watch what
his/her subjects do and say something about it.

 Secondly, especially when the sample subjects are children, and when they are not able to
read and comprehend questions very well, taking data through observation will be
advantageous.

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  In other words observation helps to get information on the behavior of those who cannot
speak and therefore cannot take part in interviews or those who cannot complete
questionnaires like babies, very young children etc.

 Another advantage that can be obtained from using observation is that it can be a useful
check and a supplement to information obtained from other sources.

 So the information given by people about their own behavior through interviews can be
compared with their actual behavior that is observed.

Up to now we have seen the advantages of using observation. What limitations do you think
does observation has?

 The presence of observers by itself may make subjects to be observed to change their
actual behavior. This is one main limitation of observation.
 The event that you may be interested to observe may not be easy to get it. This is another
limitation of observation method.
 Thirdly the observer may interpret his/her observation in the way he/she likes. This
shows that there is personal input (bias) in the meaning to be given to what is being
observed.
 Also, observation is time consuming and costly.

A plan for using observation should include:

 definition of specific activities or behaviors to be observed

 nature of groups or subjects to be observed
 scope of observation i.e. whether it is to be done upon individuals separately or upon a
group as whole
 length of observation period
 tools to be used for observation and recording

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