u 2 L(E) dim E < +1 p 2 N⇤ up = 0

k 2 {1, . . . , p} Fk
E
Ker uk = Ker uk 1
Fk
E = F1 ··· Fp
u v K E
u v Im u Ker u v u

E R n f 2 L(E)
f K E f 2 = IdE
p Im p Ker p f
a2E (a, f (a))
F (a) = Vect a, f (a)
E a1 , . . . , a p
E K f g E E = F (a1 ) ··· F (ap )
f g=g f
Ker f Im f g g(Ker f ) ⇢ Ker f E
g(Im f ) ⇢ Im f E f

p E
p f Im p Ker p f
E R u E

u3 + u = 0
u K E Im u u
1
[ 1
\ x 2 Im u u2 (x)
N= Ker up I= Im up v u Im u
p=0 p=0 v
n2N N = Ker un I = Im un u
N I
u u N I
u v K n 2 N⇤
E=F G F G u v=v u v
u u F G
F =N G=I det(u + v) = det u
n 1
 n=1 v=0 A
n 2 v 6= 0 u v µ
t
Im v AU = U U A = µt U

u v µ
t
Im v D = Vect(U ) H = X 2 Mn,1 (R) UX = 0

A Mn (R)
D H
E = E1 E2 K Mn (R)

= u 2 L(E) Ker u = E1 Im u = E2

u ũ = uE2 E2 R E = R[X]
: ! GL(E2 ) (u) = ũ
H f
H p2N
( , ) (GL(E2 ), )
8k p, Ker f k+1 = Ker f k

( , ) F E D
F
D Rn [X] n2N
m2N F = Rm [X]
E = C(R, R) f 2E x2R F F = R[X]
Z x g 2 L(E) 2
g = kId + D k2R k
T f (x) = f (x) + f (t) dt
0

T E D : P 7! P 0 R[X]
E R[X] 2
=D
T

A = (ai,j ) 2 Mn (R) s
A 2 M3 (R) A2 = 0 A 6= 0
n
X n
X A
8i 2 J1 ; nK, ai,j = s 8j 2 J1 ; nK, ai,j = s 0 1
j=1 i=1
0 0 0
B = @1 0 0A
U U =t 1 ··· 1 2 Mn,1 (R) 0 0 0
 A 2 Mn (K) f : Mn (C) ! C
n 1 n
A 6= On A = On 8(A, B) 2 Mn (C)2 , f (AB) = f (A)f (B)
A
A 2 Mn (C)
0 1
0 1 (0)
B C A () f (A) 6= 0
B C
B=B
B
C
C
@ 1A
(0) 0
A 2 M3 (R) A2 = O 3

A 2 Mn (K) A2 = 0 r>0 C = M 2 M3 (R) AM M A = O3

A
✓ ◆
0 Ir
B=
0 0

0 1 0 1
3 6 5 2 1 2 6 21
M 2 M4 (R) M 2 + I4 = O 4 B 1 6 5 2C B0 2 2 5C
A=B
@ 1
C B=B C
M 10 8 3A @0 0 3 2A
0 1 0 3 2 0 0 0 0 5
0 1 0 0
B1 0 0 0C
B C
@0 0 0 1A
0 0 1 0
G Mn (R)
(G, ⇥) r 2 N⇤
(G, ⇥) (GLr (R), ⇥)
A 2 Mn (K)
A n 1

t
A 2 M2 (C) A A
2
A = tr(A).A det(In + A) = 1 + tr A

n A 2 M3 (C) A A
diag(1, 2, . . . , n) tr(A) = det(A) = 0
 f g C E
n 1
f K E f g g f =f

02
/ Sp(f ) () f f
fn 1
6= 0 e E 2C
0 1
0 1 (0)
f K n 2 N⇤ B C
0 2 Sp(f n ) B C
0 2 Sp(f ) Mate f = B
B
C
C
@ 1A
(0) 0

u K E
Mate g = diag( , + 1, . . . , + n 1)
1 1
Sp u = 2 Sp u

E K u 2 L(E) a 2 GL(E) v=a u a 1 E C u, v L(E) a, b

Sp u Sp v E (u) E (v) C
u v v u = au + bv
a=b=0
u K E u v
a 6= 0 b = 0
u u
un v v un u
u v
u v a, b 6= 0
6= 0 u v v u u v
P 2 E = R[X]
Z X
0
u(P ) = P v(P ) = P (t) dt
0 E C (a, b) 2 C2 f g
E L(E)
Ker(u v) Ker(v u) f g g f = af + bg

=0 f g
E
 E u v A, B, C 2 Mn (R)
E [u ; v] = uv vu
[u ; v] = 0 u v AB BA = C

[u ; v] = u 2 C⇤ u u C A B
v
A C
↵ [u ; v] = ↵u + v
C
u v
C

f g K E
f g g f =I A 2 Mp (R) : M 2 Mp (R) 7! AM MA
n 1 fn g g f n = nf n 1 Mp (R)
n ✓ ◆
X
⇤ 2 n n k n k
f g f g g f =I 8n 2 N , 8(M, N ) 2 Mp (R) , (M N ) = (M ) (N )
k
E = K[X] f g f (P ) = P 0 k=0

g(P ) = XP
B= (H) A
2 n+1
(H) = 0 (H n ) = 0

E f g n
(H n ) = n!B n
E 1/n
f g g f =f k·k Mp (R) Bn !0
n!+1

B
n n
f g g f
P P (f ) = 0 f P 0 (f ) = 0
f E C u v
E
u v v u=u
Ker(u) v
A 2 Mn (C) T Mn (C)
Ker(u) 6= {0}
T (M ) = AM MA
u v
A u v v u 2 Vect(u, v)
T E u v
 E [0 ; +1[ R
f 2E T (f ) : ]0 ; +1[ ! R
Z
E = C 1 (R, R) D E f f0 1 x
D T (f )(x) = f (t) dt x>0
x 0

T (f ) T
E
E = CN f: E !E u = (un ) T
v = (vn )
un + un 1
v 0 = u0 8n 2 N⇤ , vn =
2 E f C1 [0 ; +1[ R f (0) = 0
f f E T (f )
Z x
f (t)
T (f )(x) = dt
0 t
E :E!E T E

8u 2 E, 8n 2 N, (u)(n) = u(n + 1) u(n)

E = C([0 ; 1], R) f 2E
Z 1
T (f ) : x 2 [0 ; 1] 7! min(x, t)f (t) dt
0

E = C 0 (R, R) I E f 2E T E
T
I

P
E R [0 ; +1[ R
+1 (X 2 1)P 0 (X) (4X + 1)P (X)
T E
R4 [X]
8x 2 [0 ; +1[, T (f )(x) = f (x + 1)
✓ ◆
T 5 3+
y0 = + y
2(x 1) 2(x + 1)
 A, B 2 Mn (C)

AB = BA

a2R n 2
A 2 GLn (C)
(P )(X) = (X a) P 0 (X) P 0 (a) 2(P (X) P (a))
A2
/ GLn (C) p2N A + p1 In 2 GLn (C)
Rn [X]
A

A 2 Mn,p (K) B 2 Mp,n (K) 2K

✓ ◆
In A
f R a M= 2 Mn+p (K)
B Ip
f m E(f, a)

1  dim E(f, a)  m p n
AB ( )= BA ( )
0 1
1 1 1 1
B2 2 2 2C
A=B
@3
C
(A, B) 2 Mp,q (R) ⇥ Mq,p (R)
3 3 3A
4 4 4 4
Xq AB (X) = Xp BA (X)
A
A
✓ ◆
Ir 0
A=
0 0

A, B 2 Mn (K) p 2 N⇤

(AB)p = (BA)p

F u K
A 2 Mn (R) A
E
x 6= 0
u F
u xn
A 1 (x) = A (1/x)
A (0)
A 2 Mn (C)
AA 2 R[X]

0 1
0 1 0
B C
P 2 Z[X] n A 2 Mn (Z) B C
B C
P (X) @0 ··· 0 1 A
( 1, . . . , n) 2 C
n a0 a1 ··· an 1

n
Y
P = (X i)
i=1

P 2 Z[X] q 2 N⇤ 0 1
0 1 (0)
n
Y B C
q B1 C
Pq = (X i) An = B C 2 Mn (C) Pn (x) = det(xIn An )
B C
i=1 @ 1A
(0) 1 0
Z[X]
P Z[X] 1
P Pn (x) = xPn 1 (x) Pn 2 (x)

P1 (x) P2 (x)
x 2 ] 2 ; 2[ x = 2 cos(↵) ↵ 2 ]0 ; ⇡[
n 2 f 2 L(Cn ) 2
f tr(f ) tr(f 2 ) sin (n + 1)↵
Pn (x) =
sin(↵)

Pn (x) n An
A B Mn (K) K = R C
Sp B Sp t B
C 2 Mn (K) AC = C
Im C ⇢ Ker(A In ) a 1 , . . . , a n 2 C⇤ P (x) = det(A + xIn )
A B 0 1
0 a2 ··· an
C 2 Mn (K) C 6= 0 AC = CB = C B C
Ba 1 0 C
C 2 Mn (K) rg C = r AC = CB A=B
B
C
C
A B r @ an A
a1 ··· an 1 0
 P (ai )
P (x) B, C 2 Mn (C)
Qn x2C xIn B xIn C
i=1 (x ai )
(xIn B) 1 (xIn C) 1
det A A 2 Mn (C) PA (x) = det(xIn A) PA0
PA
x A

a 1 , . . . , a n 2 C⇤ 1 PA0 (x)
tr(xIn A) =
PA (x)
0 1
0 a2 ... an
B C
Ba1 0 C
P (x) = det(A + xIn ) A=B
B
C
C
@ an A
a1 ··· an 1 0
P (ai )
E C
P n
E
P (X) 7! (X 1)P (X) C[X]
P (X)
Qn
i=1 (X ai )

A + In
C

u, v C E

A, B 2 Mn (R) AB BA u v=v u
u v

A 2 Mn (R) Sp A ⇢ R+

det A 0 A, B 2 Mn (C) AB = BA
A B

A, B 2 Mn (C)
A, B 2 Mn (C)
A (B) 2 GLn (C) () Sp A \ Sp B = ; U 2 Mn (C) U A = BU
K R C Sp(A) ⇢ [ kAk ; kAk]
A 2 Mn (K) (P )

9M 2 Mn (K), 8 2 K, det(M + A) 6= 0

Mn (C)
A = (ai,j ) 2 MP n (R) i, j 2 {1, . . . , n} ai,j 2 R+
T i 2 {1, . . . , n}
n
j=1 ai,j = 1
det(In + T ) T (P )
1 2 Sp(A)
✓ ◆ 2C A | |1
0 Ir
Tr = 2 Mn (K) 2C A | |=1
0 0

A (P ) B A

9(P, Q) 2 GLn (K)2 , B = P AQ

B (P ) A 2 Mn (R) A = (min(i, j))1i,jn

Mn (C) (P )
L
U A = LU
Mn (R) n n 1
A
0 1
0 1 (0)
B C
B C
u, v C E N =B
B
C
C
u v=v u u v @ 1A
(0) 0

1
Sp A ⇢ [0 ; 4]

A 2 Mn (K) rg(A) = 1 2K A2 = A
A
0 1
0 ··· 0 1
B C
B C
A 2 Mn (R) B C 2 Mn (R)
@0 ··· 0 1A
n
X 1 ··· 1 1
kAk = sup |ai,j |
1in j=1
 A n det(A)
t
n 3 0 1 A Com(A)
0 (0) 1 A
B C
B1 C
A=B C 2 Mn (R) dim Ker t Com(A)
B C
@ 1A t
Com(A)
1 (0) 0
A A2
f Rn A
A Mn (R)
Ker f Im f = R n i 2 J1 ; nK Ai
i i A
A
0 1
0 (0)
B C
B C
B C B 2 GL2 (R)
@ 0 A
(0) B A 2 Mn (C) A Mn (C) A (M ) = AM
A A
tr B tr B 2 A : M 7! M A
B A
A

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 0 a b
(a0 , . . . , ap 2 Cp A= M=
1) 0 2 c d

P (X) = X p ap 1X
p 1
+ · · · + a1 X + a0 AM MA
M 7! AM MA
(un )n2N p
u0 , . . . , u p 1

un+p = ap 1 un+p 1 + · · · + a1 un+1 + a0 un

(un )n2N
t
A A

A 2 GLn (K) B 2 Mn (K)

t
Com(A)A = det(A)In AB BA
 A
0 1
0 1 0 0
B1 k 1 1C
A=B
@0
C 2 M4 (C)
↵2R 1 0 0A
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 0 1 0 0
cos ↵ sin ↵ cos ↵ sin ↵
A= 2 M2 (K) B= 2 M2 (K)
sin ↵ cos ↵ sin ↵ cos ↵ k A M4 (R)

K=C A A
K=R A A
B
X 2 (X u1 )(X u2 )
u1 u2 C⇤
a, b 2 R⇤ |a| =
6 |b| u1 + u2 = k u21 + u22 = k 2 + 6
0 1
a b a ··· b
Bb u1 = u2
B a b ··· aCC
B ··· bC k A M4 (C)
A = Ba b a C 2 M2n (R) n 2
B C
@ A
b a b ··· a
x2R
A A
0 1
2 x 5+x x
A A=@ x 2 x xA
5 5 3

a, b, c, d a2 + b2 6= 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 (0) a b c d
B C B b a d cC
Bn 2 C A=B
@ c
C
B C d a bA
B C
A=B n 1 C 2 Mn+1 (C) d c b a
B C
B C
@ nA At A det A rg(A) = 2 4
(0) 1 0 2
↵ = b +c +d 2 2 2
A
A Cn [X]
(a1 , . . . , an 1) 2 Cn 1
A 2 R[X] x 0 , x1 , . . . , x n
A 2 Mn (C) f P Rn [X]
0 1 AP B = (X x0 )(X x1 ) . . . (X xn )
0 ··· 0 a1
B C f Rn [X]
B C
A=B C f
@ 0 ··· 0 an 1
A
f
a1 · · · an 1 0

A 2 Mn (C) rg A = 1
✓ ◆
O In
A 2 Mn (K) B=
A O A tr A 6= 0
B A
A B
X, Y 2 Mn,1 (K)
X tY
A1 2 Mp (K) A2 2 Mq (K) A 2 Mp+q (K)
✓ ◆
A1 O
A=
O A2
K C
A A1 A2 0 1
1 ··· 1
B C
J =@ A 2 Mn (K)
1 ··· 1
z
0 1 J
0 0 z
M = @1 0 0A
1 1 0

(a1 , . . . , an ) 2 Cn (ai aj )1i,jn

a, b, c
0 1
0 a c
M = @1/a 0 bA Ei,j Mn (K)
1/c 1/b 0
 (a1 , . . . , an ) 2 (R⇤+ )n Mn (R)
0 1 0 1
a1 a1 ··· a1 0 1 1 ··· ··· ··· 1
B a2 a2 ··· a2 C 0 ··· 0 1 B C
B C B 0 ··· 0 C
N =B C B C B C
@ A B C B C
B C B C
an an ··· an @0 ··· 0 1A B C
B C
1 ··· 1 1 @ 0 ··· 0 A
2 1 ··· ··· ··· 1
N N
1
M = 2N + In M

0 1
0 (b)
B C
Mn = @ A 2 Mn (C)
0 2 1 (a) 0
a ab ab b2
Bab a2 b2 abC Mn
M (a, b) = B
@ab
C
b2 a2 abA
b2 ab ab a2

a, b

(a, b) 2 R2
M (a, b) n
n 1 An
0 1
2 1 1
A = @1 2 1A
1 1 2

a b
0 1 0 1
a b ··· b b ··· b a
B C B C ✓ ◆
Bb a C B a bC
A=B C B=B C cos ✓ 2 sin ✓
B C B C A= 1
@ bA @b A 2 sin ✓ cos ✓
b ··· b a a b ··· b
↵, A2 = ↵A + I2
An n 1
 J Mn (C)
0 1
0 1
B C
M =@ A 2 Mn (R) n 2 a0 a1 ··· an 1
1 0
an 1
M
a1
M
a1 ··· an 1 a0
Mp p2N

0 1 0 1
1 2 3 1 3 2
@3 1 2A @2 1 3A
0 1 2 3 1 3 2 1
1 3 0
A = @3 2 1A
0 1 1

M M2 = A Mn (C)
Mn (R) A, B 2 Mn (R) B

AB 3 = B 3 A =) AB = BA
✓ ◆
5 3
A= 2 M2 (R)
1 3
A P p, q 2 N⇤ A, B, M 2 Mn (C) A, B
2
M 2 M2 (R) M +M =A
P 1
MP Ap M B q = On =) AM B = On
M2 + M = A

' M2 (C) C
n 2
0 1 ✓ ◆
0 1 0
(0) 8A, B 2 M2 (C), '(AB) = '(A)'(B) ' =
B C 0 1
B C
J =B
B
C
C
@0 1A ' = det
1 0 ··· 0
 (un )n 0 (vn )n 0 (wn )n 0 A 2 Mn (C) (P)
8
< un+1 = un + vn + wn 9↵ 2 C, A + t Com A = ↵In
vn+1 = un vn + wn
:
wn+1 = un + vn wn n=2
n 3
(u0 , v0 , w0 )

A, B 2 GLn (C) Com(AB) = Com A Com B

A 2 GLn (C) (P)
M 2 Mn (R) M2
A (P)
M
A

A (P) N
N 2 = On n 2
=1 A = .In + N
D 2 Mn (C)
A (P)
✓ ◆
In D A
On In (P)

A, B 2 Mn (C) Sp A \ Sp B = ;
C 2 Mn (C)
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
A C A On
On B On B

u K E

Im(u IdE ) \ Im(u + IdE ) = {0E }

k
u
ei✓ + eik✓ = 1

✓2R
Sk u
E = Rn [X] P 2E '(P ) = P (X + 1)P 0
8n 2 N, un+k = un + un+k 1 ' Rn [X]
k Sk ' '
 f : P (X) 7! (X 2 1)P 00 (X) + 2XP 0 (X)
A 2 R[X] B 2 R[X] n+1
E = Rn [X] Rn [X] P 2 R[X]
f E f AP B

E = Rn [X] a 6= b P 2E A, B Rn [X]
f P 2 Rn [X]
'(P ) = (X a)(X b)P 0 nXP AP B
' E f
' ' A B
B f
f

Mn (R)

(M ) = M + tr(M )In E f 2 L(E) f2 = f

u 7! f u uf L(E)

E K f 2 L(E) F 2 L(L(E))
F (u) = f u
E f 2 L(E)
f F
T 2 L(E) ! L(E)
f F T (g) = f g g f
f dim E (F ) = dim E ⇥ dim E (f ) f T f
T

E E
F : L(E) ! L(E) E C e = (e1 , . . . , en )
E
1
F : f 7! (f p + p f) f E
2
n
X
F 8k 2 {1, . . . , n}, f (ek ) = ek + ei
F i=1
 f e
f
f
f f
f K E n
n
R E u a2E a, f (a), . . . , f n 1
(a)
E U = (ui,j ) u E ei,j E
Ei,j f
' L(E)
'(v) = u v
' u
f K E
U Ei,j Ek,j L(E) n
' Cf f
Cf L(E)
g Cf
f g
D = diag( 1 , . . . , n ) ' : M 7! DM MD Mn (K)
'(Ei,j ) Ei,j (i, j) X
dim Cf = ↵2
Mn (K)
2Sp(f )
'
Mn (K) ↵
f K E f
(Id, f, . . . , f n 1
) Cf
: u 7! f u u f L(E)

E n 2
E = S2 (R) ✓ ◆
a b f E
A= 2 M2 (R)
c d
: S2 (R) ! S2 (R) f
E
(S) = AS + S t A
f
E f E
A k
A Im(f k ) Ker(f k ) = E
A fk
 A
A

f K E n 2 N⇤
f n
f f 0 1
1 0 0
A = @0 0 1A
0 1 2

E R u 2 L(E) v 2 L(E)

u3 = v 3
0 1
u=v 13 5 2
@ 2 7 8A
5 4 7

A, B 2 Mn (C) AB = On
A B
A B ⌦ a
0 1
2 1 2
A = @1 a 1A
1 1 1

0 1
2 1 1 a2⌦ P P 1
AP
A = @2 1 2A
3 1 2
A
A

f, g K E
f
0 1
0 1 1
A=@ 1 1 1A f g = g f () f g
1 1 2
 E C E C u 2 L(E)
f 2 L(E) E f
u3 = Id

u
E R
E K B f 2 L(E) H
u 2 E ⇤ u(H) = {0}
H u(x) = 0 H f
u f u u K E
A L B f u F u
t t
H f L A u

0 1
3 2 4
A=@ 1 1 1A
1 2 2 f R3
0 1
5 1 1
@2 4 2A
1 1 3
u R E
u
f

f Rn A
R n
A Z 2 Cn

X Y Rn
Z A 2 Mn (R)
A
X Y
Vect(X, Y ) f
f
0 1 A 2 Mn (K) A
1 1 0 0
B 1 2 0 1C A
A=B
@0
C
0 1 0A k2N
1 0 0 1
Sp(Ak ) = k
2 Sp(A)
f
A 2 Mn (Z) A, B 2 Mn (C)
n
Y 8m 2 N, tr(Am ) = tr(B m )
(X i) i 2C
i=1 A B

n
Y p
(X i) A = (ai,j ) 2 Mn (C) B = (bi,j ) 2 Mn (C) A ⇤ B 2 Mn2 (C)
i=1 0 1
a1,1 B · · · a1,n B
B C
A⇤B =@ A
an,1 B · · · an,n B
A 2 Mn (C)
A, A0 , B, B 0 2 Mn (C) (A ⇤ B)(A0 ⇤ B 0 ) = (AA0 ) ⇤ (BB 0 )
det(exp(A)) = exp(tr A) A⇤B A B
A⇤B
A⇤B

A 2 Mn (K) P 2 K[X]
A
n
Y A 2 Mn (C) Ak k2N
A (X) = (X k)
k=1

P (A)

E K n u 2 L(E)
x0 2 E x0 , u(x0 ), . . . , un 1
(x0 )
u u
A B M2 (K) AB = BA B 2 K [A]
A 2 K [B]
M3 (K)
A B n
P 2 R[X]

P (0) = 1 AB = P (A)
A 2 Mn (C) tr(Am ) ! 0 m ! +1
A <1 A A B
 A B Mn (R) A u K E
P 2 R[X] P (0) = 1 B = AP (A) Q 2 R[X] P, Q 2 K[X]
Q(0) = 1 A = BQ(B) (P Q)(u) = 0
Ker P (u) Im P (u) = E

A 2 GLn (C) B 2 Mn (C) B p = On

1
In + A BA

H = In + P (B) P 2 C[X], P (0) = 0 E K u 2 L(E)

p 0 (Id, u, . . . , up )
H (GLn (C), ⇥) u

Mn (R)
M 2 Mn (K)
0 1
0 1 (0) ✓ ◆
B C A C
B C M= A 2 Mp (K) B 2 Mq (K)
O B
J =B
B
C
C
@ 1A P Q 2 K[X] A B
(0) 0
P Q M
P (aIn + J) P 2 R[X]

E K u 2 L(E)
Ker(u (u Id)) Ker(u (u + Id))
E K a K f 2 L(E) u
f3 3af 2 + a2 f = 0 Ker f Im f

f K E
u K E P f
P 2 K[X] u
P = QR Q R P (0) = 0 P 0 (0) 6= 0

Im Q(u) = Ker R(u) f E

 E K u 2 L(E) P 2 K[X] A 2 Mn (K) (X 1)2
P (u) = 0
✓ ◆
1 1
2 2 (1)
Ker u = Ker u Im u = Im u 0 1

E = Ker u Im u
Mn (R) X2 + 1

E K u 2 L(E) P 2 K[X]
P (u) = 0 Q 2 K[X] R 2 K[X] R(Q(u)) = 0 0 1
a 0 ··· ··· ··· 0 b
B C
B0 0C
B C
B C
B a 0 b C
B C
B C
A=B 0 a+b 0 C 2 M2n+1 (C)
B C
B C
u K B b 0 a C
B C
⇧u P 2 K[X] B C
@0 0A
P (u) P ⇧u
b 0 ··· ··· ··· 0 a
P (u) 1
2 K [u] P 2 C[X] P (A) = 0

E C f 2 L(E)
E K u 2 L(E) ⇧f
F G x2E
u
⇧u = ppcm(⇧uF , ⇧uG ) ⇧v P 2 C[X] P (f )(x) = 0
v
⇧f

u K E E u E
u ⇧u F u Id
u uF ⇧u
u
 f 2 F(R, R) f˜: x 7! f ( x) ' : f 7! f˜
F(R, R)
u
m L(E) v u v
m
T : R[X] ! R[X] T (P ) = P (1 X)
u
T
T

E R n u E
u
V W E u u K E
E=V W 0 00 ⇧u u
u V W
0 00
=

Y
= Pi↵i
i

i dim Ker Pi↵i (u) = ↵i deg Pi ✓ ◆

a b
u A= 2 M2 (K)
c d
k  ↵i dim Ker Pik (u) = k deg Pi
1
A

0 1
P f 1 ⇤
E 2R f P( ) = 0 B C
A2@ A 2 Mn (K)
0 n

(X 1 ) . . . (X n) A
P f
P( ) = 0 f
f
0 1
0 b a
f 3 + 2f 2 f 2Id = 0
A=@ b 0 cA 2 M3 (R)
f a c 0
A M3 (R) u K[X] P (X) P (2X)
A M3 (C) u
Q 2 K[X]
B = A + I3
1
↵, , u = Q(u)?
1
B = ↵A2 + A + I3

A 2 Mn (K)
A Ak
f C E n k 2
f A

f
f Id
E C u E
1, . . . , q u n1 , . . . , n q
i {1, . . . , q} u i
f K n
x2E N 2N (x, f (x), . . . , f N 1
(x)) m
1iq 0  m  ni (u i IdE )
E
m
(x, f (x), . . . , f n 1
(x)) E
F E u
f Q C[X]
f
F = Ker Q(u)

E u
(a0 , . . . , an 1) 2 R
n u C[X]

n
X1
8P 2 Rn 1 [X], P (X + n) + ak P (X + k) = 0
k=0
n 2 A B Mn (Z)

U V Mn (Z)

u K E U A + V B = In

A (X) = XQA (X) ± det A

Q 2 K[X]
n=2
1
u = Q(u)
 A B Mn (C) a, b 2 R b 6= 0 A 2 Mn (R)
A (B)
a b A
A A a
M 2 Mn (C) X 2 Mn (C)
b A A
AX XB = M

a M 2 Mn (R)
A B Mn (C) Mn (C) L(M ) = aM + tr(M )In

L Mn (R)
(M ) = AM MB M 2 Mn (C)

↵ A B a L
↵
M 2 Mn (C) A (M )

↵ A
B =↵
✓ ◆
On In
A= 2 M2n (K)
In On
A2
K=R C A
✓ ◆
1 1
A=
0 1
n 2 N⇤ A 2 M2n (C)
µA
✓ ◆
O In
A=
In O

f K E n A2
f A A
x2E x1 = x x2 = f (x1 )
xn = f (xn 1) E
f
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) E f
f
M 2 Mn (C) ✓ ◆
M 2 + t M = In P (A) AP 0 (A)
P (M ) = P 2 R[X]
(0) P (A)
M 12
/ Sp M
M
M

(A, B) 2 Mn (R)2
M 2 Mn (R) M 2 + t M = 2In M ✓ ◆
A B
O A

n M n
M 2 + t M = In
M
M 2 Mn (C) M5 = M2 tr(M ) = n

A 2 M2 (Z) det A = 1 p 2 N⇤ , µ 2 C⇤ 6= µ A, B, M 2 Mp (C)

Ap = I2 8
< Ip = A + B
A C M = A + µB
: 2
M = 2 A + µ2 B
↵ A
|↵| = | | = 1 ↵= 1
M M
2
M ( + µ)M + µIp
Re(↵) 2 {0, 1/2, 1}
A B
A12 = I2 M
G = An n 2 N

(A, B, C) 2 Mn (R)3

✓ ◆ C = A + B, C 2 = 2A + 3B C 3 = 5A + 6B
A A
M=
(0) A A B
A 2 Mn (R)
 z1 , . . . , z n 2 C z1 6= 0

n
X n
X
zk = |zk | E K n2N p 2 L(E) p2
k=1 k=1

n 1 ↵2 , . . . , ↵ n p
p p3 = p
8k 2, zk = ↵k z1

Mn (C) M n = In tr M = n
P 2 Mn (R) ' Mn (R)

'(M ) = P M + M P
'
0 1
0 1 0 0 0
B1 0 0 0 0C
B C
M =B
B0 0 0 0 1CC 2 M5 (R)
@0 0 1 0 0A n 2 N⇤ u 2 L(R2n+1 ) u3 = u tr u = 0 tr u2 = 2n
0 0 0 1 0
C(u) = v 2 L(R2n+1 ) uv = vu
m 2 L(R5 ) M
C(u)
p 2 N⇤ M p = I5 n C(u) = R [u]
M M5 (C)
x 2 R5 x, m(x), m2 (x), m3 (x) m4 (x)
R 5

m A 2 Mn (R) fA (M ) = AM M 2 Mn (R)
2
A =A fA
fA A

M 2 M2 (R)
✓ ◆ A 2 Mn (C) f (M ) = AM M 2 Mn (C)
2 1 1 f Mn (C)
M +M =
1 1
A f
M A f
 f
f, u, v R E (A, B) f
↵, 2R f
8 dim C
< Id = u + v
f = ↵u + v
: 2 C = g 2 L(E) f g=g f
f = ↵2 u + 2 v
f
u v
Ker(f ↵Id) Ker(f Id)
fn n2N ↵, u, v n 2 A 2 Mn (R) f Mn (R)

f (M ) = tr(A)M tr(M )A
↵, 2K u, v, f K E tr
8 f
< f = ↵u + v
f 2 = ↵2 u + 2 v
: 3
f = ↵3 u + 3 v
f
u R E
a b
E K F, G (u aId)(u bId) = 0
p F
G s F G
f F 1 1
p= (u aId) q= (u bId)
b a a b
(f ) = p f s
p+q p p q q q p
L(E) E = Ker p Ker q
u u

p s
E=F G

n 2 N⇤ E = Mn (R) A, B 2 E E R f E
f 2 L(E) f 3 = 4f f
8M 2 E, f (M ) = M + tr(AM )B
A 2 Mn (R)

A3 A2 + A I=O f K E
det(A) = 1 f F 6= {0}

A 2 Mn (R)
A3 + I n = O n u K
e = (e1 , . . . , en )
A
u(e1 ) = e1 u(e2 ) = e1 + e2

A 2 Mn (R)
A3 + A2 + A = O n
f g K E
A
f g

n 2 N⇤

En = A 2 Mn (Z) 9m 2 N⇤ , Am = In E p q L(E)
p q=q q p=p p q
A 2 En

!(A) = min m 2 N⇤ Am = In

!(En )

P 2 K[X] u K E
A 2 Mn (R)
u P (u)
A3 = A + I n tr(A) 2 Q

n 3 det(A)
 E C n 2 N⇤ u 2 L(E) A 2 Mn (C) n 3

rg A = 2, tr A = 0 An 6= On
u 2 GL(E) u
u2 A
P 2 C[X] P 0 (u) 2 GL(E)
u P (u)

M Mn (R)
E C u E
P P (u) tr M = 0 M3 4M 2 + 4M = On
P P0
P (u)
u
A Mn (C)

A3 4A2 + 4A = 0 tr A = 8
A, B 2 GLn (C) B = Ap
A B

A 2 Mn (C)
A
A 2 Mn (C) A
An = 0 A 2 Mn (R)
det(A + In )
M 2 GLn (C) A det(A + M )
A A 2 Mn (C)
8M 2 GLn (C), AM = M A =) det(A + M ) = det M A
A 2 Mn (R)

f 2 L(R3 )
f2 = f3 dim Ker(f Id) = 1 A 2 Mn (C) p 2 N⇤ Ap = 0
R 3
f An = 0
0 1
1 0 0 det(A + In )
@0 0 ↵A ↵ 2 {0, 1} M 2 Mn (C) AM = M A
0 0 0 det(A + M ) M 2 GLn (C)
 M A
E C u 2 L(E)
I1 = P 2 C[X] P (u) = 0 I2 = P 2 C[X] P (u)
I1 I2 C[X]
A 2 GLn (C) N 2 Mn (C) P1 P2
P1 P2
AN = N A
Q 2 I2 u Q(u)

det(A + N ) = det A

: M2 (R) ! R
✓ ◆
E C n f 2 L(E) 0 1
8A, B 2 M2 (R), (AB) = (A) (B) 6= (I2 )
1 0
f
(O2 ) = 0
Sp(f ) = {0}
A (A) = 0
f A 2 M2 (R) B A
A
81  k  n, tr(f k ) = 0 (B) = (A)
A (A) 6= 0

u C E
u 2C A 2 Mn (R)
u IdE
A3 = A2 A2 A2 A

Ak+1 = Ak k>0
p>0 Ap Ap A
A B n
k
A+2 B k 0kn
A B

n 2 H Mn (K)
n 2 N⇤ A B Mn (C) 1, . . . , n, n+1
C 1in+1 A+ H
iB
A B Mn (K) GLn (K)
 A, M 2 Mn (C) M M2 (R)
M A = On A+M A

AM = On
A 2 Mn (C) P P (A)

n2N E = Mn (C) E ⇤ = L(E, C) C

E
L : E ! E ⇤ A 7! LA LA M 7! tr(AM )
u E n 1
un = 0 rg(u) = n 1
E
Ker uk k 2 J0 ; nK
T 2 Mn (C)
H = Ker LT k 2 J0 ; nK u
Tn+ Tn k

H \ Tn+
T
H \ Tn
A 2 Mn (C) k2N Ak = 0
Tn+ [ Tn
H n2 n 1

E n2 n 1

K A1 , A2 , . . . , An Mn (K)

A1 A2 . . . An = On

a2C M 2 Mn (C) M aM
a M
 (Ker up )p2N (Im up )p2N
(dim Ker up )p2N
y 2 Im u x2E y = u(x)
9n 2 N, 8p n, dim Ker up = dim Ker un Ker up Ker un
v(y) = v(u(x)) = u(v(x)) 2 Im u p n n
Ker u = Ker u N = Ker u
Im u v dim Im up = dim E dim Ker up = dim E dim Ker un = dim Im un
x 2 Ker u u(x) = 0E Im up ⇢ Im un Im up = Im un I = Im un
dim N + dim I = dim Ker un + dim Im un = dim E
u(v(x)) = v(u(x)) = v(0E ) = 0E

v(x) 2 Ker u Ker u v x2N \I a2E x = un (a) un (x) = 0

2n 2n n n
u Im u = E u (a) = 0 a 2 Ker u = Ker u x = u (a) = 0
Ker u = {0E } v u v N \ I = {0} E=N I
u un N I u
(uN )n = (un )Ker un = 0 uN
Im un+1 = Im un u(Im un ) = Im un uI
n
dim Im u < +1
f p=p f x 2 Ker p p(f (x)) = f (p(x)) = 0 dim E = dim F + dim G = dim N + dim I
f (x) 2 Ker p p2N (uF )p = 0 F ⇢ Ker up ⇢ N
Im p = Ker(p Id) x 2 Im p p(f (x)) = f (p(x)) = f (x) uG (uG )n G = Im(uG )n ⇢ Im(un ) = I
f (x) 2 Im p dim F  dim N dim G  dim I dim F + dim G = dim N + dim I
Ker p Im p f x2E dim F = dim N dim G = dim I
x=u+v u 2 Ker p v 2 Im p f (p(x)) = f (v) F =N G=I
p(f (x)) = p(f (u) + f (v)) = f (v) p f =f p

~x 2 Ker f f (g(~x)) = g(f (~x)) = g(0E ) = 0E g(~x) 2 Ker f Ker uk 1

Ker uk
Ker f g
~y 2 Im f x2E ~y = f (~x) E = Ker up = Ker up 1 Fp = Ker up 2 Fp 1 Fp = · · · =
g(~y ) = g(f (~x)) = f (g(~x)) 2 Im f Im f g Ker u0 F1 · · · Fp Ker u0 = {0}
( =) ) Ker uk 1 Ker uk
( (= ) Im p Ker p f E = Ker up = Ker up 1
Fp = . . . = F 1 ··· Fp
E ~x 2 E ~x = ~u + ~v ~u 2 Im p u
~v 2 Ker p 0 1
(f p)(~x) = f (p(~u) + p(~v )) = f (~u) (0) (⇤)
p f (~x) = p(f (~u)) + p(f (~v )) = f (~u) f (~u) 2 Im p f (~v ) 2 Ker p B C
@ A
8~x 2 E, (f p)(~x) = (p f )(~x) (0) (0)

p f
 x 2 Im u a2E x = u(a)
a + µf (a) = 0E u2 (x) = u3 (a) = u(a) = x
f µa + f (a) = 0E
(1) µ(2) ( 2 + µ2 )a = 0E a 6= 0E v2 = Id v
=µ=0 ,µ 2 R v 1
= v
k 2 N⇤
a1 , . . . , a k F (a1 ), . . . , F (ak ) 1 1
det(v )=
p 2 N⇤ a1 , . . . , a p det v
E = F (a1 ) ··· F (ap )
k=1 E=6 {0E } det( v) = ( 1)dim Im u det v
k
k
( 1)dim Im u > 0
k+1 a1 , . . . , a k u
E F (a1 ), . . . , F (ak )
E = F (a1 ) · · · F (ak ) k+1
p=k
ak+1 2 E ak+1 2 / F (a1 ) · · · F (ak ) n=1 v
F (a1 ), . . . , F (ak ), F (ak+1 ) v=0
F = Im v u v v 1  dim F < n
x1 + · · · + xk + xk+1 = 0E xj = j aj + µj f (aj ) 2 F (aj ) F
f y1 + · · · + yk + yk+1 = 0E F u v
yj = µj aj + j f (aj ) ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
k+1 (1) µk+1 (2) A B D E
( 2k+1 + µ2k+1 )ak+1 2 F (a1 ) · · · F (ak ) k+1 = µk+1 = 0 O C O O
ak+1 2/ F (a1 ) · · · F (ak )
xk+1 = 0E x1 + · · · + xk = 0E det(u + v) = det(A + D) ⇥ det C
x1 = . . . = xk = 0E F (a1 ), . . . , F (ak ) A D u v F

det(A + D) = det A det(u + v) = det A ⇥ det C = det u

dim E = 2p (a1 , f (a1 ), . . . , ap , f (ap ))
f
✓ ◆
0 1 Im u u u E2
1 0 u Ker u
Im u uE2
u, v 2 x 2 Ker(v u) u(x) 2 Im u \ Ker v
u(x) 2 E1 \ E2 u(x) = 0 x 2 E1 Ker(v u) ⇢ E1

Im(v u) = v(u(E)) = v(E2 ) = E2 v E2 E2

8x 2 Im u, u(x) 2 Im u v u2
 t
(u) = (v) uE2 = v E2 uE1 = 0 = v E1 AU = U U A = µt U
u v
n
X n
X
u=v
8i 2 J1 ; nK, ai,j = 8j 2 J1 ; nK, ai,j = µ
j=1 i=1

t
w 2 GL(E2 ) u 2 L(E) uE1 = 0 uE2 = w U AU = t U (AU ) = t
UU = n t
U AU = (t U A)U = µt U U = nµ
E1 ⇢ Ker u E2 ⇢ Im u x 2 Ker u x = a + b =µ A
a 2 E1 b 2 E2 u(x) = 0 u(a) + u(b) = 0 Mn,1 (R) hX, Y i = t XY
w(b) = 0 w 2 GL(E2 ) b=0 x 2 E1 H U
Ker u ⇢ E1 Ker u = E1 y 2 Im(u) x2E D = H?
y = u(x) x=a+b a 2 E1 b 2 E2
y = u(x) y = u(a) + u(b) = w(b) 2 E2 Im u ⇢ E1 A U A D = Vect(U )
t
Im u = E1 u2 ũ = w A AU = µU U
t
A D t
A H = D? A
'
GL(E2 ) ( , )
IdE2 E2 E1
P Mn,1 (R)
Mn,1 (R) = D H
A P 1 AP
✓ ◆
T E ↵ 0
↵2R M 2 Mn 1 (R)
g2E Rx Tf = g 0 M
Tf = g x 7! 0 f (t) dt R
0
Rx y = g
y + y(0) = 0
x 7! 0 f (t) dt f
y0 + y = g y(0) = 0 1 + (n 1)2

F Rx T I
E I(f ) : x 7! 0
f (t) dt F
T F I I
F
⇡ = X n + an 1 X n 1 + · · · + a0 f 2F
y + an 1 y 0 + · · · + an y (n) = 0 y = I n (f ) Rn [X] D n+1
y(0) = . . . = y (n 1)
(0) = 0 y=0 f =0 n D Rn [X]
F = {0} F D n 2 Rn [X]
T F ⇢ Rn [X] D Rn [X] D
F m+1 F
m+1

8P 2 F, Dm+1 (P ) = 0
A AU = sU
t
U A = st U F ⇢ Rm [X]
 F R1 [X] (1, X)
P 2 R[X] n Q2F deg Q n ✓ ◆
(Q, D(Q), . . . , Dq Q) q = deg Q ↵
F 0

P 2 Rq [X] = Vect Q, D(Q), . . . , Dq (Q) ⇢ F D R1 [X]

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
g 2 = kId + D ↵2 (↵ + ) 0 1
2 =
D g g D 0 0 0
g g(1) = g 2 (1) = 2
=k
↵= =0
k 0
(1, 2) 0=1
k>0 g2 = D Ker g 2
2
Ker g ⇢ Ker g dim Ker g = 0 1
Ker g = Ker g 2
E R B u
k>0 E A B u2 = 0 u 6= 0
+1
dim Im u = 1 dim Ker u = 2
p X
1+x= an xn B 0 = ("1 , "2 , "3 ) MatB0 (u) = B
n=0
"1 2
/ Ker(u) "2 = u("1 ) "2
Ker u ("2 , "3 ) Ker u
✓ ◆n B 0 = ("1 , "2 , "3 ) "
1 1 + "
2 2 + "
3 3 = 0 u 1 u("1 ) = 0
p X+1
D 1 =0 2 " 2 + 3 "3 = 0 2 = 3 =0 ("2 , "3 )
g= k an p
k B0 E
n=0
u B

E K n B f 2 L(E)
A B fn 1
6= 0 fn = 0
/ Ker(f n 1 )
x2 x f n 1 6= 0
B 0 = (f n 1
(x), . . . , f (x), x)
n 1
n 1f (x) + · · · + 1 f (x) + 0x =0
f n 1, . . . , f IdE
D 0 = 0, . . . , n 2 =0 n 1 =0 f n 1 (x) 6= 0
3
B0 n = dim E E
D = = D f B0 B A B
D R0 [X]
R1 [X] aX + b a, b 2 R
D2 R0 [X]
 2
e3 2
/ Vect(e1 , e2 ) 3+ 24 = 0 3 = 4 =0
E K n B f 2 L(E) (1) (2) 1 e1 + 2 f (e1 ) = 0 1 f (e 1) 2 e1 = 0
A B 2 2
1+ 2 =0 1 = 2 =0
r = rg f f 6= 0 f 2 = 0 Im f ⇢ Ker f (e1 , . . . , er ) (e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 ) M
Imf (e1 , . . . , en r ) Ker f
i 2 {1, . . . , r} en r+i E f (en r+i ) = ei
(e1 , . . . , en )

1 e1 +· · ·+ r er + r+1 er+1 +· · ·+ n r en r + n r+1 en r+1 +· · ·+ n en = 0 (1)

f Kn A
f
rg f = rg A = 1
n r+1 e1 + ··· + n er =0 (2)

n r+1 = ... = n =0 (e1 , . . . , er )

dim Ker f = n 1

1 e1 + ··· + r er + r+1 er+1 + ··· + n r en r =0 (3) B Ker f f n 1

1 = ... = n r =0 (e1 , . . . , en r ) 1
(e1 , . . . , en ) n = dim E E A = P BP P B
E f B 0 1
0 ··· 0 ⇤
A B B C
B C
B C
B C
@ ⇤A
0 ··· 0
f 2 L(R4 ) M
(e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 )
f (e1 ) = e2 , f (e2 ) = e1 , f (e3 ) = e4 f (e4 ) = e3 = tr B = tr A
e1 e3 e2 e4
B2 = B
1
P A2 P = tr(A).P 1
AP
e1 6= 0 e2 = f (e1 ) e3 2
/ Vect(e1 , e2 ) e4 = f (e3 )
1 e1 + 2 e2 + 3 e3 + 4 e4 = 0
A2 = tr(A).A
1 e1 + 2 f (e1 ) + 3 e3 + 4 f (e3 ) =0
det(In + B) = 1 +
f
1
det(P ) det(In + A) det P = 1 + tr A
1 f (e1 ) 2 e1 + 3 f (e3 ) 4 e3 =0

3 (1) 4 (2) det(In + A) = 1 + tr A

2 2
( 3 1 + 2 4 )e1 +( 3 2 4 1 )f (e1 ) +( 3 + 4 )e3 =0
 A2 = O 3 Im A ⇢ Ker A
D = diag(1, 2, . . . , n) A 6= O3
M D = DM D
D rg A = 1 dim Ker A = 2

X1 2 Im A X2 (X1 , X2 ) Ker A X3
X1 P
X 1 , X2 , X3 0 1
f (In ) f (On ) 0 0 1
f (In ) = f (In2 ) = f (In )2 f (In ) = 0 P 1 AP = @0 0 0A = B
f (In ) = 0 A 2 Mn (C) f (A) = f (A ⇥ In ) = f (A) ⇥ f (In ) = 0 0 0 0
f f (In ) = 1
N
f (On ) = f (On2 ) = f (On ) ⇥ f (On ) f (On ) = 0
BN = N B
f (On ) = 1 A 2 Mn (C)
0 1
f (A) = f (On ) ⇥ f (A) = f (On ⇥ A) = f (On ) = 1 f a b c
f (On ) = 0 N = @0 b0 c0 A
A f (In ) = f (A ⇥ A 1 ) f (A) ⇥ f (A 1 ) = 1 0 0 a
f (A) 6= 0
M AM = M B
A r = rg A 0 1
A a b c
✓ ◆ M = P @ 0 b0 c 0 A P 1

Ir Or,n r 0 0 a
Jr =
On r,r On r
C
A = QJr P P, Q 0 1 0 1 0 1
f (A) = f (Q)f (Jr )f (P ) f (Jr ) = 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Jr M 1 = P @0 0 0A P 1
, M2 = P @0 1 0A P 1
, M3 = P @0 0 0A P 1

r n r 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
A1 , . . . , A p 0 1 0 1
Jr 0 0 0 0 0 1
A1 . . . Ap = On M4 = P @0 0 1A P 1
M5 = P @0 0 0A P 1

0 0 0 0 0 0
f (A1 ) . . . f (Ap ) = 0
f
f (Jr ) = f (A1 ) = . . . = f (Ap )
tr A 6= tr B A B
f (Jr )p = 0 f (Jr ) = 0

C M3 (R) E (G, ⇥)
M 7! AM MA G
 E E2 = E E ( =) ) A A
r = rg E 2 N ⇤
P 2 GLn (R)
✓ ◆
I O tr(A) = tr( A) = tr(A) tr(A) = 0
E = P Jr P 1
Jr = r 2 Mn (R)
O O

M 2 Mn (R) det(A) = det( A) = ( 1)3 det(A) det(A) = 0

✓ ◆ ( (= ) tr(A) = det(A) = 0
A B 1
M =P P A 0 A
C D

EM = M = M E B, C D Sp(A) 6= {0} A
' : G ! Mr (R) M 2G 0 A
A ' D 0 1
0 0
D = @0 0A
8M, N 2 G, '(M N ) = '(M ) ⇥ '(N )
0 0 0
'(E) = Ir '
(GLr (R), ⇥) (G, ⇥)
0 1
0 1 0
P = @1 0 0A
t 0 0 1
A A P 2
µ
6 µ
= A t
A D D A A
diag( , µ) Sp A = {0} A
=µ A A I2 A3 = O 3
I2 A t
A A t
A A2 6= O3 A
0 1
0 1 0
T = @0 0 1A
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 0 0 0
↵
T↵ = T =
0 0

↵
0 1
✓ ◆ 0 0 1
↵ 0
T↵ = P T P 1
P = 2 GL2 (C) P 0 = @0 1 0A
0
1 0 0

A2 = O 3 A 6= O3 A
0 1
0 0 1
T = @0 0 0A
0 0 0
 0 1 8x 6= 0E , 9 x 2 K, u(x) = xx
0 0 1
P 00 = @0 1 0A x 7! x E \ {0} 6 0E
x, y =
1 0 0 (x, y) u(x + y) = u(x) + u(y) x+y (x + y) = xx + yy
(x, y) x = x+y = y
A = O3 (x, y) y = µx u(y) = µu(x) = x µx = xy y = x
x 7! x
8x 2 E u(x) = x x

0 2 Sp(f ) () f () f x 6= 0Z
u(v(x)) = x

(v u)(v(x)) = v(x)
0 2 Sp(f n ) =) f n =) f =) 0 2 Sp(f )
v(x) 6= 0E u(v(x)) 6= 0E u(0E ) = 0E
v u

2 Sp u x 6= 0 u(x) = x u 1 u v(P ) = P v u(P ) = P P (0)

x = u 1 (x)
x 6= 0 6= 0 u 1
(x) = 1 x 1
2 Sp u 1
Ker(u v) = {0} Ker(v u) = R0 [X]

{1/ | 2 Sp u} ⇢ Sp u 1 =0

u v
det(u v) = 0 det(v u) = 0 v u

2K x2E
1 1 1
fk g g f k = kf k
x 2 E (v) () u(a (x)) = a (x) () a (x) 2 E (u) () x 2 a(E (u)) k 2 N f k 6= 0 h 7! h g g h
E (v) = a(E (u))
f
a E (v) 6= {0}
E (u) 6= {0} fn = 0 dim E = n f n 1 6= 0 x2 / Ker f n 1

Sp(u) = Sp(v) e0 = (f n 1
(x), . . . , f (x), x) e0 E
f
f (g(f n 1
(x)) = 0 g(f n 1 (x)) = f n 1 (x) 2R
 f k (g(f n 1 k
(x))) = ( + k)f n 1
(x) g e0
, + 1, . . . , + n 1 a=b=0
f g
Sp(g) = { , . . . , + n 1} C f
E (f ) 6= {0} g
y +n 1
g E (f )
y 2 Ker f n 1
Ker f n 1
g +n 1
g
g Ker f n 1
f E (f ) f g
y2/ Ker f n 1
e = (f n 1 (y), . . . , f (y), y)
a=0 b 6= 0
f g n g n f = nbg n n2N
u 2 L(E) 7! f u u f L(E)
dim L(E) < +1
u v=v u u v n2N g n 6= 0̃ nb
E C u n2N g n = 0̃
v v Ker g 6= {0}
Ker g f
u v f Ker g f g
u v v u = au b=0 a 6= 0
1
u u v u v = aIdE
tr(u v u 1 ) tr v = a dim E a 6= 0 b 6= 0
tr(u v u 1 ) = tr v
u f (af + bg) (af + bg) f = b(f g g f ) = b(af + bg)
n2N f af + bg
f g
un v v un = naun

' : w 7! w v v w
u
n 2 N na ' u u v
x 2 Ker u u(v(x)) = v(u(x)) + au(x) = 0 v(x) 2 Ker u u v e1
Ker u 6= {0} v (e✓
1 , e2 , . . ◆
. , en ) ✓ ◆ u v
u v ⇤ µ ⇤
A= B =
0 A0 0 B0
u v v u = au + bv 0 0 0
u v E = Vect(e2 , . . . , en ) A0 B0
a=0
(e2 , . . . , en ) AB = BA A0 B 0 = B 0 A0 0 0
[u ; v ] = 0
a 6= 0 w = au + bv

[uk ; v] = k uk w 7! [w ; v]
(au + bv) v v (au + bv) = a(u v v u) = a(au + bv) L(E) k 2 N⇤
uk = 0 u Ker u 6= {0}
au + bv v u u v
v A0 B 0 B 0 A0 = A 0
 ↵=0 ↵ 6= 0 Sp T ⇢ {0} Sp T = {0} C
w = ↵u + v [w ; v] = ↵w w v
u v u = ↵1 (w v) T C[X] n2
2 2 2
T = ( 1)n X n T n = 0̃

T
A = In T = 0̃ T A
f n+1 g g f n+1 = f (nf n + g f n ) + (I f g) f n
P (f ) g g P (f ) = P 0 (f )
P f P0

8n 2 N⇤ , An B BAn = nAn 1
C
0 0 0
f g(P ) = (XP ) = XP + P g f (P ) = XP (f g g f )(P ) = P

8P 2 K[X], P (A)B BP (A) = P 0 (A)C

A
P
fn g g f n = nf n P 0 (A)C = 0
P A
P (f ) g g P (f ) = f P 0 (f ) P0 A

P (f ) = 0 f P 0 (f ) = 0 det P 0 (A) 6= 0
⇡ f
⇡ f X⇡ 0 ⇡ ⇡ | X⇡ 0 P 0 (A) P 0 (A)C = 0 C=0
↵⇡ = X⇡ 0 ↵ = deg ⇡ C
⇡ = X↵ f a, b, c Rn
A, B, C
C E (c)
a b C A B a
T b
M T (M ) = M a b b a = IdE (c)
M A = (A + In )M
M Ap = (A + In )p M
p 2 N ⇤ Ap = O n (A + In )p M = On
M (A + In )p dim E (c) = 0
A + In
A =0 C
C
 =0
Mp (R) B

(BC) = ABC BCA = (AB BA)C + B(AC CA) = (B)C + B (C)

x 2 Ker u u(x) = 0E
n ✓ ◆
X
n n k n k
(M N ) = (M ) (N ) u(v(x)) = u(x) + v(u(x)) = 0E
k
k=0
v(x) 2 Ker u
u
2
AB = BA (B) = 0 (H) = 0
n+1 1
(H n ) = 0 u v u = v + IdE

X✓
n+1
n+1
◆
n+1
(H n ) = n+1
(HH n 1
)= k
(H) n+1 k
(H n 1
) tr(v) = tr(v) + dim E
k
k=0
Ker(u) 6= {0}
n
(H n ) = n!B n Ker(u) v {0}
v x
u v

u(x) = 0E v(x) = .x
n 1 n n
B = (H )
n!
u v v u = au a 6= 0
k 0 a=0
u v u
8M 2 Mp (R), (M )  kkM k
v
u v v u = au + bv b 6= 0 w = au + bv
n 1 1 n u w w u = bw u w
B  kn H n  kkHk
n! n! v
✓ ◆n
1/n 1 p n
Bn  kkHk !0 n! ⇠ 2⇡n u v v u 2 Vect(u, v) =) u v
(n!)1/n n!+1 e

B M Mp (C) E
B
1/n E u v
BM = M BnM = n
M BnM = | |kM k1/n
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
n 1/n n 1/n 1/n
⇤ µ ⇤
B M  B kM k !0 0 A 0 B
n!+1
 u v v u 2 Vect(u, v)
AB BA 2 Vect(A, B) 2R u2E
A B
(u) = u () 8n 2 N, u(n + 1) = (1 + )u(n)
P 1
AP = T P 1
BP = T 0 P n 1

(u) = u () 8n 2 N, u(n) = u0 (1 + )n
✓ ◆ 2 ] 2 ; 0[ u(n) = (1 + )n E
1 0
0 P (u) = u
2
/ ] 2 ; 0[

8n 2 N, u(n) = u0 (1 + )n

2R f 2E
Sp( ) = ] 2 ; 0[
D(f ) = f () f y0 = y

y0 = y t 7! Ce t

2R f 2E I(f ) = f I(f )
Sp(D) = R E (D) = Vect(t 7! e t )
y = y0
=0 I(f ) = 0
2C u2E f (u) = u 6= 0 I(f ) x 7! Cex/ I(f )
⇢ I(f ) = 0
(1 )u0 = 0 f = I(f )0 = 0
f (u) = u ()
8n 2 N , (2
⇤
1)un = un 1
Sp(I) = ;
=1
f (u) = u () 8n 2 N⇤ , un = un 1

f
f E
T (f ) = f
6= 1 ⇢ 8x 2 [0 ; +1[, f (x + 1) = f (x)
u0 = 0
f (u) = u ()
8n 2 N , (2
⇤
1)un = un 1 x ! +1
= 1/2 `= `
f (u) = u () 8n 2 N, un = 0 ` f
` 6= 0
=1
Sp f = {1} 8x 2 [0 ; +1[, f (x + 1) = f (x)
 f +1 f C1

(1 )f (x) = xf 0 (x)
`=0
f =0 f =0
x0 2 [0 ; +1[ f (x0 ) 6= 0 T (f ) = f 6= 0 x > 0

8n 2 N, f (x0 + n) = n
f (x0 ) xf 0 (x) = ↵f (x)

n +1 | |<1 ↵ = (1 )/
| |<1
T (f ) = f f (x) = Cx↵ x 2 ]0 ; +1[

f (1) = f (0) 8n 2 N, 8x 2 [0 ; 1[, f (x + n) = n

f (x) ↵0 lim0 f = 0 f =0
↵ 0 2 ]0 ; 1[
f
[0 ; 1] f (1) = f (0) f (x) = Cx↵ x 2 [0 ; +1[ C 6= 0
' : [0 ; 1] ! R [0 ; 1]
'(1) = '(0) f E

n
8n 2 N, 8x 2 [0 ; 1[, f (x + n) = '(x)

k 2 N⇤ f C1 f (0) = 0
+1 T (f ) = f
f (t) =t!0 f 0 (0)t + o(t)
2 ] 1 ; 1[
' : t 7! f (t)/t
T (f )(x)
T (f )
' E
T T
T (f ) R⇤+ R⇤+ E
f f F 2R
T (f ) = f x 2 [0 ; +1[
F (x) F (0)
T (f )(x) = ! F 0 (0) = f (0)
x x!0 +
T (f )(x) = f (x)
T (f ) x 2 [0 ; +1[
T T E
2R f E T (f ) = f f (x) = xf 0 (x)
x>0 Z x =0 f
f (t) dt = xf (x) 6= 0 f xy 0 = y
0
 T (f ) = f
Z x Z 1
]0 ; +1[
tf (t) dt + x f (t) dt = f
1/ 0 x
y(x) = Cx
f (0) = 0 T (f )(0) = 0
C2R x>0 T (f ) = f f

f (x) = Cx1/ Z 1

C1 f (t) dt = f 0 (x)
x
[0 ; +1[ C=0 1/ 1 T
]0 ; 1] f 0 (1) = 0
2 ]0 ; 1] f : x 7! x1/ f

f C1 [0 ; +1[ T (f ) = f f 00 (x) + f (x) = 0

T <0
]0 ; 1] f (0) = 0
✓ ◆
x
f (x) = A sh p
| |

Z Z f 0 (1) = 0 f =0
x 1
T
T (f )(x) = tf (t) dt + x f (t) dt
0 x
>0
f (0) = 0
T (f )
✓ ◆
T E E x
f (x) = A sin p
2R f 2E

T (f ) = f f 0 (1) = 0 f =0
✓ ◆
=0 1
cos p =0
T (f ) = 0
Z x Z 1
tf (t) dt + x f (t) dt = 0 4
0 x = 2 k 2 N⇤
(2k + 1)⇡

Z 1 Z 1
xf (x) xf (x) + f (t) dt = f (t) dt = 0 ✓ ◆
x x (2k + 1)⇡x
f : x 7! sin
f =0 T 2
6= 0 = 4/((2k + 1)⇡)2
 n
X P (k) (a)
P 0 (X) = (X a)k 1
(k 1)!
k=1
R4 [X]
P n
X n
X
P (k) (a) P (k) (a)
(X 2 0
1)P (X) (4X + 1)P (X) a (P )(X) = (X a)k 2 (X a)k
(k 1)! k!
X4 P X5 (P ) 4a 4a = 0 k=2 k=1

R4 [X] n
X P (k) (a)
(P )(X) = (k 2) (X a)k 2P 0 (a)(X a)
k!
k=3
✓ ◆
5 3+
y0 = + y
2(x 1) 2(x + 1) P 2 Ker () P 0 (a) = 0 83  k  n, P (k) (a) = 0

Ker = Vect(1, (X a)2 )

y(x) = C|x 1|(5 )/2
|x + 1|(3+ )/2

I = ] 1 ; 1[ ] 1 ; 1[ ]1 ; +1[ P 2 Im () P (a) = P 00 (a) = 0

4X+(1+ )
2R (P ) = P P 0 (X) = X 2 1 P (X)
P Im = (X a)3 Rn 3 [X] + Vect(X a)
]1 ; +1[
8
4x + (1 + ) < 0 = P (a)
y0 = y
x2 1 (P ) = P () 2P 0 (a) = P 0 (a)
:
(k 2)P (k) (a) = P (k) (a) k 2 {2, . . . , n}
=0
= 2 =k 2 k 2 {2, . . . , n}

3, 1, 1, 3, 5 Sp( ) = { 2, 0, 1, . . . , n 2}
dim R4 [X] = 5
E 2 ( ) = Vect(X a) E0 ( ) = Ker Ek 2( ) = Vect(X a)k
k 2 {3, . . . , n}
5+ 3 dim Rn [X]
C(X 1) 2 (X + 1) 2 C 6= 0
(X a)k

deg( (P ))  n P 2 Rn [X]

n f
X P (k) (a) k
P (X) = (X a)
k! E(f, a)
k=0
 A A
dim E(A, 0) = 3 ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
A X3 In A In On,p In AB A
=
A B Ip B Ip Op,n Ip
tr A = 10
A
✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
A diag(0, 0, 0, 10) In On,p In A In A
=
B Ip B Ip Op,n Ip BA

1
B=P AP det M = p n
AB ( ) det M = BA ( )
1 1
B( ) = det( P P P AP ) = A( )
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ p
AB ( )= n
BA ( )
0 1 0 0
A= B=
0 0 0 0

✓ ◆
Ir 0
A = Jr =
G F 0 0
E=F G u
u ✓ ◆
C D
B=
E F

C r
A = QJr P r = rg A P, Q
x2C
1 1
Xq AB (X) = Xq Q 1 ABQ (X) = X q Jr P BQ (X)
det(xIn AB) = det A det(xA B) = det(xA B) det A = det(xIn BA)

Xq AB (X) = Xp P BQJr (X) = Xp BQJr P (X) = Xp BA (X)

AB (x) = BA (x)

A + p1 In 1/p
A A
p A + p1 In 2 GLn (C)
x2C
8M, N 2 Mn (K), MN = NM
1
(A+ p In )B (x) = 1
B(A+ p In ) (x)

p ! +1 AB (x) = BA (x)
x2C (AB)p = (A(BA)p 1 )B = B(A(BA)p 1) = (BA)p
AB BA
 ✓ ◆ Li Li + XLi+1 i n 1
1 1 ( x)n 1
A 1 (x) = det(xIn A ) = det A det(xA In ) = det I A
det A x
det(A) = ( 1)n A (0) 0 (0) ↵
xn
A 1 (x) = A (1/x) 1
A (0) M (X) =
0 (an 2 + an 1 X + X 2 )
(0) 1 X + an 1 X

n 1
AA (X) = det(XIn AA) ↵ = a0 + a1 X + · · · + an 1X + Xn

AA (X) = det(XIn AA) = AA (X)

n 1
M (X) = a0 + a1 X + · · · + an 1X + Xn
A, B 2 Mn (C)
P 2 Z[X] n
AB = BA ( 1)n P (X)
A P
= A
AA AA
Mn (C)
0 1
AA 2 R[X] 1 ⇤
B C
@ A
0 n

Aq
a 0 , a1 , . . . , a n 1 2K
0 q 1
0 1 1 ⇤0
0 (0) a0 B C
B C @ A
B1 a1 C
M =B
B
C
C 0 q
n
@ 0 A
(0) 1 an 1
Aq Pq Aq
Pq

X (0) a0
P
1 a1
M (X) = P
X P
(0) 1 X + an 1 q 2 N⇤ 7! Pq
 q<r Pq = Pr r=n
Nn
q r
8i 2 Nn , i = (i)

i 2 Nn
q q0
q0 > q i = i i

1 0 1 0

= a0 +
f f 0 ··· 1 0 ··· 1
0 1 a0 ··· an 2 an 1 [n] a1 ··· an 2 an 1 [n 1]
a b 0 ··· 0
B C
Bc d C
B C
B C
B⇤ ⇤ C n n 1
B C (an 1 + · · · + a1 + a0 )
B C
@ A
⇤ ⇤ 0 ··· 0 n 1
C1 C1 + C2 + · · · + Cn

f (X) = Xn 2
X2 (a + d)X + ad bc

tr(f ) = a + d tr(f 2 ) = a2 + 2bc + d2

Pn (x)
✓ 2 2 ◆
tr(f ) tr(f )
f (X) = Xn 2
X2 tr(f )X +
2
P1 (x) = x P2 (x) = x2 1

Sp B = Sp t B Pn 2 cos(↵)
B = tB n 1

X 2 Mn,1 (K) A(CX) = (CX) CX 2 Ker(A In )

(Pn (x))
X Y A tB n=1 n=2
t
C=X Y
C = QJr P P, Q AC = CB ✓ ◆
k⇡
Q 1 AQJr = Jr P BP 1 xk = 2 cos n+1 k 2 {1, . . . , n} Pn (x)
Q 1 AQ P BP 1
An 2 Mn (C) n A
Q 1 AQJr = Jr P BP 1
A = Q 1 AQ B = P BP 1

r
 Y
P (ai ) = ai (ai aj ) n
X Y
j6=i P (x) = "( ) (a +x
(i),i (i),i )
2Sn i=1
P n
Qn Qn
n
X = IdNn i=1 (a +x
(i),i (i),i ) = i=1 (ai,i + x)
P (x) ai
Qn =1+ Qn n Qn
(x a i ) x ai 6= IdNn i=1 (a (i),i + x (i),i ) = (ai,i + x)
i=1 i=1 i=1
n
P
n
Y n
det A = P (0) = ( 1)n 1
(n 1) ai
ai
i=1

Xn
P (X) i
ai Qn =1+
i=1 (X ai ) i=1
X ai

P (ai )
i =Q = ai
j6=i (ai aj )
i
det(A + In ) = P (1)
ai 1 an ai P (ai )

a1
Xn
P (ai ) = ai P (1) ai
1 Qn =1+
i=1 (1 ai ) i=1
1 ai
an
a1 1 ai !
n
X n
Y
ai
i det(A + In ) = 1+ (1 ai )
i=1
1 ai i=1

ai a1 0 0
0
P (ai ) = ai 1 AB = BA A

0
0 0 ai an

Y
P (ai ) = ai (ai aj )
j6=i det A < 0 =) Sp A \ ] 1 ; 0[ 6= ;
 0 1 1
A (X) = X n + · · · + ( 1)n det A x 1
⇤
1 B C
det A < 0 ( 1)n A (0) <0 limt! 1 ( 1)n A (t) = +1 (xIn A) =@ A
t 7! (t) 2 ] 1 ; 0[ 1
A A (0) x n
A
A n
X
1 1 PA0 (x)
A tr(xIn A) = =
x k PA (x)
k=1

n
Y
PA (x) = (x k)
k=1

n
Y
A (X) = (X k)
k=1
f 2 L(E) f
1, . . . , n A
C f

A (B) 2 GLn (C) () 81  k  n, B k In 2 GLn (C) P XP (X) = (1 + )P (X)

A (B) 2 GLn (C) () 81  k  n, k 2

/ Sp B

A (B) 2 GLn (C) () Sp A \ Sp B = ; C

u E (u) v
1
u v = v u) v E (u)
B=P CP P
xIn B=P 1
(xIn C)P u v

1 1 1
(xIn B) = P (xIn C) P
u v
A Mn (C) C u v=v u
A C
PA u E (u) v
0 1 u v = v u) v E (u)
1 ⇤ u
B C v
A=@ A
(0) n
 n
A B A tA ✓ ◆
t 0 1
X, Y 6= 0 AX = X
BY = Y A=
1 0
U = Y t X 2 Mn (C) \ {0}
BU = Y t X U A = Y t (t AX) = Y t X U A = BU (P ) M = In
U 2 Mn (C) U A = BU
U = QJr P P, Q r = rg U > 0 U A = BU
J r A0 = B 0 J r A0 = P AP 1 B 0 = Q 1 BQ
Sp A0 = Sp A Sp B 0 = Sp B C
0 0
Jr A = B Jr
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ u E (u) v
0 M 0 0 M ⇤ u v = v u) v E (u)
A = B = M 2 Mr (C)
⇤ ⇤ 0 ⇤ u
0 0 v
Sp M ⇢ Sp A Sp M ⇢ Sp B Sp M 6= ;
Sp A \ Sp B 6= ;

u K
rg(u) = 1
C u x2
/ Ker u
det(In + T ) = 1 6= 0 T (P ) Vect(x) Ker u = E
rg Tr = r
u(x) 2 E u(x) = x + y y 2 Ker u
A B
2
P, Q A = P BQ M u (x) = u(x)
det(M + A) 6= 0 2K
u2 u Vect(x)
det(P M Q + B) = det P det(M + A) det Q 6= 0 Ker u E
y 2 Im(u) \ {0} y = u(a)
B (P )
u(y) = u2 (a) = u(a) = y
Tr
r<n (P ) u
(P )
A M 2 Mn (C)
1
det(M + A) = det(A) det(M A + In ) 2 Sp(A) X 6= 0 AX = X
1
i 2 {1, . . . , n} |xi | = max1kn |xk | xi 6= 0
MA
det(M + A) 2C n
X n
X
| xi | = ai,j xj  |ai,j ||xi |  kAk|xi |
n Mn (R)
j=1 j=1

| |  kAk
 0 1
X = t (1 . . . 1) 2 1 (0)
B C
B1 C
A 1
=B
B
C
C
2 Sp(A) X = t (x1 . . . xn ) i0 @ 2 1A
(0) 1 1
|xi0 | = max |xi |
1in 1
Pn n A 2 Mn (R)
|xi0 | =
6 0 AX = X x i0 = j=1 ai0 ,j xj n+2 ( ) = (2 ) n+1 ( ) n( ) 0( ) = 1 1( ) = 1
= 2 + 2 cos ✓ ✓ 2 [0 ; ⇡] fn (✓) = n (2 + 2 cos ✓)
n
X n
X n
X
| ||xi0 | = ai0 ,j xj  |ai0 ,j ||xj |  ai0 ,j |xi0 | = |xi0 | fn+2 (✓) + 2 cos ✓fn+1 (✓) + fn (✓) = 0 f0 (✓) = 1 f1 (✓) = 2 cos ✓ 1
j=1 j=1 j=1

| |1 cos n + 1
2 ✓
fn (✓) =
| |=1 cos ✓
2
|xj | = |xi0 | j
ai0 ,j 6= 0 n n [0 ; 4] n
1
Sp A ⇢ [0 ; 4]
✓2R j 2 {1, . . . , n}

ai0 ,j xj = ai0 ,j |xj |ei✓

M n 3 n=1 2
j 2 {1, . . . , n} ai0 ,j xj = ai0 ,j |xi0 |ei✓
ai0 ,j 6= 0 rg M = 2 Mn (R) dim E0 (M ) = n 2
Pn
x i0 = ai0 ,j xj Mn (R) X = t x1 · · · xn
j=1
xi0 = |xi0 |ei✓
j 2 {1, . . . , n} ai0 ,j 6= 0 xj = xi0 MX = X
8
i1 = j > xn = x1
>
>
|xi1 | = max1in |xi | <
(ip ) 2 {1, . . . , n}N xip = xip+1
>
> xn = xn 1
p2N q 2 N⇤ ip = ip+q >
:
q
=1 x1 + · · · + xn = x n

( 1)xn = x1 + · · · + xn 1 = (n 1)xn
xn 6= 0 xn = 0 6= 0 X=0
2
0 1 0 1 (n 1) = 0
1 (0) 1 ··· 1 p
B C B C t 1± 4n 3
L=@ A U =@ A= L =
2
1 ··· 1 (0) 1
U = I + N + · · · + N n 1 (I N )U = I U 1=I N
L 1 = t (U 1 ) = I t N A 1 = U 1L 1
=I N t
N + N tN M n
 0 1 dim E1 (A) = dim E1 (B) = 1 dim E 1 (A) =1
1 (0) 0
B C
B 1C A
A2 = B
B
C 2 Mn (R)
C n
@1 A
0 (0) 1
A A2
rg A = rg A2 = 2 Xn = t un un+1 ··· un+p 1 Xn+1 = AXn
rg f = rg f 2 dim Ker f = dim Ker f 2 Ker f ⇢ Ker f 2 0 1
Ker f = Ker f 2 0 1 (0)
x 2 Ker f \ Im f x = f (a) f (x) = 0 B C
B C
a 2 Ker f 2 = Ker f x=0 A=B C
@(0) 0 1 A
Ker f \ Im f = {0E } a0 a1 ··· ap 1
Ker f Im f = Rn
Ker f Im f = Rn (un )
A p
L 2 Mp,1 (C)
0 1
0 (0) LXn+1 = LXn L L = LA
B C t
L t
A
B C
B C B 2 M2 (R)
@ 0 A
L = a0 a0 + a1 ··· a0 + · · · + ap 1
(0) B
P (1) = 1 (a0 + · · · + ap 1 ) = 0
rg A = rg B = 2 B ` (un )n2N LXn = LX0
!
tr B = tr A = 0 tr B 2 = tr A2 = 2 p 1
X p 1
X k
X
µ B (p k)ak ` = ak uj
k=0 k=0 j=0
⇢
+µ=0
2
+ µ2 = 2 P
p 1
X p 1
X
{ , µ} = {1, 1} P 0 (1) = p kak = (p k)ak 6= 0
k=0 k=0

Sp B = {1, 1} Sp A = {1, 0, 1} Pp 1 Pk
k=0 ak j=0 uj
`=
P 0 (1)

dim E0 (A) = dim Ker A = n 2

 t
Com(A)A
dim Fi + E (a) = dim Fi + dim E (a) dim Fi \ E (a)
| {z } | {z } | {z }
A n det A n =n 1 2

t dim Fi \ E (a) 1 x = (x1 , . . . , xn )

X 6= 0 AX = X Com(A)X = (det A)X Fi a(x) = x X
t
6= 0 X Com(A) n x1 , . . . , x n AX = X
det A
t X xi
A det A = 0 Com(A)A = 0 Ai X i = X i Xi n 1 X
Im A ⇢ Ker t Com(A) i Xi
dim Ker t Com(A) n 1 Com(A) 6= 0 rg A = n 1 Ai
A
dim Ker t Com(A) = n 1
t
n 2 Com(A)
dim Ker t Com(A) = n 1 A X 6= 0 M 2 Mn (C)
X AM = M M 6= 0
t
X 2 Ker A \ {0} Com(A + tIn )(A + tIn )X = det(A + tIn )X A
t 6= 0 A M 6= 0
t det(A + tIn ) X M AX = X A
Com(A + tIn )X = X
t M A = t ( t At M )
t ! 0+ A
t
A
t A
Com(A + tIn )X ! t Com(A)X
det(A+tIn )
t !µ µ
A
t
Com(A)X = µX ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
t a b a 2b 0 b
Com(A) 2 µ AM MA = =
2c 2d c 2d c 0
0 E0 = Vect(E1,1 , E2,2 ) 1
E1 = Vect(E2,1 ) 1 E 1 = Vect(E1,2 )
a E = Rn A
a E (a)
2 a
Fi A P
Rn (x1 , . . . , xn ) 2 Rn xi = 0 Fi P 1
AP = D
n 1
Fi E (a) t
P t At (P 1
)=D

(e1 , . . . , en ) Rn Qt AQ 1
=D
e 1 , . . . , ei 1 , ei+1 , . . . , en Fi Fi
t 1 t 1
x 7! xi Q= P Q = (P )
 (1, (X + 1), . . . , (X + 1)n )
P 2 GLn (K) D 2 Dn (K)
u (X + 1)k = nX(X + 1)k + k(1 X)(X + 1)k
1
AB = P DP

A(BA)A 1
= P DP 1 u (X + 1)k = (n k)(X + 1)k+1 + (2k n)(X + 1)k

1 1 1 1 1
u (1, (X + 1), . . . , (X + 1)n )
BA = (A P )D(P A) = (A P )D(A P)

2k n k 2 {0, . . . , n}

A A n+1
A (X) = (X cos ↵)2 + sin2 ↵ ei↵ e i↵
A
↵ 6= 0 [⇡] A A

↵ = 0 [⇡] A
↵ 6= 0 [⇡] A
A
↵ = 0 [⇡] A rg A = 2
2
B (X) = (X cos ↵)(X + cos ↵) sin ↵ ±1 B A
dim Ker A = 2 A

A = X 2 (X u1 )(X u2 )

u 1 , u2 2 C
A rg A  2 A
0, 0, u1 u2
a b
= a2 b2 6= 0
b a tr A = u1 + u2 tr A2 = u21 + u22
rg(A) = 2 dim Ker A = 2n 2
A 2n 2 u1 + u2 = k u21 + u22 = k 2 + 6
t t
1 ... 1 1 1 ... 1 1
u1 6= 0 u2 = k u22 = k 2 6= k 2 + 6 u2 6= 0
n(a + b) n(a b) p
2 2
2n A u1 = u2 u1 = u2 = k/2 k /2 = k + 6 k = ±i2 3

k
AX = X
2
A (1, X, . . . , X n )

u : P 2 Cn [X] 7! nXP + (1 X 2 )P 0 Vect t 1, k/2, 1, 1

 p A M4 (C) (det A)2 ↵, , ,
k 6= ±i2 3
det(A) = (a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 )2
a 2 + b2 + c 2 + d 2 =6 0 rg(A) = 4
2 2 2 2
✓ a + b
◆ + c + d =0 rg(A)  3 a2 + b2 6= 0
a b
rg(A) 2
b a
2 5+x x
3
A ( ) = ( 1) 0 2 x x ac + bd bc ad
0 x 3 x C3 = 2 2
C1 + 2 C2
a +b a + b2

2 ad bc bd + ac
A( ) = ( + 2) + (2x 1) x 6
C4 = C1 + 2 C2
a 2 + b2 a + b2
rg(A) = 2
= (2x 1)2 + 4x + 24 = 4x2 + 25 > 0 = ((a X)2 + b2 + c2 + d2 )
A
2 2 2
A = ((a X) + ↵ )
2
A a+↵ a ↵
A
2 rg(A (a + ↵)Id) = 2 rg(A (a ↵)Id) = 2
2 + (2x 1) x 6
A x=0 dim Ea+↵ (A) = dim Ea ↵ (A) =2
0 1
2 5 1 A
A=@ 0 2 0A
5 5 3

rg(A + 2I3 ) = 2 rg(A) = 0 a1 = . . . = an 1 =0 rg(A) = 2

dim E 2 (A) =1<m 2 (A) A

A x=0 k

A = Xn 2
(X 2 (a21 + · · · + a2n 1 ))

a21 + · · · + a2n 1 6= 0 A
n 2 A
At A = (a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 )I4
(det A)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2
4 a21 + · · · + a2n 1 =0 A A
b, c, d a 7! det A A=0 a1 = . . . = an 1 =0

det A = a4 + ↵(b, c, d)a3 + (b, c, d)a2 + (b, c, d)a + (b, c, d)

 ✓ ◆
X1
X=
X2
2
BX = X () X2 = X1 AX1 = X2 () X2 = X1 AX1 = X1 1 M
B 2 z 6= 0 z 6= 27/4 M M3 (C)
A
A = On A B
B B 6= On
M
a 2 b2 + c 2
M = X3 3X
F1 F2 p q abc
K E B = (B1 , B2 )
F1 F2 f1 f2 f F 1 F2 E M
Mat(f1 , B1 ) = A1 Mat(f2 , B2 ) = A2 Mat(f, B) = A
2K E (f ) = E (f1 ) E (f2 ) 0
M = 3X 2 3 1 1

(ab c)2 (ab + c)2

M M( 1) = M (1) =
abc abc
P = X3 zX z

z P c 6= ±ab
M
I3 I3
c = ab >1 1
P 0 = 3X 2 z x P0
2 3 1
P (x) = zx z = 0 () x = z=0 1
3 2
x= 3/2 z = 3x2 = 27/4 1
M + I3
z=0 M 0
0 1 0 1
1 a ab 1 a ab
z = 27/4 M 3/2
rg(M + I3 ) = rg @ 1/a 1 bA = rg @ 0 0 0A=1
0 1 L2 L2 1
a L1
✓ ◆ 3/2 0 27/4 1/ab 1/b 1 0 0 0
3 L3 L3 1
ab L1
rg M + I3 = rg @ 1 3/2 0 A=2
2
1 1 3/2 2
 2/ {A(x0 ), . . . , A(xn )} xi (A )P
dim E 1 (M ) = dim Ker(M + I3 ) = 3 1=2
P (xi ) = 0 P n+1
M f (P ) = P
f
c = ±ab 1 M 2 {A(x0 ), . . . , A(xn )}
M ab = ±c
i A(xi )
I i J0 ; nK = A(xi )
i 2 I xi (A )P i2
/ I xi
B n+1 B (A )P xi P
Rn [X] f Rn [X]
1, 2 2R f (P ) = P () 8i 2
/ I, xi P
Y
P1 , P2 2 Rn [X] AP1 AP2 B () BI | P BI = (X xi )
0in
AP1 = BQ1 + R1 AP2 = BQ2 + R2
i2I
/

Q 1 , Q2 R1 = f (P1 ) R2 = f (P2 ) BI n
n f (P ) = P
A( f
1 P1 + 2 P2 ) = B( 1 Q1 + 2 Q2 ) +( 1 R1 + 2 R2 )

1 R1 + 2 R2
E (f ) = BI Q Q 2 R[X], deg Q < Card(I)
B
A( f
1 P1 + 2 P2 ) B
I i 2 J0 ; nK = A(xi )
f( 1 P1 + 2 P2 ) = 1 R1 + 2 R2 = 1 f (P1 ) + 2 f (P2 ) f
J0 ; nK n+1
f Rn [X] Rn [X] f

2R P 2 Rn [X] f (P ) = P
P n f (P ) = P
Q AP = BQ + P A
B (A )P ✓ ◆
1 On 1 ⇤
f (P ) = P () B | (A )P P AP =
0
B X xi xi = tr A
6= 0 A A
B | (A )P () 8i 2 J0 ; nK, xi (A )P A A 6= 0

M
Q BI Q Rn [X]
 M = X tY M 2 = X(t Y X)t Y ↵ = tY X N 2 = sN s = a1 + · · · + an
M 2 = ↵X t Y = ↵M s>0 N
↵ 6= 0 M X(X ↵) M 1/2 N
X 2 sX M M 1
xM + yIn
2
↵=0 M X
1
M M M = In (2 + s)N
M = On X Y
M ↵ 6= 0
↵ = tr(t Y X) = tr(X t Y ) = tr M M 1
M (a, b) = P D(a, b)P D(a, b) = diag((a + b)2 , (a b)2 , a2 b2 , a 2 b2 )
0 1
1 1 1 0
B1 1 0 1C
P =B@1
C
1 0 1A
1 1 1 0
B = (e1 , . . . , en ) Kn f Kn
M (a, b)n ! 0 |a + b| < 1 |a b| < 1 a2 b2 < 1
B J
a2 b2 = (a + b)(a b)
"1 = e 1 + · · · + e n f ("1 ) = n"1
rg f = rg J = 1 ("2 , . . . , "n ) f
B 0 = ("1 , . . . , "n ) Kn f

J 2 = nJ X(X n)
J 1
A = P DP D = diag(a + (n 1)b, a b, . . . , a b)
0 1
1 1 (0)
B C
B 1 C
Pn P =B B
C
C
M = (ai aj )1i,jn M2 = M = k=1 a2k @ 1A
6= 0 M 1 (0) 1
=0 M2 = 0 M M =0
1
(a1 , . . . , an ) = 0 B=Q Q
M n = diag(a + (n 1)b, b a, . . . , b a, a b, . . . , a b)
0 1
1 1 (0) 1 (0)
B C
B C
B C
B C
B (0) 1 (0) 1C
B C
Ei,i B C
Q=B 0 ··· 0 2 ··· 2C
i 6= j Ei,j (X) = ( 1)n X n Ei,j B C
B C
Ei,j = 0 Ei,j B (0) 1 (0) 1C
B C
i=j B C
@ A
1 1 (0) 1 (0)
n = diag(a + (n 1)b, b a, . . . , b a, a b, . . . , a b)
0 1 a=b=0
1 1 (0) 1 (0)
a = 0 b 6= 0 Mn
B C
B 1 C
B C
B C a 6= 0 b=0
B 1C
B C a=b
B C
B (0) 1 (0) 1C Mn (X) = (X (n 1)a)(X + a)n 1
Q=B B
C
C
B (0) 1 (0) 1C
B C
B C E(n = Vect(1, . . . , 1)
B 1C 1)a
B C
B C
@ 1 (0)A
E a: x1 + · · · + xn = 0
1 1 (0) 1
Mn

a 6= b ab 6= 0
A

AX = X 6= 0 b(X + a)n a(X + b)n

Mn (X) = ( 1)n
2 b a
(n 1) = 0
1 2 A = P DP 1 z2C
0 1 ✓ ◆n
1 (0) 1 1 z+a a
=
B C z+b b
B C
B C
P =B
B(0)
C
C D = diag(0, . . . , 0, 1, 2) n n
B 1 C
@ 1 Mn
··· 1 1 1A
Mn x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) 2 Cn
0 0 0 1 2
Mn x = x
B
1 8
B = P DP > x1 + bx2 + · · · + bxn = 0
0 1 >
>
< ax1 x2 + · · · + bxn = 0
1 0 ··· 0 1 2
B0 1 (0) 2 2C >
B C >
>
B C :
B C ax1 + · · · + axn 1 xn = 0
P =BB
C
C D = diag(0, . . . , 0, 1, 2)
B (0) 1 C
B C
@0 1 ··· 1 2 2A 8
1 0 ··· 0 1 2 >
> x1 + bx2 + · · · + bxn = 0
>
< (a + )x1 + (b + )x2 = 0
1, 2
>
>
2
2 2(n 2) = 0 >
:
(a + )xn 1 (b + )xn = 0
 n 1
n 1
8
>
< (a + )x1 + (b + )x2 = 0
(n 1) 1 ··· 1 1 1
1
> (n 1) 1 0 +1
: det( In M ) = = =( (n 1))
(a + )xn 1 (b + )xn = 0
1
(n 1) 1 0 (0)
x = (x1 , . . . , xn )
✓ ◆k
a+ det( In M) = ( (n 1))( + 1)n 1
Sp(M ) = 1, (n 1)
xk = f M
b+
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (x1 , . . . , xn ) () x1 + . . . + xn = 0

A Sp A = {1, 4} E 1 x1 + . . . + xn = 0
Pn Pn (1) = 1n Pn (4) = 4 n n
A = P (A) En 1 M

4n 1n
Pn = 1n + (X 1)
3 M 2 = (n 1)In + (n 2)M
M (X + 1)(X (n 1))
4n 1 4 4n M
An = A+ I3
3 3 M (X + 1)(X (n 1))
M
M
X +1 X (n 1)
↵ = tr A = 2 cos ✓ = det A = cos 2✓
X2 2 cos ✓X + cos 2✓ cos ✓ + sin ✓ cos ✓ sin ✓ X p = (X + 1)(X (n 1))Q + ↵X +
Xn X 2 2 cos ✓X + cos 2✓ 1 n 1
Xn = X2 2 cos ✓X + cos 2✓ Q(X) + R(X) ⇢
↵ + = ( 1)p
deg R < 2 ↵(n 1) + = (n 1)p
R(cos ✓ + sin ✓) = (cos ✓ + sin ✓)n (
(n 1)p ( 1)p
↵= n
(n 1)p +(n 1)( 1)p
R(cos ✓ sin ✓) = (cos ✓ sin ✓)n = n

(n 1)p ( 1)p (n 1)p + (n 1)( 1)p

(cos ✓ + sin ✓)n (cos ✓ sin ✓)n n Mp = M+ In
R= (X cos ✓ sin ✓) + (cos ✓ + sin ✓) n n
2 sin ✓

(cos ✓ + sin ✓)n (cos ✓ sin ✓)n

An = A (cos ✓+sin ✓)I2 +(cos ✓+sin ✓)n In
2 sin ✓ Sp(A) = {1, 3, 4}
 1
P A = P DP J n n
2ik⇡
D = diag(1, 3, 4) M 2 Mn (C) M2 = A !0 , . . . , ! n 1 !k =e n
(P 1 M P )2 = D P 1M P D P 2 GLn (C) J = P DP 1
P 1M P D = diag(!0 , . . . , !n 1)
a, b, c a = 1 b = 3 c2 =
2 2
4 0 1
(a, b, c) a0 a1 ··· an 1
M B C
Ba n 1 C
tr M = a + b + c 2 C \ R A=B B
C = a0 I + a1 J + a2 J 2 + · · · + an
C 1J
n 1

@ a1 A
a1 ··· an 1 a0

det(A
⇢ I) = ( 2)( 6) ✓ ◆ n
X1
1
5x + 3y = 2x 1 P AP = a0 I + a1 D + a2 D2 + · · · + an 1D
n 1
= diag(( ak !ik )0in 1
() x + y = 0
x + 3y = 2y 1 k=0
⇢ 2 ✓ ◆
5x + 3y = 6x 3
() x + 3y = 0 n
Y1 nX1
x + 3y = 6y 1 det A = det(P 1
AP ) = ak !ik
6 i=0 k=0
A = P DP 1
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 3 2 0
P = D=
1 1 0 6
t
1 1 1
1 2
M P MP X +X =D
P 1M P D D p p
P 1
MP 3+i 3 3 i 3
6,
a, b a2 + a = 2 b2 + b = 6 a=1 2 2
a= 2 b=2 b= 3
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ p p ◆
1 7 3 2 3 1 3 1 11 3 3+i 3 3 i 3
, , , diag 6, ,
4 1 5 1 0 1 1 4 1 9 2 2
Mn (C)
Mn (R)

1 0 ··· 0
P 2 GLn (R) D 2 Dn (R)
0 1
n 1
det( .In J) = 0 = 1 B = P DP

0 1 AB 3 = B 3 A
1 0 ··· 0 AP D3 P 1
= P D3 P 1
A
 M D3 = D3 M '(I2 ) = 1 P '(P 1
) = '(P ) 1
A B
M =P 1
AP ✓ ◆ ✓'(A)◆= '(B) ✓ ◆
µ 0 1 0 1 0
mi,j M 1, . . . , n ' =µ
0 1 0 µ 0 µ
D ✓ ◆
0
M D3 = D3 M ' = µ A '(A) = det A
0 µ
8(i, j) 2 {1, . . . , n}2 , mi,j 3
= mi,j 3 A A M2✓
(C) ◆
j i
↵
0
2
2
8(i, j) 2 {1, . . . , n} , mi,j = 0 3
i = 3
j
=0 A =0 ✓ ◆'(A)
✓ =◆ 0 = det
✓ A ◆ ✓ ◆
↵1 0 ↵ ↵
x 7! x 3
R 6= 0 =
0 0 2 0 2 0 2
2 2'(A) = 2 2 = 2 det A
8(i, j) 2 {1, . . . , n} , mi,j = 0 i = j

M D = DM Xn = t un vn w n
0 1
1 1 1
AB = BA A=@ 1 1 1A
1 1 1
Xn+1 = AXn X n = An X 0
1
A = P DP
0 1 0 1
A = P DP 1
B=Q Q 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
D = @0 2 0 A , P = @1 1 0A
P, Q 2 GLn (K) D, 2 Mn (K) 0 0 2 1 0 1
Ap M B q = O n
Dp N q
= On An = P D n P 1

N =P 1
M Q = (ni,j ) Xn = P D n P 1
X0
1, . . . , n µ1 , . . . , µ n D (Xn ) (P 1
Xn )
p q 1
8(i, j) 2 {1, . . . , n}2 , i ni,j µj =0 P Xn = D n P 1
X0
1
P X0
8(i, j) 2 {1, . . . , n} , 2 X0
i ni,j µj =0 0 1 0 1

X0 = P @ 0 A = @ A
DN = On
0
(un )n 0 (vn )n 0 (wn )n 0
u0 = v 0 = w 0
 B A
T = M2 T M M X = On,1
M B
M M = On
1, . . . , n T ' Mn (C) '
1
T T = P DP P D '(D) = C

D = diag( 1, . . . , n)
1
M T N =P MP D
✓
N
⇢
N = diag(µ1 , . . . , µn ) cos ✓ + cos k✓ = 1
sin ✓ + sin k✓ = 0
Q 2 R[X]

81  k  n, Q( k) = µk
✓= k✓ [2⇡] ✓=⇡ k✓ [2⇡]
N = Q(D) M = Q(T ) M
✓ = ⇡ k✓ [2⇡] cos ✓ + cos k✓ = 0
✓ = k✓ [2⇡]

cos ✓ + cos k✓ = 1 () cos ✓ = 1/2

✓ = ⇡/3 [2⇡] ✓= ⇡/3 [2⇡]

✓ ◆ 1 ✓ ◆ ✓ = ⇡/3 [2⇡]
In D In D ⇢
=
On In On In ✓ = ⇡/3 + 2p⇡
(k + 1)✓ = 2q⇡
p, q 2 Z
✓ ◆ 1 ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
In D A C In D A E
= (6p + 1)(k + 1) = 6`
On In On B On In On B
6` ^ (6p + 1) = 1 6 | (k + 1)
E = AD + C DB 6 | (k + 1) k + 1 = 6` ✓ = ⇡/3
D 2 Mn (C) DB AD = C
' Mn (C) ei⇡/3 + ei(6` 1)⇡/3
= ei⇡/3 + e i⇡/3
=1

'(M ) = M B AM
✓= ⇡/3 [2⇡]
M 2 Ker ' M B = AM
X B

AM X = M BX = M X 6 | (k + 1)
 k+1 ✓ = ⇡/3 L1 L1 + XL2 + X 2 L3 + · · · + X k 1
Lk
ei✓ + eik✓ = 1 T (X) = ( 1)k X k Xk 1
1
ik✓
e T
ik✓ i(k 1)✓
e =1+e
Xk Xk 1
1
in✓
v vn = e
8n 2 N, vn+k = vn + vn+k 1 T k
T
u = Re v Sk
Tq q
n⇡ T Tq 2C
un = cos
3
k k 1 q
u 1=0 =1
k+1 =e i✓
Sk Sk R
k e 0 , e1 , . . . , e k 1 ei✓ + eik✓ = 1
6 | (k + 1)
80  n  k 1, ej (n) = n,j 8n 2 N, ej (n + k) = ej (n) + ej (n + k 1)
T : (un ) 7! (un+1 ) RN
T Sk ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
T Sk T a b d c
A= Com A = (P)
Sk c s a b
Tq T ↵=a+d
T (e0 , . . . , ek 1 ) Com A = det(A)t A 1
0 1
0 ··· ··· 0 0
B C
B1
B
C
C Com(AB) = det(AB)t (AB) 1
= det(AB)t B 1
A 1

B C
B0 0C = det(A)t A 1
det(B)t B 1
= Com(A) Com(B)
B C
B C
@ 0 1A A = P BP 1 Com(A) = Com(P ) Com(B) Com(P 1 )
0 ··· 0 1 1 Com(P ) = det(P ) P 1
t

Com(A) = t P 1 Com(B)t P A + t Com A = ↵In

T (ek 1) = ek 1 + e0 T 1
P (B + Com B)P = ↵In B + Com B = ↵In
X 0 ··· 0 0 A (P) ↵2C
1 X A + t Com A = ↵In
T (X) = 0 0 0
A
1 X 1
0 ··· 0 1 1 X A2 ↵A + det(A)In = On
 A
Im(u IdE ) \ Im(u + IdE ) = {0E }
A
rg(u IdE ) + rg(u + IdE )  dim E

↵2 4 det A = 0, = ↵/2 det A = n

2 n 2
↵=2 det A = =1 dim Ker(u IdE ) + dim Ker(u + IdE ) dim E

(A In ) 2 = O n u 1 1
A = In + N N N 2 = On
A
A (P)
A (P) ↵2C '(P )
k k k 1 k k 1
'(X ) = X k(X + 1)X = (1 k)X kX '
A2 ↵A + det(A)In = On
E
A µ
' 1, 0, 1, . . . , (1 n) n + 1 = dim E
A A '
A p
q=n p µ
A
A (P) f R[X]
deg P  n deg f (P )  n f
p 1 q 1
Rn [X] k 2 {0, . . . , n}
µ =1
f (X k ) = k(k + 1)X k k(k 1)X k 2
(P)

A 2 Mn (C) (P) ↵2C f

0, . . . , k(k + 1), . . . , n(n + 1)
A2 ↵A = On f f
↵=0 A =02
rgA < n 1 0, . . . , k(k + 1), . . . , n(n + 1)
A
(P) A
↵ 6= 0 A = ↵B B2 = B B
A A deg P  n 1 '(P ) 2 E
rgA = n 1 B diag(1, . . . , 1, 0) deg P = n X n+1
A diag(↵, . . . , ↵, 0) '(P ) 2 E
' '
↵n 2
=1
 '
' (X a)k f 2 L(E)
Im f ⇢ Im p Ker p ⇢ Ker f F(f ) = f
'((X a)k ) = k(X a)k (X b) nX(X a)k f Im p
Im p

'((X a)k ) = (k n)(X a)k+1 + (k(a b) na)(X a)k dim E1 (F) (dim Im p)2
Im f ⇢ Ker p Im p ⇢ Ker f F(f ) = 0
' f
Ker p Ker p
nb, (a + (n 1)b), (2a + (n 2)b), . . . , ((n 1)a + b), na dim E0 (F) (dim Ker p)2
' ' n+1 Im f ⇢ Im p Im p ⇢ Ker f F(f ) = 21 f
dim E = n + 1 ' f
Ker p Im p
Im f ⇢ Ker p Ker p ⇢ Ker f F(f ) = 12 f
f Im p
M (M ) = M Ker p
M 2 E1 ( )
E1 ( ) n2 1
(In ) = (n + 1)In En+1 ( )
dim E1/2 (F) 2 dim Ker p ⇥ dim Im p

n2 = dim Mn (R)
(dim Im p)2 +2 dim Ker p dim Im p+(dim Ker p)2 = (dim Im p+dim Ker p)2 = dim E 2 =
F
dim E1 (F) = (dim Im p)2 dim E0 (F) = (dim Ker p)2
dim E1/2 (F) = 2 dim Ker p ⇥ dim Im p
P P (F )(u) = P (f ) u P (f ) = 0 () P (F ) = 0

f F B = ↵(X x0 ) . . . (X xn )
u 2 L(E, E (f )) ⇢ L(E) E (F )
P 2 Rn [X]
dim
P E (F ) dim E ⇥ dim E (f )P dim L(E)) =
2 B | (A )P B A
2Sp(F ) dim E (F ) dim E ⇥ 2Sp(f ) dim E (f ) = dim E = dim L(E)
dim E (F ) = dim E ⇥ dim E (f ) 2 Sp(f ) i 2 {0,
Q.n. . , n} = A(xi ) = A(xi )
P = j=0,j6=i (X xj ) (P ) = P P 6= 0

Sp = A(xi ) i 2 J0 ; nK
 = A(xi ) f (P ) = 0 B AP
= A(x0 ) A B f (P ) = 0 B P
xi = A(xi ) x1 , . . . , x n f
= A(x0 ) = . . . = A(xp ) 6= A(xp+1 ), . . . , A(xn ) x0 , . . . , x p
A xp+1 , . . . , xn E0 (f ) = B. Vect(1, X, . . . , X n deg B
)
P 2 Rn [X] (P ) = P B | (A )P
A = (X x0 ) . . . (X xp )à xp+1 , . . . , xn à B Rn [X]
(X xp+1 ) . . . (X xn ) ^ Ã = 1 6= 0
(A )P = BQ
B | (A )P () (X xp+1 ) . . . (X xn ) | P B (A )P deg P < deg B
B P A
= A(xk ) xk B
E ( ) = (X xp+1 ) . . . (X xn )Q Q 2 Rp [X]
xk B = A(xk )
Y
Pk = (X xj ) 6= 0
j6=k

deg Pk < deg B B | (A A(xk ))Pk f (Pk ) = A(xk )Pk

f Rn [X] R A(xk ) f Pk
B Pk
deg R < deg B  n xk Rdeg B 1 [X] Ker f = E0 (f )

1, 2 2R P1 , P2 2 Rn [X]

AP1 = BQ1 + f (P1 ) AP2 = BQ2 + f (P2 )

3
L(E) =
A( 1 P1 + 2 P2 ) = B( 1 Q1 + 2 Q2 ) + 1 f (P1 ) + 2 f (P2 )
0, 1 1
✓ ◆ f
deg 1 f (P1 ) + 2 f (P2 )  max deg f (P1 ), deg f (P2 ) < deg B Ir 0
✓ 0 0
◆
A B
u
C D
f( 1 P1 + 2 P2 ) = 1 f (P1 ) + 2 f (P2 ) (u) = 0 () B = 0 C = 0
f Rn (u) = u () A = 0 C = 0 D = 0
1 [X] f
(u) = u () A = 0 B = 0 D = 0
2R f (P ) = P Q

AP = BQ + P
f B = (e1 , . . . , en )
=0 f
1  i, j  n gi,j E
'
gi,j (ek ) = j,k ei
v 2 L(E) \ {0̃} u v= v
(gi,j ) L(E) x2E v(x) 6= 0 v 6= 0̃
u v(x) = v(x) u
T (gi,j ) = ( i j )gi,j u x 6= 0
v E
T
f n 2 N⇤ fn = 0 81  i  n, v(ei ) = x
p k
T (g) f g fp k
v
T 2n = 0 T
u v= v
'(v) = v v 6= 0̃ '
Ei,j Ek,` = j,k Ei,`
n
X n
X
0 1 U Ei,j = uk,` Ek,` Ei,j = uk,i Ek,j
2 (1)
k,`=1 k=1
B C
Mate f = @ A
(1) 2 (E1,1 , . . . , En,1 ), (E1,2 , . . . , En,2 ), . . . , (E1,n , . . . , En,n )
'
U
f (e1 + · · · + en ) = (n + 1)(e1 + · · · + en )
x = x1 e1 + · · · + xn en x1 + · · · + xn = 0

f (x) = x '(Ei,j ) = ( i j )Ei,j '

Mn (K)
n+1 f
B E f
D
Mn (K) B
Sp f = {1, n + 1}
L(E)
E1 (f ) = {x | x1 + · · · + xn = 0} En+1 (f ) = Vect(e1 + · · · + en )

dim E1 (f ) + dim En+1 (f ) = n S2 (R)

S2 (R) E1,1 , E2,2 E1,2 + E2,1

det f = (n + 1) 6= 0 0 1
2a 0 2b
f @0 2d 2c A
c b a+d
 ( )

(2 ) = 4(2 (a + d)) A( ) 1, . . . , n n f x1 , . . . , x n
(x1 , . . . , xn ) E
A a = x1 + · · · + xn k 2 {0, 1, . . . , n 1}
>0
p p f k (a) = k
1 x1 + ··· + k
n xn
a + d, a + d + a+d
n 1
↵0 a + ↵1 f (a) + · · · + ↵n 1f (a) = 0E
=0
(x1 , . . . , xn )
a+d P( 1) = ... = P( n) =0
n 1
<0 P = ↵0 + ↵1 X + · · · + ↵n 1X

P P =0
R 0 ↵0 = . . . = ↵n 1 = 0
>0 A A (a, f (a), . . . , f n 1
(a)) E

=0
=a+d f
0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 ↵0
2a 0 2b a+d 0 0 B C
@0 2d 2c A = @ 0 a+d 0 A B1 C
B C
c b a+d 0 0 a+d B C
@ 0 A
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 0 1 ↵n 1
a b a 0
A= =
c d 0 a
f n (a) = ↵0 a + ↵1 f (a) + · · · + ↵n 1f
n 1
(a)
A
A
A R 0
>0

=0 A g 2 Cf 2 Sp(f ) x 2 E (f )
✓ ◆ f (g(x)) = g(f (x)) = g( x) = g(x) g(x) 2 E (f )
a 0
A= g
0 a
P g
x2E x= 2Sp(f ) x
0 1
2a 0 0 !
@0 2a 0A X X
g(f (x)) = g x = g(x )
0 0 2a
2Sp(f ) 2Sp(f )
 ! Ker f k ⇢ Ker f k+1 fk
X X n k2N
f (g(x)) = f g(x ) = g(x )
2Sp(f ) 2Sp(f )
8` k, dim Ker f `+1 = dim Ker f `
f g
Q
' : Cf ! 2Sp(f ) L(E (f )) '(g)
E (f ) g 8` k, Ker f `+1 = Ker f `

Ker f 2k = Ker f k Im f k \ Ker f k = {0E }

f E= 2Sp(f ) E (f )
g P E (f )
2
dim Cf = 2Sp(f ) ↵ Im(f k ) Ker(f k ) = E
dim Cf = n Id, f, . . . , f n 1 Cf
n 1 fk
0 Id + 1 f + · · · + n 1 f =0
n 1 f
P = 0 + 1X + · · · + n 1X f
f n
n
0 = ... = n 1 =0
(Id, f, . . . , f n 1
) n = dim Cf
Cf
f f
g f
1, . . . , n f e1 , . . . , en
(e1 , . . . , en ) E
f2 = 0 f 6= 0 f f f g
f g k 2 {1, . . . , n}
✓ ◆ µk g(ek ) = µk ek P
0 1
0 0 8k 2 {1, . . . , n}, P ( k) = µk
k 2 {1, . . . , n}
(e1 , . . . , en ) f f
0 1 P (f )(ek ) = P ( k )(ek ) = µk ek = g(ek )
1 (0)
B C P (f ) g
@ A
(0) n
P (f ) = g

Ker f = Vect{ei | i = 0} Im f = Vect{ei | i 6= 0}

2 Sp(u) x 2 E (u)

v 3 (x) = u3 (x) = 3
x
v µ1 , . . . , µ p v Q 2 GLn 1 (C)
Q 1
A0 Q Q 1
B0Q
p
✓ ◆
E= Eµj (v) 1 0
R=P⇥ 2 GLn (C)
j=1 0 Q
Pp
x= j=1 xj xj 2 Eµj (u) v 3 (x) = 3
x R 1
AR R 1
BR
p
X p
X
µ3j xj = 3
xj
j=1 j=1

Eµj (v)
A (X) = (X + 1)(X 1)2
µ3j xj = 3
xj E 1 = Vect t 1 1 2 E1 = Vect t 1 0 1
A
6 0E
xj = µj = µj xj = xj
0 1
xj = 0E µj xj = xj 1 0 0
T =@ 0 1 1A
v(x) = x = u(x) 0 0 1
v u E (u) u C1 = t 1 1 2 C2 = t 1 0 1
E u C3 AC3 = C3 + C2 C3 = t 0 1 0
v u E 0 1
1 1 0
P = @1 0 1A
2 1 0
1
B = On A P AP = T
C B
B 6= On Im B B
B Im B Im B ⇢ Ker A AB = On
B A
A (X) = (X 1)3
n
n=1 E1 = Vect t 1 0 1
n 1 1 A
A, B 2 Mn (C) AB = On X1 0 1
A B µ 1 1 0
P X1 T = @0 1 1A
0 0 1
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 ⇤ 1 µ ⇤ C1 = t 1 0 1
P AP = P BP =
0 A0 0 B0
C2 AC2 = C2 + C1 C2 = t 0 1 0
AB = On µ=0 A0 B 0 = O n 1 C3 AC3 = C3 + C2 C3 = t 0 1 1
 0 1
1 0 0 ✓ ◆
P = @0 1 1A A = 0 12 6
1 0 1 3/2 6
1
P AP = T (X 9)2 A (X) = (X 9) A0 (X)

E9 (A0 ) = Vect 1, 1/2

A (X) = (X 1)3 A
✓ ◆
0 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 P0 =
1/2 1
E1 (A) = Vect @0A , @ 1A
0 1 ✓ ◆
0 1 0 0 9 6
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 (P )A P =
0 0 0 0 0 9
A @0A = @ 1A = @0A + @ 1A
0 1
1 2 1 1 ✓ ◆ 1 0 0
1 0
A = PTP 1 Q=P⇥ =@ 1 1 0A
0 P0
0 1 0 1 1/2 1/2 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
T = @0 1 1A P = @0 1 0A 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 1 9 6 2
Q 1 AQ = @0 9 6A
0 0 9

A
A = (X 9)3
A
A= X(X 1)(X a)
E9 (A) = Vect 1 1 1/2 a 6= 0, 1 A
a=0 rg A = 2 dim Ker A = 1 < m0 (A) A
dim E9 (A) = 1 X1 = t 1 1 1/2
a=1 rg(A I) = 2 A
0 1
1 0 0
P =@ 1 1 0A
1/2 0 1 ⌦ = {0, 1}

a=0
0 1 0 1 0 1
9 5 2 1 3
P 1 AP = @0 12 6A Ker A = Vect @0A Ker(A I3 ) = Vect @1A
0 3/2 6 1 2
 0 1
1 3 0 e2/H u(e) u
P = @0 1 0A u 2 E ⇤ u(H) = {0}
1 2 1 u 2 E ⇤ u(H) = {0} K
H f x 2 H u(f (x)) = 0
a=1 0 1 0 1
1 1 u f 2 v 2 E ⇤ v(H) = {0} u
Ker A = Vect @0A Ker(A I3 ) = Vect @1A u f u
1 1 MatB (u) = L 6= 0 u
MatB (u f ) = LA
0 1
1 1 0 u f = u () LA = L () t At L = t
L
P = @0 1 0A
1 1 1 t
L
t
Sp( A) = {1, 2, 1}
( 1, 1, 1) (0, 1, 1) ( 1, 0, 1) f
x+y z =0 y+z =0 x z=0
( =) ) f g

8x 2 Ker(f .Id), (f Id)(g(x)) = g(f (x) x) = 0

Ker(f Id) g
u
( (= ) gP
u
E= 2Sp(f ) E (f ) x2E x= 2Sp(f ) x
A u
x 2E
X
(g f )(x) = g(x ) = (f g)(x) Z AZ = Z
2Sp(f )
=↵+i Z = X + iY ↵, , X, Y

f g=g f AX = ↵X Y AY = X + ↵Y

x y E X
Y

f F f u(x), u(y) 2 Vect(x, y)

fF F
f Vect(x, y) u
f F Z 6= 0
f
f 2 L(E)
F = 2Sp f E (f ) f
f
{0} C F =E f
 X Y X0

Vect{ 1 0 0 0 , 0 1 0 1 }
X = ↵X0 Y = X0 (↵, ) 6= (0, 0)

Z = (↵ + i )X0 AZ = Z

(↵ + i )AX0 = (↵ + i )X0

↵ + i 6= 0 AX0 = X0 X0 K=C
AX0 = X0 2R u u
= a + ib a, b 2 R AZ = Z
K=R
AX = aX bY AY = aY + bX

Vect(X, Y ) A E = Ker(u Id) Ker(u2 + u + Id)

f
F
(X + 1)(X 2)(X 2 2X + 2)
F1 = F \ Ker(u Id)
A 1, 2 1±i

E 1 (A) = Vect t 0 0 1 0 , E2 (A) = Vect t 1 1 0 1 E1+i (A) = Vect t i 1 0 1 F2 = F \ Ker(u2 + u + Id)

P f F = F1 F 2
u f f x2F x=a+b a 2 Ker(u Id) b 2 Ker(u2 + u + Id)
u(x) = a + u(b) 2 F u (x) = a + u2 (b) 2 F
2
1 2
a = 3 x + u(x) + u (x) 2 F b=x a2F
(X + 1)(X 2) X2 2X + 2 a 2 F1 b 2 F2 F ⇢ F1 + F2
F = F 1 F2
u
F2 ⇢ Ker(u2 + u + Id) x 2 F2 (x, u(x))
f P
Vect(x, u(x)) u F2
Vect{ 0 0 1 0 , 1 1 0 1 } Vect(x, u(x)) x 6= 0
x 2 Ker(u2 + u + Id) F1
x2P Ker(u Id) u

u2 (x) 2u(x) + 2x = 0E
X x
F
X 2 Ker(A2 2A + 2I4 ) u
F uF
F u
X 2 Vect(t 1 0 0 0 ,t 0 1 0 1
Sp f = {2, 4, 6} E2 (A) = Vect e1 E4 (A) = Vect e2 E6 (A) = Vect e3 A
e1 = (0, 1, 1) e2 = (1, 0, 1) e3 = (1, 1, 0) 0 1
V fV 1 ⇤
f V = {0} Vect(ei ) B C
@ A
i 2 {1, 2, 3} Vect(ej , ek ) j 6= k 2 {1, 2, 3} V = R3 0 n

exp(A)
0 1
exp( 1) ⇤0
C A B C
A @ A
0 exp( n)

A A A
A A
T A A
T A Ak
T k
A k 0 1
1 ⇤
k
T k T B C
A @ A
(0) n

P (A)
0 1
A P ( 1) ⇤
B C
0 1 @ A
1 ⇤
B C (0) P( n)
@ A
0 n n
Y
P (A) = X P( k)
Aq 0 1 k=1
q
1 ⇤
B C
@ A
q
0 n

Aq Aq 2 Mn (Z) ✓ ◆
0
A= A 2 K [B]
0
 ✓ ◆
1 0
A= 1 6= 2 A
0 2
✓ ◆ p+1
X
↵1 0 m+1
B P = aX + b ↵j j ! 0
0 ↵2 m!+1
j=1
P ( ✓1 ) = ↵◆1 P( 2) = ↵2 B = P (A) 2 K [A]
µ p+1 ⇥ (1) (2)
A= µ 6= 0
0 ✓ ◆ p
X
↵ ↵j ( m
!0
B= P = j) j
µX + + =↵ p+1
0 ↵ µ m!+1
j=1
B = P (A) 2 K [A]
A
p
X
P 2 GL2 (K) B0 = P 1
BP m
j j !0
A0 = P 1 AP B0 A0 B m!+1
j=1
A
1, . . . , p

Pp 81  j  p, | j| <1
m
j=1 ↵j !
j m!+1 0
m
0 1 0 1 ↵p+1 p+1 !0 | p+1 | <1
m!+1
1 1 0 1 0 0
@
A= 0 1 0A @
B= 0 1 0A
0 0 1 0 1 1

A B
1, . . . , p µ1 , . . . , µ q
A B

p
X q
X
m
8m 2 N, m j (A) j = mµk (B)µm
k
j=1 j=1
A Pp 1, . . . , p
m m
tr(A ) = j=1 ↵j j ↵j
j X
m
8m 2 N, a =0
Pp ↵1 , .m. . , ↵p 2 C 1, . . . , p 2 C
⇤ 2Sp A[Sp B

j=1 ↵j j !0 81  j  p, | j| <1 a = m (A) m (B)

m!+1
p 1 A B
p=1
p 1 Sp A [ Sp B = {↵1 , . . . , ↵r }
↵1 , . . . , ↵p+1 2 C ⇤
1, . . . , p+1 2C ↵1 , . . . , ↵r
p+1
X r
X
m
↵j j !0 8m 2 N, a↵j ↵jm = 0
m!+1
j=1 j=1
 0 1 det(A ⇤ B) = (det A det B)n
1 1 ··· 1
B ↵1 ↵2 ··· ↵r C
B C
B C tr(A ⇤ B) = tr(A) tr(B)
@ A
↵1r 1 ↵2r 1 ··· ↵rr 1
↵1 , . . . , ↵ r
r
X A
a↵j C j = 0 0 1
j=1 1 ⇤
Cj B C
T =@ A
(0) n
81  j  r, a↵j = 0
1, . . . , n A
Ak
8 2 Sp A [ Sp B, m (A) = m (B)
0 k
1
1 ⇤
B C
Tk = @ A
k
(0) n

1 1 k k
A B (A ⇤ B)(A ⇤B ) = I n ⇤ I n = I n2 1, . . . , n
A⇤B
A A0 6= 0 AA0 = On
(A ⇤ B)(A0 ⇤ In ) = 0 0
A ⇤ In =
6 0 A⇤B
B x0 , u(x0 ), . . . , un 1
(x0 ) E
P, Q v 2 L(E) u
0 1 0 1 v(x0 ) = a0 x0 + a1 u(x0 ) + · · · + an 1u
n 1
(x0 )
1 ⇤ µ1 ⇤
B C B C
P 1 AP = @ A
1
Q BQ = @ A
0 0 µn n 1
n
w = a0 IdE + a1 u + · · · + an 1u 2 K [u]
i µi A B
1 1
(P )(A ⇤ B)(P ⇤ Q) = (P 1 AP ) ⇤ (Q
⇤Q 1
BQ)
v(x0 ) = w(x0 )
i µj
A⇤B A B v w u
1 1
P ⇤Q = (P ⇤ Q) 1 A⇤B 8k 2 N, v uk (x0 ) = w uk (x0 )

n Y
n v w
Y
A⇤B = (X i µj )
i=1 j=1 v 2 K [u]
 P 2 C[X] P (0) = 0

AB = P (A) = ↵n An + · · · + ↵1 A + In P (X) = aX + bX 2 + . . .

A B (↵n An 1
+ · · · + ↵1 In ) = In P (B) = aB + bB 2 + · · ·
A
1
A = B (↵n An 1
+ · · · + ↵1 In )
P (B)p = ap B p + b0 B p+1 + · · · = On
A A 1 A
1
B=A + ↵ n An 1
+ · · · + ↵1 I In + P (B)

In P (B) + P (B)2 + · · · + ( 1)p P (B)p

p 2 N⇤ Ap = O n H GLn (C)
P B = AP (A) H H
H
B = A + a 2 A2 + · · · + a p 1A
p 1
H (GLn (C), ⇥) H

B 2 = A2 +a3,2 A3 +· · ·+ap 1,2 A

p 1
, . . . , Bp 2
= Ap 2
+ap 1,p 2 A
p 1
, Bp 1
= Ap 1

Ap 1
= Bp 1
, Ap 2
= Bp 2
+bp 1,p 2 A
p 1
, . . . , A2 = B 2 +b3,2 B 3 +· · ·+bp 1,2 B
p 1 +1
X P (k) (a)
P (X) = (X a)k
k!
k=0
A = B + b2,1 B 2 + · · · + bp 1,1 B
p 1

Q 2 R[X] Q(0) = 1 A = BQ(B) +1

X P (k) (a)
P (aIn + J) = Jk
k!
k=0

J
1 0 1
N= A BA
P 00 (a) P (n 1) (a)
P (a) P 0 (a) 2! ··· (n 1)! C
N p = ( 1)p A 1
B p A = On B
B C
B C
B C
P (aIn + J) = B
B P (a) C
00
C
In = In N p = (I N )(I + N + N 2 + · · · + N p 1
) B 2! C
B C
1
@ P 0 (a) A
I N = In + A BA
(0) P (a)
1 1
In + A BA = I + N + N2 + · · · + Np 1
 x 2 Ker P (u) \ Im P (u) Q(u) P (u) = (P Q)(u) = 0
P = X(X 2 3aX + a2 ) f Im P (u) ⇢ Ker Q(u) x 2 Ker P (u) \ Ker Q(u) (⇤)
E = Ker f Ker(f 2 3af + a2 Id) X
X 2
3aX + a 2
a x = V (u) P (u)(x) + W (u) Q(u)(x) = 0E
Ker(f 2 3af + a2 Id) ⇢ Im f
(f 2 3af + a2 Id) f = 0 Ker f Im f Ker P (u) Im P (u) x2E
(⇤)

x=a+b a = P (u) V (u)(x) b = Q(u) W (u)(x)

a 2 Im P (u) b 2 Ker P (u)

P (u)(b) = (P Q)(u) W (u)(x) = 0E

Ker P (u) = Ker Q(u) Ker R(u)

P
Ker P (u) Im P (u) = E
E = Ker Q(u) Ker R(u)

R(u) Q(u) = 0̃ Im Q(u) ⇢ Ker R(u)

(Id, u, . . . , up ) L(E) n2
2
p=n
dim Im Q(u) = dim E dim Ker Q(u)

dim E = dim Ker Q(u) + dim Ker R(u) ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆

P (A) ⇤ O ⇤
P (M ) = =
✓ O P (B)
◆ ✓ O
◆ ⇤
dim Im Q(u) = dim Ker R(u) Q(A) ⇤ ⇤ ⇤
Q(M ) = =
O Q(B) O ✓O ◆✓ ◆
O ⇤ ⇤ ⇤
(P Q)(M ) = P (M )Q(M ) = = On
O ⇤ O O
PQ M

P Q
u (u Id) (u + Id) Ker(u (u Id)) Ker(u (u + Id))
V, W
Ker(u (u Id)) + Ker(u (u Id)) = E u (u2 Id) = 0
P V + QW = 1
x 2 Ker u x 2 Ker(u (u Id)) \ Ker(u (u + Id)) = {0}
u Ker u = {0} u 2 GL(E)
u2 Id = u 1 u (u2 Id) = 0 u2 = Id u
IdE = P (u) V (u) + Q(u) W (u) (⇤)
 x 2 Im u x = u(a) a2E
P 2 K⇤ P (u)(a) = 0 P

P (0) = 0 P 0 (0) = 1 P (X) = an X n + · · · + a1 X a1 6= 0

a1 u(a) 2 Im u2
2
P (X) = X + X Q(X) Q 2 K[X]
x 2 Im u2
Im u2 = Im u
x 2 Im f \ Ker f a2E x = f (a) f (x) = 0
f 2 (a) = 0 P (f )(a) = 0 x 2 Ker u \ Im u a 2 E x = u(a) a 2 Ker u2 = Ker u
x=0
P (f )(a) = f (a) + Q(f ) f 2 (a) = f (a) = x x 2 E u(x) 2 Im u = Im u2 u(x) = u2 (a)
a2E x=y+z y = u(a) 2 Im u z=x y
z 2 Ker u
Im f \ Ker f = {0}
x2E

x=u+v u = f (a) 2 Im f v 2 Ker f u

dim K [u] < +1

f (x) = f 2 (a) + f (v) = f 2 (a)
K [Q(u)] ⇢ K [u]
2 dim K [Q(u)] < +1
P (f )(x) = f (x) + f Q(f )(x) = 0
Q(u)
f (x) = f 2 Q(f )(x)

u= f (Q(f )(x)) v=x u P ⇧u

u 2 Im f x=u+v U, V 2 K[X] U P + V ⇧u = 1 U (u)P (u) = IdE
P (u)U (u) = IdE P (u) P (u) 1 = U (u) 2 K [u]
P ⇧u ⇧u = QD D
f (v) = f (x) f (u) = f (x) + f 2 (Q(f )(x)) = P (f )(x) = 0 P ⇧u ⇧u | P Q P (u)Q(u) = 0 Q(u) 6= 0
deg Q < deg ⇧u P (u)
v 2 Ker f

⇧u u uF ⇧u F | ⇧u ⇧u G | ⇧u
ppcm(⇧uF , ⇧uG ) | ⇧u
Ker u ⇢ Ker u2 P = XQ Q(0) 6= 0 x 2 Ker u2
P = ppcm(⇧uF , ⇧uG ) 8x 2 F P (u)(x) = 0 8x 2 G
u2 (x) = 0 Q(u)(u(x)) = 0 u(x) 2 Ker u \ Ker Q(u) u(x) = 0
P (u)(x) = 0 8x 2 E = F G P (u)(x) = 0 P u ⇧u | P
Q(0) 6= 0 Ker u2 ⇢ Ker u
Im u2 ⇢ Im u
 1
⇧u u uF A = P DP D = diag(a + b, . . . , a + b, a b, . . . , a b)
0 1
1 (0) 0 1 (0)
B C
B C
B C
B 1 0 (0) 1 C
B C
B=A In B 2 = On P =B B 0 · · · 0 1 0 · · · 0 C
C
u Kn
B B(0) 1 0 (0) 1 C
B C
u2 = 0̃ Im u ⇢ Ker u B C
@ A
(e1 , . . . , ep ) Im u (e1 , . . . , ep , ep+1 , . . . , eq ) 1 (0) 0 1 (0)
Ker u
j 2 {1, . . . , p} "j 2 E u("j ) = ej
1 "1 + · · · + p " p + µ 1 e 1 + · · · + µ q e q = 0 ⇡A = (X (a + b))(X (a b))
u 1 e1 + · · · + p ep = 0
A ⇡A
1 = ... = p = 0
µ1 e1 + · · · + µq eq = 0 µ1 = . . . = µq = 0
("1 , . . . , "p , e1 , . . . , eq )
p + q = dim Im u + dim Ker u = n E E
u (e1 , "1 , . . . , ep , "p , ep+1 , . . . , eq ) Y
p ⇧f = (X )↵
B A = In + B 2Sp(f )

E= Ker(f Id)↵
2Sp(f )

f
2 Sp(f )
n Mn (R)
Ker(f Id)↵ 1
6= Ker(f Id)↵

⇧f x 2 Ker(f Id)↵ \ Ker(f Id)↵ 1

X2 + 1 (f Id)k (x ) 0k↵ 1
n P
x= x
P 2Sp(f )
✓ ◆ P 2 C[X] P (f )(x) = P (f )(x ) 2 Ker(f Id)↵
0 1 2Sp(f ) (f )(x )
P
A= An = diag(A, . . . , A) 2 Mn (R)
1 0

An P (f )(x) = 0 () 8 2 Sp(f ), P (f )(x ) = 0

A2n = In X2 + 1 An P = (X )↵ Q + R deg R < ↵

P↵ 1
X2 + 1 An R= k=0 ak (X ) k

P (f )(x ) = 0 () 80  k < ↵ , ak = 0
 (X )Q u ⇡u ↵=1
P (f )(x) = 0 () 8 2 Sp(f ), (X )↵ | P
(X )↵ ⇡u = (X )Q Q( ) 6= 0
P (f )(x) = 0 () ⇧f | P
Q X

QU + (X )V = 1 U, V 2 K[X]

Ker(u Id) = {0} Im(u Id) = E u Id

Q(u)U (u)(x) + (u Id)V (u)(x) = x
u Q(u)U (u)(x) 2 Ker(u Id) ⇡u
u (u Id)V (u)(x) 2 Im(u Id)
Ker(u Id) = Ker(u Id)2
Im(u Id) \ Ker(u Id) = {0} ⇡u
2 2
m(v) = u v m (v) = u v P (m)(v) = P (u) v P
u m u

u u m
Y
dim E m
u = ( 1) (X )
2Sp u

E=V W u
E= Ker(u Id)m
2Sp u u
V W
Im(u Id) \ Ker(u Id) = {0} = 0 00
Ker(u Id) = Ker(u Id)2
Ker(u Id) = Ker(u Id)m P
P↵ u u P
E= Ker(u Id) A 2 Mn (R) ⇢ Mn (C) P↵
2Sp u
A ⇡ A P↵ P
u 1 ↵ A
u u ⇡ P A

⇡u = (X )↵ Q Q( ) 6= 0 P X X 2 + pX + q
=P
⇡u (u) = 0 u
Im Q(u) ⇢ Ker(u Id)↵ Pi↵i
Ker(u Id) = Ker(u Id)↵

Im Q(u) ⇢ Ker(u Id) E= Ker Pi↵i (u)

i
 ui u v
Ei = Ker Pi↵i (u)
Ker v k ⇢ Ker v k+1 Ker v k = Ker v k+1 =) 8` 2 N, Ker v k+` = Ker v k
i ui
Y v = Pi (u)
= i
i 0 < dim Ker Pi (u) < dim Ker Pi2 (u) < · · · < dim Ker Pi↵ (u) = ↵ deg Pi

Pi↵i (ui ) = 0 i = Pi i
↵ deg Pi
Y Y
= Pi↵i = Pi i 8k  ↵i , dim Ker Pik (u) = k deg Pi
i i

↵i = i

x
dim Ker Pi↵i (u) = dim Ei = deg = ↵i deg Pi P (f )(x) = P ( )x P (f ) = 0 x 6= 0 P( ) = 0
i

⇡ 6= ⇡
Y X X
⇡= Pi i i  ↵i i < ↵i x f (x) = x
i i i x 6= 0E f n (x) = n x P (f )(x) = P ( )x
P (f )(x) = 0E x 6= 0E P( ) = 0
X 3 + 2X 2 X 2 f
E= Ker Pi (u) i 02
/ Sp f
i

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
dim Ker Pik (u) = k deg Pi k  ↵i 1 2 1 2
f (f + 2f Id) = (f + 2f Id) f = IdE
X X 2 2
dim E = i deg Pi < ↵i deg Pi = deg = dim E
i i

⇡=
P
'2 = Id X2 1 ' '
↵
dim Ker P (u) = k deg P k2N 1 f
1 '
v u F = Ker P ↵ (u)
P ↵ (v) = 0 v Pk
k2N dim F = k deg P
⇡= i T 2 = Id T T 1
=T
Ker Pi↵i 1 (u) 6= Ker Pi↵i T X2 1 Sp T ⇢ {1, 1}
X 1/2
⇡ 1
 u
B(uB 2 + vB + wI3 ) = I3
a ⇧u
1
⇧u = (X a)P P (u) 6= 0 B = uB 2 + vB + wI3 = ↵A2 + A + I3

P u
y 2 Im(P (u)) \ {0E } x 2 E y = P (u)(x) ⇧(u)(x) = 0E
(u aId)(y) = 0E y 6= 0E
a u y f f In
f
f (x) = (x )n
f f (f Id)n = 0̃
A = X2 (a + d)X + (ad bc) A

1 1
A = ((a + d)I2 A)
ad bc
f n f
f n 2 Vect(Id, f, . . . , f n 1 )
m n f m 2 Vect(Id, f, . . . , f n 1 )
A = (X 1 ) . . . (X n) A f n (x), . . . , f N 1 (x) 2 Vect(x, f (x), . . . , f n 1 (x))
E = Vect(x, f (x), . . . , f N 1 (x)) E = Vect(x, f (x), . . . , f n 1 (x))
n 1
(x, f (x), . . . , f (x)) n = dim E
E E
f f
A = X(X 2 + (a2 + b2 + c2 ))
g 2 L(E) f g(x) 2 E
(a, b, c) 6= (0, 0, 0) a 2 + b2 + c 2 > 0 A g(x) = a0 x + a1 f (x) + · · · + an 1 f n 1 (x)
R f g
(a, b, c) = (0, 0, 0) A g(f k (x)) = a0 f k (x) + a1 f k+1 (x) + · · · + an 1 f n+k 1 (x)
(a, b, c) 6= (0, 0, 0) g a0 Id + a1 f + · · · + an 1 f n 1
A p M3 (C)
0 ±i a2 + b2 + c2 E f f
(a, b, c) = (0, 0, 0) A
A B
A B
6= 0 T : P (X) 7! P (X + 1) T Rn 1 [X]

A
n
X1
A3 + (a2 + b2 + c2 )A = O3 T = Xn + ak X k
k=0

3 2 2 2
(B I3 ) + (a + b + c )(B I3 ) = O3
 k 2
A
P (X) = an X n + · · · + a1 X + det(A)
u (u) = 0̃ A
u det u 6= 0 an An + · · · + a1 A + det(A)In = On

u (X) = XP (X) + det u A

1 1
Q(X) = P (X) A= (a1 A2 + · · · + an An+1 )
det u det A
A
v K[X] P (X) ✓ ◆
1 1
P (X/2) A=
1 1
u v = v u = Id u
v Ak = O 2 k 2
P = an X n + · · · + a1 X + a0 n
u(P ) = P n

= 2n
v

P = an X n dim v 1
(F )  dim F + dim Ker v

k2N
n n
Sp u = 2 n2N E2n (u) = Vect(X ) k+1 1 k
Ker(u i IdE ) = (u i IdE ) Ker(u i IdE )
Q 2 K[X]
k+1 k
u 1
= Q(u) dim Ker(u i IdE )  Ker(u i IdE ) +1

k
8k 2 N, dim Ker(u i IdE ) k
XQ(X) 1
u u u
q
Y
ni
u (X) = (X i)
i=1

u
q
ni
Ak E= Ker(u i IdE )
i=1
 F (m1 , . . . , mq )
q
X
ni
dim E = dim Ker(u i IdE )
i=1 q
mi ni ni
Ker(u i IdE ) ⇢ Ker(u i IdE ) ,E = Ker(u i IdE )
i=1
ni
dim Ker(u i IdE )  ni
mi
dim Ker(u i IdE ) = mi
q
X
dim E = deg u = ni
u
i=1

ni
81  i  q, dim Ker(u i IdE ) = ni
det A det B

m
81  i  q, 80  m  ni dim Ker(u i IdE ) =m
u. det A + v. det B = 1 u, v 2 Z
F u Q A (X) = XQA (X) + ( 1)n det A B (X)
uF uF u Q
q
Y
mi
Q(X) = (X i) mi  ni
i=1 U = ( 1)n 1
uQA (A) V = ( 1)n 1
vQB (B)
A B U, V 2 Mn (Z)
A B
F ⇢ Ker Q(u)
QA (A)A = ( 1)n 1
det A.In QB (B)B = ( 1)n 1
det B.In

q
mi
Ker Q(u) = Ker(u i IdE )
i=1
U A + V B = (u. det A + v. det B)In = In

q
X
dim Ker Q(u) = mi = deg Q = dim F U = ut Com A V = v t Com B
i=1

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 0 2 0
A= B=
Ker Q(u) = F 0 1 0 2
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
3 0 1 0
U= V =
q
0 3 0 1
mi
F = Ker(u i IdE )
i=1
 t
B B
t
Y B
A (B)
t t t
BY = Y YB = Y Y 6= 0
1, . . . , n A
A M = X tY M

A = (X 1 )(X 2 ) . . . (X n)
(M ) = AX t Y X t Y B = ↵X t Y X t Y = (↵ )M

↵
A (B) = (B 1 In )(B 2 In ) . . . (B n In )
A (M ) A
B i In i
1, . . . , n A
B A (B) A
X 7! AX XB Mn (C) A = (X 1 )(X 2 ) . . . (X n)

: Mn (C) ! Mn (C)
A (M ) = (M 1 In )(M 2 In ) . . . (M n In )
(X) = AX XB X 2 Mn (C)

Mn (C)
n
Y n
Y
2
det A (M ) = det(M i In ) = ( 1)n M ( i)
i=1
| {z } i=1
X AX = XB =( 1)n M ( i)

Ak X = XB k k2N P (A)X = XP (B) A (M ) i

P 2 C[X] P = A M A M
X A (B) = On
A (B)
M
X = On
AM MB = M M 6= On
Mn (C)
X 2 Mn (C) AX XB = M
M Mn (C)
Ak M = M (B + In )k k2N

P (A)M = M P (B + In ) P 2 C[X]
A
t P = A A (A) = On
B
M A (B + In ) = O n
X A ↵
X tY

AX = ↵X X 6= 0 M
 M A (B + In ) ⇧f f <n
A B + In ↵ (Id, f, . . . , f n 1 ) x2E
B + In + (x, f (x), . . . , f n 1 (x))
Sp(B) ↵ ↵ 2 Sp(A) deg ⇧f n ⇧f | f ⇧f = ( 1) f
2 Sp(B) f f

µA | A = (X 1)2 A µA = (X 1)2 A

A = (X (a + (n 1)b)(X (a b))n 1

Sp(A) = a + (n 1)b, a b n 2
↵1 , . . . , ↵n x B ⇡A = (X (a + (n 1)b))(X (a b))
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) B
0 1 A 02
/ Sp(A) a + (n 1)b 6= 0 a 6= b
n
↵1 1 ... ↵1 1 0 10 1 0 1
B C a (b) x (y) ↵ ( )
@ A B CB C B C
n @ A@ A=@ A
↵n n ... ↵n n
(b) a (y) x ( ) ↵
1, . . . , n f
⇢
n ↵ = ax + (n 1)by
n = ay + bx + (n 2)by
1 ... 1
↵1 , . . . , ↵n 6= 0 6= 0
n
⇢
n ... n ax + (n 1)by = 1
bx + (a + (n 2)b)y = 0
x
f 1
A
x

f f
g E f L
g(x1 ) = a1 x1 + · · · + an xn = P (f )(x1 ) tr(M ) = 0 L(M ) = aM
P = a1 + a2 X + · · · + an 1 X n 1 a L

g(x2 ) = g(f (x1 )) = f (g(x1 )) = f (P (f )(x1 )) = P (f )(f (x1 )) = P (f )(x2 ) tr(M ) 6= 0 L(M ) = M M 2 Vect(In )
xk = f k 1 (x1 ) L(In ) = (a + n)In a+n L
g(xk ) = P (f )(xk ) Vect(In )
g P (f ) L
f
f ⇧L (X) = (X a)(X (a + n))
 L 02
/ Sp(L) M X MX = 0
t
a 6= 0, n MX = X 1 2 Sp(t M ) = Sp M
1 2 Sp M X
L2 (2a + n)L + a(a + n)I = 0 MX = X t
MX = 0 t
M
det(t M ) = det M M
1 1
L = (L (2a + n)I)
a(a + n)
t 2 2
M = In M2 = M4 2M 2 + In
1
L 1 (M ) = (tr(M )In (a + n)M )
a(a + n)
t 2
M = t M 2 = In M

A2 = I2n X2 + 1 A M4 2M 2 + In = In M
K=C A 2
X +1 M
K=R A P (X) = X 4 2X 2 + X = X(X 1)(X 2 + X 1)
A X2 + 1
M

A2 = I2n
2
X + 1 = (X i)(X + i) A A
A
(M 2 2In )2 = (t M )2 = t (M 2 ) = 2In M
X2 + 1
A i i M
A n
X4 4X 2 + X + 2
n A

X4 4X 2 + X + 2 = (X 1)(X + 2)(X ↵)(X )

p p
P 2 Mn (K) 1+ 5 1 5
q 2 N⇤ q
= Id P q = In P Xq 1 ↵= =
2 2
P
M
 G (GL2 (C), ⇥)

t 2 2 G = I2 , A, A2 , . . . , A11
M = In M2 = M4 2M 2 + In
G
t 2
M = t (M 2 ) = In M

M4 2M 2 + In = In M
✓ ◆
M Ak kAk
Mk =
(0) Ak
P (X) = X 4 2X 2 + X = X(X 1)(X 2 + X 1)

M M M P
A A
X2 + X 1 A XP 0
X(X 1) A A P XP 0 P
✓ ◆ P P 0
1 1 i
M= =0 A Sp(A) = {0} A=0
2 i 1
M A=0
M

M
M
P M
✓ ◆
P (A) ⇤
P (M ) = = O2n
A Xp 1 C[X] O P (A)
A M2 (C)
P A
↵
↵p = p
=1 |↵| = | | = 1 2
M = A A M
det A = ↵ = 1 ↵ = 1/ = /| |2 =
trA = 2Re(↵) 2 Z 2Re(↵) 2 [ 2 ; 2] |↵|  1
Re(↵) 2 {0, 1/2, 1} 8 2 Sp A, m (M ) = 2m (A)
Re(↵) |↵| = 1 ↵

1, j, i, j 2 , 1
8 2 Sp A, dim E (M ) = 2 dim E (A)

↵12 = 1 12
=1
A D = diag(↵, )
D12 = I2 A12 = I2 8 2 Sp A, rg(M I2n ) = 2 rg(A In )
 ✓ ◆ M5 = M2 M 3 = In M
A In B M M In
rg(M I2n ) = rg
O A In In
A A = P DP 1
P In
0 1
1 I↵1 (0)
B C
D=@ A
(0) I
m ↵m

1, . . . , m ✓ ◆ A ↵k = dim E ✓k (A) ◆ M2 ( + µ)M + µIp = Op

P O D C
Q= Q 1M Q = ✓ ◆
O P O D
1 +µ 1
C=P BP M Ip M = Ip
µ µ
C A
0 1 M
C1,1 ··· C1,m
B C 1 +µ 1
C=@ A Ci,j 2 Mat↵i ,↵j (K) M = Ip M
µ µ
Cm,1 ··· Cm,m
M µIp = ( µ)A M Ip = (µ )B
✓ ◆
A k In B
rg = 2 rg(A k In ) (M µIp )(M Ip ) = M 2 ( + µ)M + µIp = Op
O Ak In
Ck,k = O↵k ( µ)2 AB = Op AB = Op 6= µ
A A = A ⇥ Ip = A2 + AB = A2 A
B B
Kn A M
M
X2 ( + µ)X + µ = (X )(X µ)

M Sp(M ) ⇢ { , µ}
M = Ip A = Ip
M
B = Op
C M
M
M

tr(M ) = n M
n
M X 5 X 2 = X 2 (X 3 1)
0, 1, j j2 p, q, r s C3 C 2 = 3A + 3B = 3C
tr M = q + rj + sj 2 = n j j2 C
1/2 q = n, r = s = 0 p=0
M M X3 X2 3X
 k 2
C
zk = ↵ k z1 ↵k 0
A = C3 2C 2 B = C + 2C 2 C3
n
X
A B zk = (1 + ↵2 + · · · + ↵n )z1 6= 0
k=1

n
X n
X
(= zk + zn+1 = zk + |zn+1 |
=) n 2 k=1 k=1

n=2 n=2
z1 , z2 2 C⇤ n
X
zn+1 = a zk = ↵n+1 z1 ↵n+1 2 R+
|z1 + z2 | = |z1 | + |z2 |
k=1

u = z2 /z1 z1 6= 0

|1 + u| = 1 + |u| M 2 Mn (C) M n = In tr M = n
Xn 1
u = a + ib a, b 2 R 1, . . . , n

1 + ··· + n =n
p
(1 + a) + b = 1 + 2 a2 + b2 + a2 + b2
2 2

a 2 R+ b=0 n
81  k  n, =1
z2 = ↵ 2 z1 ↵ 2 = a 2 R+ k

n 2
z1 , . . . , zn , zn+1 2 C z1 6= 0
| 1 + ··· + n| =| 1| + ··· + | n|
n+1
X n+1
X
zk = |zk | 1 6= 0 k = ↵k 1 k 2 ↵k 0
k=1 k=1 ↵k
k

1 = ... = n
n+1
X n
X n+1
X
zk  zk + |zn+1 |  |zk | n
k=1 k=1 k=1
1 = ... = n =1

M = In M In
n
X n
X
zk = |zk |
k=1 k=1
 M M

0 1 µ 2
+ µ2 + µ
✓ ◆ 0 0 1
0 1 A µ
A= B = @1 0 0A
1 0
0 1 0 2 {0, 1} µ 2 {1, 2}
4 3 12
A = I2 B = I3 M = I5
M X 12 1 C[X] M
=0 µ=1
M5 (C)
M (M I2 ) = O2 M2 M = O2
2
x = (1, 0, 1, 0, 0) m(x) = (0, 1, 0, 1, 0) m (x) = ( 1, 0, 0, 0, 1) M2 + M = A
m3 (x) = (0, 1, 1, 0, 0) m4 (x) = (1, 0, 0, 1, 0) 1
M= A
R5 2
=0 µ= 2
m5 (x) = (0, 1, 0, 0, 1) m
0 1
0 0 0 0 1 M= A
B1 0 0 0 0C
B C
B0 1 0 0 1C = 1
B C
@0 0 1 0 1A
0 0 0 1 0 1
M =A I2 M= I2 A
2

✓ ◆
1 1
A=
1 1 p 4 = p2 4
= 2
2 { 1, 0, 1}
Sp A = {0, 2} p A
M 2
M +M =A 1, 0 A3 = A
3
M 2
+ A p =p
p3 = p p p
2 2
+ =0 + =2

2 {0, 1, 1, 2}
'2 (M ) = P (P M + M P ) + (P M + M P )P = P M + 2P M P + M P P2 = P
'3 (M ) = P M + 6P M P + M P
'3 (M ) 3'2 (M ) = 2P M 2M P = 2'(M )
P (X) = X(X + 1)(X 1)(X + 2) = (X 2 + X)(X 2 + X 2)
' X 3 3X 2 + 2X = X(X 1)(X 2)
'
P (M ) = A(A 2I2 ) = O2
 f n (M ) = An M P 2 C[X]
u3 = u P (f )(M ) = P (A)M
u 0, 1, 1
tr u = 0 tr u2 = 2n R2n+1 P f A
u
0 1
In 0 0
A=@0 In 0A
0 0 0

A (f ↵Id) (f Id) = 0̃
0 1 f
M 0 0
@0 N 0A Sp f ⇢ {↵, }
0 0 ↵ f (x) = ↵x () v(x) = ↵v(x) () v(x) = 0
M, N 2 Mn (R) (f Id) = (↵ )u (f ↵Id) = ( ↵)v
(f ↵Id) (f Id) = 0̃ v u = 0̃
dim C(u) = 2n2 + 1 u v = 0̃
u = u Id = u2 + u v = u2 u
⇧u = X 3 X dim R [u] = 3 C(u) = R [u]
n=1 Ker u = Ker (↵ )u = Ker(f Id)
Im u = Ker(Id u) = Ker v = Ker(f ↵Id)
f n = ↵n u + n
v

A2 = A fA2 = fA fA
P 2 R[X] P (fA ) : M 7! P (A)M u f2 ↵f = ( ↵)v f 3 ↵f 2 = 2
( ↵)v
v f (f ↵Id) (f Id) = 0̃
P (fA ) = 0 () P (A) = 0 P = X(X ↵)(X ) f
↵ 6= ↵, 6= 0
f
↵= =0
f f
= 0 ↵ 6= 0
f 2 ↵f = 0 f
X(X ↵)
↵=0 6 0
=
1
A M 7! A M
f ↵ = 6= 0
1
f B=f (In ) AB = In A f = ↵(u + v) f 2 = ↵2 (u + v) f2 ↵f = 0
f
 M tr(AM ) = 0
f (M ) = M
3 M 2 Vect(B) 6= {0} f (M ) = (1 + tr(AB))M
(f ) = p3 f s3 = p f s = (f )
f
X3 X = X(X 1)(X + 1) tr(AB) = 0 f f
f = Id
0, 1, 1
8M 2 Mn (R), tr(AM )B = On
E=F G
p s A = On B = On
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
Ir O Ir O A = On B = On f = Id
O O O Is
dim C = n4
r = dim F s = dim G f
tr(AB) 6= 0 f
1 n2 1
✓ ◆
A B
dim C = 1 + (n2 1)2
C D

(f )
✓ ◆ tr(AB) = 0 A = On B = On
A B
O O Mn (R)
tr(AM ) = 0 B
(f ) = f = 0, 1, 1 Mn (R) f
0 1
E0 ( ) = f 2 L(E) Im f ⇢ G 1 (0)
B C
E1 ( ) = f 2 L(E) G ⇢ Ker f Im f ⇢ F B C
B C 6= 0
@(0) 1 (0)A
(0) 1
E 1( ) = f 2 L(E) F ⇢ Ker f Im f ⇢ G

dim C = n4 2n2 + 2

f (f (M )) = M + (2 + tr(AB)) tr(AM )B

P (X) = X 2 (2 + tr(AB))X + 1 + tr(AB)

f f (M ) = tr(A) tr(A)M tr(M )A tr tr(A)M tr(M )A A = tr(A)f (M )
f 1 1 + tr(AB)
tr(AB) 6= 0 f
f f = tr(A).f
 tr A 6= 0 f A 1, i i tr(A) 2 R
X 2 tr(A)X i i
tr A = 0 f det(A) = 1
X2 f f
f = 0̃ A = On
f
A = On A C D = diag( Ip , jIq , j 2 Iq )
tr(M ) = 0
f (M ) = tr(A)M tr A = tr D = p q(j + j 2 ) = q p2Z

M f (M ) = M
= tr(A) tr(A) M
n2 1
tr(A) = 0 X 3 + X 2 + X = X(X j)(X j2)
tr(A)
A C
n2 1
A Mn (C)
tr(A) 6= 0 f
tr(A) Sp A ⇢ 0, j, j 2
2
1 n 1
A j j2
p2N A p j p
j2
A 2p
p + q = Id p q = 0 (u aId)(u bId) = 0
p = p Id = p p + p q = p p q q=q q p=0
Ker p = Ker(u aId) Ker q = Ker(u bId) (u aId)(u bId) = 0
E = Ker p Ker q A 2 En A
u A
Sp(u) = {a, b} Ea (u) = Ker p Eb (u) = Ker q u = aId u = bId

f A 2 En

X3 4X = X(X 2)(X + 2) A 2 En
N 2 N⇤
f { 2, 0, 2} A 2 En N
=1 AN = 1 A
f !(A)  N !(En ) ⇢ J1 ; N K

A 1, i i A P = X3 X 1 A
Mn (C)
 F = Vect(e1 , e2 ) u
P µ µ u F
↵, ,µ µ ✓ ◆
A A = A 1 1
0 1

tr(A) = ↵ + µ + µ = ↵ + (µ + µ) (e1 , e2 )
u
F u

, µ, µ X3 X 1
f g
f g
X3 X 1 = (X )(X µ)(X µ) ⇤ f g
X2 +µ+µ=0 f g f
E f
tr(A) = (↵ ) 4 f g
g

2Q = p/q p2Z q 2 N⇤
p q
3
= +1 p p = p (q p) = (p q) p = q p = p p q
p3 = pq 2 + q 3 q p q p q
pq 2 + q 3 p3 p p q p q p=q p=p q=q
q=1
p = ±1 = ±1 1 1
P
tr(A) 2 Q /Q
2 ↵ =0 ↵= = u P (u)
n=↵+ + = 3↵ 3
A
deg P = 1
↵
det(A) = µµ =1

µµ = 1
u u

f f |F
u u
p/q
 u u2
2
u A A = P DP 1 P D
p 1
(X 1 ) . . . (X p) B=A =P Dp P Dp B
u 2 GL(E) 81  i  p, i 6= 0 0 u
↵i i z2 = i B B
2 2
(u 1 Id) . . . (u p Id) = 0
(u ↵1 Id) (u 1 Id) . . . (u ↵p Id) (u p Id) = 0 m
u u Y
(X k)
k=1
u P (u)
B k
P (u)
B = Ap
(X 1 ) . . . (X p) i
P (u) m
Y
(P (X) 1 ) . . . (P (X) p) u (X p k)
P (X) i k=1
M u (P (X) 1 ) . . . (P (X) p)
A
! M !
Xp k Xp ` k 6= `
P (X) i P0
0 0
! u P (!) = 0 P (u)
Xp k k 6= 0
P 0 (u) 2 GL(E)
A
M u

A T
1, . . . , n P (u) 1
A = PTP
n
Y
Q= (X k)
det(A + In ) = det(T + In ) = 1
k=1
det(A + M ) = det(M ) det(AM 1 + In )
Q P (u) (AM 1 )n = An M n = On AM 1

n det(A + M ) = det M
Y
(P (u) k IdE ) = 0̃ A 6= 0 det(A In ) 6= 0
k=1 A
Qn
Qk = P k k=1 Qk u
Qk Q` k 6= ` k 6= `
↵ Qk P (↵) = k Q0k (↵) = P 0 (↵) = 0 X3 X 2 = X 2 (X 1) f
Qn
k=1 Qk u R3 = Ker f 2 Ker(f Id)
2
dim Ker(f Id) = 1 dim Ker f = 2
 dim Ker f = 0 Ker f ⇢ Ker f 2
M = On
dim Ker f = 1

dim Ker f = 2
R3 = Ker(f Id) Ker f A P = X(X 2)2 A
f A {0, 2}
0 1
1 0 0 Ker(A 2Id)2 Ker A
@0 0 0A
0 0 0 4 n 4
dim Ker f = 1 2
e3 2 Ker f \ Ker f e2 = f (e3 ) A ✓ ◆
2I4 + M 0
(e2 , e3 ) Ker f 2
0 On 4
e1 2 Ker(f Id) (e1 , e2 , e3 )
2
f 0 1 M 2 M4 (C) M =0
1 0 0 M
@0 0 1A 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 B0 0 0 0C B0 0 0 1C
O4 , B
@0
C B C
0 0 0A @0 0 0 0A
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
dim Ker A = n 2 A n 2
A A A

A A
An = O n A A
A
C A = Xn
A n A
A 2 Mn (R) A 2 Mn (C)

X3 4X 2 + 4X = X(X 2)2
A 2 Mn (C) A
M
A A
Sp M ⇢ {0, 2} M M
A 2 Mn (C) Xn
tr M M
tr M = 0 M A 2 Mn (R) A 2 Mn (C)
M 2In
A 2 Mn (R) A
M (M 2In )2 = On
 p 2 N⇤ fp = 0
p
p X f Sp(f ) ⇢ {0} Sp(f ) 6= ; Sp(f ) = {0}
A =0 =0 A = Xn
Sp(f ) = {0} 0
An = 0
f C[X] n n
f = ( 1) X fn = 0
det(A + I) = A (1) =1 f
M det(A + M ) = det(AM 1 + I) det M f
1
A M (AM 1 )p = 0 f
det(A + M ) = det M 81  k  n, tr(f k ) = 0
M Mp = M + p1 In f
Mp M
Mp
A
81  k  n, tr(f k ) = 0
det(A + Mp ) = det Mp
1, . . . , n A
det Mp ! det M det(A + Mp ) ! det(A + M ) 8
p!+1 p!+1
>
> 1 + ··· + n =0
< 2 2
1 + ··· + n =0
det(A + M ) = det M >
> ···
: n n
1 + ··· + n =0
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
0 1 1 2
A= M=
0 0 3 4
1 = ... = n =0 f
f = Xn f
n=1
n 1
1
det(A + N ) = det(A) det(In + A N)
1
A N A N
P (X) = (X 1 ) . . . (X n)
A 1N N
A 1N
1
In + A N
P (X) = X n + an 1 X n 1
+ · · · + a1 X + a0
Pn
1 P ( i) = 0
det(In + A N) = 1 i=1 P ( i ) = 0

n
X n
X n
X n
X
det(A + N ) = det A n n 1
P ( i) = i + an 1 i + · · · + a1 i + na0 = na0
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

a0 = 0 P
 i 2 {1, . . . , n} i =0
n =0 I1 u P1 = ⇡ u
1 = ... = n =0 u

I2
u (K[X], +)
(X )dim E u I2 K[X] I1
u IdE I1 ⇢ I2 P1 2 P2 K[X] P 2 | P1
u IdE p2N (X )p n E
u u v E v n = 0̃ P2 (u)
n
(P2 ) (u) = 0̃ P1 | P2n
C

P2 | P1 P1 | P2n P2 P1
u
M n M n = On
Y
P2 = (X )↵
2Sp u
8k 2 {0, . . . , n}, (A + 2k B)n = On
P2 (u) Q
2Sp u (u IdE )
(A + XB)n 2 Mn (K[X]) Y
P2 = (X )
n
2Sp u
1, 2, . . . , 2n n+1

An = O n R 2 K[X] Q = P2 R
P2 (u Q(u)) = 0̃
u Q(u) Q(u) 2 I2
n
B = On P2 (u Q(u)) = 0̃ P1
Y
Xn P2 X P2 (X)R(X) = X P2 (X)R(X)
2Sp u
Q
P1 = 2Sp u (X ) 2 Sp u
M 2 Mn (C) M n = On (X ) X P2 (X)R(X)
(A + xB)n !
n 1, . . . , n, n+1 Y
x 2 C (A + xB)n = On X P2 (X)R(X) = (X ) 1 (X µ)R(X)
µ6=
x=0 An = O n y 6= 0 y = 1/x
(yA + B)n = On y!0 B n = On =1
 Q
2 µ6= ( µ)R( ) = 1
Q k 2 {1, . . . , 2} k
µ6= (X µ)R(X)
Q 8k 2, Ak = A2
R( ), R0 ( ), . . . , R 2
( ) µ6= ( µ) 6= 0
A4 = A2 X2 X = X(X 1) A2
K A 2

(A2 A)2 = A4 2A3 + A2 = On A2 A

8i k, Ai = Ak
O22= O2 (O2 ) = (O2 ) 2
(O2 ) = 0
(O2 ) = 1 A 2 M2 (R) A2k = Ak Ak
(A) = (A) ⇥ (O2 ) = (A ⇥ O2 ) = 1 k ✓ ◆ k ✓ ◆
X k X k
(O2 ) = 0 (Ak A)k = ( 1)i Ak(k i)+i
= ( 1)i Ak = O n
A A2 = O 2 A (A)2 = 0 i=0
i i=0
i
(A) = 0
I22 = I2 (I2 )2 = (I2 ) (I2 ) = 0 1
(I2 ) = 0 A 2 M2 (R) (A) = (A ⇥ I2 ) = (A) ⇥ 0 = 0
✓ ◆ (I2 ) = 1
0 1 H In 2
/H
E=
1 0
E 2 = I2 (E)2 = 1 (E) = 1 (E) 6= (I2 ) H Vect(In ) = Mn (K)
B = EA (B) = (A)
A (I2 ) = (A) ⇥ (A 1 ) (A) 6= 0 A A = B + In B2H
(I2 ) = 1 6= 0 B X
A A BX = O AX = X
A B A
(A) = (B) =0 A=B2H
A A Ei,j i 6= j
✓ ◆ H
0 0
0 tr A 0 1
0 1 (0)
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ B C
B C
(A) =
0 0
=
0 tr A
=0 M =B
B
C
C
0 tr A 0 0 @ (0) 1A
1 0
A A A R A
H
✓ ◆
0 1
0 0
(A) = 0
 M A = On Im A ⇢ Ker M F A=0
Ker M Mn,1 (C)
P H E A 2 Mn (C)

Mn,1 (C) = Ker M F H = M 2 Mn (C) tr(AM ) = 0

M 2 Tn+ TM
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ tr(T M ) = 0 Tn+ ⇢ H H \ Tn+ = Tn+
1 A1 A2 1 O M1 H \ Tn Tn Tn
P AP = P MP =
O O O M2
T T
H \ Tn = Tn
A = A1 ⇥ X dim F A+M = A1 M2 n(n 1)/2
M2 h i Tn
H T 6= 0 Ej,i H \ Tn
i,j
M2 = X dim F Tn n(n 1)/2 1

Im M ⇢ Ker A Tn+ H \ Tn
F Tn+ Tn
n(n 1)/2 + n(n 1)/2 1 = n2 n 1
Mn,1 (C) = Ker A F H E A 2 Mn (C)

H = M 2 Mn (C) tr(AM ) = 0
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 O A1 1 M1 M2 A A = PTP 1
P AP = P MP =
O A2 O O P 2 GLn (C) T
1
': M ! P MP
M1
K = N 2 Mn (C) tr(T N ) = 0

M 2 H () '(N ) 2 K
LA E
tr(( A + µB)M ) = tr(AM ) + µ tr(BM ) ' n2 n 1
L K
dim E = dim E ⇤ < +1
L LA = 0
LA (t A) = 0 tr(At A) = tr(t AA) = 0
n
X A, B 2 Mn (K)
tr(t AA) = |ai,j |2
i,j=1 A 6= On , AB = BA B =) rg(AB) < rg A
 A 6= On , AB = BA B
rg(AB) rg A M2 (R)
rg(AB)  min(rg A, rg B) rg(AB) = rg A
M 2 M2 (R)
✓ ◆
dim Ker(AB) = dim Ker A a b
M= a, b, c 2 R
c a
Ker A ⇢ Ker(BA) = Ker(AB) Ker A = Ker(AB)
' : Im A ! Im A '(Y ) = BY ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
a a 0 b+a 0 0
' Im A B A M= + +
a a 0 0 c a 0
B
Y = AX 2 Im A M
'(Y ) = 0 BAX = ABX = 0 X 2 Ker(AB) = Ker A Y =0 n
'
p 2 N⇤ B p = On 'p : Y ! B p Y = On,1 0 1
Oi ✓ ◆
(0) 1 1
Ni = @ N A N= i 2 J0 ; n 2K
Im A {0} rg(AB) < rg A (0) 1 1
On i 2

81  p  n, rg(A1 A2 . . . Ap )  n p

rg(A1 A2 . . . An ) = 0 0

A
0 1
M 1 (⇤) C
a aM M aM B
T =@ A
a M (0) n
a2 a3 M
an n2N 1, . . . , n A
n2N p 2 N⇤ an = an+p P 2 C[X] P (A)
0 1
M P( 1) (⇤0 ) C
B
M P (T ) = @ A
M (0) P( n)
an = an+p a
p
a =1 a a M P (A) P( 1 ), . . . , P ( n ) P (A)
aM = On 1, . . . , n
P
Y
P (X) = Q(X) (X ) Q 2 C[X]
2Sp(A)
 dim Ker uk  k
k 2 J1 ; nK uk u0 u
0
Im uk 1
u

rg uk = rg(u0 ) = dim Im uk 1
dim Ker(u0 )

Ker(u0 ) ⇢ Ker(u) dim Ker(u) = n rg(u) = 1

rg uk rg uk 1
1

dim Ker uk  dim Ker uk 1

+1

dim Ker uk  k k 2 J0 ; nK

un dim Ker un = n

dim Ker uk = k k 2 J0 ; nK

k 2 J0 ; nK uk u uk
u k
u
F kJ0 ; nK
u u0 u F
f p
fp = 0
un (u0 )n = 0 u0
0 k
(u ) = 0 F k x
F uk (x) = 0E F ⇢ Ker uk
F = Ker uk

k 2 J1 ; nK dim Ker uk < k

dim Ker(un ) < n