BANGLADESH INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, DAMMAM, KSA
Grade Subject Teacher
IX Biology A Karim/ Maryam J/ Md. Shirazul
Class Notes
Pathogen is a disease causing organism.
Pathogen can be a bacterium, virus, or other
microorganism that can cause a disease.
Transmissible disease: The disease in which the
pathogen can be passed from one host to
another.
Pathogen for a transmissible disease may be
transmitted either through direct contact, e.g.
through blood or other body fluids, or
indirectly, e.g. from contaminated surfaces or
food, from animals, or from the air.
BODY DEFENSES
Body makes defence against pathogens by various
ways:
Mechanical Barriers
 Provides physical block against pathogens
 Skin - - provides a physical barrier, periodic
shedding removes microbes
 Hair - within the nose filters air containing
microbes, dust, pollutants
 Cilia in bronchi allow removal of pathogen
from respiratory system
Chemical Barriers
Molecules in body that can aid in destruction of
pathogens
 Mucus – present in mucus membranes; traps
microbes and foreign particles
 Gastric acid – pH 1-3; HCl destroys ingested
microbes and most toxins
White Blood Cells
 Phagocytes (Macrophages and neutrophils)
Phagocytes are cells of the immune system
which can eat invading bacteria as well as
dyingcells of the body.
E.g Macrophages- large WBSc, long live,
initiate an immune response and engulf
pathogen
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Chapter: 10 Name ID Sec
DISEASES & IMMUNITY
Prepared by: Abdul Karim
 Lymphocytes (B-lymphocytes and T-
lymphocytes).
B-cells are helped by T-cells to secrete
antibodies which try to neutralize the antigen/
pathogen.
B cells- activated B cells either become plasma
cells (secrete antibodies) or memory cellsT
cells- stimulates B cells, kill infected body
cells
Lymphocytes generate specific immune
responses against pathogenswhereas
phagocytes generate the same response to any
pathogen.
ANTIBODIES
An antibody is a globular protein produced by
B lymphocytes that is adapted to bind
with a specific antigen.
The antibody is a Y-shaped protein molecule.
Each molecule has two antigen binding
sites. The structure of binding site is
different for each type of antibody. An
antigen fits into the binding site like a
substrate fitting into active site of an
enzyme.
Antigens are foreign substances. They are non-
self (come from pathogens).
Chapter : Diseases & Immunity

Fig. Structure of antibody and its binding
with an antigen
How Antibodies are produced
 When an antigen enters the body, a
specific B cells is activated.
 T cell activates the binding of foreign
antigen to receptor molecules in cell
membraneof B-lymphocytes.
 B-lymphocytes produces a specific type of
antibody to that antigen.
 B-Lymphocytes divide by mitosis and
differentiate into two kind of cells i-e
Memorycells and plasma cells.
 Plasma cells synthesize the antibody and
secret them into blood and lymph.
 Memory cells keep the antibody on their
cells can stay in body even for decades.
Theyprovide immunity for future
invasions against same.
Fig. This diagram shows a B lymphocyte (white blood cell)
releasing antibodies. There are also antibodies bound
to the surface of the B lymphocyte.
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How Antibodies Fight Antigens?
Antibodies neutralize (neutralization) the
antigen by blocking their binding sites.
Antibodies mayagglutinate (agglutination) the
microbes by making them clump
together.
These ways facilitate phagocytosis by
Macrophages.
ACTIVE IMMUNITY & PASSIVE
IMMUNITY
Active immunity:
 Active immunity is the defence against
a pathogen by antibody production in
the body.
 Active immunity is gained after an
infection by a pathogen, or by
vaccination.
 Direct contact with pathogen or antigen
is required.
 Antibodies are produced within the
body in response to antigen.
 It last for long time.
 Immunologic memory may result in
lifelong immunity.
 Not much side effects.
Passive Immunity:
 Passive immunity is short-term
defence against a pathogen by
antibodies acquired from another
individual, e.g. mother to infant.
 Memory cells are not produced in
passive immunity so it last for a few
days.
 No direct contact with pathogen is
required.
 Antibodies injected into body are made
from outside.
Chapter : Diseases & Immunity
 Benefits
 Vaccination has helped to cut infantile death
rates in many parts of the world
 Some diseases (e.g. small pox) have been
eradicated totally. Others (e.g. polio) are
programmed for elimination.
 Vaccination has helped to contain the spread
of a number of diseases.
Fig. Primary & Secondary response  Vaccination is a cheap way to prevent a
disease.
Features Immunity
Active Passive
How vaccines work?
Antigen encountered yes no
 Antigens of vaccines are recognized B
Immune response yes no
cells
Time before antibodies 1-2 weeks immediate
 B-cells has an antibody receptor that is
appear in blood
specific to the shape of the antigen that
Production of memory cells yes no
hasentered the body
Protection Permanent Temporary
 The selected B cell divides by mitosis.
 Some of the daughter cells develop into
Passive Immunity through Breast Milk plasma cells, others into memory cells.
 Plasma cell secrete antibodies that combine
Breast milk provides antibodies for newborns. with the antigen
Colostrum is the first milk a woman produces  If sometime later, same antigen enters the
when she begins to breastfeed. It contains body, the memory cell respond and divide
large numbers of antibodies including. These toform plasma cell which secret antibodies.
antibody remains on surface of infant’s gut  This secondary response is much faster
wall to protect the growth of bacteria or may and intense as there are many memory
also circulate in the blood. cells inthe body
[Some diseases are caused by the immune system
VACCINATION targeting and destroying body cells. If the beta
A vaccine is a preparation containing antigens cells in pancreas are attacked by one owns
which is used to stimulate an immune response immune system, then that person can't make
artificially. insulin. It causes sugar levels to be too high in
Vaccines may contain: blood. This is called type 1 diabetes.]
 A whole live microorganism (dead or harmless
version known as attenuated organism)
 A harmless form of a toxin (known as toxoid)
 A preparation of a surface antigens

Vaccines are either given by injection (veins or

muscles) or taken orally (by mouth).

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CONTROLLING THE SPREAD OF DISEASES
Food Hygiene
Food hygiene is the conditions and measures necessary
to ensure the safety of food from production to
consumption.
Food can become contaminated during
harvesting, processing, storage, distribution,
transportation and preparation. Lack of
adequate food hygiene can lead to food borne
diseases and death of the consumer.
The five keys to safer food are
 Keep clean (Wash hands, wear uniform,
avoid cough or sneeze over food, keep
animals away)
 Separate raw and cooked food
 Cook the food thoroughly
 Keep food at safe temperatures
 Use safe water and raw materials
Personal Hygiene
Personal hygiene means keeping our body clean.
 One should take care of body by washing
hands, face, feet and trimming nails etc
 Glands in skin secrete oil and sweat that may
form dirt and allow bacteria to grow.Hence,
regular shower is necessary
 Brushing tooth and flossing to remove bacteria
and prevent their growth
Waste Disposal
Waste disposal is all the activities and actions
required to manage waste from its
inception to itsfinal disposal.
 There are many of methods for waste
management. Some main methods are
animal feeding,recycling, fermentation and
landfills etc
 A landfill site is a site for the disposal of
waste materials by burial.
 Landfills are often the most cost-efficient
way to dispose of waste. Drawbacks
include theirdisruption and pollution.
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Sewage treatment
Sewage is waste water that has come from mainly
houses.
Sewage is mostly water, urine and feces, detergents,
oils and other chemicals.
Sewage treatment is the process of removing
contaminants from wastewater, primarily from
household sewage.
It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes
to remove the contaminants fromsewage and produce
environmentally safe wastewater.
Untreated sewage can cause diseases like poliomyelitis
and cholera etc.
CHOLERA
Cholera is a dangerous disease, caused by a
bacterium, Vibrio cholerae.
This pathogen is typically acquired from
drinking water that has become heavily
contaminated by thee faeces of patients.
Site of action of this pathogen is wall of
intestine.
How the cholera toxin works?
 Vibrio cholera grow and reproduces in
lumen of small intestine
 Cholera toxin is secreted by the
bacteria
 The toxin cause Na+ and Cl- to be
accumulated in lumen
 Water potential in lumen decreases
 Water flows from blood to the lumen
 Water and ions are lost from the body
(diarrhea)
Chapter : Diseases & Immunity