Vector Theorems

4 Vector Theorems
The dynamics of mechanical systems (containing particles, rigid bodies, fluids. . .) is

governed by two vector theorems: the linear momentum theorem (LMT) and the
angular momentum theorem (AMT). Both relate the rate of change of a vector associ-
ated with the system (the linear momentum and the angular momentum about a point,
respectively) to the net interactions (net force in the LMT, net moment in the AMT)
exerted on the system. Hence, only the torsor associated with the system of forces exerted
by elements external to the system is responsible for the system dynamics.
The time integral of the vector theorems yields the finite change of that vector
magnitude as a function of the time integral of that external torsor of interactions.
Space integration of dynamics equations is considered in the context of the work–
energy theorem (Chapter 5).
In the LMT, the rate of change of the linear momentum is usually expressed as the
product of the system mass and the acceleration of the center of mass. Thus, this
theorem can be seen as a generalization of Newton’s second law, applicable to general
mechanical systems.
The AMT is not so simple, but it is a powerful tool. It provides the rigorous
explanations for many counterintuitive behaviors of rigid bodies under rotation that
cannot be justified through simplified particle dynamics reasoning.
The application of the AMT requires the choice of a point. The three most widely
used versions of this theorem, which correspond to different point choices (point fixed
to a Galilean reference frame, point moving relative to a Galilean reference frame, and
center of mass of the system), are presented.
In this book, only mechanical systems with constant matter (with no mass flow
through the control surface) will be considered. Very often, they will be multibody
systems containing N rigid bodies. The concepts associated with the mass distribution
properties presented in Chapter 3 (center of mass, inertia tensor) allow the calculation of
their linear momentum and angular momentum in a very straightforward way. The
application of LMT and AMT to each rigid body (or to N independent sets of those
rigid bodies) yields 6N independent equations which allow the determination of the
equations of motion and of all the global constraint torsors on each solid. Hence, the
vector theorems constitute a general method in dynamics.
When a DoF is controlled by an actuator, the vector theorems allow us to
determine either the required actuator action (force or torque) to guarantee a given DoF
evolution, or the equation of motion associated to that DoF under a given actuator action.
202
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press
4.1 Linear Momentum Theorem in Galilean Reference Frames 203
4.1 Linear Momentum Theorem in Galilean Reference Frames
The most genuine version of the linear momentum theorem for a system of
particles with constant matter1 (Fig. 4.1) states that the rate of change of the system’s
linear momentum in a Galilean reference frame, DRGal , is equal to the net force
(resultant force) associated with the external forces acting on the particles P of the
system:
X X
dDRGal
¼ Fext!P , where DRGal ¼ mP vRGal ðPÞ: (4.1)
dt RGal P2syst P2syst
P Ð
For a system with N rigid bodies Si , DRGal ¼ N i¼1 Si dmP vRGal ðPÞ. Although rigid
bodies are the main model considered in this book, the discrete formulation in Eq. (4.1)
will be used throughout this chapter for the sake of simplicity.
system with
constant matter
RGal
internal
forces external
forces
Fig. 4.1
♣ Proof
For each particle P in the system, Newton’s second law states that
X X
mP aGal ðPÞ ¼ Fint!P þ Fext!P , (4.2)
where Fint!P are the forces associated with the interaction of P with other particles in
the system, and Fext!P are those that come from external interactions.
When adding up Eqs. (4.2) for all particles P, the internal forces will yield a zero
resultant force because of Newton’s third law (action–reaction principle). Hence
1
This is a more restrictive condition than that of constant mass. Constant matter means that the particles in
the system are always the same, there is neither inwards nor outwards transfer of matter. A hydraulic
machine, for instance, is a system with constant mass but not constant matter.

204 Vector Theorems
X X
mP aRGal ðPÞ ¼ Fext!P : (4.3)
P2syst P2syst
The left-hand side can be rewritten as

#
X d X dDRGal
mP aRGal ðPÞ ¼ mP vRGal ðPÞ : (4.4)
P2syst
dt P2syst dt RGal
RGal
Substitution of Eq. (4.4) in Eq. (4.3) yields Eq. (4.1). ♣
The concept of center of mass G (introduced in Chapter 3) allows a more compact

form of the linear momentum (relative to a reference frame R):
!
X
DR ¼ mP vR ðGÞ MvR ðGÞ: (4.5)
P2syst
As far as the linear momentum is concerned, the system can be substituted by a mass
point located at G and with a mass equal to the total mass of the system. Using Eq.
(4.5), the LMT may be written as
X
MaRGal ðGÞ ¼ Fext!P : (4.6)
P2syst
This equation is formally very close to Newton’s second law. For this reason, the
LMT can be seen as a generalization of Newton’s second law for systems with
constant matter: the center of mass of the system behaves as a particle with a mass
equal to the total mass of the system and under the interaction of the net
external force.
The formulation of the LMT given by Eq. (4.6) can be seen as the result of applying a
barycentric decomposition (Section 3.4) to the linear momentum (Fig. 4.2):
“REL”
“AB” RTG
R
vRTG(P)
P, mP vtr
OR vR(P)
G
vR(G)= vtr(P)
system with
constant matter
Fig. 4.2

4.1 Linear Momentum Theorem in Galilean Reference Frames 205
X X
DR ¼ mP vR ðPÞ ¼ mP ½vRTG ðPÞ þ vR ðP 2 RTGÞ
P2syst P2syst
X ⊕
¼ mP vRTG ðPÞ þ MvR ðGÞ ¼ DRTG þ DR : (4.7)
P2syst
P ⊕
Since P2syst mP vRTG ðPÞ ¼ 0, DR is equal to DR ð¼ MvR ðGÞÞ, and its time derivative
is MaR ðGÞ.
If the original system is described as a set of subsystems SSi (typically rigid bodies or
sets of rigid bodies), the following expression may be a practical alternative to write the
LMT:
X X
mi aRGal ðGi Þ ¼ Fext!P , (4.8)
SSi P2syst
where mi and Gi are the mass and the center of masses of subsystem SSi , respectively.
aer
► Example 4.1 If air friction is not taken into account F ’ 0 , a projectile describes
a parabolic trajectory relative to the ground. After the explosion, the center of mass G of
the projectile fragments (modeled as particles P) describes the same trajectory (the mass
of the explosive charge is negligible) because (Fig. 4.3a):
! !
X X X
mP aRGal ðGÞ ¼ Fext!P ¼ mP g, therefore aRGal ðGÞ ¼ g:
P2syst P2syst P2syst
(a) RGal g
system
explosion
G
(b)
RGal g 6F’ aer
m
6F aer
m
G
g
g
Fig. 4.3

206 Vector Theorems
If air friction is not neglected, the projectile does not describe a parabola and G does
not follow the same trajectory after the explosion (Fig. 4.3b), because aRGal ðGÞ before
the explosion and a0RGal ðGÞ after the explosion fulfill:
! !
X X X aer
mP aRGal ðGÞ ¼ mP g þ F!P ,
! !
X X X 0 aer
mP a0RGal ðGÞ ¼ mP g þ F !P ,
and the resultant aerodynamic force, which slows down the motion, is much higher
after the explosion (before the explosion, the projectile form minimizes the aerodyna-
mical interaction – it is an aerodynamic form).
This example shows how internal forces (as those that trigger the explosion) which
cannot have any direct consequence on aRGal ðGÞ, may act indirectly on that acceleration
by provoking a change in the system of external forces.
This is the case when driving vehicles: a glider pilot acts internally and modifies the
wings geometry, thus modifying the aerodynamic forces in order to manoeuvre properly;
a car driver acts internally to provoke changes in the ground-wheels interaction forces,
which are responsible for acceleration, braking and turning. ◄
Two interesting aspects of the LMT deserve special comment:
Only the total mass of the system is taken into account. Its mass distribution
(which is not the same as the shape2) does not play any role; its shape, however,
may have consequences on the system of external forces (as seen in
Example 4.1).
When the system contains rigid bodies, no information about the evolution of
their rotations can be obtained from this theorem; however, the rotations may
have a consequence on the system of external forces, and then those rotations are
dynamically relevant to aRGal ðGÞ.
4.2 Angular Momentum Theorem in Galilean Reference Frames
The angular momentum theorem (AMT) complements the LMT and allows the study of
rotating rigid bodies. As we will see shortly, the AMT is more flexible than the LMT
because it requires the choice of a point: it governs the rate of change of the angular
momentum of the system about a point Q.
The LMT has been formulated for Galilean reference frames (though it will be
extended to general non-Galilean ones in Section 4.8). The formulations of the AMT
2
A hollow and a solid sphere may have the same shape (same radius) and the same mass, but have diferent
mass distributions.

4.2 Angular Momentum Theorem in Galilean Reference Frames 207
presented in this section are also “relative to Galilean frames,” and the points Q of
application are classed, as usual, into fixed points ðQ 2 RGalÞ and moving points
ðQ 2= RGalÞ.
Many textbooks define the angular momentum of a system about a point Q exactly in
the same way regardless Q being a fixed or a moving point:
X
HRGal ðQÞ ¼ QP mP vRGal ðPÞ, (4.9)
P2syst
and then proceed to the derivation of the AMT from the formulation of Newton’s
second law in a Galilean reference frame (RGal) for each particle P in the system.
In our formulation, the angular momentum is defined as
X
HRTQ ðQÞ ¼ QP mP vRTQ ðPÞ, (4.10)
P2syst
where RTQ is the reference frame containing point Q and translating relative to Gal (so
it is univocally defined). The AMT is obtained from Newton’s second law in the RTQ
applied to each particle P.3 This approach leads to the formulation of the AMT in a
reference frame which, in principle, is non-Galilean but its consideration is quite
simple, and has the advantage that the additional term appearing in the AMT has a
straightforward interpretation.
AMT about a Point O Fixed to a RGal

The angular momentum theorem about a point O fixed to a Galilean frame RGal
(written simply as R from now on) for a system with constant matter
governs the rate
of change of the angular momentum of the system about O HRTO¼R¼RGal ðOÞ
(Fig. 4.4):
system with
constant matter
RGal
P
ORGal
internal
forces external
forces
Fig. 4.4
3
Though the RTQ is a non-Galilean reference frame in general, there is a Galilean frame implicit in the
derivation (the RTQ translates relative to RGal), and that justifies the title of this section.

208 Vector Theorems
X X
dHR ðOÞ
¼ OP Fext!P ¼ Mext ðOÞ, (4.11)
dt R P2syst
where HR ðOÞ is the momentum about that point of the linear momentum of the particles
relative to R (¼ RTO ¼ RGal):
X
H R ðO Þ OP mP vR ðPÞ: (4.12)
P2syst
The time derivative in the left-hand side (LHS) of Eq. (4.11) will be written as
•
HR ðOÞ as there is no ambiguity regarding the reference frame where the calculation is
done: it is implicitly given by the point O. For the sake of brevity, this version of the
AMT will be called simply “AMT about a fixed point O.”
♣ Proof
For each particle P in the system, the moment about O of all vectors appearing in its
dynamics equation yields:
X X
OP mP aRTO¼R¼RGal ðPÞ ¼ OP Fint!P þ OP Fext!P :
Adding up the equations for all particles in the system and taking into account that all
internal interaction forces come in action–reaction pairs, we obtain:
X X X
OP mP aR ðPÞ ¼ OP Fext!P ðPÞ ¼ Mext ðOÞ:
P2syst P2syst
The LHS of this equation may be rewritten as:

•
d
OP mP aR ðPÞ ¼ OP mP vR ðPÞ HR ðOÞ,
dt R
i
dt R mP vR ðPÞ ¼ vR ðPÞ mP vR ðPÞ ¼ 0.
dOP
because
P i • P
So finally: dtd P2syst OP mP vR ðPÞ ¼ HR ðOÞ ¼ Mext ðOÞ . ♣
R
► Example 4.2 A monkey hangs from a rope guided by a pulley. A bunch of

bananas hangs from the other end of the rope (Fig. 4.5a). The monkey and the
bananas have the same mass m, which is much higher than that of the rope and the
pulley (so the latter will be neglected, mropeþpulley 0). All the elements in the system
are initially at rest relative to the ground (E). Will the monkey be able to reach the
bananas?
If we consider the system (monkeyþbananasþropeþpulley) and neglect the pulley’s
axis friction, the external forces are:

4.2 Angular Momentum Theorem in Galilean Reference Frames 209
(a) (b) (c)

r Fvert
g mvr mvr
O
Fhor
O O
m
Q
E v
h Q Q
a(G) mg
P
m G
v
P P
mg
Fig. 4.5
the weight of the monkey and the bananas (mg each);

the constraint force at O, which may have two nonzero components in the plane
of motion (vertical and horizontal components Fvert and Fhor ; the constraint
moment perpendicular to the plane is zero).
If the monkey and the bananas move vertically (Fig. 4.5b), the LMT states that:
2maE ðGÞ ¼ 2mg þ Fvert ; Fhor ¼ 0:
This theorem yields the vertical constraint force at O, Fvert ¼ 2mðaE ðGÞ þ gÞ, provided
that aE ðGÞ is known, but does not give any information on the motion. So we need the
AMT to complete the calculations.
There are three points where the AMT could be formulated: O, Q (bananas’ center of
mass) and P (monkey’s center of mass). As we want to investigate the motion, the best
choice is O, as then no constraint forces will appear in the equation.
As the resultant moment of the monkey’s and the bananas’ weight about O (or about
the pulley’s axis) is zero, the angular momentum about the pulley’s axis has to be
constant:

HE ðOÞ pulley0 s axis ¼ constant:
As the system is initially at rest:

HE ðOÞ pulley0 s axis ¼ 0 ) OP mvE ðPÞ ¼ OQ mvE ðQÞ ) vE ðPÞ ¼ vE ðQÞ:
Hence, if the monkey goes up with speed v (relative to E), the bananas will go up
exactly at the same speed (Fig. 4.5c). The vertical distance between monkey and
bananas will remain unchanged until the bananas get stuck at the pulley.
As the monkey and the bananas have the same speed at all times, their acceleration a
is also the same, so aE ðGÞ ¼ a and Fvert ¼ 2mða þ gÞ. ◄

210 Vector Theorems
AMT about a Point Q Moving Relative to RGal

The formulation of the angular momentum theorem about a point Q moving relative to
R = RGal (from now on, “AMT about a moving point Q,” for the sake of brevity) for a
system with constant matter is
• X
HRTQ ðQÞ ¼ Mext ðQÞ QG msyst aR ðQÞ: (4.13)
♣ Proof
Since the starting point for the formulation of the AMT about a moving point Q is
Newton’s second law formulated in the RTQ (which in principle is not a Galilean
reference frame), that version has to include the net moment associated with the
corresponding inertial forces (Fig. 4.6).
RTQ
As ΩR ¼ 0, there are only transportation forces, whose expression is:
tr
F RTQ!P ¼ mP atr ðPÞ ¼ mP aR ðQÞ:
Therefore:
!
X tr X
QP F RTQ!P ¼ mp QP aR ðQÞ ¼ QG msyst aR ðQÞ:
P2syst P2syst
According to the definition of angular momentum

X
HRTQ ðQÞ QP mP vRTQ ðPÞ,
P2syst
 oP = - mP aRGal(Q)
tr
RTQ
RGal=R
RTQ P, mP
system with
constant matter
G
6

tr
P syst RTQ oP
=- [ 6mP] aRGal(Q)
Q aRGal(Q)
Fig. 4.6

4.3 Barycentric Decomposition of the Angular Momentum 211
we obtain
• X dQP X
HRTQ ðQÞ ¼ mP vRTQ ðPÞ þ QP mP aRTQ ðPÞ:
P2syst
dt RTQ P2syst
The first term in the right-hand side (RHS) of that equation is zero because the two
vectors are proportional (through the mass). Applying Newton’s secomd law in the
RTQ frame, the second term may be rewritten as:
X X
tr
QP Fext!P þ F RTQ!P ¼ Mext ðQÞ QG msyst aR ðQÞ,
P2syst
and that yields Eq. (4.13). ♣
Note that the definition of HRTQ ðQÞ is formally identical to that of

HRTOð¼R¼RGalÞ ðOÞ, and the difference between the version about a moving point Q
or a fixed point O is just one additional term whose interpretation is straightforward:
it is the net inertial moment about Q associated with the net inertial force
msyst aR ðQÞ.
P
When the angular momentum is defined as HRð¼RGalÞ ðQÞ P2syst QP mP vR ðPÞ,
the final form of the AMT is4:
• X
HR ðQÞ ¼ Mext ðQÞ vR ðQÞ msyst vR ðGÞ: (4.14)
The additional term vR ðQÞ msyst vR ðGÞ, which is only nonzero when Q is a
moving point, can be calculated easily but has no simple physical interpretation
(Fig. 4.7).
AMT about the Center of Mass G

If the moving point Q is the system center of mass G, Eq. (4.14) particularizes to
• X X
HRTG ðGÞ ¼ Mext ðGÞ GG msyst aR ðGÞ ¼ Mext ðGÞ: (4.15)
This formulation is formally identical to that of the AMT about a fixed point O
(Fig. 4.8).
4
The proof has not been included as the definition of the angular momentum (hence the formulation of the
AMT) used throughout the book is that given by Eqs. (4.10) and (4.13).

212 Vector Theorems
AMT. The two versions for a moving point Q

Version in this book:
RTQ
RGal=R RGal=R
formulated
from
vRTQ(Pj) formulated
from
vRGal(Pj)
Pj, m
HRGal(Q)
HRTQ G Pj, m
aRGal(Q)
vRGal(G)
Q Q vRGal(Q)
HRTQ(Q) = 6Mext(Q) HRGal(Q) = 6Mext(Q)

- QG msyst aRGal(Q) - vRGal(Q) msyst vRGal(G)
complementary term complementary term
Fig. 4.7
RTG
 oP = - mP aRGal(G)
tr
RGal RTG
P, mP
system with
constant matter
aRGal(G)
G
6 tr
P syst RTGoP
= - [ 6mP] aRGal(G)
Fig. 4.8
4.3 Barycentric Decomposition of the Angular Momentum
The calculation of the angular momentum for a system of particles is usually done from
the definition:
X
HRTQ ðQÞ ¼ QP mP vRTQ ðPÞ: (4.16)
P2syst

4.3 Barycentric Decomposition of the Angular Momentum 213
“AB” “REL”
RGal RTG
RTQ
vRTG(P)
P, mP vRTQ(G)
Q G vRTQ(P)
vRTQ(G)
system with
constant matter
Fig. 4.9
As the barycentric decomposition also holds for HRTQ ðQÞ, a second option is
⊕
HRTQ ðQÞ ¼ HRTQ ðQÞ þ HRTG ðGÞ, (4.17)
⊕
where the term HRTQ ðQÞ corresponds to the angular momentum about Q of a single
particle located at G and having a mass equal to the total mass of the system (Fig. 4.9):
!
⊕
X
HRTQ ðQÞ ¼ QG mP vRTQ ðGÞ: (4.18)
P2syst
♣ Proof
The center of mass G can appear explicitly in Eq. (4.16) through the identities (Fig. 4.9):
QP ¼ QG þ GP; vRTQ ðPÞ ¼ vRTG ðPÞ þ vRTQ ðGÞ:
Substituting into Eq. (4.16) gives:

X X
HRTQ ðQÞ ¼ QG mP vRTG ðPÞ þ QG mP vRTQ ðGÞ
P2syst P2syst
X X
þ GP mP vRTG ðPÞ þ GP mP vRTQ ðGÞ:
P2syst P2syst
The first and fourth terms on the RHS of the previous equation can be written as
P P
QG P2syst mP vRTG ðPÞ and P2syst mP GP vRTQ ðGÞ, respectively, and they
⊕
are zero because of the properties of the center of mass G. The second term is HRTQ ðQÞ,
and the third one is HRTG ðGÞ. ♣

214 Vector Theorems
4.4 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body
For a rigid body S, the calculation of HRTQ ðQÞ from the definition
ð
HRTQ ðQÞ ¼ QP dmP vRTQ ðPÞ, (4.19)
S
is rather cumbersome in general. However, it can be straightforward when point Q

belongs to S ðQ ¼ QS Þ: the inertia tensor of S about that point (ΙΙðQÞ, see Section 3.3)
S
is associated with the linear application transforming the angular velocity ΩRTQ into the
angular momentum HRTQ ðQS Þ (Fig. 4.10):
ð
S
HRTQ ðQS Þ ¼ QS P dmP vRTQ ðPÞ ¼ ΙΙðQÞΩRTQ : (4.20)
S
S S
Note that ΩRTQ ¼ ΩRGal , therefore:
S
HRTQ ðQS Þ ¼ ΙΙðQÞΩRGal : (4.21)
If point Q does not belong to S, the barycentric decomposition is a suitable

alternative:
⊕ S
HRTQ ðQÞ ¼ HRTG ðGS Þ þ HRTQ ðQÞ ¼ ΙΙðGÞΩRTG þ QG mS vRTQ ðGÞ: (4.22)
As the center of mass G always belongs to the rigid body S, HRTG ðGS Þ can always be
S
calculated as ΙΙðGÞΩRTG .
RTQ
RGal
ms : RTQ = : RGal
S
QS HRTQ(QS)
rigid body
Fig. 4.10
► Example 4.3 The block is in contact with two turning pulleys. Their angular velocity
has the same value Ω > jx_ j=r (where jx_ j ¼ jvE ðGÞj and r ¼ radius of the pulleys) but
the opposite direction (Fig. 4.11a). This condition guarantees that the sliding velocity
between block and pulleys always has the same direction, hence the friction force
between those elements has also a constant direction (Fig. 4.11b).

4.4 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body 215
(a) L L (b) O
x
m
L
G NP
FQ NQ P

FP
P Q h C Q
P
r P NP P NQ
: :
:r > x

(c) O
Ph Ph
P’ G Q’
Q h
P
x
L-Ph+x L-Ph-x
Fig. 4.11
As the friction forces are proportional to the normal constraint forces, the directions
of the resultant contact forces FP and FQ go through point O fixed to the ground, located
on the vertical through the midpoint C between the pulleys and at a distance L=μ from
the block base.
Since all the unknown forces on the block go through point O, the application of the
AMT about O to the block directly yields the equation of movement. The AMT
component perpendicular to the plane of motion is:

L • L μg
HRTO ðOÞ ⊥ ¼ mx_ h ) HRTO ðOÞ ¼ m x€ h ¼ mgx ) x€ þ x ¼ 0:
μ ⊥ μ L μh
As long as L > μh (that is, as long as the G position is lower than that of O), this
equation corresponds to a harmonic oscillation with equilibrium position at x ¼ 0 and
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
angular frequency ω ¼ μg=ðL μhÞ. If the G position were higher than that of O,
x ¼ 0 would still be an equilibrium position, though unstable.
The normal constraint forces can be calculated from the LMT applied to the block:
8
) > L μh x
>
< NP ¼ mg 2ðL μhÞ
m x€ ¼ μðNP NQ Þ
)
0 ¼ NP þ NQ mg >
> L μh þ x
: NQ ¼ mg
2ðL μhÞ
These values correspond to the static distribution between points P0 and Q0 of the total
weight applied to G (Fig. 4.11c). Points P0 and Q0 define the interval where G may
oscillate without losing the contact between the block and points P and Q. ◄

216 Vector Theorems
► Example 4.4 The homogeneous triangular plate has a perfect rolling motion on the
cylindrical support fixed to the ground E (Fig. 4.12a). The plate is always tangent to the
cylinder, and its leg OP is parallel to the support axis. The inclination angle θ evolves
under the action of the force FðtÞ, applied at the vertex Q and perpendicular to the plate.
For θ ¼ 0, the plate center of mass G touches the support.
The application of the vector theorems to the plate yields the equation of motion for θ
and the components of the constraint torsor between ground and plate.
The external actions on the plate are the plate weight mg (applied at G), the force FðtÞ
(Fig. 4.12b) and the constraint torsor, whose characterization at J is straightforward:
8 9 8 9
n o < F1 = n o < M1 =
const const
F ¼ F2 , M ðJÞ ¼ 0 :
: ; : ;
F3 M3
const
The LMT states: maE ðGÞ ¼ mg þ F þ FðtÞ, where aE ðGÞ can be obtained through
the time derivation of vE ðGÞ, which in turn can be calculated through rigid body kinematics:
8 9 8 9 8 9
n o < 0 = < Rθ = < 0 =
fvE ðGÞg ¼ ΩE JG ¼ θ_
plate
b ¼ 0
: ; : ; : _;
0 0 Rθθ
8 9 8 9 8 9 8 9
< 0 = < 0 = < 0 = < Rθθ_ 2 =
) faE ðGÞg ¼ 0 þ θ_ 0 ¼ 0
: € _ 2; : ; : _; : € ;
Rθ θ þ Rθ 0 Rθθ Rθ θ þ Rθ_ 2
8 9 8 9
< θθ_ 2 = < F1 þ mg sin θ =
) mR 0 ¼ F2
: € _2 ; : ;
θθ þ θ F3 mg cos θ FðtÞ
8 9 8 9
< F1 = < mRθθ_ 2 mg sin θ =
) F2 ¼ 0 :
: ; : ;
F3 mR θ θ€ þ θ_ 2 þ mg cos θ þ FðtÞ
(a) 2 (b) 3 2
P
3b 3b
3
b mg T
E O G
J J
T F(t)
b
R RT F(t)
Q Q 1
1
Fig. 4.12

From a formal point of view, the angular acceleration θ€ appearing in force F3 should be
expressed as a function of θ and θ_ through the equation of motion.
There is no suitable fixed point for the application of the AMT. The points associated
with the ground-plate contact (Jplate , Jground , and Jgeom ) are tricky, and it is better to
avoid them. The plate center of mass G is a good option:
2 38 9 8 9
1 24
2 1 0 <0=
1 < θ_ =
HRTG ðGÞ ¼ ½ΙΙðGÞ Ω ¼ mb 1 2 0 5 _
θ ¼ mb 2θ_ 2
4 : ; 4 : ;
0 0 4 0 0
8 9
€
• 1 2< θ =
) HRTG ðGÞ ¼ mb 2 θ€ :
4 : _2 ;
θ
P const const
The net external moment about G is Mext ðGÞ ¼ M ðJÞ þ GJ F þ
GQ FðtÞ, thus
8 9 8 9 8 9 8 9 8 9 8 9
>
< θ€ >= >
< M1 >= >
< Rθ >= >
< F1 >= >
< 2b >= >
< 0 > =
1 2
mb 2 θ€ ¼ 0 þ b F2 þ b 0
4 : _2 >
> ; > : ; >
> : >
; > : > ; > : ; >
> : >
;
θ M3 0 F3 0 FðtÞ
8 9
< M1 bF3 þ bFðtÞ >
> =
¼ RθF3 þ 2bFðtÞ :
>
: >
;
M3 þ RθF2 þ bF1
Substitution of F3 into the second component yields the equation of motion:

1 1
θ€ b2 þ R2 θ2 þ R2 θθ_ 2 þ gRθ cos θ ð2b RθÞFðtÞ ¼ 0:
2 m
The first and third components yield the constraint moments M1 and M3 :
1 1
M1 ¼ mb2 θ€ þ mbR θ θ€ þ θ_ 2 þ mgb cos θ, M3 ¼ mb2 θ_ 2 mbRθθ_ 2 þ mgb sin θ:
4 4
Again, the equation for M1 and the equation of motion should be combined to eliminate
the second time derivative θ€ from the expression of M1 . ◄
► Example 4.5 In a ground vehicle, the weight distribution on the two axle changes when
the vehicle accelerates (or brakes): the normal force on the rear axle ðNr Þ increases (or
decreases) while that on the front axle ðNf Þ decreases (or increases).
That effect can be studied through the vector theorems. As the mass and the
rotational inertia of the wheels is much lower than that of the chassis, neglecting them
is a very frequent simplification hypothesis in vehicle dynamics. Two other usual
simplifications consist of neglecting the aerodynamic interaction and the motion asso-
ciated with the suspensions.

218 Vector Theorems
g HRTG(G) = 0
m
a mg a
G
G
h
r
Jr Jf Nr F Nf
Lr Lf
negligible m and I
Fig. 4.13
Under those simplifications and considering only the longitudinal motion, the exter-
nal actions on the vehicle (chassis+wheels) are the chassis weight and the contact forces
between ground and wheels. In the context of rigid body dynamics, the wheel–ground
contact is modeled as a single-point contact and the interaction torsor reduces to a
normal force and a tangential force (which is a friction or a constraint force depending
on the sliding conditions).5
For a vehicle moving on a straight road, the problem can be treated as two-
dimensional, hence only two LMT components and one AMT component are relevant.
The vector theorems applied to the vehicle (chassis+wheels) yield (Fig. 4.13):
ma ¼ F
LMT : , AMT about G: 0 ¼ Lr Nr Lf Nf hF:
0 ¼ Nr þ Nf mg
The tangential force F has been drawn on the horizontal ground line because, whether it
is associated to the front or/and the rear wheels, ðF ¼ Ff þ Fr Þ has no consequences on
•
this application of the vector theorems. Note that HRTG ðGÞ ¼ 0 is a consequence of the
longitudinal motion: the vehicle chassis does not rotate.
Combining the previous three equations, we obtain the weight distribution:
Lf h Lr h
Nr ¼ mg þ ma, Nf ¼ mg ma:
Lr þ Lf Lr þ Lf Lr þ Lf Lr þ Lf
The first term in Nr and Nf is the static value (value under constant speed conditions).
The second one is associated with the vehicle acceleration, which provokes a weight
transfer from the front axle to the rear axle with value mah=ðLr þ Lf Þ. This value
depends neither on the slide/stick condition at wheel–ground contact, nor on whether it
is a front-traction, a rear-traction or a 44-traction vehicle.
As the vehicle maximum acceleration is never higher than μg, a lower limit for Nf is
mg
Nf;min ¼ ðLr μhÞ:
Lr þ Lf
5
In real vehicles, tires have a whole contact patch with the ground. Some points on the patch slide relative to
the ground, and some stick. The tangential force, then, is the result of constraint and friction forces.

nondriven wheel driven wheel

N’ = N N’ = N
*= Fr F’ = F
P
F
N F d PN N
Fig. 4.14
In usual automobiles, Lr > h and μ < 1, so Nf > 0. That is, in normal driving
conditions, the vehicle will never flip. In two-wheels vehicles, the parameters range is
totally different and forward-flipping may occur.
Let’s now consider the dynamics of the wheels. The external actions on the wheels
are the ground-contact forces ðFf , r , Nf , r Þ, the constraint torsor associated with the axle
0
Ff , r ; N0f , r , plus a traction torque Γ (if it is a driven wheel).
The LMT yields the same result for both driven and a nondriven wheels (Fig. 4.14):
Ff , r ¼ F0f , r , Nf , r ¼ N0f , r :
However, the AMT about the wheel center C to driven and nondriven wheels yields
significant different results:
non-driven wheel : 0 ¼ rF ) F ¼ 0,
driven wheel : 0 ¼ rF Γ ) F ¼ Γ=r:
That is, no tangential forces can be transmitted from the ground to the chassis
through the nondriven wheels. Driven wheels may transmit tangential forces, and their
value is directly proportional to the driving torque; on the other hand, those forces
cannot overpass the sliding limit value μN. Consequently, F ¼ min fμN, Γ=rg.
If we take into account the inertia moment of the wheels about their center Ιa and
assume that they do not slide on the ground, the total angular momentum about the
center of inertia of the whole vehicle HRTG ðGÞ is:
Xh wheel
i X
wheel
HRTG ðGÞ ¼ HRTC ðCwheel Þ þ GC mwheel vRTG ðCwheel Þ ¼ HRTC ðCwheel Þ,
wheels wheels

as vRTG ðCwheel Þ ¼ 0. In a four-wheeled vehicle, HRTG ðGÞ ¼ 4Ιa vr (Fig. 4.15).
The AMT about G becomes
a
4Ιa ¼ Lr Nr Lr Nf hF,
r
And combined with the equations from the LMT yields

220 Vector Theorems
HRTG(G) = 4Ia vr a
v
Ia G Ia
v Mg v
r r
Nr F Nf
Fig. 4.15
Lf h 4Ιa a
Nr ¼ mg þ ma þ ,
Lr þ Lf Lr þ Lf Lr þ Lf r
Lr h 4Ιa a
Nf ¼ mg ma :
Lr þ Lf Lr þ Lf Lr þ Lf r
The rotational inertia of the wheels adds a new term that increases the weight transfer.
As the maximum tangential force F on each wheel is proportional to the normal force,
the rear wheels are more suitable to obtain high acceleration values. For that reason,
Formula 1 vehicles have rear traction (vehicles competing in rallies are front-traction
ones because the transverse component of the traction force helps in cornering). ◄
► Example 4.6 The tricycle (Fig. 4.16), with mass m and center of mass G (including
the wheels), follows a circular road. Point O of its rear axle describes a circular
trajectory with radius R and constant speed v0 relative to the ground (E). The mass of
the handlebar and the fork, the rotational inertia of the front wheel (but not the rear
ones), and the internal frictions are negligible. The wheel–ground interaction will be
modeled as single-point nonsliding contacts (thus, the rolling resistance and the self-
aligning (pivoting-resistance) moment will be neglected).
We investigate the risk of lateral flipping and wheels skidding from the values of the
ground-wheels interaction forces. These constraint forces and the weight mg are the
only external actions on the tricycle (Fig. 4.17a). Note that the longitudinal constraint
force on the front wheel is zero because its rotational inertia has been neglected.
As the speed of point O is constant, the wheels’ angular velocities also have a
constant value. The application of the AMT to each rear wheel at its center of mass
yields (Fig. 4.17b):
8 9 8 9
< 0 >
> = • > < Ιa ψ_ φ_ A, B >
=
HRTGA, B ðGA, B Þ ¼ Ιa φ_ A, B ) HRTGA, B ðGA, B Þ ¼ 0
>
: >
; >
: >
;
Ιt ψ_ 0
8 9
< rTA, B >
> =
¼ rFA, B ) FA, B ¼ 0:
>
: >
;
0

3
L
R handlebar
and fork E
p
wheel K
Q 1
v0 const.
2
T const.
wheel B G
O \ JK
s direction fixed
JB to the ground
s
wheel A r
JA
Fig. 4.16
(a) (b) 3
mg \
G JK 2 It
FK = 0 MB
JB O TK
GB \
FB Ia It
TB NK MA 1
NB JA FB GA
FA TA TB Ia
NB
NA FA TA
NA
Fig. 4.17
const const
The LMT applied to the tricycle states that maE ðGÞ ¼ mg þ F ð JA Þ þ F ð JB Þ þ
const
F ðJK Þ, therefore:
9
m v20 =R ðp=RÞ ¼ TK sin θ >
=

m v20 =R ¼ TK cos θ þ T , with tan θ ¼ L=R and T TA þ TB :
>
;
0 ¼ mg þ NA þ NB þ NK
The transverse forces on the rear wheels, TA and TB , cannot be solved separately
because there is redundancy.

222 Vector Theorems
The first two equations give the values of the net transverse force on the rear axis ðTÞ
and the transverse force on the front wheel ðTK Þ:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
v20 L p v20 p R2 þ L2
T¼m , TK ¼ m :
R L R RL
• const const
The AMT about G states that HRTG ðGÞ ¼ GJA F ðJA Þ þ GJB F ð JB Þ þ
const
GJK F ðJK Þ. The angular momentum HRTG ðGÞ is associated with the chassis
(which includes the mass of the front wheel) and the rear wheels. As point G is not
fixed to the wheels, the wheels’ angular momentum has to be calculated through the
barycentric decomposition:
⊕, wheel A ⊕, wheel B
HRTG ðGÞ ¼ ΙΙchassis ðGÞψ_ þ HRTGA ðGA Þþ HRTG ðGÞþ HRTGB ðGB Þþ HRTG ðGÞ,
⊕, wheel A=B
with HRTG ðGÞ ¼ ΙΙ⊕wheel A=B ðGÞψ_ :
Since points GA and GB are fixed to the chassis:
ΙΙchassis ðGÞ þ ΙΙ⊕wheel A ðGÞ þ ΙΙ⊕wheel B ðGÞ ΙΙðGÞ:
Axis 2 is a CAI for the chassis because the plane 1–3 is a plane of symmetry. Thus:
8 9
>
> Ι13 ψ_ >
>
< =
HRTG ðGÞ ¼ 0 þ HRTGA ðGA Þ þ HRTGB ðGB Þ
>
> >
>
: ;
Ι33 ψ_
8 9 8 9
>
> Ιa ψ_ ðφ_ A þ φ_ B Þ >
> >
> 2Ιa =r > >
• < = v2 < =
) HRTG ðGÞ ¼ _
Ι13 ψ 2
¼ 0
Ι13 =R ,
>
> >
> R> > >
>
: ; : ;
0 0
8 9 8 9 8 9 8 9 8 9 8 9
>
> p >
> >
> 0 >
> >
> p > > >
> 0 >
> >
> L p> > >
> TK sin θ >
>
nX o < = < = < = < = < = < =
Mext ðGÞ ¼ s TA þ s TB þ 0 TK cos θ
>
> >
> > > > > > > > > > >
: ; > : >
; > : ; >
> : > ; > : ; >
> : >
;
r NA r NB r NK
8 9 8 9
>
> sNA þ rTA þ sNB þ rTK cos θ > > > 2Ιa =r >
< = v2 > < >
=
¼ pNA þ pNB ðL pÞNC þ rTK sin θ ¼ 0
Ι13 =R :
>
> >
> R> > >
>
: ; : ;
pTA NK þ ðL pÞTK cos θ 0
Combining the equations from the two theorems results in

L p 1 v20 r pr Ι13 2Ιa
NA ¼ mg þ m þ þ ,
2L 2 R s RL mRL mrs

L p 1 v20 r pr Ι13 2Ιa
NB ¼ mg m þ þ ,
2L 2 R s RL mRL mrs

p v20 pr Ι13
NK ¼ mg þ m 1 :
L R RL mrp

The first term on the RHS of these three equations corresponds to the static values of
the normal forces, whereas the second term gives the increment associated with their
dynamics. In NB , that increment is negative (a decrease) proportional to the squared
speed v20 : there is a speed critical value over which NB becomes negative, which
indicates that the tricycle is flipping sideways:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u p
u 1
u
v0 max ¼ u
tgR r pr
L :
Ι13 2Ιa
þ þ
s RL mRL mrs
The inertia product Ι13 may be either positive or negative, but the term containing it is
much smaller than the others.
The risk of skidding can be assessed through TA þ TB < μðNA þ NB Þ and
TK < μNK . ◄
► Example 4.7 The three equations of motion of a spinning top, whose vertex O does
not slide on the floor, and the three components of the constraint force at O can be
readily obtained from the vector theorems (Fig. 4.18). The external interactions on the
const
spinning top are the weight mg applied at G, and the constraint torsor at O: F (with
const
3 components) and M ðOÞ ¼ 0.
const
As F may have three nonzero components, the three scalar equations of the LMT
will all contain unknown constraint forces. Those unknowns can be avoided if we apply
the AMT relative to point O to the spinning top: the three components of the AMT will
directly yield the three equations of motion.
There are two evident points for the application of the AMT: G and O. The
S
calculation of the angular momentum HRTG ðGÞ ¼ ΙΙðGÞΩRTG is neither simpler nor
3
Ia \
M M
h
E G It 2
T
direction fixed
to the ground T
\ T
O
It
1
Fig. 4.18

224 Vector Theorems
S
more difficult than that of HRTO ðOÞ ¼ ΙΙðOÞΩRTO , as the top is a symmetrical rotor for
both points.
The angular momentum about O is:
2 38 9 8 9
n o Ιt 0 0 < θ_ = < Ιt θ_ =
HRTO ðOÞ ¼ ½ΙΙðOÞ ΩRTO ¼ 4 0 Ιt 0 5
S
ψ_ sin θ ¼ Ιt ψ_ sin θ ,
: ; : ;
0 0 Ιa φ_ þ ψ_ cos θ Ιa ðφ_ þ ψ_ cos θÞ
and its time derivative is

8 9 8 9 8 9
• <
Ιt θ€ = < θ = <
_ Ιt θ_ =
HRTO ðOÞ ¼ Ιt ψ€ sin θ þ ψ_ θ_ cos θ þ ψ_ sin θ Ι _
ψ sin θ :
: _
; : ; : t
;
Ιa φ€þψ € cos θ ψ_ θ sin θ ψ_ cos θ Ιa ðφ_ þ ψ_ cos θÞ
• P
Equating HRTO ðOÞ to Mext ðOÞ (exclusively associated with the weight):
Ιt θ€ þ Ιa ðφ_ þ ψ_ cos θÞψ_ sin θ Ιt ψ_ 2 sin θ cos θ ¼ mgh sin θ,

Ιt ψ€ sin θ þ 2Ιt ψ_ θ_ cos θ Ιa ðφ_ þ ψ_ cos θÞθ_ ¼ 0,

Ιa φ €þψ € cos θ ψ_ θ_ sin θ ¼ 0:
The last equation can be integrated over time, yielding φ_ þ ψ_ cos θ ¼ constant. That is,
S
the projection of ΩE on the top axis is constant. This is a consequence of the spinning top
being a symmetrical rotor at O, and being OG the singular CAI (central axis of inertia).◄
When the system under study contains several rigid bodies, their corresponding
inertia tensors suggest in general the use of different vector bases (see Section 3.3).
In that case, it is advisable to calculate the angular momentum of each rigid body
in the vector basis which simplifies the calculation of the inertia tensor, and merge
to a same basis after that or even after having calculated their time derivative
(Fig. 4.19).
Bj
RGal
Bi Sj
Si
3 Sk
Bk
Q 2
1 basis B
Fig. 4.19

► Example 4.8 The square platform (mass mp , side length 2s) rotates relative to the
ground under the action of a motor ψ. The antenna (mass ma , length 2L) is articulated to
the platform through a revolute joint at O, and its rotation relative to the platform is
controlled by motor θ (Fig. 4.20).
The motor torque Γψ can be obtained through the AMT formulated about the ground-
fixed point O and applied to the whole system (platform+antenna). The calculation of
ΙΙplat ðOÞ and ΙΙant ðOÞ suggests the vector bases B ¼ ð1, 2, 3Þ and B0 ¼ ð10 , 20 , 30 Þ,
respectively.
First option: proceed to calculations using a different vector basis for each rigid
plat
body, and merge to a same basis after having obtained the time derivatives of HRTO ðOÞ
ant
and HRTO ðOÞ:
2 38 9 8 9
n o n o 2 0 0 > < 0> = <0>
> =
plat plat 2 26 7 2
HRTO ðOÞ ¼ ΙΙ ðOÞ B ΩO
plat
¼ mp s 4 0 2 0 5 0 ¼ mp s 2
0 ;
B B 3 : >
> ; 3 : >
> ;
0 0 1 ψ_ ψ_
8 9 8 9
n o <0>
> = <0>
> =
B
ΩRTO _ plat
¼ 0 ) HRTO ðOÞ
2
¼ mp s 2
0 ;
B : >
> ; B 3 : >
> ;
ψ_ €
ψ
3
3’
\ 2’
ma
T antenna
L
T
motor T
O s
2
E T \
L
s s fixed to E
s s platform
mp
1=1’
motor \
Fig. 4.20

226 Vector Theorems
2 38 9 8 9
n o n o 1 0 0 > < θ_ > = >
< θ_ > =
ant ant 1 6 7 1
HRTO ðOÞ 0 ¼ ½ΙΙant ðOÞB0 ΩO ¼ ma L2 4 0 0 0 5 ψ_ sin θ ¼ ma L2 0 ;
B B0
3 >
: >
; 3 >
: >
;
0 0 1 ψ_ cos θ ψ_ cos θ
8 9 8 9
_ θ€ þ ψ_ 2 sin θ cos θ >
n 0 o < θ >
> = n ant o >
< =
B
ΩRTO 0 ¼ ψ_ sin θ ) H _ ð O Þ ¼
1
m L 2
:
a 0
B >
: >
;
RTO
B0 3 >
: >
;
ψ_ cos θ _
€ cos θ 2ψ_ θ sin θ
ψ
Merging to the same vector basis B:

8 9
n o >
< θ€ þ ψ_ 2 sin θ cos θ >
=
_
H
ant
ð O Þ ¼
1
m L 2
€
ψ sin θ cos θ þ 2 _
ψ _
θ sin 2
θ
a
RTO
B 3 >
: >
;
€ cos θ ψ_ 2 sin θ cos θ
ψ
8 9 8 9
n sys o <0>
> = 1 >
=
) H _ ð O Þ ¼
2
m s 2
0 þ m L 2
€
ψ sin θ cos θ þ 2 _
ψ _
θ sin 2
θ :
p a
RTO
B 3 : >
> ; 3 >
: >
;
€
ψ € cos θ ψ_ sin θ cos θ
ψ 2
Second option: proceed to calculations using a different vector basis for each rigid
plat ant
body, and merge to the same basis after having obtained HRTO ðOÞ and HRTO ðOÞ:
8 9 8 9
n o 2 <0= n o 1 < θ_ =
plat ant
HRTO ðOÞ ¼ mp s2 0 ; HRTO ðOÞ 0 ¼ ma L2 0 :
B 3 : ; B 3 : ;
ψ_ ψ_ cos θ
Merging to the same vector basis B:

8 9 8 9
n o >
< θ_ >
= <0>
> =
ant 1 sys 2
HRTO ðOÞ ¼ ma L ψ_ sin θ cos θ ) HRTO ðOÞ
2
¼ mp s 2
0
B 3 >
: >
;
B 3 : >
> ;
ψ_ cos θ ψ_
8 9
>
< θ_ >
=
1
þ ma L ψ_ sin θ cos θ ;
2
3 >
: >
;
ψ_ cos θ
8 9 8 9
n o <0>
> = n sys o <0>
> =
B
ΩRTO _
¼ 0 ) HRTO ðOÞ ¼ mp s
2 2
0
B : >
> ; B 3 : >
> ;
ψ_ €
ψ
8 9
>
=
1 _
þ ma L ψ
2
€ sin θ cos θ þ 2ψ_ θ sin θ :2
3 >
: >
;
ψ € ψ_ 2 sin θ cos θ
Third option: merge to the same basis from the very beginning; this is not advisable,
but is shown here by way of example:

4.5 Dynamic Properties of the Principal Axes of Inertia 227
2 3
1 0 0
1 6 7
½ΙΙant ðOÞB0 ¼ ma L2 4 0 0 0 5; ½ΙΙant ðOÞB ¼ ½ST ½ΙΙant ðOÞB0 ½S,
3
0 0 1
2 3
1 0 0
6 7
with ½S ¼ 4 0 cos θ sin θ 5
sin θ cos θ
0
2 3
1 0 0
1 6 7
½ΙΙant ðOÞB ¼ ma L2 4 0 sin 2 θ sin θ cos θ 5;
3
0 sin θ cos θ cos 2 θ
2 38 9
_
n o 1 0 0 <θ>
> =
ant 1 26 7
HRTO ðOÞ ¼ ma L 4 0 sin θ
2
sin θ cos θ 5 0 ¼
B 3 : >
> ;
0 sin θ cos θ cos 2 θ ψ_
From this point on, the calculation proceeds as in the second option. ◄
In all preceding examples, the notation for the AMT has been totally explicit: the
reference frame associated with the application point has been included as a subscript at
each step. For the sake of simplicity, these subscripts will be suppressed from now on.
There is no ambiguity in the reference frame implied at each mathematical operation if
we keep in mind that it is implicitly given by the application point. Thus, the general
formulation of the AMT for a moving point Q and the baricentric decomposition of the
angular momentum will be written as:
• X ⊕
H ðQ Þ ¼ Mext ðQÞ QG maGal ðQÞ, HðQÞ ¼ HðGÞ þ H ðQÞ: (4.23)
4.5 Dynamic Properties of the Principal Axes of Inertia (PAI)
The dynamics of a rotating rigid body is often far from intuitive. In the context of the
vector theorems, its study requires the application of the AMT.
While the linear momentum (whose evolution is given by the LMT) is proportional
to a kinematic variable (the velocity of the center of mass), in general, the angular
momentum is not (it may be proportional to its angular velocity only under certain
restrictive circumstances). Hence, that vector is difficult to visualize, and the results
given by the AMT are often counterintuitive: though a constant velocity of the center of
mass does not require a net force on the body, a constant angular velocity about a fixed
direction going through G may require a net moment.
Let’s consider the general case of a rigid body S rotating with a constant angular
S
velocity ΩRTG Ω0 , about a fixed direction going through G. If the direction of Ω0 is

228 Vector Theorems
RTG
CAI
RGal with I jj
: 0 const.

H (G)
G const.
H (G) = 0
rigid body no M (G)

needed
Fig. 4.21
no CAI
RTG H (G)
RGal
:0 H (G)
const.
G M (G) required

moment
rigid body
Fig. 4.22
that of a central axis of inertia (CAI, Fig. 4.21), the angular momentum about G, HðGÞ,
•
is parallel to Ω0 and H ðGÞ ¼ 0.
If its mass distribution shows no particular symmetry (Fig. 4.22), HðGÞ is not parallel
to Ω0 . Its time evolution defines a conical surface with revolution axis parallel to Ω0 ,

and its time derivative is tangent to the cone base and equal to Ω0 HðGÞ (as there is
a change in direction but not in value). Hence, it requires constantly a moment about G
perpendicular to Ω0 .
The following examples illustrate these different situations:
Net moment required to keep a constant rotation of a rigid body about a fixed
direction that is neither PAI nor CAI.
Stability/instability of the rotation of a rigid body about a fixed PAI.
Stability/instability of the rotation of a free rigid body about a CAI.
Evolution of the initial rotation of a free rigid body.

► Example 4.9 A planar rigid body S, made of three parallel and homogeneous bars
(total mass M) and a massless frame, hangs from the ceiling through a fork and a
revolute joint (Fig. 4.23). Friction at the articulations is negligible and S is initially at
rest. The goal is to investigate whether S may rotate with a constant angular velocity
about the vertical axis while keeping the upper and lower sides of the frame in a
horizontal configuration.
For the equilibrium configuration (Fig. 4.23), the external interactions on S are its
weight and the constraint torsor at O, which contains three forces and two moments: a
vertical one and a horizontal one parallel to the frame.
The external interactions needed to generate a vertical rotation Ω from rest and then
keeping it constant can be studied through the AMT about O. If we split S into four
identical bars, the qualitative inertia tensor about O can be obtained through the inertia
tensor of each bar at its center of mass and the application of Steiner’s theorem
(Fig. 4.24):
2 3 2 3
2 0 0 6 0 0
X X 1 26 7 6 7
½ΙΙðOÞ ¼ ½ΙΙðGn Þ þ ΙΙ⊕
n ðOÞ ¼ mL 4 0 1 1 5 þ mL2 4 0 5 0 5
n n
3
0 1 1 0 0 1
2 3
20 0 0
1 6 7
) ½ΙΙðOÞ ¼ mL2 4 0 16 1 5:
3
0 1 4
E
g
motor
negligible
mass
:0 const.
P fork revolute joint
O
L
L L
Fig. 4.23

230 Vector Theorems
3 m
O Gj L/2
2
G2 G1
I22 = I33 = 12
1 mL2
G3 G4
I11 = 16 mL2
I23= 12
-1 mL2
Fig. 4.24
The angular momentum about O and its time derivative are:

8 9 8 9
< jΙ23 jΩ >
2
< 0 >
> = • > =
HðOÞ ¼ jΙ23 jΩ ) HðOÞ ¼ jΙ23 jΩ_ :
>
: >
; >
: >
;
Ι33 Ω Ι33 Ω_
To trigger the rotation and then increase its value until a steady state value Ω0 ,
we require three moment components. As the constraint at O does not provide a
moment perpendicular to the rigid body, we have to add an additional external
moment M1.
H (O) = :0 H (O)
1 mL2 : 2
0
3
H (O)
required
:0 const.
force at P F
O
P
1 mL2 :
0
3 required
M(O) = H (O) moment
M (O) 1
F= = 3 mL :02

Fig. 4.25

In steady state, as the time derivative of the angular momentum is not constant but
perpendicular to the S plane:
•

HðOÞ ¼ ⊙jΙ23 jΩ20 ðcounter clockwiseÞ,
steady
we have to keep adding that external moment. A possibility would be to apply

constantly a vertical downward force F (with a suitable value) at vertex P (Fig. 4.25).
If we removed that force, point P would move upward and S would acquire a clockwise
rotation perpendicular to its plane. ◄
As illustrated by the previous example, constant rotations about a direction which is

not a PAI require external moments. Conversely, a constant rotation about a PAI does
not require a net external moment. However, rotations about PAI may show an unstable
behaviour. The next example illustrates this point.
► Example 4.10 The same rigid body S of Example 4.9 is now hanging from a vertex
(Fig. 4.26a). Now, the inertia tensor about O is strictly diagonal, and there is no need of
external moment to maintain the vertical rotation.
Let’s introduce a small angular perturbation ε so that the vertical direction through O
is not strictly a PAI (Fig. 4.26b). The angular momentum about O and its time
derivative become:
3
(a) PAI-3 I11 = I22 + I33 (b)
:0
I22 > I33 g H (O)
g
:0 const.
fork revolute joint O H 2
O
negligible PAI-2
mass
L L
L L
Fig. 4.26

232 Vector Theorems
2 38 9 8 9
Ι11 0 >
< 0 ε_ >
= > < Ι11 ε_ >
=
6 7
HðOÞ ¼ 4 0 Ι22 0 5 Ω0 sin ε ¼ Ι22 Ω0 sin ε ðwith Ι11 ¼ Ι22 þ Ι33 Þ
>
: >
; > : >
;
0 0 Ι33 Ω0 cos ε Ι33 Ω0 cos ε
8 9
< Ι11 €ε þ ðΙ33 Ι22 ÞΩ0 sin ε cos ε >
2
• > =
) HðOÞ ¼ ðΙ11 þ Ι22 Ι33 ÞΩ0 ε_ cos ε
>
: >
;
ðΙ11 þ Ι22 Ι33 ÞΩ0 ε_ sin ε
8 9
< Ι11 €ε þ ðΙ33 Ι22 ÞΩ0 sin ε cos ε >
2
> =
¼ 2Ι22 Ω0 ε_ cos ε :
>
: >
;
2Ι33 Ω0 ε_ sin ε
Now the external moments about O are associated with the constraint at O (horizontal
moment Mhor ) and the weight:
8 9 8 9
< mgL sin ε > < Ι11 €ε þ ðΙ33 Ι22 ÞΩ0 sin ε cos ε >
2
nX o > = > =
Mext ðOÞ ¼ Mhor cos ε ¼ 2Ι22 Ω0 ε_ cos ε :
>
: >
; > : >
;
Mhor sin ε 2Ι33 Ω0 ε_ sin ε
The first component governs the evolution of the perturbation ε. As ε is small, the
equation can be linearized about the equilibrium configuration ðε ¼ 0Þ:

sin ε ε
) Ι11 €ε þ mgL þ Ω20 ðΙ33 Ι22 Þ ε ¼ 0:
cos ε 1
As Ι33 < Ι22 , the coefficient multiplying Ω20 is always negative, so there is a critical
value of Ω0 which yields a negative multiplying factor:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
mgL
mgL þ Ω0 ðΙ33 Ι22 Þ < 0 ) Ωcritical ¼
2
,
Ι22 Ι33
and the system becomes unstable: when Ω0 > Ωcritical , the small perturbation ε under-
goes an unbounded growth. In that case, the linear approximation would not be
acceptable any more.
If Ι33 > Ι22 , the coefficient multiplying ε would always be positive, and the motion
would be a harmonic oscillation of small amplitude. ◄
► Example 4.11 A rigid body S is tossed with an initial rotation about a CAI
(Fig. 4.27a). If the aerodynamical interactions are negligible, the net moment about
its center of mass G is zero, so the angular momentum (and the angular velocity, as they
are parallel) is constant.
Let’s introduce small angular velocity perturbations ðω2 , ω3 Þ about the other two
axes (Fig. 4.27b). The equations governing their evolution ðω_ 2 , ω_ 3 Þ can be obtained
through the AMT about G:

(a) CAI-1 RTG (b) 1 RTG

I11 :1
rigid body
initial : :
RGal RGal
G Z2 Z3
CAI-2 CAI-3
3
2
I22 I33
Fig. 4.27
8 9 8 9 8 9
_
< Ι11 Ω1 >
> = •
< Ι11 Ω 1 þ ðΙ33 Ι22 Þω2 ω3 >
> <0>
= > =
HðGÞ ¼ Ι22 ω2 ) HðGÞ ¼ Ι22 ω_ 2 þ ðΙ11 Ι33 ÞΩ1 ω3 ¼ 0 :
>
: >
; >
: : >
; >
> ;
Ι33 ω3 Ι33 ω_ 3 þ ðΙ22 Ι11 ÞΩ1 ω2 0
As ω2 ω3 is a second-order infinitesimal, the first component simplifies to Ι11 Ω_ 1 0,

hence Ω1 is constant.
The other two equations can be written in matrix form, and they are coupled:
2 3
( ) Ι11 Ι33 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0
ω_ 2 6 Ι 7 ω2 ω_ 2 ω2 0
þ Ω1 6 7
22
4 Ι22 Ι11 5 ω þ ½A ¼ :
_ω 3 3 _
ω3 ω3 0
0
Ι33

It is always possible to find a pair of new variables ξþ , ξ leading to a decoupled
formulation:
( ) " #( ) ( )
ξ_ þ þλ 0 ξþ 0
þ ¼ , where ðþλ, λÞ
_ξ 0 λ ξ 0
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðΙ11 Ι33 ÞðΙ22 Ι11 Þ
with λ ¼ Ω1 are the eigenvalues of matrix ½A:
Ι22 Ι33
The general solution of the decoupled problem is ξ ðtÞ / e∓λt , and ðω2 , ω3 Þ are a

linear combination of ξþ , ξ . When Ι11 is the highest or the lowest moment of inertia,
λ is imaginary. The solutions for ξ ðtÞ are oscillatory functions, and the initial perturb-
ations do not increase. However, when Ι22 < Ι11 < Ι33 or Ι33 < Ι11 < Ι22 , λ is real. This
implies an unbounded growth of the initial perturbations, hence an instability. ◄

234 Vector Theorems
► Example 4.12 A rigid body S made of a homogeneous ring (mass m and radius R)
and a particle (mass m) connected through massless bars is tossed in the air (Fig. 4.28).
From the insight gained through the previous examples, we are in a position now to
S
study the evolution of the initial rotation ΩE by just looking at its inertia tensor about G:
2 2 3
ring ⊕ring m R þ 2L2 0 0
½ΙΙðGÞ ¼ ΙΙ ðCÞ þ ΙΙ ðGÞ þ ½ΙΙpart ðGÞ ¼ 4 0 R2 þ 2L2 0 5:
2
0 0 2R2
As Ι11 ¼ Ι22 , it is a symmetric rotor for G, and all directions in plane Ι11 ¼ Ι22 going through
S
G are CAI. Therefore, an initial ΩE contained in that plane or perpendicular to it will be
S
constant and stable. However, an initial ΩE in any other direction would not be constant.
3
R
2L
P, m
m
G
C 2
Fig. 4.28
pffiffiffi
Note that S would be a spherical rotor if R ¼ 2L. In that case, any direction
S
through G would be a CAI, and any initial ΩE would be constant and stable. ◄
4.6 Time Integral of the Vector Theorems: Force Impulse and Angular Impulse
As the vector theorems govern the rate of change of a vector magnitude associated with
a mechanical system, their time integral yields the finite change of that vector magni-
tude as a function of the time integral of that external torsor of interactions.
The time integration of the LMT yields:
! #t2 ðt2 X
t2 X X
ΔDRGal ðsystÞ t1
¼ mP ΔvRGal ðGÞ ¼ Fext!P dt ΙFext!P : (4.24)
P2syst t1 P2syst P2syst
t1
The time integration of a force over a time interval is the force impulse ΙFðPÞ . The
RHS of Eq. (4.29) is the net impulse associated with the external forces acting on the

4.6 Time Integral of the Vector Theorems 235
system. When the net force impulse is zero, the linear momentum is constant, hence the
velocity of its center of mass is constant. We say that there is conservation of the linear
momentum.
Similarly, the time integration of the AMT yields:
ðt2 X ðt2 X
t2 t2
ΔHðOÞ t1
¼ Mext ðOÞdt, ΔHðGÞ t1
¼ Mext ðGÞdt, (4.25)
P2syst P2syst
t1 t1
ðt2 X ! ðt2
t2 X
ΔHðQÞ t1
¼ Mext ðQÞdt þ mP QG aRGal ðQÞdt: (4.26)
P2syst P2syst
t1 t1
The time integration of a moment over a time interval is the angular impulse
associated with that moment. In the general version of the AMT (Eq. (4.26)), the
second term in the RHS is the angular impulse of the net moment about G of the
inertial forces.
When the net angular impulse about a fixed point O or about G is zero, the angular
momentum about that point is constant (conservation of the angular momentum).
When the mechanical system contains just a rigid body, that conservation does not
imply the conservation of the angular velocity unless that rotation is about a PAI.
When just a component of the net force impulse or a component of the net angular
impulse about a direction fixed to Gal is zero, there is conservation of the linear or the
angular momentum along that direction.
► Example 4.13 Let’s consider a rod moving on smooth ground (E) with constant speed
jvE ðrodÞj ¼ v0 (Fig. 4.29a). Once the rod has lost contact with the ground, the horizontal
component of the velocity of its center of mass G is higher than v0 (Fig. 4.29c). This is the
consequence of the horizontal component of the normal force between ground and rod
which appears when the rod rotates while keeping a single-point contact with the ground
(Fig. 4.29b). It is the impulse of this component during the time interval associated with
the single-point contact which generates the change in v0 .
(a) (b) N (c)

g Fv
v0 P=0
FH
vH >v0
mg vv
Fig. 4.29

236 Vector Theorems
Once the ground contact is lost, if the aerodynamical interactions are neglected, there
is a partial conservation of the linear momentum: just the horizontal component.
Consequently, vE ðGÞhorizontal is constant. ◄
► Example 4.14 A homogeneous solid ball (with mass m and radius r) slides on
horizontal ground with an initial forward speed v0 and a counterclockwise
angular velocity ω0 (Fig. 4.30a). The friction force between ground and ball (with
coefficient μ), opposite to the relative sliding, leads to perfect rolling condition after a
time interval Δt.
(a) initially (b) before sliding stops

Z0 Z
v0 v
r
J P
mg
Pmg
Fig. 4.30
The final motion of the ball and the required time interval Δt can be obtained through
the integrated version of the vector theorems.
As the center of mass moves horizontally, the normal constraint force at J is equal to
the weight mg. In sliding conditions, the tangential force at J is μmg opposite to the
relative sliding. For a general time instant t before sliding is over (Fig. 4.30b), the
integration of the vector theorems yields:

mðv v0 Þ ¼ μmgt
, with ΙG ¼ ð2=5Þmr2 :
ΙG ðω þ ω0 Þ ¼ μmgrt
When the ball reaches perfect rolling, v ¼ ωr and t ¼ Δt, and the equations become
v ¼ ωr ¼ ð5v0 2rω0 Þ=7
Δt ¼ 2ðv0 þ rω0 Þ=7μg:
The ball comes to rest if ω0 ¼ 2:5v0 =r, and starts moving backwards if ω0 > 2:5v0 =r. ◄
► Example 4.15 The homogeneous square plate keeps a constant inclination of 45

under the action of a motor θ, while it rotates with constant angular velocity ψ_ 0 about
the vertical direction going through its center of mass G under the control of the motor
ψ (Fig. 4.31a).

4.6 Time Integral of the Vector Theorems 237
(a)
1 \0 g
initial (b) final
L 3 \0 3
\final ?
L L 1
m
O T is modified O
L driver T O G by the driver G
2 T=135º
45º T = 45º
E support
motor \
motor disabled: the support may
rotate freely about the vertical axis
Fig. 4.31
If the motor ψ is disabled (so ψ_ becomes a free DoF), the net external vertical
moment about O is zero. As the vertical axis is fixed to the reference frame E, there is a
partial conservation of the angular momentum (Fig. 4.31b):

HðOÞ vertical ¼ constant:
Therefore, if the motor θ changes the plate inclination, the vertical angular velocity ψ_
will change accordingly in order to guarantee that condition.
If ψ_ ¼ ψ_ 0 for an inclination of 45o , the new ψ_ value for an inclination of 135o is
readily obtained by imposing that conservation:
2 38 pffiffiffi 9
1 0 0 < ψ_ 0 = 2 =
1
inclination ¼ 45o ) HðOÞ ¼ HðGÞ ¼ mL2 4 0 1 0 5 0pffiffiffi
3 : ;
8 9 0 0 2 ψ_ 0 = 2
1 <1=
¼ pffiffiffi mL2 ψ_ 0 0
3 2 : ;
2
1 1 2 1
) HðOÞ vert ¼ pffiffiffi mL ψ_ 0 pffiffiffi þ pffiffiffi ¼ mL2 ψ_ 0
2
3 2 2 2 2
⊕
inclination ¼ 135o ) HðOÞ ¼ HðGÞ þ H ðOÞ
1 5
) H ðO Þ vert
¼ mL2 ψ_ þ 2mL2 ψ_ ¼ mL2 ψ_
2 2
Therefore: ψ_ ¼ 15 ψ_ 0 . ◄

238 Vector Theorems
A Remark on the Word “Conservation”

Many textbooks talk about “linear momentum conservation” and “angular momentum
conservation” rather than linear momentum theorem and angular momentum theorem.
This description corresponds to a different point of view: that of writing all the terms on
one side and equating that side to zero. For the LMT, that formulation is
X d X
Fext MaRGal ðGÞ ¼ ΙFext msyst vRGal ðGÞ ¼0
dt
X Gal
) ΙFext msyst vRGal ðGÞ ¼ constant (4.27)
From that point of view, any change in the system’s linear momentum is compensated
by a change in the impulses associated with the external interaction forces.
This formulation is a bit misleading as this general conservation may be confused
with the conservation of just the linear momentum (or some of its components). For this
reason, in this book the vector theorems will always be referred to as LMT and AMT.
4.7 Vector Theorems in General Non-Galilean Reference Frames
When formulated in a general non-Galilean reference frame R, Newton’s second law

must include the inertial transportation and Coriolis forces:
X tr Cor X
mP aR ðPÞ ¼ F!P þ F R!P þ F R!P ¼ F!P þ ½mP atr ðPÞ þ ½mP aCor ðPÞ
(4.28)
These forces are treated exactly in the same way as the interaction forces. Thus, in the
LMT they will be represented through the net inertial forces:
• X X tr⊕ Cor⊕
DR ¼ mP aR ðGÞ ¼ msyst aR ðGÞ ¼ Fext þ F R! þ F R! , (4.29)
syst
tr⊕ Cor⊕
where F R! ¼ msyst atr ðGÞ, F R!
¼ msyst aCor ðGÞ (which follows from the defin-
ition of the center of mass G).
In the AMT, they will be considered through the corresponding net moments. The
formulation of the AMT about a point O fixed to R is (Fig. 4.32):
• X X tr X Cor
H ðOÞ ¼ Mext ðOÞ þ M R!P ðOÞ þ M R!P ðOÞ: (4.30)
syst P2syst P2syst
Similarly, the formulations about a point Q moving relative to R and about the
system’s center of mass G are (Fig. 4.33):
• X X tr X Cor
H ðQ Þ ¼ Mext ðQÞ þ M R!P ðQÞ þ M R!P ðQÞ QG MaRðNGalÞ ðQÞ,
syst P2syst P2syst
(4.31)

4.7 Vector Theorems in General Non-Galilean Reference Frames 239
non-Gal
system with
R constant matter
R Gal
“REL” P, mP RtroP
“AB”
RCor
oP
G
OR
Fig. 4.32
non-Gal
RtroP + RCor
oP
R
tr Cor
RTQ RTQ
 oP + RTQ
 oP =
R Gal oP - mP aR(Q)
= RtroP + RCor
RTG
aR(Q)
P, mP
Q G system with
constant matter
Fig. 4.33
• X X tr X Cor
H ðGÞ ¼ Mext ðGÞ þ M R!P ðGÞ þ M R!P ðGÞ: (4.32)
syst P2syst P2syst
The reference frames implicit in Q and G (RTQ and RTG) contain Q and G, respect-
ively, and have just a translation motion relative to R. Both are non-Galilean reference
frames, but they do not coincide with the chosen frame R for the formulation.
When dealing with multibody systems, the formulation of the AMT in R (Eqs. (4.31)
and (4.32)) is seldom used because the calculation of the net inertial moments is not
straightforward: they call for the integration over each rigid body S of the inertial forces
tr Cor
F R!P , F R!P on each differential mass of that S:
ð
tr, Cor
M R!S ðQÞ ¼ QP dmP atr, Cor ðPÞ: (4.33)
S

240 Vector Theorems
► Example 4.16 A homogeneous thin rod (mass m, length 2L) oscillates freely about
the axis a–a0 of a massless fork which rotates with constant vertical angular velocity Ω0
relative to the ground (E) (Fig. 4.34a). Because of that rotation, the configuration θ ¼ 0
cannot be maintained.
There are, however, other values θeq , which may be constant under rotation. We can
determine them through the application of the AMT about point Q of the fork in the
non-Galilean fork reference frame (R). Note that Q is a fixed point relative to R, so
aR ðQÞ ¼ 0. On the other hand, as we are analyzing an equilibrium configuration in R,
Cor
any point P of the rod is at rest relative to R, F R!P ¼ 0 and there is no net Coriolis
moment:
•
X X tr
H ðQ Þ ¼0 ¼ Mext ðQÞ þ M R!S ðQÞ:
θeq syst syst
The only external interaction moment about Q is associated with the weight, and has to
be compensated by the inertial moment associated with the centrifugal transportation
forces (Fig. 4.34b):
(a) (b) dRtro = :2(s+xsinT)m dx

non
: 
2L
-Gal g
a’
R :
s Q
L
Gal Q T
E x
a G
T L dx
G mg
x m
dx
(c) (d) :
2
tanT E
:2 s+ 4 LsinT
g 3 Q
4:L
2 T
:s2 3 g
g
0 T 1
0 Teq S
2
Fig. 4.34

2ðL
m 4
mgL sin θeq ¼ Ω2 s þ x sin θeq cos θeq dx ¼ mLΩ2 cos θeq s þ L sin θeq
2L 3
2
0
Ω 4
) tan θeq ¼ s þ L sin θeq :
g 3
This transcendental equation always has a solution in the interval 0 θeq π=2
(Fig. 4.34c).
Note that the inertial moment M R!S
tr
ðQÞ ¼ mLΩ2 cos θeq s þ 43 L sin θeq is not
tr⊕
equivalent to the moment about Q associated with the net transportation force F R!
applied at point G:

⊕
F R!
tr⊕
¼ mΩ2 ðs þ L sin θÞ ) QG F tr ¼ mLΩ2 ðs þ L sin θÞ:

tr⊕
The net moment M R!S
tr
ðQÞ is higher than QG F R! because the centrifugal forces
on the lower part of the rod are higher, as their application points are further from the
rotation axis a–a0 .
The same result for θeq can be found through the AMT formulated in a Galilean reference
• P
frame (Fig. 4.34d): H ðQÞ ¼ Mext ðQÞ QG maE ðQÞ. Now, the RTQ is not the fork
but a reference frame containing Q and not rotating relative to the ground (E = Gal).
8 9
n o >< 0 >
=
rod
HðQÞ ¼ ΙΙðQÞΩ ¼ ð4=3ÞmL Ω sin θeq
2
>
: >
;
0
8 9
•
< 0 =
) H ðQ Þ ¼ 0 ;
: ;
ð4=3ÞmL2 Ω2 sin θeq cos θeq
8 9 8 9
nX o 0< = < 0 =
Mext ðQÞ ¼ 0 , QG maE ðGÞ ¼ 0 :
: ; : ;
mgL sin θeq mΩ2 sL cos θeq
The third component of the AMT yields the same transcendental equation. No explicit
integrations over the rod have been done (they are actually implicit in the inertia
tensor ΙΙðQÞ). ◄
► Example 4.17 The same rigid body S treated in Example 4.9 is analyzed through the
AMT about O in the non-Galilean bearing reference frame. As seen previously, there is
need of a constant net external moment perpendicular to the S plane to keep its vertical
angular velocity constant without changing the S inclination. If not provided, S acquires
a clockwise rotation perpendicular to its plane (Fig. 4.35).

242 Vector Theorems
motor
:0 const.
R
P O
tr
deviation if 
R oS(O)
the required moment required moment
is not applied to keep OP horizontal
Fig. 4.35
That additional rotation component can be properly justified through the inertial
moment associated with the centrifugal transportation forces:
ð ð
tr tr
M R!S ðOÞ ¼ OP F R!P ¼ OP rðPÞΩ20 dmðPÞ:
S S
We may split S into several rods to proceed to calculation, but we cannot

tr
avoid the integration as the net inertial moment M R!S ðOÞ is not equivalent to
the moment associated with the net centrifugal forces on each rod about O
P
tr⊕
rod OG rod F R!rod :
Four-rod partition: the net inertial force on each rod has the same value; those on
the LHS rods would yield a counterclockwise torque moment about O while
those on the RHS would yield a clockwise moment about O (Fig. 4.36), and the
net moment would be zero!
Three-rod partition: the net inertial force on the longest rod is zero. The upper and
the lower short rods would contribute a clockwise and a counterclockwise
moment about O, respectively (Fig. 4.37). As the latter is higher than the former,
the net moment about O would be counterclockwise. If not applied, S would
acquire a clockwise rotation component!

Gj
4 = 13  mL2 : 0
2 2
 = 1
 mL2 :02
12
O
If only centrifugal
 G1 forces are considered...

G2
 
 O
 (O)=0

?
 G1
  
G4 G2 



G3
 G4
G3 
... equilibrium is predicted !

Fig. 4.36
10  -  L = 1 mL2 :02
 
3
O If only centrifugal
forces are considered...

G1  
O
(O)

?
G2 8 G1

G3 G2

G3
 
 = 12 mL :02

= 1 mL2 :02

12
... the predicted rotation is
in the wrong direction !
Fig. 4.37
◄

Appendix 4A Static and Dynamic Balancing
of a Rotor
Rotors (rigid bodies with a fast rotation about an axis (Fig. 4A.1)) are very frequent
elements in mechanical systems (wheels in vehicles, crankshafts in alternative engines,
rotors in electrical engines. . .). If their mass distribution does not comply with a certain
symmetry, their rotation calls for constraint forces at the axis bearings, whose direction
rotates on a plane perpendicular to the rotation axis and whose value is proportional to
the squared angular velocity. The rotor is said to be unbalanced.
The constraint forces associated with being unbalanced provoke vibrations of the
bearings which are transmitted to their supports, and may generate unpleasant noise.
Sometimes, they can also provoke fatigue or rupture failure. Hence, avoiding those
forces is mandatory.
From the insight gained throughout this chapter, it is clear that unbalance is associ-
ated with a rotation axis which is not a CAI. Modifying the rotor mass distribution is
called rotor balancing.
2
1
RGal
6Fext
P m:2e
e
FP’ : 2e
central axis Q
of inertia G :const.
3
a FQ’
b
Fig. 4A.1

Appendix 4A: Static and Dynamic Balancing of a Rotor 245
The rotor must fulfill two conditions:
The center of mass G has to be on the rotation axis. This condition can be
checked through a static test: under gravity conditions and with a horizontal
rotation axis, all angular configurations are equilibrium ones. If G did not lie on
the rotation axis (e>0, Fig.4A.1), there would be only two equilibrium configur-
ations: G on the lowest position (stable equilibrium) and G on the highest
position (unstable equilibrium). The mass distribution modifications to achieve
this condition are known as static balancing.
The rotation axis has to be parallel a CAI. This condition can only be checked
through a dynamic test (that is, under rotation), and the mass distribution
modifications leading to that situation are known as dynamic balancing.
When a rotor is balanced both statically and dynamically, the rotation axis is a CAI.
♣ Proof
S
Let’s consider a rigid body S with mass m rotating with a constant angular velocity ΩE
about a fixed axis supported through bearings at points P and Q. The weight does not
play a relevant role in a balancing process, and will be disregarded in the calculations.
We will first treat the case where e is not zero but the rotation axis is a PAI, and then
that where e is zero but the rotation axis is not a CAI.
balance,
If its center of mass G is at a distance e from the rotation axis (no static
S
Fig. 4A.1), its acceleration will be centrifugal with value eΩ Ω ¼ ΩE . If the
2
•
rotation axis is parallel to a CAI (dynamic balance), H ðGÞ ¼ 0 because HðGÞ is
S
parallel to ΩE .
Note: If R ¼ nonGal (as when analyzing the wheels of a vehicle from the vehicle
chassis), the inertial forces are much lower than the terms associated with eΩ2 , and can
be neglected.
The application of the vector theorems to the rotor yields:

F0P þ F0Q ¼ meΩ2 b a
0 0 ) F0P ¼ meΩ2 , F0Q ¼ meΩ2 :
aFP bFQ ¼ 0 aþb aþb
That is: the rotation calls for two rotating constraint forces proportional to Ω2 and
contained on the axial plane through G.
If G is on the rotation axis but that axis is not a CAI, there is no need of net
•
constraint
force as aE ðGÞ ¼ 0, but there is need of a net constraint moment because H ðGÞ 6¼ 0 :
S
HðGÞ has a constant value but is not parallel to ΩE ; hence, its direction changes at the
• S
same rate as S rotates. H ðGÞ is perpendicular HðGÞ and to ΩE . The constraint forces at P
• .
00 00
and Q have to fulfill FP ¼ FQ ¼ HðGÞ ða þ bÞ, and they have to be contained in the
•
axial plane parallel to HðGÞ. As HðGÞ is proportional to Ω, H ðGÞ is proportional to Ω2 .
When the rotor is statically but not dynamically balanced (Fig. 4A.2), the rotation
calls again for two rotating constraint forces proportional to Ω2 .

246 Vector Theorems
a
b
RGal
6 Mext(G)

P
FP“
G
Q FQ“
axial plane H (G)
containing H (G)
:const.
H (G)
Fig. 4A.2
If the rotor is statically and dynamically unbalanced, the vector theorems state that:
8 9 8 9 8 9 8 9
< meΩ >
> = > < FP1 þ FQ1 > > < Ι23 Ω > = >< aFP2 bFQ2 >
2 2
= • =
0 ¼ FP2 þ FQ2 , HðGÞ ¼ Ι13 Ω2 ¼ aFP1 þ bFQ1 ,
>
: >
; > : >
; >
: >
; >: >
;
0 FP3 0 eFP2 eFQ2
hence:
1 1
FP1 ¼ bmeΩ2 þ Ι13 Ω2 , FQ1 ¼ bmeΩ2 Ι13 Ω2 ,
aþb aþb
1
FP2 ¼ FQ2 ¼ Ι23 Ω2 :
aþb
Note: In a proper design, just one support is responsible for a force in the axis direction
to avoid indeterminacy (redundancy).
Terms proportional to e describe the consequence of the static unbalance, while those
proportional to Ι13 and Ι23 are associated with dynamic unbalance. ♣
Though rotors are designed to be balanced, the small (and unavoidable) geometrical
errors and the slight inhomogeneities in the materials are responsible for a certain
degree of unbalance.
Balance can be achieved through two mass corrections added in two different planes
(dual balancing) perpendicular to the rotation axis (Fig. 4A.3). The values

ðmP rP , mQ rQ Þ and the angles βP , βQ are determined from the experimental measure-
ment of the consequences (forces or vibrations) of unbalance on the supports.
Adding mr at an angle β is equivalent to adding mr at an angle β þ 180o . The latter
is the usual choice, as negative values of mr correspond to piercing holes instead of
adding masses.
Small rotors (such as wheels in vehicles) are usually balanced only in one plane
(single balancing), and dynamic balance is not guaranteed. Though that balancing can

Appendix 4A: Static and Dynamic Balancing of a Rotor 247
balancing planes
EP "P"
EQ
P "Q"
rP
mQ
mP rQ
Q
masses : const.
added to the rotor
Fig. 4A.3
be performed under static conditions, it is better done in dynamic conditions: the

sensitivity in the measurements is higher because of the proportionality between the
constraint forces and Ω2 .

248 Vector Theorems
Quiz Questions
For the sake of brevity, the following assumptions are made throughout the whole collec-
tion of questions unless stated otherwise:
- Threads, ropes, cables and belts are inextensible and their mass is negligible.
- Internal frictions in joints are negligible.
- Rigid bodies are homogeneous.
- Wheels in vehicles do not slide.
- The gravitational acceleration g is taken as 10 m/s2.
All geometric data are declared in the figures but not in the text. Mass values not
declared are irrelevant.
Horizontal force 4.1 The horizontal platform is connected to the ground through a
bearing o platform ? bearing. If we apply a horizontal force F whose direction defines a
g constant angle β with the radial direction, what is the value of the
horizontal force that the bearing applies on the platform?
G
A F cos β
B F
F E C It depends on the friction between the bearing ad the platform.
h D F cot β
O bearing E It depends on the h value.
4.2 A horizontal force F is applied to the handle of a tool. The

Horizontal force
screw o piece ? force is perpendicular to the screw axis. If the mass of the tool is
g neglected, what is the value of the horizontal force transmitted by
m the screw to the lower piece?
negligible
mass A Always ¼ F
F B Always < F
C Only < F when screwing downward.
D Only ¼ F when it is totally screwed.
piece E > F or < F
4.3 Two contestants inside a circle drawn on the ground push and tug
Who wins ? by means of a bar. The winner is the one that succeeds in pushing the
other one outside the circle. Who wins?
g
A The winner is the strongest.
B The winner is the tallest.
C The winner is the heaviest.
D There is no winner if the bar has a negligible mass, as the
force acting on each of them is the same.
E The winner is the one that succeeds in generating a higher
horizontal force from the ground.
Quiz Questions 249
Trajectory of G once 4.4 An unbalanced roller goes down a slope without sliding, and
ground contact is lost at P ? loses ground contact when it reaches point P. If air friction is
neglected, the trajectory of the center of mass G relative to the
G g ground from that time instant on is:
A Parabolic with vertical axis.
contact p' B Parabolic with axis p–p0 .
without
sliding C Parabolic with an axis between p–p0 and the vertical direction.
D It has the shape of the Q curve.
P
E It has the shape of the Q0 curve.
p
Q
Q'
vE (G) horiz. as compared 4.5 A wheel slides on smooth horizontal ground, and loses
to v0 once ground contact ground contact when it reaches point Q. Just before reaching Q,
is lost at Q ? the speed of its center of mass G relative to the ground is v0 . If air
friction is neglected, how does the horizontal velocity of G
g evolve?
G v0 A ¼ v0
P = 0 B > v0
C < v0
Q D v0
E v0
4.6 A wheel has a perfect rolling motion down a slope. Just

How does vE(G) evolve ?
before entering the conveyor belt, its center of mass G has a speed
no sliding g v0 relative to the ground. The belt moves with constant speed v0
relative to the ground. If air friction is neglected, how does the
E enters the velocity of G evolve?
conveyor belt
A It decreases but stays always positive.
v = v0
B It keeps a constant value.
P C It decreases and becomes zero.
D It decreases and then reverses its direction.
v0
const. E It increases.

250 Vector Theorems
Minimum P 4.7 The bar PQ is attached to the wall through a thread, and
for equilibrium ? keeps a single-point contact with it at P. What is the minimum
value of the friction coefficient μ between wall and bar that
S guarantees equilibrium in the horizontal configuration?
A μ¼p 1 ffiffiffi
B μ ¼ 2pffiffiffi
thread
C μ ¼ 1= 2
D μ ¼ 1=2
P E μ¼∞
45º
P Q
homogeneous bar
4.8 The wheel with radius 3r and the drum with radius r form a
Minimum P
for equilibrium ? single rigid body which moves without sliding on the inclined
ground. A linear spring is attached to the wall point O, and may
equilibrium position: g roll/unroll on the drum. What is the minimum value of the friction
mutually coefficient μ between ground and wheel that guarantees no sliding
fixed m in the equilibrium configuration?
O k
3r
r A ð1=3Þ tan β
B ð1=2Þ tan β
C ð2=3Þ tan β
P D tan β
no sliding E E Equilibrium is not possible, the wheel always moves
downward.
How do the a E of centers 4.9 Two spheres, one solid and one hollow, with different mass
compare while sliding ? and radius, are in contact with a horizontal ground. The friction
coefficient between the spheres and the ground is the same in both
initial motion: cases. The initial velocity of the two centers of mass is zero, but
g
centers at rest the initial rotation is nonzero. How do the speeds of the centers of
:0 :0 mass compare while the spheres slide on the ground?
A That of the solid sphere is higher.
P B That of the biggest sphere is higher.
C They are equal.
empty massive D That of the hollow sphere is higher.
ball ball E That of the heaviest sphere is higher.

Quiz Questions 251
Roller position relative 4.10 The truck and the roller are initially at rest relative to the
to E when reaching ground. When the truck starts moving, the roller rolls backward on
truck endpoint O ? the truck. What will be the position of the roller center of mass
when it reaches the truck endpoint O?
A It will be between P and P0 .
E g a B It will be P.
C It will be between P and Q.
D It will be Q.
O
E It will be between Q and Q0 .
P' P Q Q'
Horizontal 4.11 The two concentric pulleys are articulated at O, and are
constraint force at O ? initially at rest on horizontal smooth ground. If the two threads
(each of them with an endpoint fixed to a pulley) are pulled with
smooth horizontal plane
the same force F in opposite directions, what is the value of the
F constraint force between the pulleys at O?
M, R
A FðM mÞ=ðM þ mÞ
m, r
B FM=ðM þ mÞ
O C F
F
D 0
E Fm=ðM þ mÞ
articulation
between pulleys
G displacement ? 4.12 The two concentric pulleys form a single rigid body which
Pulley rotation ? is initially at rest on horizontal smooth ground. If the two threads
(each of them with an endpoint fixed to a pulley) are pulled with a
mutually
F fixed same force in opposite directions, how does the system move
(rotation and motion of the center of mass G)?
A G moves to the left, and there is a clockwise rotation.
B G moves to the left, and there is a counterclockwise rotation.
G F C G moves to the right, and there is a clockwise rotation.
D G moves to the right, and there is a counterclockwise rotation.
E G does not move, and there is a counterclockwise rotation.

252 Vector Theorems
Is it possible 4.13 The ladder is in contact with the ground at P and with the
to overpass O ? wall edge at O. The friction coefficient between ground and point
P is μ > tan β, while that at O is zero. Is it possible that a person
g going up overpasses the vertical through O with no loss of ladder
stability?
A No, because the ladder will necessarily lose contact at P when
P=0
O the person overpasses O.
B No, because the ladder will necessarily slide at P when the
person overpasses O.
E C Yes, but the ladder will necessarily lose contact at P when the
P>tanE
vertical through the system’s center of mass G overpasses O.
D Yes, but the ladder will necessarily slide at P when the vertical
P through the system’s center of mass G overpasses O.
E Yes. The ladder does not lose contact and does not slide even
if the vertical through the system’s center of mass G slightly
overpasses O.
4.14 What is the minimum value of the friction coefficient μ

Minimum P
for equilibrium ? between roller and wall which guarantees equilibrium when the
thread is pulled with a force F?
static g
equilibrium A μ ¼ 1=2
B μ¼1
F thread C It is impossible to keep the roller at rest.
D μ¼2
E μ¼∞
P m, ,G
4.15 The block moves under the action of its weight and the two
Force PP’ bar oblock ? constraints with the wall through two identical massless bars
articulated to the wall and the block. What is the value of the force
Tz0

g
F exerted by the bar PP0 on the block at the configuration shown
Tz0

P' on the picture?
T A F ¼ mg=ð2 cos θÞ
s
L G B F¼0
C F ¼ mg cos θ
P
Q' D F ¼ mg= cos θ
s E F ¼ mg=2
L
free motion
Q
Quiz Questions 253
4.16 The bar is at rest. What is the value of the force F exerted by
Hydraulic cylinder force? the hydraulic cylinder?
static equilibrium A F ¼ mgL=ðs cos βÞ
g 2L B F ¼ mgL=ðs cos 3 βÞ
Q C F ¼ mgL=ðs cos 2 βÞ
m small D F ¼ mgL cos β=s
wheel E F ¼ mgL cos 3 β=s
O E
hydraulic
cylinder
4.17 The wheel is in equilibrium, and the tension of lower spring

Spring force ? is F0 . What is the value of the force of the upper spring?
equilibrium g
A F0
configuration:
mutually B F0 =2
fixed C 2F0
k/2 D F0 =4
2r E F0 =3
r
attraction F0 no sliding
Tangential force ? 4.18 The thread has an endpoint fixed to the ground and another
one to the roller. What is the value of the tangential constraint
force between roller and ground?
g pffiffiffi
A mg= 2 pffiffiffi
B mg= 1 þ 2
m C 0pffiffiffi
D 2mg pffiffiffi
E 1 þ 2 mg
no sliding
45º

254 Vector Theorems
4.19 The wheel (radius R2 ) and the drum (radius R1 ) form a

R1 for equilibrium ? single rigid body which may have a perfect rolling motion on the
inclined surface. A block hangs from the endpoint of a thread
total mutually
mass m fixed which has its other endpoint fixed to the drum. What is the
required value of R1 to keep the system at rest?
A R1 ¼ R2 sin β
B R2
R1
R2 C R1 ¼ 2R2 sin β
D R1 ¼ R2 tan β
J
no sliding E R1 ¼ 2R2 sin β
m E
Minimum PQ 4.20 The block hangs from a thread which is attached to point O
for equilibrium ? of the massless bar PQ. The bar endpoint P is in contact with a
smooth wall ðμP ¼ 0Þ whereas the endpoint Q is in contact with a

rough wall μQ 6¼ 0 . What is the minimum value of the friction
4L coefficient μQ that guarantees equilibrium?
L
P negligible A μQ ¼ ð1=2Þ tan β
O mass B μQ ¼ 4 sin 2 β
E Q C μQ ¼ ð1=4Þ tan β
D μQ ¼ ð4=3Þ tan β
PP = 0 PQ = 0
E μQ ¼ ð1=4Þ sin β
m
Z of small 4.21 The roller is articulated to the ground-fixed point O, and has
oscillations ? an additional mass-point m glued to its periphery. The linear
spring has one endpoint fixed to m and the other one to the ground.
equilibrium
configuration: What is the angular frequency of the small amplitude oscillations
around the equilibrium configuration?
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A ω ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
k=m
O m B ω ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
k=2m
C ω ¼ pk=4m ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
roller D ω ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2k=3m
2m, R E ω ¼ k=6m
k

Quiz Questions 255
How do the oscillation 4.22 The wheels are identical and do not slide on the ground, and
frequencies compare ? are attached to the wall through a linear spring. How do the
angular frequencies of their motion compare?
g
P A ωP > ωQ
k B ωP < ωQ
C ωP ¼ ωQ
D Wheel P does not oscillate because the spring loses its tension
equal and the system moves downward.
k Q E It is not possible to assess their relative values without know-
ing the springs initial tensions.
no sliding
How do P and Q 4.23 The mass points P and Q are attached at the endpoints of
velocities evolve ? two rotating threads. P approaches O because the thread shortens,
while Q approaches O0 because the thread rolls up on the ground-
smooth horizontal plane fixed drum centered at O’. How do their speeds vE ðPÞ, vE ðQÞ
E g P, m evolve?
A They are both constant.
O
it shortens B vE ðPÞ is constant, vE ðQÞ increases.
C vE ðPÞ increases, vE ðQÞ is constant.
D Both increase.
Q, m E vE ðPÞ is constant, vE ðQÞ decreases.
fixed
O'
it winds up
Vertical force 4.24 The thread does not slide on the pulley and all and inertias
support o pulley ? (except that of the block) are negligible. What is the value of the
vertical constraint force at O (take g = 10 m/s2)?
negligible g
mass A 10 N
B 15 N
O C 20 N
D 25 N
E 35 N
10 N
2.5 kg

256 Vector Theorems
Direction of 4.25 The two blocks are initially at rest in the shown configur-
initial rotations ? ation. If all frictions are negligible, what will be the direction of
their angular velocities relative to the ground?
g motion starts
from rest A They will both be clockwise.
B They will be zero as the blocks will have a translation motion.
G1 C They will both be counterclockwise.
P=0 D It will be clockwise for the upper block and counterclockwise
for the lower one.
E It will be counterclockwise for the upper block and clockwise
G2 for the lower one.
P=0
Value of E ? 4.26 The endpoint P of the thin bar slides in the slot while the bar
keeps its inclination β (relative to the slot) constant. What is the β
value?
P < tanG A β¼δ
P slides P B β ¼ δ arc tan μ
and the bar C 0
keeps constant G D β ¼ arc tan μ
inclination E That motion is not possible.
4.27 The block is connected to the wall through two identical

aE(G) just after
thread breaks ? massless bars with revolute joints at their ends, and through a
thread. If the thread breaks, what will be the jaE ðGÞj value
g just after?
thread breaks
A g
T0 B g sin θ0
C ð1 þ ðh=sÞÞg sin θ0
L G D ð1 þ ðh=LÞÞg sin θ0
s E L2 g sin θ0 =ðL þ h cos θ0 Þ
s
L h

Quiz Questions 257
4.28 The block is connected to the wall through a revolute joint

F1(O) just after
thread breaks ? at O and a thread. What will be the horizontal constraint force at O
on the block just after the thread breaks?
g
A 0 pffiffiffi
thread B 3=4pffiffi2ffimg
breaks
L C 3=4 2 mg !
D ð3=8Þmg
O E ð3=8Þmg !
m L
4.29 The block slides down the slope and the roller moves down
How do the Gblock and Groller
accelerations compare ? without sliding on the ground. How do jaE ðGblock Þj and
jaE ðGroller Þj compare?
A jaE ðGroller Þj < jaE ðGblock Þj
m P = 12 tanE
B jaE ðGroller Þj ¼ jaE ðGblock Þj > 0
block
m C It depends on whether β > 45o or β < 45o .
roller
D jaE ðGroller Þj > jaE ðGblock Þj
no sliding E jaE ðGroller Þj ¼ jaE ðGblock Þj ¼ 0
E
Time required 4.30 The ring has an initial translation motion relative to
to stop sliding ? the ground with speed v0 . How much time will it take to stop
sliding?
initial conditions: g A 2v0 =μg
m B 3v0 =2μg
C v0 =μg
v0 D v0 =2μg
E v0 =3μg

258 Vector Theorems
4.31 The symmetrical rigid body moves with constant speed v

N just when Q loses
ground contact ? on the smooth ground. How will the normal constraint force at P
change when Q loses ground contact?
g s s
v A Its value does not change, and is equal mg=2.
B Changes suddenly to mg.
G m
C Increases permanently.
D Decreases permanently.
h smooth E Changes suddenly to a value between 0 and mg, depending on
P ground Q
the mass distribution.
N
Can he modify 4.32 An athlete is performing a long jump. If air friction is

the G motion and neglected, can he modify the motion of his center of mass G and
the trunk orientation his trunk orientation while in the air?
while in the air ?
A Both can be modified independently.
long jump g B Both can be modified, but not independently.
C Only the G motion can be modified.
D Only the trunk orientation can be modified.
E None of them can be modified.
negligible air friction
Minimum P 4.33 The disk has a single-point contact with a rough wall, and
to prevent sliding ? is initially at rest on smooth horizontal ground. If we apply the
force F at its center of mass, what is the minimum value of the
smooth horizontal ground
friction coefficient μ between disk and wall which guarantees no
g sliding?
F m, R A 1=ð3 tan βÞ
disk
E B 1= tan β
C 2=ð3 tan βÞ
P D Sliding cannot be avoided because it is a smooth
horizontal ground.
E It never slides, regardless the μ value.

Quiz Questions 259
Minimum P 4.34 The roller has a single-point contact with the ground. If we
to prevent sliding ? apply the force F at the endpoint of a thread which may roll or
unroll over its periphery, what is the minimum value of the friction
initially at rest coefficient μ between roller and ground which guarantees no
F sliding?
A F=ð3mgÞ
m
G B F=ðmgÞ
C F=ð2mgÞ
D ∞
J E 0
no sliding
4.35 The two platforms are on a smooth horizontal plane, and are
Platforms, motion ? connected through a rope that may roll and unroll on the internal
smooth horizontal ground massless drums. The drum of platform 1 is fixed to it, while that of
g initially at rest platform 2 may rotate relative to it. If the system is initially at rest
and the drum centered at G2 starts rotating, what will be the
mutually platforms motion?
fixed
G1 A They will not move as the motor acting on the drum cannot
P
generate a nonzero torque because there is no friction.
m platform 1
B G1 and G2 move on the straight line G1 G2 and the platforms
m platform 2 acquire opposite rotations.
Q after C G1 and G2 move on the straight line G1 G2 and the platforms
G2 rotating acquire rotations in the same direction.
drum that
winds up D G1 and G2 move on a straight line parallel to PQ and the
the rope platforms acquire opposite rotations.
E G1 and G2 move on a straight line parallel to PQ and the platforms acquire rotations in the same
direction.
4.36 The bar oscillates with an amplitude of 30o . What is the

Tfor T = 30º ? absolute value of its angular acceleration when it reaches the
highest configuration?
A ð3=8Þðg=LÞ
B ð3=2Þðg=LÞ
C g=L
pffiffiffi
m, 2L
T D 3 3=4 ðg=LÞ
amplitude 30º
E 0

260 Vector Theorems
Minimum F 4.37 The wedge is pushed through a horizontal massless bar and
to move the wedge? a massless wheel. What is the minimum value of the force F on the
bar to move the wedge?
g
P=0.7 A >0:7 mg
small B >0:35 mg
wheel P=0 C >1:4 mg
pffiffiffi
m
F D >0:35 3 mg
30º E Motion is impossible, independently from the F value.
4.38 The block collides on a smooth horizontal plane with the

Final vE(block) ? wedge, that moves with constant velocity v0 under the action of a
hydraulic cylinder. The block does not bounce, but starts sliding
against the wedge. What is its speed relative to the ground when it
g
loses the contact with the wedge?
E
initially block
at rest v0 A v0
B v0 sin β
no bouncing
C v0 cos β
P=0
E wedge D v0 =sin β
E v0 tan β
rel. to wedge
hydraulic cylinder
Horizontal torque 4.39 The transmission element has neither inertia nor internal
supportocasing ? frictions, and the input and output axes are collinear and rotate in
the same direction. If the input torque is Γ and the transmitted
negligible output torque is 4Γ, what is the value of the horizontal constraint
inertia and friction torque applied by the fixed support on the casing?
A 0
* 4* B 3Γ )
casing C 3Γ (
input output
D 5Γ )
support E 5Γ (

Quiz Questions 261
Torque bridge ochassis 4.40 The motor torque Γ is applied to the rear bridge axle of a
(p-p’ direction) ? truck. The bridge transmits a torque 5Γ to each rear wheel. What is
the constraint torque between bridge and chassis in the p–p0
rear bridge axle of a truck direction if all inertias and frictions are neglected?
motor axis
5* p'
A 5Γ
*Z B 0
C 10Γ
C D 11Γ
E 9Γ
5*
torque applied
p to the wheels
aE (G) 4.41 The motorbike accelerates with its rear wheel spinning and
compared to Pg ? sliding on the ground. Its front wheel does not touch the ground.
How does jaE ðGÞj compares to μg?
g M
E A jaE ðGÞj ¼ μg
a
B 0
v C It depends on the motorbike mass and the motor power.
D jaE ðGÞj ¼ μg cos β
E jaE ðGÞj < μg but jaE ðGÞj 6¼ μg cos β
,
P E const.
sliding
N value 4.42 A vehicle without motor and brakes goes up a slope with
compared to that when constant speed pulled through a capstan. How does the normal
propelled by the wheels ? constraint force on the rear wheels compare to that of that force
g when propelled by the wheels (with no capstan)?
A It is always lower.
no torque applied B It is lower only if h > r.
to the wheels
C It is higher only if h < r.
capstan D They are equal.
v const. E It depends on the capstan radius.
h
r
N

262 Vector Theorems
4.43 The rear wheels of the toy car are manually accelerated
Nsl compared to Nst ? before putting it on the ground. Once on the ground, the friction
force between those wheels and the ground propels the car for-
toy car propelled by ward. If all inertias and frictions are neglected (except those
the rear wheels inertia: g indicated on the figure), how do the normal forces on the sliding
free rotation rear wheels ðNsl Þ compare to those on the same wheels when the
toy car is at rest ðNst Þ?
m
Z A Nsl > Nst
G B Nsl < Nst
,
C Nsl ¼ Nst
D Nsl Nst , depending on several vehicle parameters.
Nsl while sliding E Nsl > Nst or Nsl < Nst , depending on several vehicle param-
Nst static eters.
4.44 Someone proposes a device to prevent weight transfer

Is it feasible ? between the front and rear wheels when the vehicle accelerates
Invention: device to prevent or brakes. The device consists of a rotor which is conveniently
weight transfer accelerated. Is it feasible?
between wheels
A It is impossible to avoid weight transfer.
g rotor with B It is theoretically feasible.
suitable acceleration
C It is partially feasible.
D It is perfectly feasible; many vehicles are actually equipped
with this kind of device.
E It is not advisable as the forces on all four wheels would
decrease simultaneously.
Minimum P 4.45 The vehicle starts moving relative the ground with an
to prevent sliding ? acceleration a ¼ ð1=5Þg. If the wheels rotational inertia is neg-
lected, what is the minimum value of the friction coefficient μ
initially at rest between ground and wheels to prevent sliding?
a=g/5 A μmin ¼ 1=5

m
G B μmin ¼ 1=2
C μmin ¼ 1=10
motor L D μmin ¼ 2=5
P E μmin ¼ 1=3
L L
negligible
rotational inertia

Quiz Questions 263
N compared to 4.46 The homogeneous rollers do not slide at their contacts with
its static value ? the ground and the block. How does the normal constraint force at
J change when the block is pulled with a force F?
M g
A It decreases whenever h < H.
G B It increases whenever h < H.
F
H h C It does not change provided that h < H.
m J D It may increase or decrease or remain equal according to the
m
h=H ratio, provided that h < H.
N E It does not change if h ¼ H.
Transverse force 4.47 The tricycle moves without sliding on the ground, with the
groundofront wheel ? steering blocked and under the action of a horizontal force applied
g through a rope. What is the value of the transverse constraint force
between the ground and the front wheel?
A Fh=Lr
B Fh=ðL Lr Þ
L
C F
G Lr D 0
E Fh=L
h
F
4.48 The rear wheels of a vehicle do not slide on the ground. The
Mext(Gw) direction midpoint Q of the rear axle describes a circular trajectory with
on the inner wheel ?
radius R and center of curvature O. What is the direction of the net
g E external moment Mext ðGw Þ on the inner wheel?
v0
no sliding A Opposite to that of vE ðGw Þ.
O m B That of vE ðGw Þ.
Gw Q
C That of OGw .
inner D Opposite to that of OGw .
wheel
E It is not defined as that moment is zero.

264 Vector Theorems
4.49 The rear wheels of a vehicle do not slide on the ground. The
H(Q) direction ? midpoint Q of the rear axle and describes a circular trajectory with
non-sliding wheels radius R and center of curvature O. What is the direction of the net
E angular momentum of the two rear wheels HðQÞ?
R
m, r A It is in the vertical plane through OQ.
O B It is vertical.
m, r C It is that of vE ðQÞ.
Q
D It is horizontal
inner wheel outer wheel
v0 E HðQÞ ¼ 0 because H ðQÞ ¼ H ðQÞ.
negligible mass
4.50 The ring moves on horizontal smooth plane with an initial

:E ring + arm clockwise rotation Ω0 ¼ 2v0 =L and an initial speed v0 at its center
after collision? P. The arm is articulated to the ground at O, and is initially at rest.
smooth horizontal ground P collides with Q, and ring and arm form a single rigid body. What
g is the final angular velocity?
arm initially at rest A 0

O B v0 =L, clockwise direction.
:0 = 2v0 /L
C v0 =L, counterclockwise direction.
ring 3m 2L
D v0 =2L, clockwise direction.
v0 E v0 =2L, counterclockwise direction.
P
Q
m joined
after
2L collision
ICR just after collision ? 4.51 The two bars are identical, and their mass is concentrated at
one end. Initially they have a translational motion in opposite
smooth horizontal ground directions on smooth horizontal ground. They collide and stick.
g
Where is the ICR (instantaneous center of rotation) just after
before after
collision?
m
Q A It coincides with O.
2v0 B It coincides with P.
C There is no rotation after collision, so the ICR is not defined.
O
D Between O and Q.
v0
E Between O and P.
P
2m

Quiz Questions 265
vE(Gsystem) just 4.52 The bar has its mass concentrated at one end, is articulated
after collision ? at O to a smooth horizontal ground and is initially at rest. The
mass point P moves toward the bar with an initial speed 3v0 and
g sticks to the bar. What is the final speed vE Gsystem ?
m
initially at rest A ð4=3Þv0
L
E O B 2v0
C 0
D ð1=2Þv0
negligible 2L E ð2=3Þv0
mass
P 3v0
2m
sticks
to the bar
4.53 The disk is articulated at O to a smooth horizontal ground

:E just after collision ? and has an initial counterclockwise rotation Ω0 . The mass point P
smooth horizontal ground moves toward the disk with an initial speed v0 , collides and sticks
g to the disk. What is the angular velocity just after collision?
initial P, m N
v0 sticks to the disk A Ω0
B ⊙Ω0
:0 C It depends on the RΩ0 =v0 ratio.
m, R E D ⊙Ω0 =3
N
O E Ω0 =3
4.54 The disk has a mass point P glued to its periphery, it is

:disk
E if P flies off articulated at O to a smooth horizontal ground and has an initial
suddently ?
clockwise rotation Ω0 . What is the angular velocity of the disk just
smooth horizontal ground after P flies off?
g
E initially: A ðM 2mÞΩ0 =M
:disk B ðM þ mÞΩ0 =M
E = :0
disk D MΩ0 =ðM 2mÞ
P, m C MΩ0 =ðM þ mÞ
E Ω0
O fixed
to disk
M, I0
ground fixed

266 Vector Theorems
4.55 The rigid body rotates with a constant angular velocity Ω0

: E direction after

about the inclined axis PQ (where P and Q are ground-fixed
constraints suppression?
points). If the constraints at P and Q are suddenly suppressed,
sudden g what will be the direction of its angular velocity relative to the
suppression ground after a finite time interval?
of P and Q
constraints Q A Equal to that of Ω0 .
:0
B Equal to that of Ω0 only if PQ is a PAI at one of its points.
C Equal to that of Ω0 only if PQ is a CAI.
E
D Equal to that of Ω0 only if PQ is a CAI or parallel to a CAI.
P E Constant but different from that of Ω0 .
4.56 The rigid body has an angular acceleration αE relative to the

ground. Is it true that the net external moment about G,
P
Mext ðGÞ, is proportional to αE ?
DE
A It is never true.
B It is true if ΩE is parallel to a CAI.
E C It is only true if αE ¼ 0.
G
D It is true if it is a planar motion.
E It is always true.
spring
4.57 A rigid body is launched with an initial angular velocity Ω0

: 0 and H(G)

relative to the ground. If the aerodynamic interaction is neglected,
conservation ?
is there conservation of the angular velocity Ω0 and the angular
initial
momentum HðGÞ?
:0 A In principle, Ω0 6¼ constant, HðGÞ 6¼ constant:
E B In principle, Ω0 ¼ constant, HðGÞ 6¼ constant:
C In principle, Ω0 ¼ constant, HðGÞ ¼ constant:
D In principle, Ω0 6¼ constant, HðGÞ ¼ constant:
negligible E Both are constant if the vector basis is fixed to the rigid body.
aerodynamic friction

Quiz Questions 267
Possibility of 4.58 The solid octahedron hangs from the ceiling through a
vertical rotation thread. From an initial rest, we introduce an initial vertical rotation
with vertical thread ? by torsioning the thread. If that rotation changes its direction, from
which point has the octahedron been hanged?
P A P
B Q
Q C R
D S
R ST P E T
L Q
L R
solid and S
homogeneous T
4.59 The rigid body consists of a ring attached through a mass-

:E constant less rod to a bar. If launched with an initial angular velocity ΩE
when launched ?
relative to the ground and the air friction is neglected, will ΩE be
3 g constant?
L= R 32
R A Yes, for any ΩE .
B Only if the ΩE direction is parallel to one of the three axes
L 2 (1,2,3).
m C Only if the ΩE direction is parallel to axis 1 or to the
m, R 2–3 plane.
L D Only if the ΩE direction is parallel to axis 2 or to the
1 1–3 plane.
negligible mass E Only if the ΩE direction is parallel to axis 3 or to the 1–2 plane.
4.60 The rigid body consists of two identical plates perpendicu-

: E constant lar to each other. If launched with an initial angular velocity ΩE
when launched ?
relative to the ground and the air friction is neglected, will ΩE be
3 constant?
L
L
A No, never.
L
B Yes, for any ΩE .
m
C Only if the ΩE direction is parallel to one of the three axes
O
(1, 2, 3).
m 2 D Only if the ΩE direction is parallel to axis 1 or to the
1 2–3 plane.
L 2L E Only if the ΩE direction is parallel to axis 3 or to the 1–2
plane.
2L

268 Vector Theorems
M/m value for 4.61 The rigid body consists of six particles attached
constant : E through massless rods. If launched with an initial angular
when launched ? velocity ΩE relative to the ground, what value of the mass
1m ratio M=m will guarantee that ΩE remains constant?
2
A 0
M B M=m ¼ 1=4
2L
2L C M=m ¼ 1=2
m L
L D M=m ¼ 1
2L m E M=m ¼ 2
M
2L negligible
mass
1m
2
4.62 The wheel is a symmetrical rotor with singular axis e–

Mext(G) direction ? e0 . If it rotates with a constant angular velocity Ω0 about an
axis through its center of mass G defining a constant angle β
with axis e–e0 , what is the direction of the required external
e :0 P
sector p const. net moment Mext ðGÞ?
E A The same as Ω0 .
sector q
G e'
B It lies within sector q.
C The moment is zero.
fixed axis D It lies within sector p.
singular axis of the E It is perpendicular to that of Ω0 and to axis e–e0 .
symmetrical rotor
Constraint
Constraint moment
torque M(G) 4.63 The plate rotates with constant angular velocity Ω0
M(G)
axis o plate
rotor o plate
? ? relative to the ground. What can be said about the constraint
moment MðGÞ from the rotor on the plate?
:0
E homogeneous
A It is perpendicular to Ω0 and depends on β.
plate B It is parallel to Ω0 and depends on β.
C It is parallel to Ω0 and independent from β.
D It is perpendicular to Ω0 and independent from β.
E It is zero.
G
motor

Quiz Questions 269
Possibility of 4.64 The planar and homogeneous rigid body may rotate freely
vertical rotation about axes p–p0 and q–q0 . The configuration with horizontal axis
with horizontal s-s’ ? s–s0 is an equilibrium configuration. Is it possible that it rotates
with vertical angular velocity ΩE while keeping axis s–s0 horizon-
p' q' g
tal without need of additional forces (other than the weight and the
s' constraint forces at O)?
O
A No, because q–q0 is not a CAI.
s B Yes, because rotation about axis q–q0 is free.
p C Yes, but the ΩE value has to be under a certain critical value.
at rest: D No, because the center of mass is not located on axis s–s0 .
s-s’ horizontal E Yes, but the ΩE value has to be above a certain critical value.
bearing
q
4.65 The rectangular plate hangs from the ceiling through a

Required F at P for
thread. What force has to be applied at vertex P to maintain a
vertical OQ?
constant rotation about the vertical axis OQ?
O' A A force with direction GP.

B A vertical force.
: const.
C That motion does not require an additional force.
O D A force perpendicular to the plate.
plate P E A horizontal force contained in the plate plane.
4.66 The rigid body consists of two identical bars joined by a

Is there need of an
massless rod articulated to a rotating arm through a revolute joint
additional M(O) ?
at O. If we want the body to rotate with a constant vertical angular
velocity Ω0 relative to the ground while keeping the same orienta-
negligible
mass : 0 const.
tion relative to the arm, do we need to apply an additional external
L moment MðOÞ?
45º
O L
A No, because the vertical direction is a PAI.
L B Yes, we need a clockwise moment about O perpendicular to
L 45º the body plane.
should keep C Yes, we need a counterclockwise moment about O perpen-
the orientation arm dicular to the body plane.
relative to arm
D No, because the body is a symmetrical rotor for point O.
motor E Yes, we need a vertical moment about O.

270 Vector Theorems
Z to keep OP 4.67 The square plate is articulated at O to the fork, which

horizontal ? rotates with constant angular velocity ω relative to the ground.
For which ω value will the OP direction remain horizontal?
g pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A 2g=L
Z const. B That motion is impossible because the vertical direction is not
P
apPAI
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffifor
ffi point O.
C pg=2L ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2L O D pg=L ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
E 2 g=L
2L
Is there need of a thread 4.68 The rigid body consists of a bar and three mass points
for equilibrium attached to it through massless rods, and it is articulated to a
relative to platform ? rotating support through a revolute joint. If we want the body
:0 orientation relative to the platform to be constant while rotating
m m with a constant angular velocity Ω0 relative to the ground, do we
45º
need to add a thread between the body and the platform?
L L
L A No, because the vertical direction is a PAI.
L
B Yes, and thread P would be suitable.
m, 2L m C Yes, and thread Q would be suitable.
D Yes, but thread P should be horizontal.
platform E Yes, and both threads P and Q would be suitable.
thread Q motor thread P
4.69 The planar rigid body is articulated to a fork which rotates

freely relative to the ground around a vertical axis. If a driver
modifies its orientation as shown in the figure, how does the final
no motion relative to support
in the initial and final states: angular velocity ðΩÞcompare to the initial one ðΩ0 Þ?
A 0 < Ω < Ω0
B Ω ¼ Ω0
C It depends on the body mass.
m
D Ω¼0
E Ω > Ω0
support
:0 :
bearing

Quiz Questions 271
4.70 The disk may rotate freely about its axis, and the support
Final :support
E ? may rotate freely around the vertical axis. Initially, the support is
at rest and the disk has a vertical angular velocity Ω0 . If the motor
g
:0 rotates the disk 90o , what will be the final angular velocity of the
Initially:
support relative to the ground? All inertias (except that of the disk)
are negligible.
motor
A Ω0
B 2Ω0
negligible
mass C Ω0 =2
support D Ω0 =4
at rest
E 0
bearing
rotates the disk 90º
Direction of net 4.71 The rigid body consists of a disk and a massless rod
constraint moment articulated to the ground through a ball-and-socket joint at O. If
M(O) ? its angular velocity relative to the ground has a constant value,
what is the direction of the net constraint moment MðOÞ that the
3 g ground exerts on the body?
2 A Positive 1-direction.
G B Negative 2-direction.
E
C Positive 2-direction.
J D It has positive components along axes 1 and 3.
no sliding E It is zero because the angular velocity is constant.
O
ball-and-socket
1
How does N 4.72 The sphere moves without sliding on the cylindrical cavity,
compare to mg? and its center has a constant speed v relative to the cavity. Friction
along the radial direction through Q is zero. How does the normal
constant no sliding g constraint force N at Q compare to mg?
speed at P and Q
A N > mg
B N ¼ mg
P C N < mg
D It depends on the rotation direction.
Q E N < mg only when v is under a certain critical value.
N
radial Pcircumf z 0
circumferential Pradial 0

272 Vector Theorems
4.73 The sphere moves without sliding on the ground pro-

How does N
compare to mg? pelled by the horizontal massless arm, which rotates with
constant vertical angular velocity Ω0 relative to the ground.
2 Friction along the radial direction through J is zero. How
g
does the normal constraint force N at J compare to mg?
motor
A N > mg
:0 const. B N ¼ mg
m C N < mg
G D N > mg or N ¼ mg according to the Ω0 value.
O 1
E N > mg or N < mg, depending on the Ω0 direction.
no sliding J
N
Pcircumf z 0 radial
Pradial 0 circumferential
4.74 The semispherical shell has an inertia moment Ιee

Influence of \ on N ? about the axis e–e0 and an inertia moment Ιtt about the axis
through O perpendicular to e–e0 . There is a nonsliding con-
g
\ Itt tact point at J between shell and ground. How does the value
e of ψ_ influence the ground normal force N on J?
range
of O A N decreases when ψ_ increases because of the
O Iee
R centrifugal force.
R B N increases when ψ_ increases.
2
homogeneous C N does not change when ψ_ increases if Ιee ¼ Ιtt .
semispherical
shell D N may increase, decrease, or remain unchanged when ψ_
increases if Ιtt > Ιee .
no E N may increase, decrease, or remain unchanged when ψ_
sliding J e'
increases if Ιtt < Ιee .
radial P=0 N

Quiz Questions 273
Once the motor starts, how 4.75 The disk with radius R has a single-point nonsliding
does NJ compare to mg ? contact at J with the horizontal platform. Friction between disk
and platform is strictly circumferential. If the system starts
L
g from rest and the platform starts rotating under the action of a
R motor, how does the normal force N at J compare to its static
m initially value (mg)?
at rest
A N ¼ mg
B N > mg
J C N < mg
D N > mg or N < mg, depending on the direction of the
platform rotation.
Pcircumf z 0
E N > mg or N < mg, depending on the R=L value.
Pradial 0 motor
4.76 The solid sphere rotation has two components, one about
Will PQ remain horizontal ? the vertical axis ðΩ0 Þ and another one about the PQ axis ðω0 Þ.
Both values are constant. All inertias (except that of the sphere)
motor : are negligible. Is it possible that the PQ axis remains
fixed to
the ground horizontal?
E
:0 const. A It is impossible for all ω0 values.
B Yes, for ω0 ¼ mgL=ΙG Ω0
C Yes, for ω0 ¼ mgL= ΙG þ mL2 Ω0
Z0 const.
P D Yes, for ω0 ¼ mgL= ΙG mL Ω0
2
E Yes, for ω0 ¼ Ω0 ΙG þ mL =ΙG 2

m, I Q
L
motor Z
negligible mass

274 Vector Theorems
4.77 A spinning top has a precession ψ_ upward while

Spin direction ?
keeping its inclination θ0 constant. What is the direction of
\ _
its spin φ?

g A Counterclockwise (þ).
T0 const. B Clockwise ().
C Either sign as the precession and the spin are
spin
axis independent velocities.
D It depends on the dynamic parameters of the
spinning top.
E It depends on whether ψ_ is higher or lower than a certain
critical value.
Precession direction ? 4.78 The spinning top is launched through a sudden pull of
a thread. What is the direction of the top precession?
– +
g A Counterclockwise (þ).
B Clockwise ().
C It depends on the direction of the initial velocity of the
center of mass.
top D It depends on whether ψ_ is higher or lower than a certain
launching
critical value.
E Both directions (þ, ) are equally probable.

Quiz Questions 275
Consequences of 4.79 The rotating elements of the outboard motor of a boat may
the fast rotor on be modeled as a fast rotor with a fast spin rotation φ_ perpendicular
the boat motion ? to the boat deck. If the sea waves provoke a pitch oscillation on the
g boat, what are the consequences of the fast rotor on the boat
pitch oscillation motion?
due to waves
M A It has no consequences.
fast B It increases the amplitude of the pitch motion.
rotor C It increases the amplitude of the yaw motion.
D It increases the amplitude of the roll motion.
E It provokes a yaw motion with constant direction.
Handle tendency 4.80 The axis of the motor of a drilling machine is longitudinal.
to deflect ? If the motor is on and the machine’s inclination is modified as
shown, what is the deflection tendency of the machine handle?
up R
Q A None.
handle B It deflects toward P.
P C It deflects toward Q.
down S D It deflects toward R.
E It deflects toward S.
change of
inclination

276 Vector Theorems
Exercises
4.1 The wheel moves on a flat ground without sliding under the action of a force
F applied at the endpoint of an inextensible thread. The other endpoint of the thread is
fixed to the inner drum. Drum and wheel are mutually fixed, and form one single rigid
body.
(a) Find the equation of motion for coordinate x.
(b) Find the horizontal component of the constraint force at point J.
(c) Study the sliding tendency at J as a function of λ ¼ ΙG =mrR.
g
x
m, ,G=KmR2
F
r = QR G
R
J no sliding
4.2 The solid roller and the solid block are homogeneous. The block slides down the
slope while the roller moves downward in contact with the block and without sliding on
the ground (the value of the friction coefficient between all contact surfaces guarantees
that motion). Find the equation of motion for coordinate x.
x g
m
roller
M
no sliding
P P
E

Exercises 277
4.3 The wheel moves on an inclined ground without sliding. An inextensible thread
has an endpoint fixed to the inner drum and the other endpoint connected to the wall
through a linear spring. Drum and wheel are mutually fixed, and form one single rigid
body. The spring has no tension when x ¼ 0. Find:
(a) The equation of motion for coordinate x.
(b) The equilibrium configuration xeq and the frequency of the small amplitude oscil-
lations around xeq .
(c) The tangential component of the constraint force between ground and wheel for
x ¼ xeq . Consider the two extreme configurations ðxmin , xmax Þ. For which of them is
there a higher risk of sliding?
g
k x
m, ,G
G
P r
E R
no sliding
4.4 The solid and homogeneous roller moves without sliding on the cylindrical ground.
(a) Find the equation of motion for coordinate θ.
(b) If the roller starts its motion from rest when θ ¼ θ0 and μ ! ∞, for which angle
θcont will it lose contact with the ground?
(c) If the roller starts its motion from rest when θ ¼ θ0 and μ ¼ 1=7, for which angle
θslide will it start sliding on the ground?
roller
g m, r
P
R
no sliding
T

278 Vector Theorems
4.5 The solid and homogeneous block moves without sliding on the cylindrical ground.
(b) Investigate the existence of equilibrium configurations π=2 θ π=2 other than
θ ¼ 0.
(c) Investigate under what condition θ ¼ 0 is a stable equilibrium configuration, and
find the frequency of the small amplitude oscillations around it.
g 2L
2L
G
m
P
no sliding J
h r
T
h
O
4.6 The Salomon pendulum consists on a solid and homogeneous roller moving
without sliding on a cylindrical cavity which rotates with a constant angular velocity
Ω0 relative to the ground about a vertical axis through O. Find:
(a) The equation of motion for coordinate θ.
(b) The frequency of the small amplitude oscillations around θ ¼ 0.
g
O :0const.
roller
C m
G
no sliding
R r T

Exercises 279
4.7 In order to determine the axial momentum of inertia Ιa of a balanced wheel, we

add a mass point m at a distance s from the wheel center and measure the period T of the
small amplitude oscillations of the perfect rolling motion of the wheel around θ ¼ 0.
What is the relationship between T and Ιa ?
g
M
C h
P
R
T m
J
no sliding
4.8 The solid and homogeneous roller moves without sliding on the ground under the
action of the mobile support, which has a translation motion with acceleration a relative
to the ground. Find:
(a) The normal force of the support on the roller.
(b) The constraint force from the ground on the roller.
(c) The critical value of the support–roller friction coefficient μcr over which the
described motion is not possible.
a P m
roller
sliding
no sliding

280 Vector Theorems
4.9 The solid and homogeneous roller is in contact with the vertical wall. The inexten-
sible thread has an endpoint fixed to the roller and another one to the block. Find:
(a) The critical value of the wall-roller friction coefficient μcr which guarantees that
there is no sliding between those two elements regardless the value of the block
mass (m).
(b) The critical value of the block mass mcr for which sliding starts when μ < μcr .
(c) The block acceleration if μ < μcr and m > mcr .
g
O
Q
R
C
P
P m
M
4.10 The solid and homogeneous block moves horizontally under the action of the
two rollers, which rotate with a constant angular velocity ω0 relative to the ground
controlled by two motors. The value of ω0 is sufficiently high to guarantee ω0 r > jx_ j, so
the sliding at the roller–block contacts always has the same direction. Find:
(a) The constraint normal forces on the block at Q and P.
(b) The equation of motion for coordinate x.
(c) The equilibrium configuration xeq and the frequency of the small amplitude oscil-

lations around xeq as a function of the friction coefficients μP , μQ .
x x < Z0r
s
g
Z0
PQ m
r
2h Q G
P
r PP
Z0

Exercises 281
4.11 The solid and homogeneous block moves under the action of a pulley, which
rotates with a constant angular velocity ω0 relative to the ground under the action of a
motor. The value of ω0 guarantees the sliding at the roller–block contact. The inertia of
all elements (except that of the block) is negligible. Find:
(b) The minimum and maximum values of the friction coefficient μ that allow the
equilibrium of the block.
(c) The equilibrium configuration xeq .
(d) The frequency of the small amplitude oscillations around xeq .
L g
x
m h
G
Q
sliding P
P
E
motor
4.12 The homogeneous triangular plate moves while keeping contact with a ground-
fixed circular support through two massless pulleys, which rotate with a constant
angular velocity ω0 relative to the ground. The value of ω0 guarantees that the sliding
at the pulleys-support contacts has always the same direction. Find:
(a) The normal constraint forces between the support and the pulleys at P and Q.
(b) The condition on the friction coefficients μP , μQ that guarantee no self-locking.
(c) The interval ðθmin , θmax Þ for which the plate does not lose contact with the support.

282 Vector Theorems
(d) The equation of motion for coordinate θ and the equilibrium configuration θeq .
(e) The frequency of the small amplitude oscillations around θeq if μP ¼ μQ ¼ μ.
s g
s
Z0
Z0
PQ
45°
45° Q
PP P
G{O 3s
R
sliding with
constant direction m
at P and Q
4.13 The homogeneous triangular plate is articulated at O to a support which translates

with constant velocity v0 relative to the ground. Point Q of the plate is connected to point P
of the support through a linear spring. For θ ¼ 0 the spring tension is F0 . The net aerody-
namic interactions are described in the figure, and the internal frictions are negligible. Find:
(a) The critical value vcr of v0 over which point Q loses contact with point Q0 .
(b) The equation of motion for coordinate θ when v0 > vcr .
(c) The minimum value kmin which guarantees that θ ¼ 0 is a stable
equilibrium configuration.
(d) The equilibrium configuration θeq when F0 ¼ 0, k > kmin and v0 > vcr .
g 6b
V v026a cosT

6a 3a
m
Q V v026b sinT

aerodynamic
O T Q' 3b interaction forces
v0
P
const.
k
6b

Exercises 283
4.14 The homogeneous triangular plate is articulated at O to a support which rotates

with a variable angular velocity ΩðtÞ relative to the ground under the action of a motor.
Point P of the plate is in contact with a smooth cylindrical surface fixed to the support.
Internal frictions and all inertias (except that of the triangular plate) are negligible. Find:
(a) The normal constraint force at P on the plate associated with that single-
point contact.
(b) The partial constraint torsor at O on the plate associated with the articulation.
(c) The critical value Ωcr of ΩðtÞ over which the plate loses its contact with the support.
1
s’ 3
: (t)

s
m b
P
Q
motor
a

284 Vector Theorems
4.15 The homogeneous rectangular plate hangs from the hook of a crane through three
inextensible cables and a ball-and-socket joint at O. Two workers exert forces at points
P and Q to generate a vertical constant rotation Ω0 while keeping the plate center of
mass G on the vertical through O. Find:
(a) The net moment about G associated with the workers’ forces.
(b) The constraint force exerted by the worker located at P.
(c) The tension of the crane cable.
O ball-and-socket
joint
3
L
L
2s
:0
const.
G
P m E 2
Q
1

Exercises 285
4.16 The homogeneous triangular plate hangs from the ceiling through an inextensible
cable attached at O. The vertex P is in contact with the ground. Two workers control the
plate constant angular velocity Ω0 relative to the ground. The worker located at Q
interacts directly with the plate, while that at Q0 interacts through an inextensible
massless rope. Find:
(a) The net moment about O associated with all forces exerted on the plate.
(b) The normal force exerted by the ground on the plate at P.
(c) The tension of the rope.
3
g vertical cable
:0
L 3 E 2
Q L 3 rope
O
m Q' 1
3L ball-and-socket
joint
P
P

286 Vector Theorems
4.17 The homogeneous triangular plate is articulated at O to a fork, which is con-

nected to a moving support through a cylindrical joint and a torsional linear spring. The
vertex P of the triangle is in contact with the ground. There is viscous friction between
ground and triangle. The support translates with constant velocity v0 relative to the
ground. All inertias (except that of the triangle) and internal frictions are negligible.
Find:
(a) The friction force at P.
(b) The equation of motion for coordinate θ.
(c) _
The normal constraint force at P as a function of θ and θ.
(d) The critical value vcr over which the equilibrium configuration θ ¼ 0
becomes unstable.
3
g
v0 const.
q' 3b
k
fork
2
moving e'
support
O m
e q
1
3a
T P
viscous friction
with constant c

Exercises 287
4.18 The sidecar of a motorcycle is modeled as a triangular homogeneous plate. The

sidecar wheel axis is at a distance s from that of the rear wheel. The vehicle follows a
circular path with constant steering angle δ, and the driven rear wheel center A has a
constant speed v0 relative to the ground. The driven and the steered wheels do not slide
on the ground, and there are no suspensions (so the lower side of the chassis is always
parallel to the ground). Find:
(a) The spin φ_ 0 and the skidding velocity vskid of the sidecar wheel on the ground.
(b) The net constraint torsor about Q associated with the constraint forces exerted by
the motorcycle chassis on the sidecar.
3
g
\0
2
b
3h sidecar
q wheel
B
r
driven A v0
wheel r
const. Q
s
2s
L
C r
G
G const. 1

288 Vector Theorems
4.19 The endpoints P and Q of a homogeneous rod slide in a massless circular slot.
The slot rotates with a constant angular velocity Ω0 about the vertical axis through its
center O under the control of a motor. The angle OPQ^ is 120o . Find:

(b) The normal forces at P and Q exerted by the support on the rod.
(c) The motor torque Γ required to guarantee the constant rotation Ω0 .
g
:0const.
O
m
+ Q
P T
no friction
at P i Q
motor

Exercises 289
4.20 The homogeneous symmetrical plate oscillates without friction about the axis of
the fork, which rotates with constant angular velocity Ω0 relative to the ground. Point O
of the fork is fixed to the ground. Find:
(b) The constraint moment about O exerted by the fork on the plate.
(c) The motor torque Γ required to guarantee the constant rotation Ω0 .
(d) The stability of the equilibrium configuration θ ¼ 0.
3
:0 const.
motor
rotating support
2
O T
1 T
s G
m

290 Vector Theorems
4.21 The rigid body RB consists of a homogeneous ring and a mass point P. The
intermediate elements are massless. Point O of the RB is connected to the ground
through a ball-and-socket joint, and the ring has a single-point sliding contact (Q) with
the ground. For ψ_ > 0 and φ_ > 0, find:
(a) The net torsor about O associated with all interactions on the RB.
(b) The equation of motion for coordinate ψ.
(c) The equation of motion for coordinate φ.
(d) The normal constraint force at Q.
At a certain time instant, sliding at Q stops. Friction between the ground and the RB is
zero in the radial direction but not in the circumferential one. Find:
(e) The time evolution of the speed vE ðPÞ.
(f ) The net constraint force from the ground on the RB at Q.
(g) The net constraint force from the ground on the RB at O.
3’ 3
P m
E 2’
M
m
2r E
2
r O
horizontal
Q diameter
sliding
\ 1{1’
Pz0
horizontal
fixed direction

Exercises 291
4.22 The homogeneous triangular plate is articulated to a rotating support through two
identical and parallel bars. Their motion relative to the support is controlled by motor θ,
which guarantees that their rotation θ_ 0 (relative to the support) has a constant value.
Internal frictions and all inertias (except that of the plate) are negligible.
(a) Find the equation ofmotion for coordinate ψ.
(b) Starting from state θ ¼ 45o , θ_ ¼ θ_ 0 , ψ_ ¼ ψ_ 0 , the motor drives the system to a

final state θ ¼ 90o , θ_ ¼ θ_ 0 , ψ_ ¼ ψ_ . What is the value of the final rotation ψ?
_
3
p' 6h
g
p'
\
\
T
3h
T m
m 2
2h 2h T0 const
P O Q motor.
2h 4h
motor T
E
bearing
rotating
support
p
T0 const.
bearing
E
p

292 Vector Theorems
4.23 The homogeneous triangular plate is articulated at O to a fork fixed to a smooth

platform. The system starts from rest and acquires a motion with constant angular
acceleration ψ€ 0 under the action of a motor. All elements except the triangle have
negligible inertia. Find:
(a) The critical value ψ_ cr above which the plate loses its contact with the platform.
(b) The motor torque that guarantees a constant ψ € 0 while the plate and the platform are
still in contact.
€ ¼ 0 and ψ_ ¼ ψ_ 0 > ψ_ cr , and the plate acquires a
From a certain time instant on, ψ

second DoF θ _
(c) Find the corresponding equation of motion.
g
(a, b) L
2L
(c) g
\(t) \0
revolute joint
O m T
L O
mutually
fixed 2L
P=0
motor
motor

Exercises 293
4.24 The homogeneous roller moves without sliding on the support, which rotates
with a constant angular velocity ψ_ 0 relative to the ground under the action of a motor.
The two linear springs have one end fixed to the support and the other one to the roller.
For x ¼ 0 (which is an equilibrium configuration for ψ_ ¼ 0), the upper spring tension is
F0 . Find:
(b) The conditions under which that equation describes an oscillatory motion, and the
corresponding frequency.
(c) The motor torque that guarantees a constant ψ_ 0 .
At a certain time instant, the motor is replaced by a bearing. The lower spring breaks
when the system state is ðx ¼ 0, x_ ¼ 0, ψ_ ¼ ψ_ 0 Þ, and the roller collides plastically
against the wall.
_
(d) What is the final value of ψ?
(a, b, c) \0 const.
x=0
3R 3 equilibrium position
x for \= 0
k g x negligible
mass
m k
R 2 L
L
support J motor
O no sliding L =R(3/2)
motor 1
(d)
initial: \0 final: \?
the spring
rest breaks
relative
to support
bearing bearing

294 Vector Theorems
4.25 The homogeneous rod is articulated to a massless support. Between rod and
support there is a torsional linear spring whose tension is zero for θ ¼ 0. The support
rotates with a constant angular velocity Ω0 relative to the ground. Internal frictions are
negligible.
(b) Take kt ¼ λmgr and study the stability of small amplitude oscillations around the
equilibrium configuration θ ¼ 0 as a function of λ.
(c) Find the value of the motor torque Γ required for a constant Ω0 .
2r
r
:0
: 0 const

T k T
t O rotating
support
Q
motor

Exercises 295
4.26 The pendulum consists of two identical homogeneous rigid rods, and it is
articulated at point O to the rotor of a motor that rotates with a constant angular velocity
Ω0 relative to the ground. All internal frictions and inertias (except that of the pendu-
lum) are negligible. Find:
(b) The equilibrium configurations.
(c) The motor torque that guarantees a constant Ω0 . If we articulate the center of the
pendulum at O, how does that motor torque change?
(a, b) 2 (c)
:0 const
:0 const
O
3
2m
L
T
1 O
L T
L L
motor motor

296 Vector Theorems
4.27 The spherical pendulum is articulated to a massless arm at Q. The arm rotates
with a constant angular velocity Ω0 relative to the ground under the control of a motor.
The internal frictions are negligible. Find:
(a) The equation of motion for coordinate θ. Under what conditions could θ ¼ 30 be
an equilibrium configuration?
(b) The motor torque required to keep Ω0 constant for a general motion θðtÞ.
motor
revolute
:0 joint
O 2r
Q
T G

Exercises 297
4.28 The horizontal rod, the ring, and the three thin bars form a single rigid body
whose mass is concentrated on the ring. Its rotation is controlled by a motor whose
stator is articulated to a fork connected to the ceiling through a bearing. Initially
φ_ ¼ φ_ 0 > 0 and ψ_ ¼ 0. The internal frictions and inertias (except that of the ring) are
negligible. Find:
(a) The angular momentum about O.
(b) The normal force N from the ground on the ring.
(c) The equation of motion for coordinate ψ. According to that equation, can the
normal force become zero?
(d) The motor torque required to keep φ_ 0 constant.
initial conditions 3
\(t=0) = 0 \
M(t=0) = M0 L
bearing
fork
ring E
m, R O
G
stator 2
1
M0 const.
J P

298 Vector Theorems
4.29 The spherical shell is articulated to the rotor of motor 1, which rotates with a
vertical angular velocity ω relative to the ground. The shell has a single-point contact at
J with the platform, whose rotation relative to the ground is controlled by motor 2 and
its value is also ω. Between platform and shell there is friction only in the circumferen-
tial direction. Other internal frictions and inertias (except that of the shell) are negli-
gible. Find:
(a) The normal and tangential forces on the shell at J.
(b) The torque Γ1 exerted by motor 1.
(c) The torque Γ2 exerted by motor 2.
g
P
M Q m
bearing
45º R
O
Z
motor 1
no sliding J
circumferential Z
friction only
motor 2

Exercises 299
4.30 The homogeneous wheel does not slide on the cylindrical support. The telescopic
arm OG consists of a prismatic bar articulated at the wheel center G and an arm
articulated at point O of the support. The whole system rotates with a constant angular
velocity ψ_ 0 relative to the ground under the action of a motor. The linear springs do not
slide on the drum (fixed to the arm), and are stretched with a tension F0 when θ ¼ 0.
Internal frictions and inertias (except that of the wheel) are negligible. Find:
wheel
(a) The angular velocity of the wheel relative to the support and to the ground (Ωsup
wheel
and ΩE , respectively).
(b) The transverse component of the constraint force from the arm on the wheel as a
function of θ and the springs constant k.
(c) The equation of motion for coordinate θ.
(d) The k value so that θ ¼ 45o is an equilibrium configuration for a given ψ_ 0 .
1’
1
horizontal g
revolute joints
\0 const.
cylindrical
R G
wheel
support J
G
no sliding J T
4R
prismatic joint O
2’
telescopic 3=3’
arm
O 2 R
no sliding k
k
E
motor
motor

300 Vector Theorems
4.31 The pendulum, which consists of a homogeneous ring and a massless rod, is
articulated at point O of the support, which slides along a smooth rectangular guide.
Between support and guide there is a linear torsional spring. The whole system rotates
with constant angular velocity ψ_ 0 relative to the ground under the action of a motor.
When the motor is blocked, ðx ¼ 0, θ ¼ 0Þ is an equilibrium configuration. Internal
frictions and inertias (except that of the ring) are negligible. Find:
(a) The constraint force from the support on the pendulum.
(b) The equation of motion for coordinate x.
(c) The equation of motion for coordinate θ.
2
2
\0 const.
\0 const.
g
motor motor
O’
O’ equilibrium level
smooth guide without rotation
(P= 0)
2’
2’ 1’
k
x 1
support 1’
x
1
O
O
negligible m, R
mass
3
G G
ring L
E
T T

Exercises 301
4.32 The planar rigid body is a symmetrical rotor for point Q (with singular momentum
of inertia Ι), and it rotates with constant angular velocity θ_ 0 relative to the guide under the
action of motor θ. The spring between the guide and the stator of the motor is linear.
The whole system rotates with constant angular velocity ψ_ 0 relative to the ground under
the control of motor ψ. When the motors are deactivated, ðx ¼ 0, θ ¼ 0Þ is an equilibrium
configuration. All internal frictions and inertias (except that of the rigid body) are
negligible. Find:
(b) The motor torque Γθ that guarantees a constant θ_ 0 .
(c) The motor torque Γψ that guarantees a constant ψ_ 0 .
Motor ψ is replaced by a bearing, and motor θ modifies the body orientation. Starting

from state x ¼ 0, θ ¼ 0, x_ ¼ 0, θ_ ¼ 0, ψ_ ¼ ψ_ 0 , it drives the system to a final state

x ¼ 0, θ ¼ 90o , x_ ¼ 0, θ_ ¼ 0, ψ_ . What is the value of the final rotation ψ?
_
E \0
motor \
rotating equilibrium
guide k configuration
P=0

motor T negligible
Q mass
x
G L
M
total mass

302 Vector Theorems
Puzzles
4.1 The boat and the boatman

Will the boatman be able to reach the pier without using any propulsion elements
(motor, paddles, sails)?
Boat and boatman are The boatman walks Too far from the pier
initially at rest. toward the pier . . . to jump safely . . .
and the boat moves
away from the pier !
4.2 The rope game soka-tira

In the soka-tira game (a traditional contest in the Basque Country), two teams pull a
rope. The team that crosses the midline loses. If the rope mass is neglected (which is a
plausible hypothesis), the net force of each team on the rope has the same value.
Then … why is there a winning team?

Puzzles 303
4.3 The three-blade propeller

In the early years of aviation, propellers had two blades (this is still the case in some
light aircrafts). But later on, they were substituted by three-blade propellers. Is there a
mechanical reason (not an aerodynamical one) for that design change?
4.4 The oscillating isosceles right triangle

Let’s hang an isosceles right triangle through a ball-and-socket joint from a vertex
associated with an acute angle. When pushing it gently to generate oscillations, it does
oscillate freely about the horizontal axis perpendicular to the triangle, but it does not
about the horizontal axis in the triangle plane.
Is there a mechanical justification?
g no possible
free oscillation
possible
free oscillation

304 Vector Theorems
4.5 Cornering in a motorbike

In which direction should we push the motorbike handlebars when entering and when
leaving a curve?

Exercises: Results 305
Quiz Questions: Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B A E A D E A B C E
+10 C E E B B B D B C D
+20 B B C C A D B D D D
+30 E D A A E A E C B C
+40 A A C B B D E A A A
+50 E A D E D B D B C C
+60 B E E A B C D C B B
+70 C C A D C B A A D C
Exercises: Results
F1þn
4.1 ðaÞ x€ ¼
m1 þ η
nη ð1 λÞn
ð bÞ Fhor ¼ F ¼F
1þη 1 þ λn
ð cÞ λ > 1 ) sliding tendency to the right
λ < 1 ) sliding tendency to the left
λ ¼ 1 ) no sliding tendency
mgð1 μÞ sin β þ Mgð sin β μ cos βÞ

4.2 x€ ¼
ð1 μÞð3=2Þm þ M
1 h i
4.3 ð aÞ x€ ¼ mgR 2
sin β kx ð R þ r Þ 2
mR2 þ ΙG
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
mgR2 sin β 1 k
ð bÞ xeq ¼ , f ¼ ðR þ r Þ
kð R þ r Þ 2 2π ΙG þ mR2
r
ð cÞ Fhor ¼ mg sin β, upward
Rþr
ΙG < mrR ) higher sliding tendency at xmax
ΙG mrR ) higher sliding tendency at xmin
2 g sin θ
4.4 ð aÞ θ€ ¼
3Rþr

4
ð bÞ θcont ¼ arc cos cos θ0
7
" #
1 4 2
1
ð cÞ θslide ¼ arcsin 1 cos θ0 ¼ arcsin sin 2 θcont
2 7 2

306 Vector Theorems
gðh sin θ rθ cos θÞ rθθ_ 2

4.5 ð aÞ θ€ ¼
ð1=3ÞL2 þ ð4=3Þh2 þ r2 θ2 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r 1 3gðr hÞ
ð bÞ tan θeq ¼ θeq ðwith h < rÞ; f ¼
h 2π L2 þ 4h2
2 LΩ20
4.6 ðaÞ θ€ ¼ sin θ
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3 Rr r
1 2 L
ðbÞ f ¼ Ω0
2π 3R r
2
T
4.7 Ιa ¼ mgs MR2 mðR sÞ2
2π
3 ma
4.8 ð aÞ N¼
21 μ

1 þ 2μ 3μ
ð bÞ Fhor ¼ ma to the left; Fvert ¼ m g þ a upward
2ð1 μÞ 2ð1 μÞ
ð cÞ μcr ¼ 1
4.9 ð aÞ μcr ¼ 0:5

μ
ð bÞ mcr ¼ M
1 2μ
ð1 2μÞm μM
ð cÞ aE ðblockÞ ¼ g
ð1 2μÞm þ ð1 μÞðM=2Þ
x þ μQ h þ s x μP h
4.10 ðaÞ NP ¼ mg , NQ ¼ mg
μP þ μQ h þ s μP þ μQ h þ s

μQ μP μP 2μQ h þ s
ð bÞ x€ þ g x ¼ g
μP þ μQ h þ s μP þ μQ h þ s
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
μP 2μQ h þ s 1 μQ μP
ð cÞ xeq ¼ , f¼ g requires μQ > μP
μQ μP 2π μP þ μQ h þ s

μ cos β μL cos β
4.11 ðaÞ x€ þ g x¼g sin β
L μh L μh
L
ð bÞ μmax ¼ ; μmin ¼ tan β
h
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
L μh 1 μg cos β
ð cÞ xeq ¼ L tan β; f ¼
μ 2π L μh


1 1 þ μQ cos θ 1 μQ sin θ
4.12 ð aÞ NP ¼ pffiffiffi mg ,
2 1 μP μQ
1 ð1 þ μP Þ cos θ þ ð1 μP Þ sin θ
NQ ¼ pffiffiffi mg
2 1 μP μQ
ð bÞ μP μQ < 1

3 gR μP μQ cos θ μP þ μQ 2μP μQ sin θ
ð cÞ θ€ ¼ pffiffiffi 2 ,
2 2s 1 μP μQ
μP μQ
θeq ¼ arctan
μP þ μQ 2μP μQ
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 bð2mg þ 3F0 Þ
4.13 ð aÞ vcr ¼
3a σ

ð bÞ 3m a2 þ 3b2 θ€ þ 2mgb 9σa2 v20 cos θ
θ
mga þ 9 σv20 2k b2 sin θ þ 3F0 b cos ¼ 0
2
σv2 mga
ð cÞ kmin ¼ 0 þ
2 18b2 !
2mgb 9σa2 v20
ð dÞ θeq ¼ arctan
mga þ 9 σv20 2k b2

a g 1 2
4.14 ð aÞ N¼m bΩ
b 3 48 9
> 3g > 8 9
>
> >
> > a=3 >
n o 1 > < g 7 >
= n o 1 >
< >
=
ðOÞ ¼ maΩ_ b=2
const const
¼ m a Ω
2
ð bÞ F , M
3 >
> b 4 >
> 2 >
> >
>
>
> >
> : ;
: ; 0
rffiffiffiffiffi aΩ_
4g
ð cÞ Ωcr ¼
3b
8 9
sin β cos β =
n
const 1 2 2<
o
4.15 ð aÞ M ðGÞ ¼ ms Ω0 0
3 : ;
8 9 0

>
> FQ 1 > >
>
< >
=
ð bÞ FP ¼ 0
>
> >
>
: msΩ20 sin β >
> 1
;
6
1
ð cÞ Fcable ¼ mg þ msΩ20 sin β
3

308 Vector Theorems
8 9
n o 3 < sin β cos β =
const
4.16 ð aÞ M ðOÞ ¼ mL2 Ω20 0
2 : ;
0
1 1
ð bÞ NP ¼ mg mLΩ20 sin β
3 2
pffiffiffi
1 3 1
ð cÞ Frope ¼ m 1 μ sin β LΩ0 þ μg cos β
2
3 2 3
8 9
n o < v0 cos θ =
¼ c v0 sin θ þ 3bθ_
fric
4.17 ð aÞ F
: ;
0
9 2€
ð bÞ mb θ þ 9cb2 θ_ þ kθ 3cv0 sin θ ¼ 0
2
2 a 3
ð cÞ NP ¼ mg þ c v0 cos θ maθ_
3 b 4
k
ð dÞ vcr ¼
3cb

v0 b s
4.18 ð aÞ φ_ 0 ¼ 1 tan θ ; vskid ¼ v0 tan θ
r L L
9 2€
ð bÞ mb θ þ 9cb2 θ_ þ kθ 3cv0 sin θ ¼ 0
2
8 9
>
> mv20 s=L2 tan 2 θ >
>
n o < > >
=
const
ð cÞ F ¼ mv0 ð1=LÞ q=L tan θ tan θ ,
2 2
>
> >
>
>
: >
;
mg
8 9
n o >
< 1 ðq=LÞ tan θ >
=
const h
M ðQÞ ¼ mv20 tan θ ð3=4Þðs=LÞ tan θ
L >
: >
;
0
g
4.19 ða Þ θ€ ¼ sinθ
R

1 1 1 1
ðb Þ NP ¼ mRΩ0 θ_ cos θ þ pffiffiffi sin θ , NQ ¼ mRΩ0 θ_ cos θ pffiffiffi sin θ
2 3 2 3
ðc Þ Γ ¼ 0 because the system is a symmetrical rotor for point O:


4.20 ðaÞ Ι11 θ€ ¼ mgs þ ðΙ33 Ι22 ÞΩ20 cos θ sin θ
8 9
> 0 >
n o >
< >
=
ðOÞ ¼ Ω0 θ_ ðΙ11 þ Ι22 Ι33 Þ cos θ
const
ð bÞ M
>
> >
>
: ;
ðΙ11 þ Ι22 Ι33 Þ sin θ
ð cÞ Γ ¼ 2ðΙ22 Ι33 ÞΩ0 θ_ sin θ cos θ
8
< • Ι33 Ι22 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð dÞ Stable if mgs
: • Ι33 < Ι22 with Ω0
Ι22 Ι33
8 9 8 9
> ψ€> > ψ_ ½φ_ ð7=2Þψ_ cos β sin β >
>
< > = >
< >
=
4.21 ðaÞ Fext ¼ 2mr sin β _
ψ 2
, Mext ðOÞ B0 ¼ mr2 € sin β
ð9=2Þ ψ
B >
> > > >
: > ; >
: >
;
0 €
φþψ € cos β
ðbÞ € ¼0
ψ

7
ðcÞ € r cos β þ μ 2g rφ_ ψ_ þ rψ_ 2 cos β sin β ¼ 0
φ
2

7 2
ðdÞ NQ ¼ m 2g rφ_ ψ_ þ rψ_ cos β tanβ
2
ðeÞ jvE ðPÞj ¼ v0 ¼ constant
9
ðf Þ FQ is just a normal force N ¼ 2mg tan β þ mv2
8r sin β 0
8 9
> 0 >
< mv2 >
> =
ð gÞ FO B ¼ 0
>
> 2r sin β >
>
: ;
2mg N
4.22 ðaÞ ψ€ sin 2 θ þ 2ψ_ θ_ 0 cos θ ¼ 0 ) ψ_ sin 2 θ ¼ constant

1
ð bÞ ψ_ ¼ ψ_ 0
2
rffiffiffi
g
4.23 ðaÞ ψ_ cr ¼ 2
L
3
ð bÞ Γ ¼ mL2 ψ €0
2
1 g
ð cÞ θ€ þ ψ_ 2 ½2 sin ð2θÞ cos ð2θÞ þ cos θ ¼ 0
8 2L

310 Vector Theorems
3
4.24 ðaÞ m x€ þ 5k mψ_ 20 x ¼ 0; xeq ¼ 0 is an equilibrium configuration
2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 5k mψ_ 20
• stable if 5k mψ_ 0 > 0 ) f ¼
2
2π ð3=2Þm

• unstable if 5k mψ_ 20 < 0 ðso no oscillations are possibleÞ

• if 5k mψ_ 20 ¼ 0, all configurations are equilibrium ones,
but no oscillations are possible:
ð bÞ Γ ¼ 2mxx_ ψ_ 0
1
ð cÞ ψ_ ¼ ψ_ 0
5

€ 3kt 3g
4.25 ðaÞ θþ 2
θ þ Ω20 cos θ sin θ ¼ 0
4mr 4r
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 3g 3g
ð bÞ f¼ ðλ 1Þ Ω20 , stable only if λ > 1 and Ω20 < ðλ 1Þ
2π 4r 4r
3 3
ð cÞ Γ ¼ kt θ cos θ þ mgr sin θ cos θ
4 4

8
þ mr2 Ω20 cos 2 θ sin θ þ Ω0 θ_ sin θ cos θ θ_ 2 sin θ
3
3 g
4.26 ðaÞ θ€ þ Ω20 cos θ sin θ ¼ 0
4 L rffiffiffi
g g
ðbÞ θeq ¼ nπ ðwith n ¼ 0; 1, 2 . . .Þ, and θeq ¼ arc cos provided that Ω0
LΩ20 L
ðcÞ Γ ¼ 4mL2 Ω0 θ_ sin θ cos θ;
if articulated at O, Γ ¼ 0 because the vertical direction is a PAI
14 € g g
4.27 ðaÞ θ ð1 þ 2 sin θÞΩ20 cos θ þ sin θ ¼ 0, θeq ¼ 30 if Ω20 ¼ pffiffiffi
5 r 2 3r
ð bÞ Γ ¼ 4mr2 Ω0 θ_ ð1 þ 2 sin θÞ cos θ
8 9
>
> mR2 φ_ 0 >
>
4.28 < =
ð aÞ HðOÞ ¼ 0
>
> 2 >
: m R þ L2 ψ_ >
1 ;
2

R2
ð bÞ N ¼ m g þ ψ_ φ_ 0
L
2
ð cÞ R þL ψ
2
€ ¼ 2μR2 ψ_ φ_ 0 þ 2μLg ) ψ
€ > 0 always ) ψ_ always increases
) N always increases
2
R
ð dÞ Γ ¼ μmR g þ ψ_ φ_ 0
L

pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
1 2 2 2
4.29 ðaÞ N ¼ mg þ mRω , Ft ¼
2
mRω_
2 3 3
1
ðbÞ _
Γ1 ¼ mR2 ω*
3
1
ðcÞ Γ2 ¼ mR2 ω_ +
3
8 9 8 9
n o > < 0 > = n o < ψ_ 0 >
> =
wheel wheel
4.30 ðaÞ Ωsup ¼ 0 , ΩE ¼ 0
: _>
> ; B0 : _>
> ;
4θ 4θ
1
ð bÞ Ftransv ¼ kRθ
2
1 k 1 g
ð cÞ θ€ þ θ þ 4ψ_ 20 cos θ sin θ ¼ 0
12 m 6 R

8m g
ð dÞ k¼ pffiffiffi þ 2ψ_ 20
π R 2
8 2 9
€ _2
n o < θ cos θ ψ_ 0 þ θ sin θ >
> =
const
4.31 ð aÞ F ¼ mL 0
>
: >
;
2ψ_ 0 θ_ cos θ

θ€ should be written as a function of θ and θ_
k
ð bÞ x€ þ x L θ€ sin θ þ θ_ 2 cos θ ¼ 0
m
2
ð cÞ R þ L2 θ€ þ g x€ Lψ_ 20 cos θ L sin θ ¼ 0
k
4.32 ðaÞ x€þ x ¼ Lθ_ 20 cos θ
M

k
Γθ ¼ ML g Lθ_ 0 cos θ x sin θ
2
ð bÞ
M
ð cÞ Γψ ¼ 0 because the vertical direction is a PAI for all θ values
ð dÞ ψ_ ¼ ψ_ 0 ðit does not changeÞ

312 Vector Theorems
Puzzles: Solutions
4.1 The boat and the boatman

The boatman succeeds in reaching the pier by running on the boat. The backward
motion of the boat generates high friction forces between boat and water which
accelerate the center of mass of the whole system toward the pier.
If the boat motion is slow, and when the boatman

the friction between boat stops moving on the boat,
and water is negligible. both keep moving
Hence, G of (boat + boatman) towards the pier.
does not move.
4.2 The rope game soka-tira

The only external horizontal forces on the system formed by the two teams come from
the interaction with the ground. Those forces are equal in value and opposite in
direction to those exerted by the members of the teams against the ground.
The winner is the team which pushes harder the ground horizontally. The
intensity of that interaction depends on the members muscular force and the ground–
shoe friction conditions.
system
G
horizontal force horizontal force

from ground on from ground on
the winning team the losing team

Puzzles: Solutions 313
4.3 The three-blade propeller

In correctly designed propellers, the center of mass G is on the rotation axis (static
balancing) and that axis is a CAI (dynamic balancing).
The three-blade propeller is better because it is a symmetrical rotor.
This is important when the plane changes the orientation of its longitudinal axis. For
_ the time derivative of the propeller angular
a motion with constant values of ψ_ and θ,
momentum about G is:
8 9
< ð1=2ÞðΙd Ιr Þψ_ sin ð2θÞ >
2
• > =
2-blade propeller : HðGÞ ¼ ðΙd Ιr Þψ_ θ_ cos ð2θÞ þ Ιa ψ_ θ_ ,
>
: >
;
ðΙd Ιr Þψ_ θ_ sin ð2θÞ
8 9
• > < 0 > =
3-blade propeller : HðGÞ ¼ Ιa ψ_ θ_
>
: >
;
0
The constraint moment from the propeller on the plane structure is
const •
M ðGÞ ¼ H ðGÞ. In a two-blade propeller, the three components depend on 2θ
and fluctuate sinusoidally twice per propeller turn. That fluctuation provokes vibrations
with angular frequency 2θ_ on the plane structure. This is totally avoided in three-
blade propellers.
3 3
Ir
\ \
M Id
Is
G G
Id
M 2 M 2
1 1
Ia Ia
I a >Is >Ir I a >I d
central inertia central inertia
moments moments

314 Vector Theorems
4.4 The oscillating isosceles right triangle

It oscillates properly about the horizontal axis perpendicular to the triangle because it is
a PAI for point O. The required external moment may be associated with the triangle
weight. It does not oscillate properly about the horizontal axis on the triangle plane
because it is not a PAI for point O. The required external moment cannot be
associated exclusively with the triangle weight.
(a) (b)
g g
from ?
p q’
from
T weight
O O
T H(O) = Mext(O)
H(O) q
H(O) = Mext(O)
from
PAI weight
p’

Puzzles: Solutions 315
4.5 Cornering in a motorbike
Entering the curve: Leaving the curve:
approx. wheel
angular momentum
H(G) H(G) = M(G)

H(G)
H(G) = M(G) as the verticality must be restored,
the angular momentum variation
because, when inclining the motorbike, requires this moment
the angular momentum variation
requires this moment
WARNING for motor riders
1 For the time being, keep taking the curves as you have
always done!
2 But the laws of mechanics do apply, so it is true that
your action on the handlebars has to be consistent
with the angular momentum theorem.
If you pay attention while taking the curves, you will feel
it is consistent.
3 Once you have totally understood what is going on,
that knowledge may be useful and be applied safely.

Vector Theorems

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Vector Theorems

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4 Vector Theorems

The dynamics of mechanical systems (containing particles, rigid bodies, ﬂuids. . .) is

4.1 Linear Momentum Theorem in Galilean Reference Frames

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The left-hand side can be rewritten as

Substitution of Eq. (4.4) in Eq. (4.3) yields Eq. (4.1). ♣

The concept of center of mass G (introduced in Chapter 3) allows a more compact

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

Two interesting aspects of the LMT deserve special comment:

4.2 Angular Momentum Theorem in Galilean Reference Frames

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

AMT about a Point O Fixed to a RGal

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

The LHS of this equation may be rewritten as:

► Example 4.2 A monkey hangs from a rope guided by a pulley. A bunch of

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

(a) (b) (c)

the weight of the monkey and the bananas (mg each);

As the system is initially at rest:

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

AMT about a Point Q Moving Relative to RGal

According to the deﬁnition of angular momentum

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

and that yields Eq. (4.13). ♣

Note that the deﬁnition of HRTQ ðQÞ is formally identical to that of

AMT about the Center of Mass G

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AMT. The two versions for a moving point Q

HRTQ(Q) = 6Mext(Q) HRGal(Q) = 6Mext(Q)

4.3 Barycentric Decomposition of the Angular Momentum

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QP ¼ QG þ GP; vRTQ ðPÞ ¼ vRTG ðPÞ þ vRTQ ðGÞ:

Substituting into Eq. (4.16) gives:

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4.4 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body

is rather cumbersome in general. However, it can be straightforward when point Q

If point Q does not belong to S, the barycentric decomposition is a suitable

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

nondriven wheel driven wheel

And combined with the equations from the LMT yields

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https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

Since points GA and GB are ﬁxed to the chassis:

ΙΙchassis ðGÞ þ ΙΙ⊕wheel A ðGÞ þ ΙΙ⊕wheel B ðGÞ ΙΙðGÞ:

Combining the equations from the two theorems results in

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https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

and its time derivative is

Ιt θ€ þ Ιa ðφ_ þ ψ_ cos θÞψ_ sin θ  Ιt ψ_ 2 sin θ cos θ ¼ mgh sin θ,

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

Merging to the same vector basis B:

Merging to the same vector basis B:

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4.5 Dynamic Properties of the Principal Axes of Inertia (PAI)

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https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108896191.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press

Ιt θ€ þ Ιa ðφ_ þ ψ_ cos θÞψ_ sin θ Ιt ψ_ 2 sin θ cos θ ¼ mgh sin θ,

As ω2 ω3 is a second-order infinitesimal, the first component simplifies to Ι11 Ω_ 1 0,