EFD011U1M : Course on Control Engineering – Part I

- Modeling Tools for Process Dynamics

Inversion by Partial Fractions – L-03

by

P. K. Vijayan
Visiting Professor, Dept. of Chemical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Jammu, Jagti, Jammu 181221, J&K

Institute Core, August 14, 2023

IIT Jammu, Jagti, Jammu 181221 J&K India
 Lecture Objectives
• Use of Laplace transforms help us to quickly get
the solution of linear ODEs
• Our next task is to invert the transforms to get
the solution in time domain
• The technique of partial fractions to invert the
Laplace Transforms will be demonstrated in this
lecture.
• Then we go for generalization of this technique
which will help us to extract qualitative
information without inverting the transform.
 Contents
• Introduction
• Technique of Partial Fractions
– Heaviside expansion
– Using MATLAB for symbolic Processing – Partial
Fractions
• Using MATLAB for symbolic Processing – Solving ODEs
• Avoiding the use of complex algebra with a
quadratic term
• Qualitative Nature of Solutions
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Summary
 Introduction
• The application of Laplace transforms to linear ODEs with constant
coefficients helped us to quickly establish the Laplace transform of the
solution
• Our next task is to develop methods for inverting the transforms to obtain
the solution in the time domain. Partial fraction technique can be used.
• In the first part of this chapter, we give a series of examples that illustrate
the partial fraction techniques.
• After generalization of these techniques, we proceed to a discussion of the
qualitative information that can be obtained from the transform of the
solution without inverting it.
• The equation to be solved has the general form
d nx d n -1 x dx
an n + an -1 n -1 + - - - + a1 + a0 x = r (t )
dt dt dt
 Introduction – Contd.
• The unknown function of time is x(t), and an, an-1, ….., a1, a0 are constants.
• The given function r(t) is called the forcing function.
• In addition, for all problems of interest in control system analysis, the
initial conditions are given. i.e. values of x, dx/dt, ……., dn-1x/dtn-1 are given
at time 0. The problem is to determine x(t) for all t>0.
• PARTIAL FRACTIONS
• The technique of partial faction inversion for solution of linear differential
equations is presented with the help of examples
!"
• Example 3.1: Solve +% =1 ; % 0 =0
!#
,
• Application of Laplace transform yields *% * − % 0 + % * =
-
, ,
• Or % * * + 1 = Or % * =
- - -.,
 Theory of Partial Fractions
• Theory of partial fractions enables us to write this as
1 A B
x(s ) = = + (3.1)
s(s + 1) s s + 1

• Where A and B are constants. From table 2.1, it follows that

x(t ) = A + Be - t (3.2)
• If A and B are known, then the solution is known. The conditions on A and
B are that these must satisfy Eq. (3.1) in s.
• To determine A, multiply both sides of Eq. (3.1) with s
1 Bs
= A+ (3.3)
s +1 s +1
• Since it must hold for all s, it must hold for s=0. Putting s=0 in Eq. (3.3)
yields A = 1
• To find B, multiply both sides of Eq. (3.1) by s+1
1 A
= (s + 1) + B (3.4) Since it must hold for all s, it must hold for s = -1.
s s
This yield, B = - 1. Hence the solution is ! " = 1 − & '(
Theory of Partial Fractions – Contd.
• The above procedure of determining the coefficients is called the
Heaviside expansion
• There is an easy way to visualize the Heaviside procedure and quickly
determine the coefficients of partial fraction expansion (A and B in this
case).
• Considering Eq. (3.1), we can determine A, the numerator of the 1/s
factor, by ignoring (or ‘covering up’) this term in the denominator of x(s)
and letting all the remaining s’s equal the value of s that makes the
‘covered up’ term equal to zero. The other coefficients can be found in a
similar manner.
• For example, to solve for A, we ‘cover up’ the s factor and all other s values
equal 0. 1
A= =1
• s (s + 1) Similarly for B, we cover up s+1 term and let
other s values equal - 1 so that
0
1 1
B= = = -1
s (s + 1) - 1
-1
Theory of Partial Fractions – Contd.
• Cross multiplication (as well as quick visualization method) works for
distinct roots (non-repeated factors in the denominator) and in a limited
way for repeated roots. We will discuss the case of repeated roots shortly.
• Since we have found A and B, we have
1 1 1
x(s ) = = - (3.5)
s(s + 1) s s + 1

• Therefore, x(t ) = 1 - e -t (3.6)

• Eq. (3.5) may be checked by putting the RHS over a common denominator,
1 1 s +1- s 1
RHS = - = = = LHS
s s + 1 s(s + 1) s(s + 1)
• Eq. (3.6) can be checked by substitution in the original differential
equation and initial condition.
dx
dt
+ x = 1 ; x(0 ) = 0 Differentiating Eq.(3.6), yields
dx
dt
( )
= 0 - - e -t = e -t

Substituting in the LHS of the differential equation yields

LHS = e - t + 1 - e - t = 1 = RHS
Chemical Mixing Scenario Revisited
• Example 3.2: In chapter 2 we had solved the chemical mixing problem to
the point where we had obtained the transformed solution to the material
and energy balances. The transformed solutions, Eq. (2.10) is reproduced
below 2 15
Ca (s ) = + (2.10)
s(5s + 1) 5s + 1
• We can invert this equation to obtain the concentration in the tank in the
time domain. The first term on the RHS can be separated into partial
fractions as 2 25 A B 2 -2
= = + = +
s(5s + 1) s(s + 1 5) s (s + 1 5) s (s + 1 5)
• Eq. (2.10) can now be written as
2 15 2 2 3 2 1
Ca (s ) = + = - + = +
s(5s + 1) 5s + 1 s (s + 1 5) (s + 1 5) s (s + 1 5)
• We can now readily invert this expression to the time domain
Ca (t ) = 2 + e - t / 5 This is the same solution obtained previously by separation
and integration of the original differential equation for the
mass balance (see Eq. (2.2)).
 Chemical Mixing Scenario Revisited –
Contd.
• Similarly, we can obtain the time domain solution for the temperature in
the mixing vessel by inverting Eq. (2.11)
70 / s + 5(80) 70 400
T (s ) = = + (2.11)
5s + 1 s(5s + 1) 5s + 1
• The first term on the RHS can be separated into partial fractions as
70 70 5 A B 70 - 70
= = + = +
s(5s + 1) s(s + 1 5) s s + 1 5 s s + 1 5
70 70 80 70 10
• Substituting in Eq. (2.11), we get T (s ) = - + = +
s s +1 5 s +1 5 s s +1 5
• Inverting the above yields T (t ) = 70 + 10e -t / 5
• Again this is the same solution that was obtained by separation of
variables and integration of the original differential equation for energy
balance in time domain and plotted in Fig. 2.7.
 Example 3.3
d 3x d 2 x dx
• Solve 3
+ 2 2
- - 2 x = 4 + e 2t
; x(0 ) = 1 x' (0 ) = 0 x" (0 ) = -1
dt dt dt
• Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides yields
[s x(s ) - s x(0) - sx' (0) - x" (0)]+ 2[s x(s ) - sx(0) - x' (0)]- [sx(s ) - x(0)] - 2 x(s ) = 4s + s -1 2
3 2 2

• Substituting the initial condition yields

[s x(s ) - s
3 2
] [2
) ] ( ) ( ) 4
+ 1 + 2 s x s - s - [sx s - 1] - 2 x s = +
( 1
s s-2
• Solving algebraically for x(s) yields
s 4 - 6s 2 + 9s - 8
x(s ) = (3.7)
(
s(s - 2 ) s 3 + 2 s 2 - s - 2 )
• The cubical expression in the denominator can be factored, and x(s) is
expanded in partial fractions
s 4 - 6s 2 + 9s - 8 A B C D E
x(s ) = = + + + + (3.8)
s(s - 2 )(s + 1)(s + 2 )(s - 1) s s - 2 s + 1 s + 2 s - 1
 Example 3.3 – Contd.
• To find A multiply both sides by s and then set s=0 yielding the result
-8
A= = -2
(- 2)(1)(2)(- 1)
• The other constants are determined in the same way. The procedure and
the results are illustrated in the following table.
Constant to be Multiply Eq. Set s to Result
determined (3.8) with
B S -2 S=2 B = 1/12
C S +1 -1 C = 11/3
D S +2 -2 D = - 17/12
E S -1 1 E = 2/3
• Substituting the constants in Eq. (3.8) yields
-2 1 1 11 1 - 17 1 2 1
x(s ) = + + + +
s 12 (s - 2 ) 3 (s + 1) 12 (s + 2 ) 3 (s - 1)
1 2t 11 -t 17 - 2t 2 t
• Inverting yields x(t ) = -2 + e + e - e + e
12 3 12 3
 Example 3.3 – Contd.
• A comparison between this method and the classical method as applied to
Example 3.2 may be profitable.
• In the classical method for solution of differential equations, we first write
down the characteristic function of the homogeneous equation:
S 3 + 2s 2 - s - 2 = 0
• This must be factored, as also required in the Laplace transform method,
to obtain the roots -1, -2, and +1. Or S 3 + 2 s 2 - s - 2 = (s - 1)(s + 2 )(s + 1)
1 1 C1 C2 C3
= = + +
S 3 + 2 s 2 - s - 2 (s - 1)(s + 2 )(s + 1) s + 1 s + 2 s - 1
• Thus the complementary solution is xc (t ) = C1e -t + C2 e -2t + C3et
• Furthermore, by inspection of the forcing function, we know that the
particular solution has the form
• !" # = % + '( )*
 Example 3.3 – Contd.
• The constants A and B are determined by substitution into the differential
equation and, as expected, are found to be -2 and 1/12, respectively. Then
1
x(t ) = -2 + e 2t + C1e -t + C2 e - 2t + C3et
12
• Constants C1, C2, and C3 are determined by the three initial conditions.
 Example 3.3 – Contd.
• The Laplace transform method has systematized the evaluation of these
constants, avoiding the solution of three simultaneous equations. Four
points are worth noting.
– 1) In both the methods, one must find the roots of the characteristic equation. The roots
give rise to terms in the solution whose form is independent of the forcing function.
These terms make up the complementary solution.
– 2) The forcing function gives rise to terms in the solution whose form depends on the
form of the forcing function and is independent of the left side of the equation. These
terms comprise the particular solution.
– 3) The only interaction between these sets of terms, i.e. between the right side and left
side of the differential equation, occurs in the evaluation of the constants involved.
– 4) The only effect of the initial conditions is in the evaluation of the constants. This is so
because the initial conditions affect only the numerator of x(s), as may be seen from the
solution of this example.
• In the examples discussed, the denominator of x(s) factored into real
factors only. In the next example, we consider the complications that arise
when the denominator of x(s) has complex factors.
 Using MATLB for Symbolic Processing –
Partial Fractions
• Remember that we have previously declared some variables symbolic (a, k, x,
y, z, t and s). MATLAB does not have built in function for performing partial
fractions. But we can force MATLAB to do the work for us by taking advantage
of two other MATLAB functions, diff and int. We have MATLAB integrate x(s),
which it does internally by using partial fractions, and then differentiate the
resulting expression. The result will be partial fraction expansion of x(s).
• Let’s have MATLAB find the partial fraction expansion represented by Eq. (3.8)
• x=(sᶺ4-6*sᶺ2+9*s-8) /s/(s-2)/(s+1)/(s+2)/(s-1)
• x=
• (sᶺ4-6*sᶺ2+9*s-8) /s/(s-2)/(s+1)/(s+2)/(s-1)
• diff (int (x) )
• ans=
• -2/s+1/12/(s-2)+11/3/(s+1)-17/12/(s+2)+2/3/(s-1)
• Pretty(ans)
1 1 17 1 1
- 2/s + 1/12 + 11/3 - + 2/3
s-2 s + 1 12 s + 2 s -1
Thus MATLAB arrives at the same result as we did by hand.
Using MATLAB for Symbolic Processing – Solving
ODEs
• MATLAB can symbolically solve ODEs. It uses the DSOLVE command for this
purpose. We illustrate the use of this command with example 3.3. The
problem involved the solution of
d 3x d 2 x dx
3
+ 2 2
- - 2 x = 4 + e 2t
; x(0 ) = 1 x' (0 ) = 0 x" (0 ) = -1
dt dt dt
• The DSOLVE command is straightforward for solving this equation.
• dsolve ( ‘ D3x+2*D2x-2*x=4+exp(2*t) ’ , ‘ x (0)=1 ’ , ’ Dx (0) =0 ‘ , ‘ D2x (0) = - 1’)
• ans=
• expand (ans) This command multiplies out the expression to make it easier
to compare with our original answer.
• ans=
• -2+1/12*exp(t)ᶺ2+2/3*exp(t)-17/12*exp(t)ᶺ2+11/3*exp(t) which is the same result
obtained by hand 1 11 17 2
x(t ) = -2 + e 2t + e -t - e - 2t + et
12 3 12 3
• The result can be verified with MATLAB by inverting the partial fraction expansion
• ilaplace (-2/s+1/12/(s-2)+11/2/(s+1)-17/12/(s+2)+2/3/(s-1))
• ans=
• -2+1/12*exp(2*t)+11/3*exp(-t)-17/12*exp(-2*t)+2/3*exp(t)
• The result is the same
 Inversion of a transform that has complex roots
in the denominator
• Example 3.4: Solve
d 2x dx
2
+ 2 + 2 x = 2 ; x(0 ) = 0 x' (0 ) = 0
dt dt
• Application of the Laplace transform yields
[s x(s ) - sx(0) - x' (0)]+ 2[sx(s ) - x(0)] + 2 x(s ) = 2s Applying the ICs yields
2

[s x(s )]+ 2[sx(s )] + 2 x(s ) = 2s Rearranging yields x(s )(s + 2s + 2) = 2s

2 2

2
• Or x(s )=
(
s s 2 + 2s + 2 )
• The quadratic term in the denominator may be factored by use of the
quadratic formula. The roots are found to be -1-j and -1+j.
• If we use these complex roots in the partial fraction expansion, the algebra
can get quite tedious.
• We present a method to obtain the partial fraction expansion for the case
of complex roots, without resorting to the use of complex algebra.
 Avoiding the use of complex algebra with a
quadratic term
• If we choose not to factor the quadratic term, we can use an alternate
form of the partial fraction expansion
2 A Bs + C
x(s )= = +
( )
s s 2 + 2s + 2 s s 2 + 2s + 2
• Note that the second term has the unfactored quadratic in the
denominator. The numerator of each term in the expression is a
polynomial in s of one degree less than the denominator. Hence, Bs+C in
the numerator is a first order with a second order denominator. As before
we can determine A.
2 2 1 Bs + C
A= = 1 Substituting A yields x(s )= = +
0 + 2(0 ) + 2 ( )
s s 2 + 2s + 2 s s 2 + 2s + 2
• Multiplying throughout by s(s2+2s +2), the denominator of the LHS yields
2 = s 2 + 2 s + 2 + Bs 2 + Cs Collecting the like terms, we get
s 2 (B + 1) + s(2 + C ) + 2 = 2 Matching the coefficients of like terms on LHS and RHS
s2 : B +1 = 0 B = -1 And s : 2 + C = 0 C = -2
1 s+2
Thus x(s ) = - 2 (3.9)
s s + 2s + 2
 Avoiding the use of complex algebra with a
quadratic term
1 s+2
• Thus x(s ) = - (3.9)
s s 2 + 2s + 2
• To invert the second term, we complete the square in the denominator to
get a familiar transform. Remember that for a perfect square, the
quadratic must have the form s2+αs +(α/2)2 =(s+α/2)2, where the constant
is one-half the middle coefficient squared. The second term on the RHS
side becomes s+2 s+2 s+2
= =
s 2 + 2s + 2 (s 2
)
+ 2s + 1 + 2 - 1 (s + 1)2 + 1
• Where we have added and subtracted one-half the middle coefficient
squared, (2/2)2=1, so that the denominator remains unchanged. The
transform of the solution is 1 s+2
x(s ) = - (3.10)
s (s + 1)2 + 1
• One last modification of the 2nd term is required before inversion. A term
of this type will lead to a sine term and a cosine term in the solution. From
table 2.1c we see that L{e -at sin (kt )} = k
(3.11a )
(s + a )2 + k 2
s+a
{
L e - at cos(kt ) = } (3.11b)
(s + a )2 + k 2
Avoiding the use of complex algebra with a
quadratic term – Contd.
• In the above equations, note that wherever s appears it appears as s+a.
Thus, comparing these transforms with Eq. (3.10), we see that we need an
s+1 term in the numerator, to go with the s+1 in the numerator. So we
rewrite Eq. (3.10) as 1 (s + 1) + 1 1 (s + 1) 1
x(s ) = - = - -
s (s + 1) + 1 s (s + 1) + 1 (s + 1)2 + 1
2 2

• Now we can easily invert these terms to obtain the following solution to
the differential equation x(t ) = 1 - e - t (cos t + sin t )

• Summarizing, the steps in this method for inverting quadratic terms with
complex roots are
– 1) Form the partial expansion term for the quadratic with a first-order term in s in the
numerator.
– 2) Determine the numerators of the other terms in the expansion, using the Heaviside
expansion
– 3) Cross multiply the equation for x(s) by the denominator of x(s), and equate the
coefficients of like terms to determine the constants in the numerator of the quadratic
term.
Avoiding the use of complex algebra with a
quadratic term – Contd.
– 4) Complete the square for the quadratic term.
– 5) Regroup the terms in the numerator, such that if the quadratic is now (s+a)2,
everywhere else that s appears, it appears as s+a
– 6) Invert the resulting two terms to a sine and a cosine term (probably multiplied by an
exponential).
• In the next example, an exceptional case is considered; the denominator
of x(s) has repeated roots. The procedure in this case will vary slightly
from that of the previous cases.
• Inversion of a transform with repeated roots.
3 2
• Example 3.5: Solve d x + 3 d x + 3 dx + x = 1 ; x(0) = x' (0) = x" (0) = 0
dt 3 dt 2 dt
1
• Application of the Laplace transform yields x(s )=
( )
s s 3 + 3s 2 + 3s + 1
• Factoring and expanding in partial factions, we get
1 A B C D
x(s )= = + + + (3.12)
s (s + 1) s (s + 1)3 (s + 1)2 s + 1
3
 Inversion of a transform with repeated
roots
1 A B C D
x(s )= = + + + (3.12)
s (s + 1) s (s + 1)3 (s + 1)2 s + 1
3

• As in the previous cases, to determine A, multiply both sides by s and then

set s to zero. This yields
A =1
• Multiplying both sides of Eq. (3.12) by (s+1)3 yields
1 A(s + 1)
3
+ B + C (s + 1) + D(s + 1)
2
= (3.13)
s s
• Setting s=-1 in Eq. (3.13) gives B = -1
• Substituting A and B in Eq. (3.12) and rewriting it with a common
denominator results in
1
=
(s + 1) - s + Cs(s + 1) + Ds(s + 1)
3 2
(3.14)
s (s + 1) s (s + 1)
3 3

• Expanding the numerator of the RHS and collecting the like terms
1
=
(1 + D )s 3 + (3 + C + 2 D )s 2 + (2 + C + D )s + 1
(3.15)
s (s + 1) s (s + 1)
3 3
 Inversion of a transform with repeated
roots – Contd.
1
=
(1 + D )s 3 + (3 + C + 2 D )s 2 + (2 + C + D )s + 1
(3.15)
s (s + 1) s (s + 1)
3 3

• We now equate the numerators on both sides to get

1 = (1 + D )s 3 + (3 + C + 2 D )s 2 + (2 + C + D )s + 1
• Equating the coefficients of like powers of s on both sides gives
s3 :1 + D = 0
s 2 : 3 + C + 2D = 0
s :2+C + D = 0
• Solving these equations yield D=-1 and C=-1. Then the final result is
obtained by substituting the coefficients in Eq. (3.12) which is
1 A B C D
x(s )= = + + + (3.12)
s (s + 1) s (s + 1)3 (s + 1)2 s + 1
3

• Note that A=1 and B=-1 was obtained previously

1 1 1 1
x(s )= - - - (3.16)
s (s + 1)3 (s + 1)2 s + 1
 Inversion of a transform with repeated
roots – Contd.
1 1 1 1
x(s )= - - - (3.16)
s (s + 1)3 (s + 1)2 s + 1
• Inverting the above using Table 2.1 yields
æ t2 ö
x(t )= 1 - e çç + t + 1÷÷
-t
(3.17)
è2 ø
• To verify that Eq. (3.16) placed over a common denominator results in the
original form
1
x(s )= -
1
-
1
-
1
=
(s + 1) - s - s(s + 1) - s(s + 1) = 1
3 2

s (s + 1)3 (s + 1)2 s + 1 s(s + 1)

3
s(s + 1)
3

• The reader should also verify that Eq. (3.17) satisfies the differential
equation and initial conditions.
• The result of Example 3.5 may be generalized. The appearance of the
factor (s+a)n in the denominator of x(s) leads to n terms in the partial
faction expansion. C C C
1 2 n
, ,......
(s + a ) (s + a )
n n -1
s+a
Inversion of a transform with repeated
roots – Contd.
• The constant C1 can be determined as usual by multiplying the expansion
by (s+a)n and setting s=-a.
• The other constants are determined by the method shown in Example 3.5.
These terms, according to Table 2.1, lead to the following expression as
the inverse transform
é C1 n -1 C2 n-2 ù - at
ê( t + t + ..... + C t + C n úe (3.18)
ë n - 1)! (n - 2)! n -1
û
• It is interesting to recall that in the classical method for solving these
equations, one treats repeated roots of the characteristic equation by
postulating the form of Eq. (3.18) and selecting the constants to fit the
initial conditions.
 Qualitative Nature of solutions
• If we are interested only in the form of the solution x(t), which is often the
case in our work, this information may be obtained directly from the roots
of the denominator of x(s).
• As an illustration of this “qualitative” approach to differential equations,
consider Example 3.4 in which x(s )= 2 A B C
= + +
(
s s 2 + 2s + 2) s s +1+ j s +1- j
d 2x dx
• Is the transformed solution of 2
+ 2 + 2 x = 2 ; x(0 ) = 0 x' (0 ) = 0
dt dt
• It is evident by inspection of the partial fraction expansion, without
evaluation of the constants, that s in the denominator of x(s) will give rise
to a constant in x(t).
• Since the roots of the quadratic term are -1+ j, it is known that x(t) must
contain terms of the form e-t(C1 cost t +C2 sin t) as we saw previously in
Example 3.4. This may be sufficient information for our purposes.
 Qualitative Nature of solutions
• Alternatively, we may be interested in the behavior of x(t) as t tends to ∞.
• It is clear that the terms involving sin and cos vanish because of the factor
e-t. Therefore, x(t) ultimately approaches the constant, which by
inspection must be unity as seen from x(t ) = 1 - e (cos t + sin t )
-t

• The qualitative nature of the solution x(t) can be related to the location of
the roots of the denominator of x(s) in the complex plane.
• These roots are the roots of the characteristic equation and the roots of
the denominator of the transformed forcing function.
• Consider Fig. 3-1, a drawing of the complex plane, in which several typical
roots are located and labeled with their coordinates.
• Table 3.1 gives the form of the terms in the equation for x(t),
corresponding to these roots.
• Note all the constants a1, a2, …., b1, b2, ….. are taken as positive.
• The constants C1 and C2 are arbitrary and can be determined by partial
fraction expansion techniques.
• This determination is often not necessary for our work.
Fig. 3.1: Location of typical roots of characteristic equation
Table 3.1: Nature of terms in the solution x(t) based on
roots in the denominator of x(s) from Fig. 3-1

Roots in denominator of X(s) Terms in x(t) for t > 0

s1 *"+ ),- .
s2, s2* e - a2t (C1 cos b2t + C2 sin b2t )
s3 , s3* *"*/01&% + *$0231&%
04, 04∗ + ,7 . *"8/014% + *$02314%
s5 *"+ ,9 .
s6 C1
• If any of these roots are repeated, the term given in Table 3.1 is multiplied
by a power series in t
• !" + !$ % + !& % $ + − − − +!( % ()"
• Where r is the number of repetitions of the root and constants K1, K2,…,Kr
can be evaluated by partial fraction expansion
 Qualitative Nature of solutions - Contd.
• It is thus evident that the imaginary axis divides the root locations into
distinct areas, with regard to the behavior of the corresponding terms in
x(t) as t becomes large.
• Terms corresponding to the roots to the left of the imaginary axis vanish
exponentially in time, while those corresponding to the right of the
imaginary axis increase exponentially in time.
• Terms corresponding to roots at the origin behave as power series in time,
a constant being considered as a degenerate power series.
• Terms corresponding to roots located elsewhere on the imaginary axis
oscillate with constant amplitude in time unless they are multiple roots, in
which case the amplitude of oscillation increases as a power series in
time.
• These information will be used in later sections of the text.
 Concluding Remarks
• The basic tools for the use of Laplace transforms to solve
differential equations have been introduced.
• You also know that it is possible to obtain considerable
information about the qualitative nature of the solution with
minimum labor.
• It is always necessary to factor the denominator of x(s) to
obtain any information about x(t).
• If the denominator is a polynomial of order 3 or more, this
may be far from a trivial problem.
• The appendix to this chapter
– is a compilation of several Laplace transform theorems that will find
application later.
– In addition, a discussion of the impulse function is presented
– Unavoidably this is rather boring subject
 Assignment Problems
• 3.1: Solve the following by the use of Laplace transforms
d 2 x dx
• a) 2
+ + x = 1 ; x(0 ) = 0 x' (0 ) = 0
dt dt
d 2x dx Ahuja Sneha Brijkishor (M)@
• b) + 2 + x = 1 ; x(0 ) = 0 x' (0 ) = 0
dt 2 dt
d 2x dx
• c) + 3 + x = 1 ; x(0 ) = 0 x' (0 ) = 0
dt 2 dt
• Sketch the behavior of these solutions on a single graph. What is the effect
of the coefficient of dx/dt?
• 3.2: Solve the following differential equations by Laplace transforms.
d 4x d 3x
• a) + = cos t ; x(0 ) = x' (0 ) = x' ' ' (0 ) = 0 ; x" (0 ) = 1
dt 4 dt 3
d 2 q dq 2 Bihungsa B (CH)
• b) 2 + = t + 2t ; q(0) = 4 q' (0) = -2
dt dt
@ Name of the student to whom this problem is assigned
(M) Means material science
(CH) Chemical engineering
 Assignment Problems
• 3.3: Invert the following transform
3s
• a) ( )(
s2 +1 s2 + 4 )
1
• b) (
s s 2 - 2s + 5 ) Akshita (M)

3s 3 - s 2 - 3s + 2
• c)
s 2 (s - 1)
2

• 3.4: Expand the following functions by partial fraction expansion. Do not

evaluate coefficients or invert expressions
2
• a) X (s ) =
(s + 1)(s 2 + 1)2 (s + 3)
1
• b) X (s ) = Deepak Motwani (CH)
s 3 (s + 1)(s + 2 )(s + 3)
3

1
• c) X (s ) =
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3)(s + 4)
 Assignment Problems
1
• 3.5 a) Invert x(s ) =
s(s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
Amrit Kumar Barnawal (M)
dx
• b) Solve + 2 x + = 2 x(0 ) = 0
dt
• 3.6: Obtain y(t) for
s +1
• a) y (s ) =
(
s 2 + 2s + 5 )
• b) s 2 + 2s Gangarde V S (CH)
y (s ) =
s4
• c) y (s ) =
2s
(s - 1)3
• 3.7 a) Invert the following function y (s ) = 1
(s 2
+1 )
2
Gayatri Sachdev (CH)
• b) Plot y versus t from 0 to 3π
 Assignment Problems
1
• 3.8: Determine f(t) for a) f (s ) = s 2 (s + 1)
s +1 s +1 Arnav Nilesh Sule (M)
F (s ) = F (s ) =
• b) s (s + 2 )
2
c) s (2 s + 1)
2

• 3.9: Solve the following differential equations

d 2x dx d 2x dx
• a) 2
+ 4 + 3 x = u (t ) ; x(0 ) = x' (0 ) = 0 b) + 2 + x = u (t ) ; x(0 ) = x' (0 ) = 1
dt dt dt 2 dt
d 2x dx
• c) 2 2 + 2 + x = u (t ) ; x(0 ) = x' (0 ) = 0 Hardik Patodi (CH)
dt dt
• 3.10: Use the trigonometric identities below to express the solution to Prob.
3.9c in terms of sine only. (Note: A sine and a cosine wave with the same
frequency can be expressed as a single sine wave of the same frequency . The
resulting sine wave will have a different amplitude and the phase-shifted from
the original waves. The result will be important when we discuss frequency
response in chap 15.)
a1 cos b + a2 sin b = a3 sin (b + F )
Chirag Taneja (M)
sin( A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A
 Assignment Problems
• 3.11: Find f(t) if F(s) is
1 1
• a) F (s ) = (d) F (s ) =
(s + 1)3 (s + 2) s ( As + 1)(Bs + 1)
s +1 s +1
• b) F (s ) = (e) F (s ) =
(
s 2 + 2s + 5 ) Deepankar Singh (M) s (2 s + 1)
3.11a, c and e Kapil Charan (CH)
s -s-62
s +1 3.11 b, d and f
• c) F (s ) = (f) F (s ) =
(s 3 - 2s 2 - s + 2 ) (s + 3s + 1
3
)

• 3.12: Find the solution to the following set of equations

dx1 ü
= 2 x1 + 3 x2 + 1 ï
dt ï
ý ; x1 (0 ) = x2 (0 ) = 0 Garvit (M)
dx2
= 2 x1 + x2 + et ï
dt ïþ
• Hint: Transformed equations can be manipulated algebraically to solve for
each unknown (i.e. two equations in two unknowns) and then inverted
separately.
 Assignment Problem
• 3.13: Use MATLAB.
• a) Find the partial fraction expansions for Prob. 3.11
• b) Invert the transforms in Prob. 3.1 using the ILAPLACE command .
• c) Graph the solutions to Prob. 3.11 (skip Prob. 3.11e).
• 3.14: Use the MATLAB DSOLVE command to solve Prob. 3.12.
• 3.15: Use MATLAB DSOLVE command to solve Prob. 3.9
• 3.16: a) Solve the differential equations in Prob. 2.3 using partial fractions.
• b) Use the MATLAB DSOLVE command to solve the ODEs in Prob. 2.3
 Chapter 3 Summary
• Any proper fraction may be resolved into a number of partial factions
subject to the following rules
– Factors such as (as+b) in the denominator F(s)/… (as+b) …. Will produce a term of type
A/(as+b), where A is a nonzero constant, in the expansion.
– If there are repeated factors in the denominator, such as F(s)/(as+b)n, they will produce
n terms in the partial fraction expansion.
F (s ) A1 A2 An
= + + ... +
(as + b )n (as + b ) (as + b )2 (as + b )n
Root repeated n times there are n partial fractions in expansion
– Quadratic or polynomial factors that you do not choose to factor yield
F (s ) As + B
= + ...
( )
... as + bs + c ... as + bs + c
2 2

– If you have repeated quadratics

F (s ) A1s + B1 A2 s + B2 An s + Bn
= + + ... + + ...
( )
n
... as 2 + bs + c ...
2 2
(
as + bs + c as + bs + c 2
) (
as + bs + c
2 n
)
yields n terms in expansion
 Useful MATLAB commands
• dsolve – used to symbolically solve ODEs
• ilaplace – used to invert Laplace transforms
• diff (int(…)) – use to ‘force’ MATLAB to
perform expansion
Thanks for your Attention