N A S A C O N T R A C T O R

REPORT

A DESIGNSUMMARY
OF STALLCHARACTERISTICS
OF STRAIGHT WING AIRCRAFT

by M. A . McVeigb m d E. Kisielowski

Prepared by
DYNASCIENCESCORPORATION
SCIENTIFICSYSTEMS DIVISION
Blue Bell, Pa.
for Langley Research Center

N A T I O N AALE R O N A U T I CASNSDP A CAED M I N I S T R A T I O N W A S H I N G T O N , D. C. JUNE 1971

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TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

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00607b3
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1. Report No. 2. Government

Accession No. 3. Recipient. rormluy I.u.

NASA CR-1646
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4. Title andsubtitle ~ 5. ReportDate
A DESIGN SUMMARY OF STALL CHARAC!iTBISTICS OF STRAIGHT WING AIRCRAFT June lg7'
6. Performing Organization Code

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7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.

M. A. McVeigh and E. Kisielowski DCR-705
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". .. . 10. Work Unit No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address 126-13-10-06-23
Dynasciences Corporation
S c i e n t i f i c SystemsDivision
I
I
11. Contract or Grant No.

BlueBell,Pennsylvania NASl-8389
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13. Type of ReportandPeriodCovered
12. SponsoringAgencyNameandAddress Contractor Report

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NATIOW AERONAUTICS AND SPACEADMINISTRATION
WASHINGTON, D. C . 20546
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15. SupplementaryNotes
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1-
I
14. SponsoringAgencyCode

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16. Abstract
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A method of wing d e s i g n u s i n g l i f t i n g l i n e t h e o r y d e s c r i b e d i n NACA Reports 865 and 1090 has

beencomputerizedandused t os t u d yt h ep a r a m e t e r s which a f f e c t wing s t a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The
r e s u l t s of t h es t u d y and t h e computerprogramaredescribed. The e f f e c t s of a i r f o i l s e c t i o n
variations, Reynolds number, a s p e c t r a t i o , wing t w i s t ad t a p e r r a t i o a r e p r e s e n t e d i n d e s i g n
c h a r t form.

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17. KeyWords(Suggested by Author(s) ) 18. Distribution Statement
Subsonic Wing Design Unclassified - Unlimited
S t r i p Theory
Computer Program

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19. Security Classif. (of this report)

Unclassified
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I . Unclassified
~- 226

For sale by the NationalTechnical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151

-. -
 SUMMARY
Presented in this report i s a comprehensivereview of the
e x i s t i n g tech.nica1 l i t e r a t u r e and a d e s i g n summary of s t a l l
ch.aracteristicsapplicabletolightstraigh.t wing a i r c r a f t .
Thesecharacteristicsareobtainedwith th.e a i d of a d i g i t a l
computerprogram which. u t i l i z e s t h e most up t o d a t e a n a l y t i c a l
methodsemploying l i f t i n g l i n e t h e o r y a n d t h e a v a i l a b l e e x p e r -
i m e n t a l t e s t d a t a f o r wing s e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The computer
results are presented in t h . e formof stall ch.artssuitablefor
preliminarydesignpurposes.Based on t h . e e x t e n s i v ep a r a m e t r i c
s t u d yc o v e r i n g a t o t a l of 331 d i f f e r e n t a i r c r a f t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s ,
i t canbeconcludedthatin modern a i r p l a n e d e s i g n s a t i s f a c t o r y
s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n be r e a d i l y b u i l t i n w i t h no a p p r e c i a -
b l el o s si na i r p l a n ep e r f o r m a n c eo rh a n d l i n gq u a l i t i e s . A proper
combination ofwing t a p e r , t w i s t andtype of a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s
w i t h . m i n o rp o s t - d e s i g nf i x e s ,i fr e q u i r e d ,c a ni n most c a s e s
providesatisfactorywingstallcharacteristics.

iii
 -
I
 FOREWORD

T h i s r e p o r t p r e s e n t s a d e s i g n summary of s t a l l c h . a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s o f s t r a i g h . t wing a i r c r a f t .
Th.e workwas performed by th.e S c i e n t i f i c SystemsDivision
(SSD) o f the DynasciencesCorDoration, Blue B e l l ,P e n n s y l v a n i a ,
f o r t h e NationalAeronauticsandSnaceAdministration (NASA),
LangleyResearchCenter, Hampton, V i r g i n i a , u n d e r c o n t r a c t number
NAS 1-8389during t h e periodfromJuly1968through SeDtember
1969.
Th.e NASA t e c h n i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s were M r . Robert T . Taylor
and Mr. William J . A l f o r d , J r . T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of t h e NASA
t e c h n i c a lp e r s o n n e lt o t h i s work a r e g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged.
Acknowledgement i s a l s o e x t e n d e d t o NASA computerpersonnel,
e s p e c i a l l y Mrs. B e l i n d a Adams, f o r their s u p p o r t i n t h i s program.
Messrs. James C . S i v e l l s and :Hartley A. Soul; were m e c i a 1
t e c h n i c a l c o n s u l t a n t s on t h i s Drojectand M r . Ron Anton was
computer consultant.

V
l -
 CONTENTS
Page
SUMMARY.................................... iii
FOREWORD ................................... V

L I S T OF ILLUSTRATIONS...................... viii
L I S T OF
TABLES. ............................ xi
L I S TO F SYMBOLS. ........................... xiii

SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION. .............................. 1

SECTION 2 BASIC
CONSIDERATIONS O F AIRPLANE
STAUING....... ............................ 4
SECTION 3 THEORETICAL ANALYSI S. ...................... 21
SECTION 4 COMPUTER PROGRAM... ........................ 42
SECTION 5 PARAMETRIC INVESTIGATION.... ............... 75
SCALE MODEL WIND TUNNEL TESTING. ...........
131
SECTION 6

SECTION 7 DESIGN PROCEDURES. ......................... 136

SECTION 8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.. .......... 142

SECTION 9 REFERENCES.. ............................... 144

APPENDIX
INTERNAL
A LISTING
OF THE COMPUTER
PROGRAM...... .............................. 149

vii

II
 ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page
1 R e p r e s e n t a t i vLei f t Curve
(Reproduced
from
Reference 13) ..................................... 10

2 Th.e Low-Speed S t a l l i nC g h a r a c t e r i s t i coA

sf i r f o i l
S e c t i o n s C o r r e l a t e d W i t h . Reynolds Number and
theUpper-SurfaceOrdinates o f theAirfoilSections
a t t h e 0.0125-Chord S t a t i o n . . ..................... 12

Wing Leading Edge M o f i f i c a t i o n s f o r C o n t r o l l i n g

Wing S t a l l ....................................... 20
D e f i n i t i o n ofParametersforTransformationof
Wing-Body Combinat i o n . ............................ 26
T y p i c a l Load D i s t r i b u t i o n s for O b t a i n i n g F a c t o r s
f o r A l t e r i n g Two-Dimensional D a t a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 37

I l l u s t r a t i o n of Meth.od for C o r r e c t i n g Two-

DimensionalSection Data ......................... 39

E x t r a p o l a t i o n s of L i f t CurveSlopes a t Low
Reynolds Number .................................. 51

V a r i a t i o n of S e c t i o n L i f t - C u r v e S l o p e w i t h T h i c k -
ness-Chord Ratio a t ConstantReynolds Number
NACA 644 S e c t i o n s ................................ 54

9 Corrected L i fCt u r v efso r NACA 64-421 A i r f o i l

a t Low Reynolds Numbers .......................... 55

10 Method
of T a b u l a t i o n of S e c t i o n C h . a r a c t e r i s t i c s .. 57
11 Sch.ematic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of Section
Data
Storage
i n t h e Computer .................................. 59

12 Nomenclature f o r Developing
Interpolation
Formulae
61

13 Computer
Program
Block
Diagram ................... 62
1.4 Schematic
Representation
of t h e Computer I n p u t
Cards ............................................ 63

15 E x p e r i m e n t a lnCda l c u l a t eCdh a r a c t e r i s t i c s for

a Wing of AspectRatio 8.04 ...................... 68

viii
li- -

Figure Page
16 Experimental and Calculated Characteristics
for a Wing of Aspect Ratio
10.05 ............... 70
17 Experimental and Calculated Characteristics
for a Wing of Aspect Ratio 1 2 . 0 6 ............... 72
18 Experimental and Calculated Characteristics
for Wingwith. 60% Flap; Aspect Ratio 9 . 0 2 ; Taper
Ratio 0.4; Washout 2 O ..........................74
19 Typical Lift Distributions Along Wing Span ..... 81

20 Variation of C l m a x with Reynolds Number and

Thickness-Chord Ratio .......................... 83
21 Variation of CLmax with Reynolds Number and Taper
Ratio ........................................... 86

22 Effect of Aspect Ratio on Stall Margin

Distribution ................................... 88

23 Effect of Aspect Ratio on Wing Stall Pattern91 ....

24 Effect of Aspect Ratio and Taper Ratio on . 94
'Lmax.

25 Increment of Induced-Drag Coefficient Due to

Washout, 230 Series Airfoil Section............ 98
26 Effect of Root Thickness-Chord Ratio on Stall
Margin Distribution ............................ 101
27 Effect of Root Thickness-Chord Ratio on Wing
Stall Boundaries ............................... 104
28 Effect of Root Th,ickness-Chord Ratio on
CLmax ., . 107
29 Effect of Tip Thickness-Chord Ratio on Stall
Margin Distribution ............................ 111
30 Effect of Tip Thickness-Chord Ratio on
'Lmax ... 114
31 Effect of Reynolds Number on Stall Margin
Distribution ................................... 117
32 Effect of Reynolds Number on Wing Stall
Pattern ........................................ 120

ix
Figure Page
33EffectofReynolds Number on C hax............... 123
34 E f f e c t of Wing Camber on S t a l l Margin
Distribution. .................................... 127

35 Effect of
Fuselage ............................... 128

36 E f f e co
t tf h e Span of
a 20% Chord S p l i F t lap
............
on t h e Wing S t a l l i n g C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . 130

37 V a r i a t i oo
nf Wing
Maximum L i fC
t oefficient
w i t h . S t a l l Speed................................. 138

X
 TABLES

Tables Page
I Airfoil Section Data Available f o r Use with
the Computer Program ............................ 56
I1 Typical Computer Output.. ....................... 65
I11 Summary of Configurations Studied ............... 76

xi
 SYMBOLS
A non-dimensionalfuselagesemil5eigh.t

A' fuselage semih.eight, f t .

Ai wing a s p e c t r a t i o ,

An c o e f f i c i e n t si nt r i g o n o m e t r i c series
a non-dimensionalaveragedistanceofpoint on
wingfromfuselagecross-sectionfocI-1

al a v e r a g ed i s t a n c eo fp o i n t onwingfrom fuselage
c r o s s - s e c t i o nf o c i i ,f t .
s e c t i o nl i f t - c u r v es l o p e ,p e rd e g r e e
non-dimensionalfuselagesemiwidth

fuselage semiwidth, f t .
wingspan, ft.
f l a ps p a n ,f t .
t o t a l wing d r a g coefficient,- D
qs

wing p r o f i l e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t ,
qs

Di wing induced drag c o e f f i c i e n t ,Di

-
qs

wing l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t , L
-
CL qs
M
wing pitching moment c o e f f i c i e n t ,

total section drag coefficient

sectioninduceddragcoefficient
section profile drag coefficient
I
section l i f t coefficient, -
qc
 design lift coefficient
two-dimensional, uncorrected value of
lift coefficient
maximum section lift coefficient
maximum two-dimensional section lift
coefficient
section lift coefficient at end of flap
section lift coefficient for
th.at part
of lift distribution involving no
discontinuity in angle of attack

c12
section lift coefficient for part
of
lift distribution due to discontinuity
in angle of attack
section lift-curve slope, per degree
section lift coefficient with deflected
flaps, calculated assuming linear lift
curves
section pitching moment coefficient
section pitching moment coefficient
about quarter-chord point
C wing chord at any spanwise station, ft.
C' wing mean aerodynamic chord, ft.

CR wing root chord, ft.

CT wing tip chord, ft.

D total wing drag, lbs.

DO
lbs.
wing profile drag,

Di wing induced drag, lbs.

E edge velocity factor
e non-dimensional eccentricity of fuselage
cross-section

xiv
el eccentricity of fuselage cross-section, ft.
F factor usedin altering two-dimensional
lift curves
Cf max
FF
Of (cf rnaxIo
at y = y * taken at th.e flap
side of
y*

Gmk coefficient of transpose

of matrix Ghk

G&k coefficient of a matrix

H non-dimensional wing h.eigh.t above fuselage
centerline
K section camberlevel measured in terms of
section designlift coefficient
coefficient of the inverse of matrix
Gmk

L wing lift, lbs.

I section lift, lbs.

M wing pitching moment,lbs. ft.
dynamic pressure, lbs/ft.
2

Re Reynolds number
RB Reynolds number based
on mean aerodynamic chord
S gross wing area, sq. ft.
T thickness factor
t wing section maximum thickness, ft.
tr maximum wing root thickness, ft.
X coordinate parallel to fuselage centerline,
positive forward, ft.
Y non-dimensional spanwise distance

YO non-dimensional coordinate of wing-fuselage

junction
-
Y ,Y spanwise coordinate, ft.

xv
 A DESIGN SUMMARY OF STALLCHARACTERISTICS
O F STRAIGJTC WING AIRCRAFT

By M. A. McVeigh, E. K i s i e l o w s k i
DYNASCIENCES
CORPORATION
SECTION I
INTRODUCTION

Federal and military aviation regulations require th.at a l l

aircraft possess stalling characteristics which.comply w i t h t h e
e s t a b l i s h e ds p e c i f i c a t i o n s . The f i n a le v a l u a t i o n of an a i r p l a n e
i s made i n f l i g h t t e s t s i n which. a l l f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g i t s
s t a l l i n gc h a r a c t e r i s t i c sa r ei n t e g r a t e d . A t t h . i s s t a g e , however,
i t may b e t o o l a t e o r v e r y e x p e n s i v e t o make any a l t e r a t i o n s
necessaryto m e e t theestablishedrequirements.
It i s highly desirable therefore, to predict t h . e maximum lift
and s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ofan a i r c r a f t a t an e a r l y d e s i g n
s t a g e a n d , on t h e b a s i s o f t h e p r e d i c t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t o
incorporatesuchmodificationsinthedesignas may give promise
of s a t i s f y i n g t h e FAA o r m i l i t a r y s t a l l r e q u i r e m e n t s . With t h i s
end i n m i n d , e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h e f f o r t d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a compre-
h e n s i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of theaerodynamicsofunsweptwingshas
beenaccomplished i n p r i o r y e a r s . T h i s r e s e a r c h e f f o r t was dir-
ectedalonglines of t h e o r e t i c a l work,wind t u n n e l e x p e r i m e n t s and
f l i g h t tests.
On t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f r o n t s u b s t a n t i a l p r o g r e s s h a s b e e n made.
P r i o r t o t h e World War I1 a n a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e l i f t i n g l i n e t h e o r y
i n which t h e wing a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s w e r e assumed t o p o s s e s s a l i n e a r
v a r i a t i o n of l i f t w i t h a n g l e - o f - a t t a c k was t h e o n l y a v a i l a b l e
method f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e maximum l i f t and s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
ofunsweptwings. I n t h er e g i o n of maximum l i f t , however, t h e
s e c t i o nl i f tc u r v e s are u s u a l l yq u i t en o n l i n e a r .C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
p r e d i c t i o n s b a s e d on t h e method were q u i t e u n r e l i a b l e i n t h e max-
imum l i f t r a n g e . S h o r t l y a f t e r t h e c l o s e of World War I1 S i v e l l s
(References 1 and 2 ) p r e s e n t e d amethod f o r c a l c u l a t i n g unswept
wing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by l i f t i n g l i n e t h e o r y u t i l i z i n g n o n l i n e a r
airfoilsectionliftdata. The v a l u e s of maximum l i f t and t h e
p o i n t of i n i t i a l s t a l l p r e d i c t e d by t h i s a p p r o a c h a g r e e w e l l with
experimentalobservations,andthe meth.od i s r e g a r d e d a s a v e r y
e f f e c t i v ed e s i g nt o o l . O t h e r m a j o rt h e o r e t i c a lc o n t r i b u t i o n s were
made by Theodorsen(Reference 3) andbyMulthopp(Reference 4).
Thesereferencesprovidevaluablemethodsfordevelopingimproved
a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s and f o r d e t e r m i n i n g w i n g - f u s e l a g e interference
effects.
Wind t u n n e l e x p e r i m e n t s h a v e p r o v i d e d e x t e n s i v e i n f o r m a t i o n
i n s u c hi m p o r t a n ta r e a s as: t w o - d i m e n s i o n a la i r f o i ls e c t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (References 5 and 6); theaerodynamiccharac-
t e r i s t i c s ofcompletewings a t highReynolds number (Reference
7); the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a l a r g e number o f c o m p l e t e a i r p l a n e s
(Reference 8 ) ; a n d c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s on m a x i m u m l i f t ( R e f -
erence 9 ) . C e r t a i n p o r t i o n s o f t h e wind t u n n e l t e s t d a t ah a v e
directdesignapplications,oth.erportionsprovide a b a s i s on
which t o e v a l u a t e t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f new th.eories,and still
other portions provide information on w h i c h . t o b a s e e m p i r i c a l
design guidance.
The f l i g h t t e s t r e s u l t s p r o v i d e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e e v a l u a t i o n
oftheintegrated e f f e c t of a l l t h e f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o
t h ea i r p l a n ef l y i n gq u a l i t i e s . Measurementof the f l i g h t ch.arac-
t e r i s t i c s of many a i r p l a n e s of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s h a s p e r m i t t e d a
definition of those characteristics which provide for good f l y i n g
q u a l i t i e s .A d d i t i o n a l l y ,t h ef l i g h t test results provide a r e f -
erencebasefor th.e c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h . e o r e t i c a 1 p r e d i c t i o n and
windtunnelexperimentalresults.

Much o f t h e research. e f f o r t r e f e r e n c e d above w a s accomplished

a n d t h e r e s u l t s were p u b l i s h e d i n numerous i s o l a t e d r e p o r t s ,
d u r i n g and s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e endofWorld War 11. Immediately
afterthisperiod, i n t e r e s t i n t h ep r o b l e m so fs t r a i g h t wing a i r -
c r a f t was d i v e r t e d t o t h e p r e s s i n g p r o b l e m s o fs u p e r s o n i c m i l i -
t a r ya i r c r a f ti n c o r p o r a t i n g s w e p tw i n gc o n f i g u r a t i o n s .I ng e n e r a l ,
unswept ( s t r a i g h t ) wingtechnology i s n o ta p p l i c a b l et o swept
w i n gc o n f i g u r a t i o n s .C o n s e q u e n t l y ,t h ew e a l t ho fi n f o r m a t i o n
pertainingtothe maximum l i f t and s t a l l i n g o f u n s w e p t wing a i r -
crafthasnotpreviouslybeencoordinated andhence h.as not re-
c e i v e da d e q u a t ea t t e n t i o n .N e v e r t h e l e s s ,i n the g e n e r a la v i a t i o n
f i e l d , i n t e r e s t st ill c e n t e r s on ,subsonic a i r c r a f t i n c o r p o r a t i n g
unsweptwingconfigurations. A n e e dt h e r e f o r ee x i s t sf o r the
a p p l i c a t i o n of a v a i l a b l e unsweptwing stalltechnologyto th.e
d e s i g no f such a i r c r a f t .

Thisreportpresents a c o m p r e h e n s i v eb i b l i o g r a p h yo fp r i o r
work i n t h . e f i e l d , a n d , i n s o f a r a s p r a c t i c a b l e , p r e s e n t s t h e most
pertinentinformationin a f o r ms u i t a b l ef o rd e s i g na p p l i c a t i o n .
I n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h i s r e p o r t a comprehensivereview h . a s been
conductedof all pertinent literature alth.ough.noattempt i s made
t os y n o p s i z e each. of t h . e r e p o r t su n d e ro n es e c t i o n .E f f o r t h.as
been made, however, t oi n c o r p o r a t et h ei n f o r m a t i o ng a i n e df r o m
thisextensivereviewintodesignguidanceprocedures, recommen-
d a t i o n s ,c a u t i o n s , e t c . Basedon t h i s comprehensivereviewof
p e r t i n e n t l i t e r a t u r e a math.ematica1model w a s f o r m u l a t e d and
programmed f o r t h e CDC 6600 d i g i t a l computer. T h e computer w h i c h .
employs a v a i l a b l e n o n l i n e a r wing s e c t i o n c h . a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n b e
utilizedtopredict maximum l i f t and t h . e s p a n w i s e l o a d d i s t r i b u -
t i o n of a wing w i t h . or w i t h . o u t f u s e l a g e .

2
 As a r e s u l t of t h i s s t u d y i t c a n b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t d e s i g n
I
i
f o r good a i r p l a n e s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s s t i l l p a r t a r t and
t haear tv ascience.
p ilable I t a p p e a r isonb e
knowledge
v i o u s ,h o w e v e r ,t h a ta p p l i c a t i o no f
a r l yd e s i g ns t a g e w i l l g r e a t l y improve
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of o b t a i n i n g s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o r , a t l e a s t , may y i e l d an a i r p l a n e d e s i g n wh.ose c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
can be made a c c e p t a b l e as t h e result o f m i n o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s d u r i n g
e a r l y f l i g h t t e s t phase.

3
 SECTION 2

BASIC
CONSIDERATIONS OF AIRPLANE STALLING

2.1 MINI" REQUIREMENTS

FOR ACCEPTABLE STALL CHARACTERISTICS

The M I N I M U M REGULATORY r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e s t a l l i n g b e h a v i o r
of small a i r c r a f t a r e s t a t e d i n t h eF e d e r a lA v i a t i o nR e g u l a t i o n s ,
P a r t 23 " A i r w o r t h i n e s sS t a n d a r d s : Normal, U t i l i t y andAcrobatic
CategoryAirp1.anes''(Reference 10). W i t h . t h e l e g a l i s t i c q u a l i f -
i c a t i o n sd e l e t e d ,t h er e g u l a t i o n sr e q u i r et h a tf o rs p e c i f i e d
power, g e a r a n d f l a p s e t t i n g s a c c e p t a b l e s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
b ed e m o n s t r a t e df o r two f1igh.tmaneuvers,one in straight flight
w i t ht h ew i n g sl e v e l andone i n a c o o r d i n a t e d turn. I n b o t h c a s e s
theprimarycontrolmanipulation i s a s t e a d y p r o g r e s s i v e upward
movement of t h e e l e v a t o r u n t i l th.e a i r p l a n e i s s t a l l e d o r t h e
elevatorreaches i t s stop.

The d e m o n s t r a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s and a c c e p t a b l e s t a l l i n g c h a r a c -
teristicsaredefinedasfollows:

F o rt h es t r a i g h t - f l i g h tm a n e u v e r , th.e a i r p l a n e i s trimmed
a t a speed f i f t y p e r c e n t g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s t a l l i n g s p e e d b e f o r e
t h ee l e v a t o r movement i s s t a r t e d . With t h eu s u a lt h r e ec o n t r o l
system, i t mustbe p o s s i b l e t o p r o d u c e and c o r r e c t r o l l by unrev-
ersed useof t h . e r o l l i n g c o n t r o l and t o p r o d u c e a n d c o r r e c t yaw
byunreverseduseof t h . e d i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l up t o t h e time when
s t a l l becomes a p p a r e n t , i . e . when a n u n c o n t r o l l a b l e downward
pitchingmotiondevelopsoruntil th.e e l e v a t o r r e a c h . e s i t s s t o p .
F o rt h et w o - c o n t r o ls y s t e ma i r p l a n e s ,r o l l i n gm o t i o n s must
be produced and corrected by u n r e v e r s e d l a t e r a l c o n t r o l w i t h , o u t
e x c e s s i v e yaw. D u r i n gr e c o v e r yf r o mt h es t a l l . it mustbe ossi-
b l e t o p r e v e n t t h . e o c c u r r e n c e ofmore t h a n 15 d e g r e e s Of r o f l O r
yaw by normal use of t h . e c o n t r o l s .

F o rt h et u r n i n g - f l i g h tm a n e u v e r ,t h ea i r p l a n e is placedin a
s t e a d y ,l e v e l ,c o o r d i n a t e dt u r n w i t h . a 30-degreebankanglebefore
thespeed i s reduced. When s t a l l o c c u r s , i t mustbe p o s s i b l et o
r e g a i n normal l e v e l f l i g h t w i t h . o u t e x c e s s i v e loss of a l t i t u d e
or uncontrollable rolling or spinning tendencies.

Forbothmaneuvers as s t a l l s a r e a p p r o a c h e d , t h e r e must be a
c l e a r and d i s t i n c t s t a l l warningwhichbeginsat a speedabout 5
t o 1 0 miles p e r h o u r h i g h e r t h a n t h . e s t a l l i n g s p e e d and c o n t i n u e s
u n t i l t h e s t a l l i s r e a c h e d .F o ra i r p l a n e st h a tc a n n o tb es t a l l e d
f o r t h e two m a n e u v e r ss p e c i f i e d , i t mustbe shown t h a t i f t h e y
c a nb e. s t a l l e di ns t e e pc l i m b s ,t h e nr e c o v e r ys h a l ln o tr e q u i r e
e x c e s s i v es p e e d sa n d / o ra c c e l e r a t i o n s .M u l t i - e n g i n ea i r c r a f t
haveadditionalsingleengine-outrequirementspertainingto
stalls in turning flight.

1111. 111 I
 .
..

I!" -

I n summary, t h e r e g u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t f o r g e n t l e m a n e u v e r s
t h e a i r c r a f t s h a l l h a v e some s t a l l - a p p r o a c h w a r n i n g , e f f e c t i v e
l a t e r a l c o n t r o l up t o t h e s t a l l , and s u f f i c i e n t l y e f f e c t i v e l a t -
eral c o n t r o l a f t e r t h e s t a l l t o r e s t r i c t yawingand r o l l i n g d i s -
t u r b a n c e st o small angles.Furthermore,recoveryfromthe stall
s h a l ln o ti n v o l v ee x c e s s i v ea l t i t u d e loss, s p e e d i n c r e a s e , o r
structural l o a d i n g .
2.2 DESIRABLE STALL CHARACTERISTICS

For more s a f e t y , it wouldbe b e t t e r i f t h e r e were nouncon-

t r o l l a b l em o t i o n sd u r i n g a s t a l l and recovery. A 15-degreechange
intheangleofbankorheadingcouldhaveseriousconsequencesif
i t o c c u r r e d c l o s e t o t h eg r o u n da n do f ft h ee n do ft h e runway
f o l l o w i n g a m i s j u d g e d l a n d i n g and t h e s t a r t o f t h e g o - a r o u n d c l i m b .
Since it i s generallyconcededthatthere i s nosuch. t h i n g as
a "good" s t a l l (Reference 111, t h es a f e s tl o w - s p e e dc h a r a c t e r i s -
tics arethosethat do n o t c h a n g e n o t i c e a b l y t o t h . e limit of t h e
u p - e l e v a t o rt r a v e l .T h e s e a r e , of c o u r s e ,t h ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
sought by " s t a l l - p r o o f i n g " a n a i r p l a n e , s u c h t h a t t h e a n g l e o f
a t t a c k f o r maximum l i f t cannever be a t t a i n e d . T h i s i s n o te a s y
t o accomplishforreasonswhich w i l l be discussed later.
F o ra i r p l a n e sw h i c hc a n be s t a l l e d ( i . e . a i r c r a f t a n g l e of
attackexceedsthatfor maximum l i f t ) , t h e r e i s no unanimityof
o p i n i o n on t h e l e a s t d e s i r a b l e t y p e ofmotion t h a t may r e s u l t . Th.e
consensus,however, i s t h a tp r o b a b l y t h . e l e a s t u n d e s i r a b l e s t a l l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c wouldbe f o r t h e n o s e o f t h e a i r p l a n e t o d r o p ab-
r u p t l y by a small b u t d i s t i n g u i s h . a b l e amount b e f o r e t h e o c c u r r e n c e
ofexcessiverollingand y a w i n gm o t i o n sr e q u i r i n gt h eu s e of e i t h e r
l a t e r a l o rd i r e c t i o n a lc o n t r o l s .A l s o ,u n d e r such. c o n d i t i o n s ,i f
theelevatorcontrol i s eased f o r w a r dt h ea i r p l a n es h o u l dp r o m p t l y
r e t u r nt ou n s t a l l e df l i g h t .S l i g h ts k i d d i n go r yawingmotions
shouldhave no a p p r e c i a b l e e f f e c t on t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
The p r e c e d i n ga r et h e more o r l e s s l i m i t i n gc o n d i t i o n s . Any-
t h i n gb e t w e e nt h e case of m i l d nosedroppingand the s t a l l i n g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d e f i n e d by t h e F e d e r a l A v i a t i o n R e g u l a t i o n s (FAR)
i s a m a t t e r of t h . e d e g r e e o f v i o l e n c e of t h e r o l l i n g andyawing
m o t i o n st h a td e v e l o pa t th.e s t a l l . I t s h o u l db en o t e dt h a ta s i d e
fromthespecifiedangulardeviationsin yaw and r o l l , th.e wording
of t h e r e g u l a t i o n s i s q u a l i t a t i v e andopen t o i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r -
pretation.
2.3 STALL-PROOFING
S t a l l - p r o o f i n g a i r c r a f t by l i m i t i n g t h e u p - e l e v a t o r t r a v e l
was s u g g e s t e d a t l e a s t t h i r t y - f i v e y e a r s agoand i s a subject
onwhich much r e s e a r c h time and e f f o r t h a s s i n c e b e e n e x p e n d e d .
There are two m a j o r r e a s o n s why t h i s s o l u t i o n h a s n o t b e e n more
widelyapplied.

5
 The f i r s t , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e more i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e
reasons, i s the opinion that a s t a l l - p r o o f a i r p l a n e may n o t b e
c o m p l e t e l ya c c e p t a b l en o r most s a l e a b l e t o t h e s p e c i f i c segment
o ft h eg e n e r a lp u b l i c most i n t e r e s t e d i n p e r s o n a l f l y i n g . T h i s
group i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e composed l a r g e l y of more adventurous
p e r s o n s( e . g .t h eb u y e r so fs p o r t s cars, t h e w a t e r s k i e r s ) who
want more t h a nt r a n s p o r t a t i o nf r o ma na i r p l a n e .T h e r e f o r e ,t h e
amount o f e f f o r t t h a t m i g h t b e p u t i n t o d e s i g n i n g an a i r p l a n e t o
bestall-proofdepends on t h . e purpose and th.e m a r k e t f o r wh.lch. t h . e
a i r p l a n e i s intended. I t i s p o s s i b l et os t a l l - p r o o f an a i r p l a n e
f o rc e r t a i nf l i g h tc o n d i t i o n s and n o tf o ro t h e r s .F o r t u n a t e l y
t h el a n d i n ga p p r o a c h .c o n d i t i o n i s oneof t h . e s i m p l e s t and one f o r
which some e f f o r t may be warranted.
The o t h e r r e a s o n wh.y most a i r c r a f t a r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y s t a l l -
proofed i s t h e t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t y of s o doing. The e l e v a t o r
angle for a givenangleofattackvaries w i t h . a l a r g e number of
i n t e r r e l a t e da i r c r a f td i m e n s i o n a l andmassparameters. Among t h e
m o r e i m p o r t a n tn o tu n d e r t h . e c o n t r o l of t h . e d e s i g n e r a r e t h e
c e n t e ro fg r a v i t yl o c a t i o n ona givenflight,thethrottle,flap
and t r i m s e t t i n g s ; and t h e e x t e r i o r s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r -
l y t h e wingand h o r i z o n t a lt a i ls u r f a c e s . Added t o t h e s e a r e all
those other parameters among w h i c h t h e d e s i g n e r n o r m a l l y h a s t o
compromise. The b a s i cl o n g i t u d i n a lb a l a n c ea n d ,h e n c e , the e l e v a -
torangleforstall,depends on th.e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s of the
w i n ga n dt h eh o r i z o n t a lt a i ls u r f a c e s , th.e t a i l l e n g t h , v e r t i c a l
location ofthetail,theorientation of t h e t a i l r e l a t i v e t o t h e
p r o p e l l e rs l i p s t r e a m , and t h e p r o x i m i t y o f t h e t a i l t o t h e g r o u n d
d u r i n g t a k e o f f and l a n d i n g .
2.4 STALL WARNING
It i s less d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n s t a l l warning i n t h e a i r p l a n e
as compared t os t a l lp r o o f i n g .A l t h o u g h i t may notalwaysbe
possibletoprovideforadequatestallwarninginthedesignstage,
i t can i n many cases b e i n c o r p o r a t e d a f t e r a i r c r a f t c o n s t r u c t i o n .
There are anumber o f a i r p l a n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which. c a n
s e r v e a s ameans o fp r o v i d i n gw a r n i n gt o t h . e p i l o t of h . i s approach.
t ot h es t a l l . Some of t h . e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are l a r g ei n c r e a s e s
i n t h . e e l e v a t o r f o r c e and i n t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k t r a v e l n e a r th.e
stallingspeed,initiallycontrollablerolling andpitch.ingmotions,
and v i b r a t i o n s o r ' ' b u f f e t i n g " of t h . e a i r p l a n e and t h . e c o n t r o l s t i c k .
The v a r i a t i o n of c o n t r o l f o r c e s which a r e f u n c t i o n s of e l e v a t o r
h i n g e moments are toodependent on the f r i c t i o n and e l a s t i c i t y i n
t h ec o n t r o ls y s t e mb e t w e e n th.e e l e v a t o r and s t i c k t o p r o v i d e th.e
c o n s i s t e n c yn e e d e df o rs t a l lw a r n i n g . On t h . e oth.er h.and anappre-
ciableincreaseintheelevatorcontroltravel as s t a l l i s
a p p r o a c h e d ,a i r f r a m eb u f f e t i n g and i n i t i a l l y c o n t r o l l a b l e a n g u l a r
motions h,ave e a c h b e e n f o u n d t o g i v e a c c e p t a b l e s t a l l w a r n i n g .
The d i f f i c u l t y i s t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e s t a r t of t h . e s e w a r n i n g s i n
t h er e q u i r e ds p e e dr a n g e and t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e a i r p l a n e a n g u l a r

6
motions do not become t o o s e v e r e i n a m p l i t u d eb e f o r et h es t a l l -
ingspeed i s reached.
A l t h o u g hi n h e r e n ts t a l l - w a r n i n g s are t ob ep r e f e r r e d , stall
warnings can be synthesized by detecting consistent changes in
theairflowabouttheairplaneandusing th.e information to
a c t i v a t e a mechanical or e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e t o a l e r t t h e p i l o t of
h i sa p p r o a c ht os t a l l . The e a r l i e s t formof a s y n t h e s i z e ds t a l l
warning w a s p r o b a b l y t h e s t a l l r e d - l i n e on t h e a i r s p e e d i n d i c a t o r .
The s t a l l airspeed,however, i s oneof t h ep o o r e ri n d i c a t o r s of
impending s t a l l because it depends on a i r c r a f t w e i g h t andconse-
q u e n t l yv a r i e sw i t hp a s s e n g e rl o a d and f u e l consumption.Varia-
b l e s wh.ich are d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s t a l l suchastheairplane
a n g l eo fa t t a c k and s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s g i v e much more
r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t i o n s ofimpending stallthandoesairspeed.

Synthetic stall-warning devices can be designed to alert the

p i l o t of h i s approach. t o th.e s t a l l th.rough. h . i s s e n s e of s i g h . t ,
h e a r i n g or f e e l . N e i t h . e r of th.e f i r s t twoh.ave beenfoundvery
s a t i s f a c t o r y . I n t h . e c a s e of s i g h . t , th.e p i l o t ' sa t t e n t i o nd u r i n g
t a k e o f f and l a n d i n g when u n i n t e n t i o n a l s t a l l i n g i s most p r o b a b l e
i s r e q u i r e do u t s i d e of t h ec o c k p i t .I nt h ec a s e of h e a r i n g ,
t h e r e i s chance f o r c o n f u s i o n a s h o r n s h a v e l o n g b e e n u s e d a s a
r e m i n d e rt ol o w e r th.e l a n d i n gg e a r . Th.e most s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a l l
warningdevicewouldthereforebethe one t h a t would a l e r t t h e
p i l o t of h i s approach. t o t h e s t a l l t h r o u g h t h e s e n s e of f e e l .
A d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e most common s t a l l w a r n i n g d e v i c e s a n d t h e i r
p r i n c i p l e of o p e r a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d i n R e f e r e n c e 12.

2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING WING STALL

~

~~

Th.e F e d e r a l A v i a t i o n R e g u l a t i o n s d e f i n e t h e s t a l l c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s i n terms of movement of t h e e l e v a t o r andof theeffective-
n e s so ft h ea i l e r o n and r u d d e rc o n t r o l s . Th.e wing,h.owever, is
t h ep r i m a r ye l e m e n t of t h e a i r p l a n e a f f e c t i n g th.e s t a l l i n g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I t s s i z er e l a t i v et o weigh.t sets th.e s t a l l i n g
speed,and i t s p r o p o r t i o n sd e t e r m i n e t h . e l o c a t i o n of t h . e s t a l l ,
i t s r a t e of p r o p a g a t i o n , a n d t h e v i o l e n c e of t h e r e s u l t i n g m o t i o n s
when t h e s t a l l i n g s p e e d i s reached.

I n thedesignofairplanes it i s normal t o s t a r t w i t h th.e

wingand s e l e c t i t s dimensions bya s e r i e s ofcompromises so as
t o a s s u r e good p e r f o r m a n c e , a c c e p t a b l e s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
andlow s t r u c t u r a l weigh.t
ingappearance must beconsideredbecauseof
. While n o t a t e c h . n i c a 1 f a c t o r a p l e a s -
th.e e f f e c t of s t y l e
on t h em a r k e t a b i l i t y of the d e s i g n . T h e a i r f o i l s e c t i o n i s
fundamental t o wing d e s i g n a n d s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d e a r l y i n
t h . e p r e l i m i n a r ys t a g e s . Th.e a e r o d y n a m i cd a t af o r th.e s e l e c t e d
airfoilsectionsarethenused i n a n a l y s e st od e t e r m i n et h e
s p a nl o a d i n g of t h e t h . r e e dimensionalwing. I t i s on t h . e b a s i s
ofcomputedspan-load d i s t r i b u t i o n s t h a t a d e c i s i o n i s made on
t h e f i n a l wing p r o p o r t i o n s .S e c t i o n s 4 and 5 of t h . i s r e p o r t

7
p r e s e n t a summary o f t h e t h e o r y a n d a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e computer
program r e s p e c t i v e l y f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e wing span load distrib-
utions required for preliminary design purposes.
2.6 AIRFOIL SECTIONS
The s e l e c t i o n of t h e optimum a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s f o r a wing i s
g e n e r a l l y made a f t e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s g i v e n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g :

a) S e c t i o n p r o f i l e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t s h o u l d b e as low as
p o s s i b l e - o v e r a rangeof lift coefficients near the required
cruise lift coefficient.
b )S e c t i o n maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s h o u l d b e a s l a r g e as
possible since this has a d i r e c t b e a r i n g on t h e maximum v a l u e o f
t h e o v e r a l l wing l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t which i n t u r n g o v e r n s t h e
stallingspeed.

c ) The c h o s e ns e c t i o n ss h o u l dh a v es u f f i c i e n td e p t ht o
c o n t a i n t h e wing s t r u c t u r a l members a n d o t h e r items s u c h as
landinggear.

d )S t a l l i n gc h a r a c t e r i s t i c so fs e c t i o n sn e a rt h e wing t i p
shouldbegradual s o as t o a v o i d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y ofsharpwing
drop.
e ) The s e c t i o n c r i t i c a l Mach number s h o u l db e as h i g h as
possibletoavoidtransonicdrag r i s e , i f a highspeed a i r c r a f t
i s beingconsidered.
A l l of t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n n o t b e s a t i s f i e d by anyone
a i r f o i l s e c t i o n and some compromisemust be made. Forexample,
t h en e e df o rs u f f i c i e n ts t r u c t u r a ld e p t h ,e . g .l a r g et h i c k n e s s -
chordratios,conflictswiththerequirementforhighvalues of
maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t . Again, a s e c t i o nc h o s e nf o r its
highvalueof maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t might have undesirably
sharp stalling characteristics.

While s e c t i o n maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t i s of p a r t i c u l a r
importance i n r e g a r d t o wing s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e
section having the greatest value of maximum l i f t mightbe
s e n s i t i v e t o small dimensionaldeviationsandhencemightnot
r e a l i z e i t s i d e a l perfo.rmance.

Wing s t a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n a l s o b e a f f e c t e d by a i r
turbulence o r gustiness. The s i d e s l i p p i n g andyawingmotions
produced by g u s t i n e s s c a n i n d u c e f l o w breakdown f o r c e r t a i n
wing s e c t i o n s t h u s r e s u l t i n g i n l a r g e c h a n g e s i n wing l i f t .
Much work h a s b e e n d o n e t o c o r r e l a t e f l o w p a t t e r n s at the s t a l l
withthegeometricpropertiesof wing s e c t i o n s a n d t h e s h a p e
o ft h el i f tc u r v e .T h e r e are t h r e er e p r e s e n t a t i v et y p e so f

8
I

airfoil section s t a l l generallyconsidered i n t h e t e c h n i c a l

l i t e r a t u r e ,e . g . Reference 13. T h e s et y p e sa r e :
a) Type 1 - T r a i l i n g Edge S t a l l
b) Type 2 - Leading Edge S t a l l
c) Type
3 - T h i nA i r f o i S
l tall
The l i f t c u r v e s f o r t h e t h r e e t y p e s ( r e p r o d u c e d fromRef-
e r e n c e 13) are compared i n F i g u r e 1 and a d i s c u s s i o n o f e a c h
type of stall i s presentedbelow.
2.6.1Type 1 - T r a i l i n g Edge S t a l l

The peakof the lift curve for this type of s t a l l i s c h a r a c -

t e r i s t i c a l l y rotlndedwith a maximum v a l u e of l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t
ofapproximately1.5. Th.e loss of l i f t a f t e r t h e s t a l l is
gradualwhich i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e l e a s t u n d e s i r a b l e t y p e
of s t a l l . The f l o wf o rt h i st y p e of s t a l l i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
a p r o g r e s s i v e t h i c k e n i n g of t h e t u r b u l e n t b o u n d a r y l a y e r on t h e
u p p e rs u r f a c e of t h e a i r f o i l a s t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k i s i n c r e a s e d .
T h i s i s followed by a n e v e n t u a l f l o w s e p a r a t i o n which. s t a r t s a t
t h e t r a i l i n g edgeandgradually moves f o r w a r d a s t h e a i r f o i l
a n g l eo fa t t a c k i s increasedfromabout 100. Maximum lift i s
o b t a i n e d when t h e p o i n t o f s e p a r a t i o n r e a c h e s a b o u t t h e 50 p e r -
c e n tc h o r ds t a t i o n . Beyond maximum l i f tt h ef o r w a r dp r o g r e s s i o n
of t h e s e p a r a t i o n p o i n t c o n t i n u e s a t a b o u t t h e same r a t e a s p r i o r
t os t a l l . The t r a i l i n g - e d g et y p e of s t a l l i s g e n e r a l l ya s s o c i a t e d
withwingsapproximately15%thickorgreater.
2.6.2 Type 2 - Leading Edge S t a l l
Airfoilswiththeleading-edgetype of s t a l l u s u a l l y have a
s l i g h . t l y g r e a t e r maximum l i f t th.anthose w i t h . a t r a i l i n g edge
s t a l l . A t t h es t a l l , however, th.ere i s a l a r g e suddendrop
in lift associated with an a b r u p t s e p a r a t i o n of t h ef l o wf r o m
t h eu p p e rs u r f a c en e a r i t s l e a d i n ge d g e . The s e p a r a t i o n i s
attributedtothebehavior of t h e u p p e r s u r f a c e b o u n d a r y l a y e r .
A t an a n g l e o f a t t a c k w e l l below t h a t f o r maximum l i f t th.e
boundarylayer,which i s l a m i n a ra tt h e t i m e , s e p a r a t e s from t h . e
uppersurfacequitecloseto th.e nose, becomes t u r b u l e n ta n d
r e a t t a c h e st ot h es u r f a c e . The l o c a l i z e dr e g i o n o fs e p a r a t e d
flow i s r e f e r r e dt oa s a " l a m i n a rs e p a r a t i o nb u b b l e 1 ' , Up t o
t h e a n g l e a t which t h e b u b b l e f o r m s t h . e boundarylayerbehaves
t h e same a sf o ra i r f o i l sh a v i n gt r a i l i n g - e d g es e p a r a t i o n . The
d i f f e r e n c e a t h i g h e r a n g l e s i s due p r i m a r i l y t o t h . e n o s e r a d i u s .
A s t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k i s f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d , t h e l a m i n a r
s e p a r a t i o n p o i n t moves forwardwhere the l o c a l c u r v a t u r e i s
g r e a t e r . At s t a l l t h e main f l o wc a n n o te x p a n dr a p i d l y enough
forreattachmentand a suddenandcompletedisruption of t h e

9
 J

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
I
Section angle of attack, cc

Figure 1. - Representative Lift Curves.

(ReproducedfromReference 13).

10
y-.
i'
-

flow takes place. As the nose radii of airfoils normally

decrease with thickness leading-edge stall is more likely to
occur with airfoils with thickness ratios of or12% less. This
to be t h e most u n d e s i r a b l e .
type of stall is considered
2.6.3 Type 3 - Thin Airfoil Stall
This type of stall occurson all sh,arp leading-edge airfoils
(regardless of thickness ratio) and may also be encountered
on
rounded leading edge airfoils with sufficiently low thickness
ratios e.g. t/c49%. As can be noted from Figure1, the airfoils
with Type3 stall have substantially lower values of maximum lift
coefficients than those associated with the airfoil types
discussed above.
The type 3 stall is characterized by flow separation from
the leading edge with subsequent reattachment further downstream.
The exact mechanism of flow reattachment is not clearly understood.
Experimental observations have shown that at low angles of attack
the flow reattaches to the upper surface of the airfoil at a
short distance behind the leading edge and stays attached up to
the trailing edge without further separation. With increase in
angle of attack, the point of flow reattachment progressively
moves toward the trailing edge and the stall is fully developed
when the reattachment point occurs approximately at the trailing
edge.
Figure 2, reproduced from Reference
14, more clearly delin-
eates the types of stall discussed above and indicates some basis
for a correlation between stalling characteristics, Reynolds
number and leading edge shape.
2.7 WING PLANFORM EFFECTS
In the design of the wing for stalling characteristics, wing
planform is as important as the characteristics of the airfoil
sections. Probably the most important planform parameters are
the aspect ratio, taper ratio, and the sweep and twist angles if
either is used. They have an important influence on airplane
performance and wing weight as well as the stalling characteris-
tics. Therefore, effective compromises between these parameters
must be made to obtain the required performance, handling qualities
and structural integrity of the airplane.
The aspect ratio for a given wing area will directly affect
the wing span. Low aspect ratio and short span are conducive
to maneuverability for an aircraft intended for aerobatics. High
aspect ratios are attractive from the pointof view of
maximum aerodynamic efficiencyor L/D. However, an increasein
aspect ratio generally results in an increase of wing root
bending moments and probably wing weight. One fact that should
 31 I I I I I oThinLairfoilstall.
I I -I! aioo OI0 I A
Leading-edge stall.
Combined leading-
edge and.trailing-
edge stall.
o Trailing-edge stal I.
I I

"railing-edge stall

Sombined leading-edg
and trailing-edge stal

"t-"
7 ?.
"

6 1 "-

5 I "
I

3.6 3.2 2.8 2.4.4 2.0 .81.6 1.2

I
"

Upper-surface ordinate at O.Or25 chord, percent chord

F i g u r e 2. - AThei r f Low-Speed S t a l l i n g Ch.aracteristics o f

oilSectionsCorrelated With Reynolds
Number and t h e Upper-SurfaceOrdinatesof
t h eA i r f o i lS e c t i o n s a t t h e 0.0125-Ch,ord
Station.(ReproducedfromReference 14).

12
be considered relative to the compromisebetween maximum L/D
andwing r o o t b e n d i n g moment i s t h a t t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t at
which maximum L/D i s a t t a i n e d a l s o i n c r e a s e s w i t h a s p e c t r a t i o .
The p e r f o r m a n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m o s t a f f e c t e d by maximum L/D i s
t h ea i r c r a f tr a n g e .F o rp e r s o n a la i r c r a f tw i t hr e l a t i v e l y
l i g h t wingloadingsoperating a t a l t i t u d e s below 10,000 f e e t ,
t h e s p e e d f o r maximum r a n g e may b e t o o s l o w t o make i t an
a t t r a c t i v e cruise speed. The increase i n t h e v a l u e of t h e
m a x i m u m L/D o b t a i n e d by i n c r e a s i n g t h e a s p e c t r a t i o , t h e r e f o r e ,
may beof l i t t l e p r a c t i c a l use. I n f a c t , i f t h e L/D i s much
increased for the lift coefficients used in the approach glide,
t h e e f f e c t may be t o f l a t t e n t h e a p p r o a c h p a t h , make judgment
of t h e l a n d i n g p o i n t more d i f f i c u l t a n d g i v e t h e a i r p l a n e a
t e n d e n c yt o" f l o a t "a f t e rt h el a n d i n gf l a r e .T h i ss t a t e m e n t is
intendedonlytoimplythatincreasesinaspectratio do n o t
n e c e s s a r i l yl e a dt o improvedaerodynamicperformance.Improved
performance may b e b e t t e r o b t a i n e d by a r e d u c t i o n o f f u s e l a g e ,
engineandlandinggeardrag.
Taper i s normallyemployed t o i n c r e a s e t h e wingchordand
s p a r d e p t h s a t t h ew i n gr o o ta n d ,h e n c e ,o f f s e tt h ea d v e r s e
w e i g h te f f e c t so fi n c r e a s i n gt h ea s p e c tr a t i o . A t t h e same t i m e
i t i n c r e a s e s wing t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y which i s animportant
s t r u c t u r a lc o n s i d e r a t i o n . Wings c a nb et a p e r e de i t h e ri n
t h i c k n e s s o r planform or i n any combination of both. When COm-
b i n e d t a p e r i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e wingand straightlineSurface
fairing i s usedforstructuralsimplicity,airfoilsectionsbe-
tweenth.e f a i r i n g s t a t i o n s may b e s l i g h t l y d i s t o r t e d .

Sweep s h i f t s t h e aerodynamiccenter of t h e wingfore-and-

aftrelativetothe wing r o o t .S m a l l amountsof i t c a nt h e r e f o r e
beusedtoadjustthelongitudinalaerodynamicbalance or to
improvethepositionoftheaircraftcenter of g r a v i t y r e l a t i v e
t o t h e main l a n d i n g g e a r .
Wing t w i s t a f f e c t s t h e s p a n l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n by changingthe
local section angle of attack a l o n g the w i n g s p a n .
Negative wing t w i s t o r washout may b e u s e d e f f e c t i v e l y t o move
thestallingpointinboard.
H i g h - l i f td e v i c e ss u c h as l e a d i n g e d g e s l o t s or trailing
e d g ef l a p s ,i ft h e y are i n s t a l l e d a c r o s s t h e f u l l s p a n , i n f l u e n c e
t h e wing s t a l l o n l y t h r o u g h t h e i r e f f e c t on t h e s e c t i o n l i f t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .R a r e l y , however, are e i t h e rl e a d i n ge d g es l o t s
o rt r a i l i n ge d g ef l a p su s e do v e rt h ee n t i r e wing span.Leading
edgeslotsoverthetipportionofthe wing w e r e one o f t h e f i r s t
means t r i e d f o r i m p r o v i n gt h ew i n gs t a l l i n gc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Such
s l o t s increase t h e a n g l e of s t a l l o f t h e t i p s e c t i o n s o f t h e
o r d e r of t e nd e g r e e s . Much e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w t t h r e l a t i v e l y
simplefixedslots,as w e l l as w i t h t h e movablcHandley-Pagetype,
led to the early conclusion th.at neither the complexity

13
andcostoftheautomaticslotsnorthedragpenalty of t h e
f i x e d s l o t s w e r e w a r r a n t e df o r small p e r s o n a la i r c r a f t .T h e r e
h a s b e e n a r e c e n t r e v i v a l of i n t e r e s t i n movable leading edge
devicesforthetipportionsofthewingsofhigh-speed,swept-
wingcommercialand m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t where t h e i r u s e can be
economicallyjustified.
F l a p s are u s u a l l yi n s t a l l e di n b o a r d of t h ea i l e r o n s . They
depress the angle of attack for zero lift of the airfoils to
which they are a t t a c h e d w h i l e h a v i n g o n l y a secondary effect on
t h e s t a l l a n g l e .I n b o a r df l a p s ,t h e r e f o r e ,h a v et h ee f f e c to f
a d i s c o n t i n u o u s wing t w i s t w i t h w a s h - i n s t a r t i n g a t t h e f l a p end.

Application of the simple lifting line theory as d e s c r i b e d

i nR e f e r e n c e 1 5 t o p r e d i c t t h e s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
flappedwings w i l l i n d i c a t e a d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e s p a n w i s e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m a x i m u m s e c t i o n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t and an assoc-
i a t e d i n i t i a l s t a l l a t t h ee n do ft h ef l a p . Inasmuch a s t h i s
d i s c o n t i n u i t yd o e sn o te x i s t i n t h r e ed i m e n s i o n a lf l o w ,e a r l y
attemptstopredictthestallingcharacteristicsofflapped
wings(Reference 1 6 and 1 7 ) by t h e methodofReference 15, d i d
n o ty i e l d good c o r r e l a t i o nw i t he x p e r i m e n t .S u b s e q u e n t l y ,
a f a r more r e l i a b l e method o f a p p l y i n g t h e l i f t i n g l i n e t h e o r y
was developed(Reference 2 ) . The l a t t e r method p r e d i c t s t h e
point of initial s t a l l q u i t e w e l l and i s d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l
i nS e c t i o n 4 of t h i sr e p o r t .

2.8 @D
CONSTRUCTION TOLERANCES - -
SURFACE IRREGULARITIES

I n most c a s e s t h e f i n a l wingdesignrepresents a compromise

among t h e b e s t d i m e n s i o n s f o r p e r f o r m a n c e , s t a l l c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s and s t r u c t u r a l w e i g h t , a l t h o u g h o c c a s i o n a l l y some
importance may b eg i v e nt oa p p e a r a n c e .C u r v e dl e a d i n ge d g e s ,
t a p e r and sweep canadd t o t h e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s of a designand
g i v et h ei m p r e s s i o no fs p e e d . While s u c hf e a t u r e s s o used may
notnecessarilypenalizethedesign,theirimpactonflight
safetyandconstructioncostsshouldbecarefullystudied.

No a d e q u a t e m e t h o d o f d e f i n i n g e i t h e r t h e p e r m i s s a b l e
d e v i a t i o n s of t h e a i r f o i l o r d i n a t e s from t h e i r s p e c i f i e d v a l u e s
o rt h ep e r m i s s a b l ed e g r e eo fs u r f a c er o u g h n e s sa n dw a v i n e s sh a s
beendevised.Reference 5 g i v e s some g e n e r a lg u i d el i n e s
c o n c e r n i n gt h es u r f a c ec o n d i t i o n s and c o n s t r u c t i o n t o l e r a n c e s
t h a t m u s tb ea d h e r e dt oi no r d e rt oa c h i e v ee x t e n s i v er e g i o n s
of l a m i n a rf l o wa t low v a l u e so ft h el i f tc o e f f i c i e n t .I n
g e n e r a l , i t would a p p e a rt h a t i-f v a l u e so f c l m a x comparable t o
t h o s ep r e s e n t e d i n Reference 5 a r e t o b ea c h i e v e d ,t h es u r f a c e
conditionsandconstructiontolerancesover t h . e forwardupper
s u r f a c eo f th.e a i r f o i l ( a p p r o x . 0 t o 10% c h o r d )s h o u l db ea t
l e a s t a s good a st h o s ei n d i c a t e di nt h er e f e r e n c e . A s sh.own
by t h e r e s u l t s of Reference18"very small e r r o r s i n a i r f o i l

14
c o n t o u r ,p a r t i c u l a r l ya r o u n dt h el e a d i n ge d g e ,c o u l dc a u s e
largechangesinthestallingangleofattackandtheresulting
v a l u e o f maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t . "
The a d v i s a b i l i t y o f a p p l y i n g t h e s t a l l a n a l y s i sp r o c e d u r e
i n theearlystagesoftheairplanedesigncannotbeover-
emphasized.This s t a l l a n a l y s i sp r o c e d u r e r e l i e s on t h eu s e
o fp u b l i s h e da i r f o i ls e c t i o nd a t ac h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The d e s i g n e r
i s w a r n e d ,t h e r e f o r e ,t h a tu n l e s st h ea i r c r a f t as f i n a l l y
constructedincorporatesairfoilsectionsthat are approximately
equal in contour and surface c o n d i t i o n t o t h o s e u t i l i z e d i n
o b t a i n i n gt h et w o - d i m e n s i o n a la i r f o i ls e c t i o nd a t a ,t h ec a l c u l a t e d
s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l notnecessarilybecomparableto
t h o s e e n c o u n t e r e d on t h e f l i g h t v e h i c l e .
2.9 WING-FUSELAGE FAIRINGS
One of t h e more i m p o r t a n t s t r u c t u r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a f f e c t i n g
a i r c r a f t s t a l l i s t h e f a i r i n g between t h e wingandfuselage.
ThemethodofMulthoppused for calculating the effect of t h e
f u s e l a g e on t h e wing l i f t o n l y a c c o u n t s f o r c h a n g e s i n l o c a l f l o w
a n g l e so ft h er o o ts e c t i o n sd u et op r e s e n c eo ft h ef u s e l a g e .
N e i t h e r t h i s method n o r any o t h e r method c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e c o u r s e
of t h i s s t u d y a d e q u a t e l y t r e a t s t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o ft h es u r f a c e
p r e s s u r e s on t h e wingandfuselageas a resultofthemutual
i n t e r f e r e n c e . Such c h a n g e ss e r i o u s l yi n f l u e n c et h eb o u n d a r yl a y e r
a tt h ej u n c t i o na n dc a nc a u s ep r e m a t u r es e p a r a t i o n of t h e main
flow. The t u r b u l e n c ei nt h e wake b e h i n dt h es e p a r a t e dr e g i o n
may i n t e r s e c t t h e t a i l p l a n e where i t may i n d u c e v i b r a t o r y l o a d s
which i fm i l d ,c a nb eu s e da ss t a l lw a r n i n g . I t may, however,
resultinvibrationssevere enough t o i m p a i r t h e s t r u c t u r a l
i n t e g r i t yo ft h ea i r c r a f t . The v i o l e n c eo ft h ev i b r a t i o n sd e p e n d s
on t h e e x t e n t of t h . e s e p a r a t e d r e g i o n a n d t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e
horizontaltailrelativeto wake.
Wing f u s e l a g e f l o w i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s l a r g e l y dependon t h e
p o s i t i o n of t h e wing r e l a t i v et ot h ef u s e l a g e . For t h eh i g h
wing p o s i t i o n , w h e r et h ei n f l u e n c eo ft h ef u s e l a g e is confined
t ot h el o w e r l e s s c r i t i c a l s u r f a c e of t h e wing t h e s e e f f e c t s
a r eq u i t es m a l l . Thelowwing p o s i t i o nw i t ht h e w i n gt a n g e n tt o
thefuselageintroducesthelargestwing-fuselageinteraction
e f f e c t s which i n c r e a s e a s t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e w i n g - f u s e l a g e
s u r f a c e s becomesmore acute.
The w i n g - f u s e l a g e f l o w i n t e r a c t i o n c a n b e t o some degree
c o n t r o l l e d by t h es h a p e and s i z e of t h e r o o t f a i r i n g s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t he a c hw i n gp o s i t i o n . The h i g h wing p o s i t i o n d i c t a t e s a
minimum amount of f a i r i n g fromaerodynamicconsiderations,
whereas f o r t h e low wing p o s i t i o n a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of
f a i r i n g may b e r e q u i r e d t o e n s u r e p r o p e r f l o w c o n d i t i o n s on t h e
u p p e rs u r f a c e of t h e wing c l o s et ot h ef u s e l a g e .A l s o ,c a r e f u l
considerationshouldbegiventothechord-wiseshaping of

15
t h e wing r o o t f a i r i n g , s i n c e i t e f f e c t s the e x p a n s i o no ft h e
f l o wo v e rt h e a f t e r p o r t i o no ft h ej u n c t i o n . The chord-wise
s h a p eo ft h er o o tf a i r i n gl a r g e l yd e p e n d s on t h e f o r e - a n d - a f t
position of the wing relative to the fuselage maximum diameter.
S i n c et h eg e o m e t r yo ft h ew i n g - r o o tf a i r i n g sc r i t i c a l l y
dependson d e t a i l d e s i g n of the j u n c t i o n there are no e s t a b l i s h e d
t h e o r e t i c a l methodsby which t h e s i z e a n d s h a p e o f t h e wing-
root f a i r i n g sc a nb ep r e d i c t e d . Some e m p i r i c a ld e s i g n r u l e s ,
whichcanbeemployed f o r t h i s p u r p o s e are p r e s e n t e d i n
References 1 9 . However, i t i s g e n e r a l l y recommended t h a t
the final size a n ds h a p eo ft h ew i n g - r o o tf a i r i n g sb ed e t e r m i n e d
by a n e x p e r i m e n t e i t h e r i n a wind t u n n e l or i n f l i g h t .
The f a i r i n g p r o b l e m s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e are similar t o t h o s e
a s s o c i a t e dw i t ht h en a c e l l e so f wing-mounted e n g i n e s .L o c a t i o n
of t h e n a c e l l e s c l o s e t o t h e f u s e l a g e may r e s u l t i n some
additionalinteractioneffectsofthenacelle-fuselageflow
f i e l d s . However, t h ep r o p e l l e rr a d i u sr e q u i r e m e n t sg e n e r a l l y
e n s u r es u f f i c i e n ts p a c i n gb e t w e e nt h en a c e l l e sa n dt h ef u s e l a g e
t o p r e v e n ts e r i o u si n t e r a c t i o n .
2.10 PROPELLER SLIPSTREAM CONSIDERATIONS
-~____

A n o t h e ri m p o r t a n tc o n s i d e r a t i o no fa i r p l a n e stall is the
e f f e c t of t h e p r o p e l l e r s l i p s t r e a m i n power-on f l i g h t . T h i s
e f f e c t i s introducedthroughanincreaseofthelocalvelocity
o v e rt h ew i n g immersed i n t h e s l i p s t r e a m and thechangeofwing
localangleofattackduetoslipstreamrotation.

The i n c r e a s e d v e l o c i t y t e n d s t o s t a b i l i z e t h e f l o w o v e r t h e
wingimmersed i nt h es l i p s t r e a m . The r o t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e s l i p -
stream t e n d s t o increase t h e l o c a l a n g l e of a t t a c k o f t h e wing
sectionsbehindtheupgoingpropellerbladesanddecreasethe
l o c a la n g l e o f a t t a c kb e h i n dt h e downgoing b l a d e s . The o v e r a l l
e f f e c t i s u s u a l l yt h a to fp r o m o t i n ga n asymmetrical s t a l l . The
s t a l l of t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e wing behind the upgoing blades is
h a s t e n e dw h e r e a st h a tb e h i n dt h ed o m g o i n gb l a d e s i s delayed.
I n t h e case of a s i n g l e e n g i n e a i r p l a n e t h e asymmetrical s t a l l
canpromoteseriouswingdroppingtendencies when t h e a i r p l a n e
i s o p e r a t i n gi nt h ev i c i n i t yo f CLmax. Reference 8 p r e s e n t st h e
r e s u l t s o fe x t e n s i v ee x p e r i m e n t a lo b s e r v a t i o n so ft h ee f f e c t of
p r o p e l l e ro p e r a t i o n onwing stalling. It i s i n t e r e s t i n gt o
n o t e , from t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d t h e r e i n , t h a t i n t h e case o f
oneof t h es i n g l ee n g i n ea i r p l a n e si n v e s t i g a t e d ,t h ea c t i o n of
thepropellerinpromotingan asymmetrical s t a l l i s m o r e a d v e r s e
attheengineidle power c o n d i t i o n ( T c = 0) t h a n a t t h e power-on
c o n d i t i o ni n v e s t i g a t e d (Tc = 0 . 2 ) . I n t h e case o fa n o t h e rs i n g l e
e n g i n ea i r p l a n ei n v e s t i g a t e d ,t h ee f f e c to f power w a s i n t h e
reverse orders
 The e f f e c t s of t h e a s y m m e t r i c a l s t a l l i n g i n t h e c a s e of
multi-engine aircraft can not be clearly defined primarily due
to the fact that these effects are l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t on a spec-
i f i c combinationofvariousgeometricparametersrelatedtoeach
aircraft .
2.11 STABILITY AND CONTROL CONSIDERATIONS
~~

I n t h e a b o v ed i s c u s s i o no fa i r p l a n e stall characteristics,
it i s assumed t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t i s i n a s t e a d y unyawed trimmed
f l i g h t , and t h a t t h e s t a l l i s developedth.rough. a g r a d u a l increase
of a i r p l a n ea n g l eo fa t t a c k . However, t h es t e a d i n e s s of a c t u a l
f l i g h t d e p e n d s on t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l s t a b i l i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h . e
controleffectiveness,therateat w h i c h . t h e p i l o t moves t h . e
c o n t r o l s t i c k a n dt h ea t m o s p h e r i ct u r b u l e n c e .
With r e f e r e n c e t o a t m o s p h e r i c t u r b u l e n c e , l i t t l e canbedone
i n d e s i g nt or e d u c e i t s e f f e c t on t h e s t a l l . Even assuming
t h a t th.e a i r p l a n e s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l are a d e q u a t e ,s e v e r et u r -
b u l e n c ec a nu p s e t any a i r c r a f t and t h e r e f o r e i t shouldbeavoided
where p o s s i b l e .I na nu n a v o i d a b l ef l i g h t i n t u r b u l e n tw e a t h . e r ,
theFederalRegulationsrequirethepilots ofcommercial airlines
t of l yt h es p e c i f i ca i r p l a n ea t i t s d e s i g n a t e ds p e e d low enough
t o m i n i m i z et h es t r u c t u r a ll o a d sd u et ot h eg u s t s ,b u th i g h
enough t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e a n g l e of attackchangeproduced by t h e
p r o b a b l e maximum upward g u s t w i l l n o t s t a l l t h . e a i r c r a f t . The
d e s i g n e r of t h e p r i v a t e a i r p l a n e c a n o n l y s u g g e s t t h a t h.is cust-
omers f o l l o w a s i m i l a r p r a c t i c e .
Inadditiontotheangle of a t t a c kc h . a n g e s ,g u s t i n e s s will
i n d u c e r o l l i n g andyawingmotions that can result in premature
unsymmetricalwing s t a l l andsudden roll-off. T h e dangerdepends
on t h . e s t a l l margin of t h e wingandon t h . e l a t e r a l s t a b i l i t y of
t h ea i r c r a f t . One of t h er e q u i r e m e n t sf o r good l a t e r a l s t a b i l i t y
i s anadequate f i na r e a . T h e r e l a t i o n betweenth.e f i n a r e a and
t h e wing d i h e d r a l a n g l e d e t e r m i n e s w h e t h . e r t h e yawing o r r o l l i n g
componentof th.e l a t e r a lo s c i l l a t i o np r e d o m i n a t e s . The occurrence
of l i g h t o s c i l l a t i o n s a s s t a l l i s approach.edhasbeensuggested
a s a na c c e p t a b l es t a l lw a r n i n g . T h i s ph.enomenon i s u s u a l l y
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a r e d u c t i o n of f i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s a t l a r g e wing
anglesofattack and i s caused by b l a n k e t i n g of the l o w e r p o r t i o n
of th.e f i n by t h e f u s e l a g e o r s u b m e r s i o n ofth.e f i n i n alow-
energy wing wake.
Th.e l o n g i t u d i n a l s t a b i l i t y and t h . e e l e v a t o r e f f e c t i v e n e s s
combine t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s t i c k movement r e q u i r e d a t d i f f e r e n t
p a r t s of t h es p e e dr a n g e .I ng e n e r a l ,h i g h . - w i n gp o s i t i o n sr e s u l t
i n more l o n g i t u d i n a l s t a b i l i t y a t low speedsth.anathigh.speeds.
Low-wing p o s i t i o n sp r o d u c et h eo p p o s i t ee f f e c t . Th.e e l e v a t o r
effectiveness varies with the relative proportions of t h e e l e v a -
t o r and s t a b i l i z e r , and it d e c r e a s e s a f t e r t h e a n g l e of t h e

17

I
e l e v a t o r e x c e e d s a c r i t i c a l angle. Hence, f o r an i n c r e a s i n g r a t e
of s t i c k movement as t h e s t a l l speed i s approached, as suggested
f o r s t a l l warning,thehigh-wingconfiguration w i t h . a small
e l e v a t o r i s more d e s i r a b l e .

There are, however, a c o n s i d e r a b l e number of o t h e r f a c t o r s

a f f e c t i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which. i n t u r n
i n f l u e n c et h ea i r p l a n e s t a l l . The s u b j e c t i s t o o complex f o r a
shortcomprehensive treatment i n t h i sr e p o r t . Among o t h e r s ,t h e
a i r c r a f t s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l i s a f f e c t e d by t h e s i z e , l o c a t i o n
and t y p e of f l a p s ; the wing w a k e and i t s p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o
t h eh o r i z o n t a l t a i l ; t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h ep r o p e l l e rs l i p s t r e a m
relativetoboththehorizontal and v e r t i c a l t a i l s and the v e r t -
i c a l , as w e l l as t h ef o r e - a n d - a f t ,p o s i t i o no f t h . e center o f
g r a v i t y .T h e s ea n do t h e r f a c t o r s a r ea d e q u a t e l yt r e a t e di n the
a v a i l a b l e t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , e. g . R e f e r e n c e s 2 0 and 2 1 .

2.12 FLIGHT
VERIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION

The t h e o r e t i c a l meth.odsand t h . e d e s i g np r o c e d u r e s ,p r e s e n t e d
i n thisreportshouldreasonably w e l l p r e d i c t th.e s t a l l i n g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f unsweptwing aircraft,particularlyforgliding
f l i g h t such. as i n t h . e landingapproach.Since t h . e s e methodsand
p r o c e d u r e s are basedupon a number o f s i m p l i f y i n g a s s u n p t i o n s ,
i t i s a l w a y sa d v i s a b l e t o v e r i f y t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s by
a c t u a lf l i g h t tests.

Th.e t e s t p r o c e d u r e s t o b e f o l l o w e d are s p e c i f i e d i n t h e
Federal Aviation Regulations for Certification Demonstrations
c i t e d earlier. If t h . e t e s t s show a need t o improve t h e a i r c r a f t
stalling characteristics, a flowvisualizationtech.nique,utiliz-
i n g t u f t s i s o f t e n employed i n g a i n i n g an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f ' t h e
f l o wd e f i c i e n c i e s . Th.e t u f t s which are n o r m a l l ys h o r tl e n g t h s
ofstringattached a t i n t e r v a l s on t h eu p p e rs u r f a c eo ft h ew i n g
and sometimeson t h e s i d e s o f t h . e f u s e l a g e ,c a nb eo b s e r v e d and/
or photographedfromwithin the t e s t a i r c r a f t or t h e c h a s e p l a n e .
The f l o w p a t t e r n s i n d i c a t e d by the t u f t s w i l l d e f i n e a r e a s of
a t t a c h e d and s e p a r a t e df l o w s and can show thespanwise or chord-
w i s e l o c a t i o n of i n i t i a l f l o w breakdownand th.e r a t e a t which.
s e p a r a t i o ni n c r e a s e s w i t h . s m a l ld e c r e a s e si ns p e e d .

Th.e t u f t s t u d i e s , t h e m o t i o n s a f t e r i n i t i a l s t a l l and t h e
stall-relatedvibrationsfelt i n t h e s t r u c t u r e and t h e c o n t r o l
system w i l l g e n e r a l l y i n d i c a t e the d e s i g n c h a n g e s r e q u i r e d f o r
improving t h e s t a l l i n g c h . a r a c t e r i s t i c s a f t e r t h e a i r p l a n e h a s
b e e nb u i l t . No a t t e m p t w i l l be made t o l i s t or d i s c u s s a l l t h e
possibilities in this report.

One p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h . a t a p a r t of t h . e wing w i l l s t a l l sudden-

l y w i t h a l m o s t no warning. T h i s typeofstallcanoccurwith
a i r f o i l s e x h . i b i t i n g l e a d i n g edge s t a l l and w i t h w i n gp r o p o r t i o n s

18
(11 y i e l d i n g low s t a l l margins a t t h . e s e c t i o n sc l o s et ot h ep o i n t
of i n i t i a l f l o w breakdown. I n t e r f e r e n c eb e t w e e nt h ef l o w so v e r
adjacentsectionspromotesseparation which. can s p r e a d a c r o s s
t h e wing v e r y r a p i d l y . Themeansmost used f o r improvingthe
stalling characteristics in such a case i s t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of
a t r i a n g u l a r - s h . a p e dp r o j e c t i o n or s p o i l e r , F i g u r e 3 ( a ) , f o r a
shortdistancealongthatpartoftheleadingedgeover which an
e a r l i e r s t a l l i s d e s i r e d .A t t a i n m e n to fs a t i s f a c t o r ys t a l l i n g
w i l l generallyrequire a trial-and-errorprocedure,varying th.e
s p a na n ds p a n w i s el o c a t i o no f th.e s p o i l e r a n d i t s r a d i a l l o c a -
t i o n a t t h el e a d i n ge d g e . I t may b e d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n a con-
figuration of the spoiler which i s e f f e c t i v e w i t h f u l l power b u t
n o tt o oe f f e c t i v e when power i s r e d u c e d .S p o i l e r so f t h . i s type
c a n i n c r e a s e t h . e power-off minimum speedbyanobjectionable
amountand p r o d u c el a r g ev i b r a t i o n so ft h ew i n g ,s t a b i l i z e r or
fuselage.
The o t h e r e x t r e m e p o s s i b i l i t y i s a root stall starting w e l l
above t h e minimum speed. The a s s o c i a t e dt h . i c kt u r b u l e n t wake,
i f it impingeson t h . e t a i l , w i l l produce s t a l l warning,but may
a l s o make i t i m p r a c t i c a l t o f l y t h e a i r p l a n e i n t h . e speedrange
r e q u i r e df o r t h . e landingapproach. If t h er o o t f i l l e t i s prop-
e r l y d e s i g n e d i t may b e n e c e s s a r y t o modifythewingleading
e d g eo ft h er o o ts e c t i o n st oi n c r e a s e t h e i r forwardcamberand
r e d u c e t h . e i r e f f e c t i v ea n g l e s o f a t t a c k . One such. l e a d i n ge d g e
m o d i f i c a t i o n i s shown i nF i g u r e3 ( b ) . I t i s f r e q u e n t l yn e c e s s a r y
t o t a i l o r t h . e l e a d i n ge d g em o d i f i c a t i o n such.th.at a s m a l l v i b r a -
t i o nr e m a i n s f o r s t a l l warning. Such m o d i f i c a t i o n may be u t i l -
i z e d t o c o n t r o l t h . e asymmetrical s t a l l t h a t sometimes o c c u r s
w i t h i n th.e p r o p e l l e r s l i p s t r e a m .
Th.e a c t u a l cases are r a r e l y a s c l e a r c u t a s t h e two j u s t
d i s c u s s e da n d t h e r e a s o n f o r p o o r s t a l l i n g characteristics i s
o f t e nn o tc l e a r l yu n d e r s t o o d .D u r i n g World War 11, many a i r c r a f t
withconfigurationssimilar t o t h o s eo fc u r r e n tp r i v a t e owner
d e s i g n s h.ad t o undergopost-design s t a l l improvement t e s t i n g .
Many of t h . e s e cases are i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e and h.ave beenincluded
in the bibliography presented in this report.

19
 (a) SharpLeading Edge S t r i p t o Hasten S t a l l .

(b) Modified Nose Radiusand Camber t o Delay S t a l l

F i g u r e 3. - Wing Leading Edge M o d i f i c a t i o n s

f o r C o n t r o l l i n g Wing S t a l l .

20
 SECTION 3
THEORETICALANALYSIS
Presented in this section i s a brief review o f t h e a v a i l a b l e
theoretical analysis which formed t h e b a s i s f o r d e v e l o p i n g t h e
mathematical model and the computer program contained in this
r e p o r t .S p e c i f i c a l l y ,i ns e l e c t i n gt h em o s ts u i t a b l et h e o r e t i c a l
a p p r o a c h e s ,d u ec o n s i d e r a t i o n was g i v e n t o t h e p a s t work i n t h e
f i e l d s o f wingtheoryandwing-bodyinterferencetheory. The
significantcontributiorsinthese areas and t h e i r a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o
t h e p r e s e n t program are d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s .
3.1 ~_______
REVIEW O F THE AVAIWLE THEORIES

3.1.1 Wing Theory

The s i m p l e s t wing t h e o r yi n v o l v e s t h . e conceptof th.e l i f t i n g
l i n e whereby t h e wing i s r e p l a c e d by a v o r t e x f i l a m e n t f i x e d i n
t h e wingand a s y s t e mo ft r a i l i n gv o r t i c e s . The v o r t e xf i l a m e n t
i s known a s t h e bound v o r t e x o r l i f t i n g l i n e . A t e a c hp o i n t on
t h es p a nt h es t r e n g t ho ft h ev o r t e x is proportionaltothelocal
intensityofliftand i s r e l a t e d t o i t t h r o u g h t h e Kutta-Joukowskf
l a w , which i s based on t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f smooth flowfromthe
wingtrailing-edge.InaccordancewiththeHelmholtztheoremof
v o r t e x c o n t i n u i t y i t i s assumed t h a t w i t h e a c h e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e
inthespanwisedistributionofthestrength of t h e bound v o r t i c e s
t h e r e i s a s s o c i a t e d a f r e e v o r t e x which i s shed a t t h e wing t r a i l -
ing edge and which passes downstream with the general mass of the
f l u i d . The s t r e n g t ho ft h i sv o r t e x i s e q u a lt ot h ei n c r e m e n t a l
change i n s p a n w i s ec i r c u l a t i o n .T h i ss y s t e mo ff r e eo r" t r a i l i n g "
v o r t i c e si n d u c e sv e l o c i t y components ( c a l l e d downwash) a t t h e wing
andthus causes a change i n l o c a l a n g l e s o f a t t a c k o f e a c h wing
section.
The p r o b l e m o f e v a l u a t i n g t h e downwash a t e a c h p o i n t i s
d i f f i c u l tb e c a u s eo ft h ei n t e r r e l a t i o no f downwash, l i f t d i s t r i b -
u t i o na n dw i n gp l a n f o r m .U s i n gt h el i f t i n gl i n et h e o r yP r a n d t l
(Reference 22) o b t a i n e d a s o l u t i o n f o r t h e case of a wing w i t h a n
e l l i p t i c a l l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n .G l a u e r t( R e f e r e n c e 2 3 ) , using
F o u r i e ra n a l y s i s ,d e v e l o p e dm e t h o d s f o r obtainingsolutionsfor
wingsofanyplanformand twist. Thesemethods w e r e usedby
Anderson(Reference15) t o d e t e r m i n et h ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ofwings
f o r a widerangeofaspectratios,taperratiosandlinear twist
distributions.
A l l oftheseapproachesdiscussedaboveinvolvetheassumption
of a l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n o f s e c t i o n l i f t w i t h a n g l e o f a t t a c k . T h i s
assumption w a s n o t u t i l i z e d i n t h e i t e r a t i v e methodsdeveloped
by Sherman, Tani,Multhopp,andBoshar(References 2 4 through 27)
which employ nonlinear section l i f t d a t a i n the computations.

21
 Based on these iterative methods Sivells and Neely
(Reference 1) developed solutions which yield excellent agree-
ment with the test data In
up to angles-of-attack close to stall.
2) extended the
a later paper Sivells and Westrick (Reference
method of successive approximations to the calculation of the
aerodynamic characteristics of wings with deflected orflaps
ailerons.
All of the above solutions and methods which are essentially
based upon the Prandtl
lifting line theoryare known to be
inadequate for wings of aspect ratio less than3 . about
For wings
of this class the influence of the chordwise loading
can no
longer be neglected and resort must
be made to the general theory
of lifting surfaces to obtain solutions.
Lifting surface theory involves finding a potential flow
solution which satisfies the Kutta condition all along the span
while at the same time satisfying the boundary condition that
there is no flow through the wing surface.
Solutions of varying complexity and accuracy have been
advanced by many authors. Early attempts were made by Weissinger,
Mutterperl, and Schlichting (References28, 29 and 30 to use
simplifying physical models for the approach to the general
problem, e.g. placing a lifting line at the quarter-chord point
and satisfylng th.e downwash condition at the three-quarter-chord
position. Falkner (Reference 31) proposed a vortex-lattice
treatment of the wing thereby approaching a truly continuous
lifting surface.
Attempts to use a continuous lifting surface theory without
resort to arbitrary physical assumptions or models are
32 and 3 3 ) and most
exemplified by the work of Garner (Reference
notably by that of Multhopp (Reference
34).
When lifting surface theory is used to predict load distrib-
utions on high aspect ratio unswept wings at low angles of atta
the results do not differ significantly from those computed
using lifting-line th.eory.
However, to date, lifting surface theory has not been
successfully modified to permit the use of nonlinear section lift
data and hence cannot be expected
to give reliable predictions
of load distribution at wing angles-of-attack near the stall.
For this reason the lifting-line theory, as modified and
presented in Reference2 has been chosen as the more
appropriate method and the one which is better suited to the
present task.

22
3.1.2 Wing-Body I n t e r f e r e n c e T h e o r y
~~

Many methods e x i s t f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f a i r l o a d s on
wing-fuselage combinations and these have been summarized by
S c h l i c t i n g ( R e f e r e n c e 351, and by FlaxandLawrence(Reference
3 6 ) . I n view of t h e f o r e g o i n g s e l e c t i o n o f l i f t i n g - l i n e t h e o r y
t o c a l c u l a t e e s s e n t i a l l y wing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e f o l l o w i n g
d i s c u s s i o n w i l l be l i m i t e d t o t h o s e wing-body i n t e r f e r e n c e methods
whichhavebeendeveloped f o r use w i t h t h e l i f t i n g - l i n e a p p r o a c h .
The spanwise l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r a wing-bodycombination
of minimum i n d u c e d d r a g w a s f i r s t t r e a t e d by Lennertz (Reference
3 7 ) f o r a body c o n s i s t i n g o f a i n f i n i t e l y l o n g c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r .
H i s s o l u t i o n w a s g e n e r a l i z e d byPepper(Reference 38) toinclude
bodiesofanycross-section.
Multhopp (Reference 41,using a conformal mapping technique,
obtained a s o l u t i o n f o r t h e c a s e o f a h i g h a s p e c t r a t i o wing
mountedon a ni n f i n i t e l yl o n gc y l i n d e ro f anyshape.Thismethod
may b e a p p l i e d i f a function can be found which. maps t h e body
c r o s s - s e c t i o nc o n f o r m a l l yo n t o a circle o r a s t r a i g h tl i n e . The
advantageofthemethod i s thatthetransformedcross-section
s h a p ea u t o m a t i c a l l y becomes a s t r e a m l i n e , t h u s s a t i s f y i n g t h e
f u s e l a g eb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n s .
An a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h i s t h a t f i r s t u s e d by Lennertz ( R e f -
e r e n c e 37) i n which s i n g u l a r i t i e s i n t h e formofimage vortices
are i n t r o d u c e d w i t h i n t h e f u s e l a g e c r o s s - s e c t i o n t o s a t i s f y ,
a p p r o x i m a t e l y ,t h eb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n s .Z l o t n i c k andRobinson
(Reference 3 9 ) a p p l i e d t h i s method t o t h e case ofsweptwing-body
combinationswithcentrallyplacedwings.
The u s e o f t h e image v o r t e x method i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e
l i f t i n g - l i n e methodofReference 1 i s r e s t r i c t e d t o wingswhich
a r e c e n t r a l l y mounted on c i r c u l a rf u s e l a g e s .F o r wingsnot
a e n t r a l l y mounted t h e e q u a t i o n s become extremelycomplexdue to
thefactthatthe image v o r t i c e s no l o n g e r l i e on t h ee x t e n d e d
p l a n eo ft h ew i n gw i t h i nt h ef u s e l a g e .F o r o t h e r t h a nc i r c u l a r
c r o s s - s e c t i o n s , the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e number a n d l o c a t i o n of
t h e image v o r t i c e s i s d i f f i c u l t .
Weber, Kirbyand K e t t l e (Reference 401 havemodified
Multhopp'sapproach t o a c c o u n tf o rn o n - z e r ow i n gt h i c k n e s sa n d
a p p l i e d t h i s method t o l o w - a s p e c t - r a t i o sweptwings. I n view
of t h i s success andbecauseof i t s s i m p l i c i t y t h e Multhopp
f o r m u l a t i o no ft h e wing-body s o l u t i o n( R e f e r e n c e4 )h a sb e e n
adopted herein rather than the more complexmethodofimages
of Reference 37.

23
3.1.3 P r o p e l l e rS l i p s t r e a m Effects
A s p o i n t e d o u t i n S e c t i o n 2.10, t h e p r o p e l l e r s l i p s t r e a m
exertsanimportant i n f l u e n c e on w i n g l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n w h i c h
i n turn affects the aircraft s t a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
A r e v i e wo ft h et e c h n i c a l literature indicates that there
are no a d e q u a t e t h e o r e t i c a l o r s e m i - e m p i r i c a l m e t h o d s w h i c h
canproperlyaccountfortheeffectsofpropellerslipstreamon
t h es p a n w i s el o a dd i s t r i b u t i o no ft h ee n t i r e wing. Most o ft h e
a v a i l a b l e t h e o r e t i c a l a n de x p e r i m e n t a li n v e s t i g a t i o n s ,e . g .
References 41through 4 7 p r e d i c t w i n g l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n s s o l e l y
for that portion of the wingimmersed in the propeller slip-
stream. Thisapproach i s c o n s i d e r e dt ob ei n a d e q u a t ef o r
p r e d i c t i n g s t a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f w i n g ss p a n n i n gt h ep r o p e l l e r
slipstreambecausetheportions o f t h e wing outside the
slipstreamcylinderarestronglyinfluenced by t h e s l i p -
stream flow. On t h eo t h e rh a n d ,d e v e l o p m e n to f a mathematical
model f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f p r o p e l l e r s l i p s t r e a m on
w i n gl o a dd i s t r i b u t i o nw i t h i na n do u t s i d et h es l i p s t r e a m
c y l i n d e r i s r a t h e r complexand i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e o u t s i d e o f
t h es c o p eo ft h ep r e s e n t work.

I n viewoftheabovedifficulties, i t was decidedto

temporarilyexcludethe power e f f e c t fromwing s t a l l a n a l y s i s .
However, provisionshavebeen made t o i n c l u d e s u c h e f f e c t s at a
l a t e r d a t e , wh.en r e l i a b l e t h e o r e t i c a l methods f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e
e f f e c t s of p r o p e l l e r s l i p s t r e a m on t h e l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e
e n t i r e wing become a v a i l a b l e .T h e r e f o r e ,i nd e v e l o p i n gt h e
t h e o r yp r e s e n t e dh e r e i n ,t h e methodofMulthopp(Reference 4)
f o r wing-body i n t e r f e r e n c e e f f e c t a n d t h e methodof S i v e l l s
(Reference 2 ) f o r t h e i s o l a t e d winghavebeensuccessfully
cornfinedand a r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s .

24
3.2 FORMULATION
.~ . OF THE ANALYSIS
3.2.1 Conformal
- "_ .
"
Transformation
- ~
ofWing-FuselageCombination
A wing i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f a lifting fuselage(aB>o) is
s u b j e c t e d t o a n upwashwhich d e c r e a s e s t o w a r d s t h e w i n g t i p s .
T h i s upwash h a s t h e e f f e c t of a v a r i a b l e wing t w i s t , which i s
a f u n c t i o n offuselageand wing g e o m e t r i e s , f u s e l a g e angle of
a t t a c k and a i r c r a f t f o r w a r d s p e e d .
The problem of fuselage-wing flow interacgion has been the
s u b j e c to f numerous i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t h ep a s t . A s mentioned
p r e v i o u s l y ,t h ea p p r o a c hs e l e c t e d i n thepresentanalysis is that
based on M u l t h o p p ' sf o r m u l a t i o n .I n t h . i s a p p r o a c h ,t h e wing-
f u s e l a g ec o m b i n a t i o n i s c o n f o r m a l l yt r a n s f o r m e di n t oa ne q u i v -
a l e n t wingwith a v e r t i c a l s l i t r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e f u s e l a g e . The
v e r t i c a l s l i t i s a l i g n e d w i t h . t h e c r o s s - f l o w and i s t h e r e f o r e
a u t o m a t i c a l l y a s t r e a m l i n e . The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s a p p l i c a b l e
tofuselagecross-sections which a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y e l l i p t i c a l
or wh.ich c a n b e t r a n s f o r m e d t o s u c h by t h e u s e of o t h e r meth.ods.
I f t h e wing i s n o t c e n t r a l l y mounted on t h e f u s e l a g e i t
transformsinto a slightlycurvedtrace whose c u r v a t u r e i n c r e a s e s
withanincreaseintheverticaldistance of t h . e wing r e l a t i v e
t o t h e c e n t e r of t h ef u s e l a g e .T h i si n t r o d u c e s an e f f e c t i v e
d i h e d r a l t o th.etransformedwing,but i t s e f f e c t i s considered
t o be s m a l l and i s t h e r e f o r e n o t t r e a t e d i n t h . i s analysis.

F i g u r e 4 shows thegeometry ofa wing-fuselagecombination

i nb o t ht h er e a l (u) andtransformed (U) planes. The definition
of r e a l and t r a n s f o r m e dp a r a m e t e r s i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h . e l i s t of
symbols.
T h e wing l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n , c1 ( Y ) , i n t h e u - p l a n e is a
functionofthelocaleffectiveangle of a t t a c k Q e ( y ) of t h e
s e c t i o nu n d e rc o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h i s e f f e c t i v es e c t i o na n g l e of
attackcanbeexpressedasfollows:

Where U B , Q R , and E ( y ) a r e t h e body a n g l e of a t t a c k , w i n g - r o o t

incidencerelativetothe bodyand t h ew i n gs e c t i o ng e o m e t r i c
t w i s t , respectively.
Th.e a n g l e due t o body upwash. A a(y) and th.atinduced by t h e
wing t r a i l i n g v o r t e x s y s t e m ai ( y ) canbedeterminedfrom th.e
f o l l o w i n ga n a l y s i s .

25
 Trace of wing 7
"
.__ _"
" "_ "__. - ."
1

Transformed plane 6
(ii-plane1 2

Figure 4. Definition of Parameters for Transformation

of Wing-Body Combination

26
ti UsingReference 4 , t h e wing a n g l e o f a t t a c k d u e t o
upwash f o r z e r o wing t h i c k n e s s i s given by:
body

where dij/du, i s t h e r e a l p a r to ft h ed e r i v a t i v eo ft h ec o n f o r m a l
f u n c t i o n u (u) . For an e l l i p t i c a l fuselage, t h i s d e r i v a t i v e
can b e e x p r e s s e d as follows:

where,

For a c i r c u l a r f u s e l a g e e q u a t i o n ( 3 ) becomes:

dii A12( y2- h 2 ) (5)

R - = l +
du ( y 2 + h2)2

For wings of n o n - z e r o t h i c k n e s s , Reference 40 s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e

upwash a t t h e wing i s d e c r e a s e d as compared t o t h a t for wings
o fz e r ot h i c k n e s s . T h . i s can b ea p p r o x i m a t e l ya c c o u n t e df o r by
reducing the wing angle of attack due to bodyupwash, A a ( y ) ,
by a f a c t o r T t a k e n as c o n s t a n ta c r o s s t h . e wingspan. The
f a c t o rc a nb ee x p r e s s e da s t h . e r a t i o o ft h e body c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
area aboveandbelow t h e wing t o t h e t o t a l f r o n t a l a r e a o f t h e
body.Thus, i f t h e wing i s n o tt o ot h i c k ,t h e r ef o l l o w s :

Thus, f o r wings of n o n - z e r ot h i c k n e s s ,e q u a t i o n ( 2 ) c a n be
r e w r i t t e n as:

I f , however, t h e c o n f o r m a l f u n c t i o n f o r t h e t h . i c k wing , ( edua )T

c o u l db ed e t e r m i n e d ,t h e ne q u a t i o n ( 7 ) wouldbe

27
Comparing e q u a t i o n (7) and (8) t h e r e results:

Equation (9) r e p r e s e n t s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e r e a l p a r t of
t h e d e r i v a t i v e of t h e c o n f o r m a l f u n c t i o n a p p l i c a b l e t o w i n g s
ofnon-zeroth.ickness.Thisequation i s t h e r e f o r eu s e dt o
relate the induced angle of a t t a c k a t a p o i n t y i n t h . e u -plane
t o t h a t a t t h ec o r r e s p o n d i n gp o i n t 'i i n t h e J - p l a n e ,t h u s :

F i n a l l y ,s u b s t i t u t i n ge q u a t i o n s ( 7 ) and (10) i n t oe q u a t i o n (1)

theeffectiveangle of a t t a c k f o r w i n g s o f n o n - z e r o t h i c k n e s s
i s given by

The only unknown wh.ich remains t o b e d e t e r m i n e d i n e q u a t i o n (11)

i s Cri ( 7 ) .
The i n d u c e da n g l eo fa t t a c k ,i nd e g r e e s , a t a p o i n t 7 , on
thetransformedspan i s g i v e n by t h e f a m i l i a r r e l a t i o n

where (Y) i s t h es e c t i o n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n ti nt h et r a n s f o r m e d
p l a n e a t a p o i n t TJ. I t s h o u l db en o t e dt h a ts i n c et h et r a n s -
formation i s conformal,thecirculation r ( 9 ) aboutanywing
s e c t i o n and t h . e a s s o c i a t e ds e c t i o n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t El ( y ) i n
t h et r a n s f o r m e dp l a n e are e q u a l t o t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e s i n
t h e r e a l p l a n e .S i n c et h eg e o m e t r i cq u a n t i t i e so fc h . o r dl e n g t h .
(C andwing t w i s t a t e a c hp o i n ti nt h er e a lp l a n e are also
t h e same a t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o i n t s i n t h e t r a n s f o r m e d p l a n e
then

28
 Forwingswithundeflectedflaps,thespanwise lift
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e transformed plane can be expressed as an
i n f i n i t e t r i g o n o m e t r i c s e r i e s as follows:

where,

U s i n ge q u a t i o n s (12) and (14) t h . e r e f o l l o w s ,a c c o r d i n gt o

Reference 2 3

- I80 a,
a/ 4 IT sin S xnAnsin(n8)
n= I

Thus, i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h . e i n d u c e da n g l e so fa t t a c k the
v a l u e so ft h ec o e f f i c i e n t s An a r er e q u i r e d . T h . e s e a r eo b t a i n e d
as follows:

The spanwise l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n i s approximated by a f i n i t e

t r i g o n o m e t r i c s e r i e s of r - l terms c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o d e t e r m i n i n g
t h el o a d a t a n oddnumber, r - l , of p o i n t s on t h . e span. Th.at
i s , t h e r a n g e o<8<rr i s d i v i d e d up i n t o r e q u a l l y s p a c e d i n t e r v a l s
where 8=msr/r m= I , 2,. .. . , r-1 .
Th.us, e q u a t i o n (14) c a nb er e w r i t t e n as:

Usingharmonicanalysis,equation (17) y i e l d s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s
A, of t h . e t r i g o n o m e t r i c s e r i e s , t h . u s

I f e q u a t i o n (18) i s now combined w i t h e q u a t i o n (161, an e x p r e s s i o n

i s o b t a i n e d f o r t h . e i n d u c e da n g l eo fa t t a c k , th.us

29
S i n c et h ei n d u c e da n g l e of a t t a c k i s t o b ed e t e r m i n e da tt h e
p o i n t sa t which t h el o a dd i s t r i b u t i o n i s r e q u i r e d , i . e . a t the
points a = then

where

I t canbe shown t h . a t i f k+rn is odd th.en

and i f k-rn

f i n a l l y , wh.en k+rn i s evenand k+rn

30
3.2.2 SpanwgsgLoad D i s t r i b u t i o n f o r a Wing With No F l a p
or a F u l l Span D e f l e c t e d F l a p
Th.e method o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n i s oneof
s u c c e s s i v ea p p r o x i m a t i o n s .F o r a g i v e n body a n g l eo fa t t a c k a
d i s t r i b u t i o n of c r c / i j i s assumedand t h ei n d u c e da n g l e so fa t t a c k
a r e computed u s i n ge q u a t i o n( 2 1 ) .U s i n ge q u a t i o n (11) th.e
effectivesectionangles of a t t a c k a r e c a l c u l a t e d and t h . e c o r r e -
spondingvaluesof liftcoefficientobtained from a i r f o i l d a t a
a tt h ea p p r o p r i a t ev a l u e s of t h es e c t i o np a r a m e t e r s . This
process i s repeated until the guessed values agree with th.e
computed v a l u e s t o w i t h i n t h . e r e q u i r e d t o l e r a n c e .
Inordertominimize t h . e numberof iterations required to
converge on t h e f i n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t a system-
a t i c method i s r e q u i r e d t o g e n e r a t e i n c r e a s i n g l y b e t t e r a p p r o x -
imations. Such. a method i s d e v e l o p e di nR e f e r e n c e 2 and i s
hereinpresentedinsligh.tlydifferentnotation.
For a wing-bodycombination w i t h z e r o t h i c k n e s s wingand
no f l a p d e f l e c t i o n , t h . e b a s i c e q u a t i o n t o b e s a t i s f i e d d u r i n g
a n yc y c l eo ft h . ei t e r a t i v ep r o c e s s i s the s i m p l i f i e d v e r s i o n
of e q u a t i o n (111, i . e .

31
Assuming l i n e a r s e c t i o n l i f t - c u r v e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r one
cycle of t h e i t e r a t i o n i s

where A k i s t h e amount t o beadded t o t h ea p p r o x i m a t ev a l u e

cl c / ~ jt o o b t a i n t h e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e .

Forthefollowing c y c l e a v a l u e A'k i s chosensuchth.atthe

calculated values areequaltotheguessedvaluesthus:

then with

t h e r ef o l l o w s

or

[Gmk] (m
.' } = (am}

32
y
,

where Gmk i s t h e t r a n s p o s e of Gmk

I
.
Thus, t h e v a l u e s t o b e a d d e d t o one set ofapproximate
values t o o b t a i n a b e t t e r a p p r o x i m a t i o n are g i v e n by:

The m a t r i x o f c o e f f i c i e n t s Kii i s easilyobtained by t h . e

usualmethodsofmatrixalgebra.
3.2.3 Spanwise Load D i s t r i b u t i o n f o r a Wing With a
DeflectedPart-Span Flap
The d e f l e c t i o n of a p a r t - s p a n f l a p causes a d i s c o n t i n u i t y
i n th.e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a b s o l u t e a n g l e of a t t a c k a t t h ee n do f
t h ef l a p .I no r d e rt om a i n t a i n a c o n t i n u o u ss p a n w i s ed i s t r i b -
ution of lift a c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i s c o n t i n u i t y must e x i s t i n t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o no fi n d u c e da n g l e of a t t a c k .
From Reference 2, t h . e complete l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n may be
e x p r e s s e d as t h . e sum of two d i s t r i b u t i o n s , t h u s :

where F ( c ~ c / b ) i s t h ed i s t r i b u t i o nd u et o a u n i td i s c o n t i n u i t y
i n i n d u c e da n g l eo fa t t a c k and c f l c / b i s t h . e remainderofth.e
l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n .S i n c et h e l a t t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n i s continuous
t h e m u l t i p l i e r s P m k may b e u s e d d i r e c t l y t o o b t a i n t h e c o r r e s p o n d -
inginducedanglesofattack.

S i n c e tiii2k = 8 o v e r t h e f l a p p e d s p a n and ai2k = 0 o v e r t h . e

u n f l a p p e ds p a n ,t h et o t a li n d u c e da n g l e of a t t a c k i s

33
Now, i f the m u l t i p l i e r s were used w i t h . t h e t o t a l l i f t distrib-
ution

and E i 2 k were added t o b o t h s i d e s , t h e r e s u l t wouldbe :

R e a r r a n g i n ge q u a t i o n( 3 4 )y i e l d s :

A comparisonofequation(35)withequation ( 2 1 ) shows t h a t
f o r a wingwith a d e f l e c t e d f l a p an a d d i t i o n a l term i s r e q u i r e d
which i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h . e m a g n i t u d eo ft h ed i s c o n t i n u i t y .
T h i s terms r e p r e s e n t s a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r t o a c c o u n t f o r th.e
i n a b i l i t y of a l i m i t e d t r i g o n o m e t r i c s e r i e s t o r e p r e s e n t a d e -
quately the spanwise lift distribution of a wingwith d e f l e c t e d
flaps.
Equation(35) may b e r e w r i t t e n a s :

34
[$! wh.ere t h . e u n c o r r e c t e idn d u c e a
dn g lo
eaft t a c k i s e x p r e s s e d as

and t h e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r p e r u n i t d i s c o n t i n u i t y is

d 6 a r e i n degrees.

T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of c12c/I;6 a sg i v e n by e q u a t i o n ( 3 9 ) depends
s o l e l y on th.e s p a n w i s e p o s i t i o n of t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y a t t h . e end
oftheflap, a_nd a p p l i e s t o o u t b o a r d f l a p s wh.ich b e g i n a t z T / i = 1
and end a t 2y*/b
extendingbetween
. F o r a wing w i t h . symmetrica_linboard
"

2y/E = 2y*/b and 2y/jb =-2

Y*/b
flaps
t h ed i s t r i b u t i o n
i s o b t a i n e db y - s u b t r a c t i n gv a l u e so f c 1 2 c / E 6 f o r 27% from
t h o s e f o r - 2Y*/b
ack/6,
. T h e c o r r e c t i o nf a c t o rp e ru n i td i s c o n t i n u i t y
g i v e nb ye q u a t i o n ( 3 8 ) i s t h . e r e f o r e a f u n c t i o no fo n l y
thespanwisepositionof t h . e d i s c o n t i n u i t y and Pmk .
It shouldbenotedthat two values-of_(z c / 6 e x i s t a t t h e
endof t h e f l a p , o n ec o r r e s p o n d i n gt o 2y*/k j- 0 , ( t h . e f l a p s i d e
of 27*/E 1 and t h . e o t h . e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 2y*/b - 0 , ( t h e u n f l a p p e d
side). The v a l u e s are r e l a t e d by:
-

- b
-0 -+O
b
(40)

35
Either of the two v a l u e s o f c c / 6 may be used s o l o n g as t h e
value i s usedwiththepropersection l i f t curve.

3.2.4 M o d i f i c a t i o n of t h e Two-DimensionalSection L i f t Data

If the two-dimensional section data were u s e d d i r e c t l y

d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s wouldbefound i n t h e maximum l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n
a t t h ee n d s of t h ed e f l e c t e df l a p s .S i n c et h ed i s c o n t i n u i t i e s
do n o t a c t u a l l y o c c u r , t h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l d a t a must b e a d j u s t e d
t o r e f l e c t t h e fact thatsectionsinthevicinityof th.e end
o f t h e f l a F e x h i b i t v a l u e s of C Z max. which. l i e b e t w e e n t h o s e f o r
f l a p p e da n du n f l a p p e ds e c t i o n s .T h e r e f o r e ,f o l l o w i n gt h e method
ofReference 2 t h et w o - d i m e n s i o n a ld a t a i s modified t o o b t a i n
s o c a l l e dt h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a ls e c t i o nd a t a .
Th.e r o o t s e c t i o n of a wing w i t h . a p a r t i a l - s p a n f l a p s d e f l e c t -
ed would act most n e a r l y l i k e t h a t of a wing w i t h . f u l l - s n a n
f l a p s .S i m i l a r l y ,t h et i ps e c t i o n wouldbehave a s i f i t were
on a wing w i t h no f l a p d e f l e c t i o n . Now t h . e l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r
t h e wing w i t h p a r t i a l s p a n f l a p s c a n be c a l c u l a t e d a s l o n g a s
e a c hs e c t i o n i s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e l i n e a r r a n g e of i t s l i f t c u r v e .
A typical distribution, denoted by c l 8 , i s shown i n F i g u r e 5.

A l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n i s now c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h . e same wing

w i t h no f l a p d e f l e c t i o n and t h e o r d i n a t e s s c a l e d s o t h a t t h e wing
h a s a l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t of u n i t y . Sucha d i s t r i b u t i o n ,d e n o t e d
by c l ,i s a1so shown i n F i g u r e 5.
T h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s m u l t i p l i e d by a s u i t a b l e c o n s t a n t
f a c t o r k , t o g i v et h e same v a l u e a t t h er o o ta s th.e d i s t r i b u t i o n
withtheflapdeflected andby anotherfactor k 2 togivethe
same v a l u e as t h e f l a p d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h . e o u t e r m o s ts t a t i o n
usedinthecomputations.

The d i f f e r e n c e s between C z 6 and k t C z I i n b o a r do ft h ef l a p

end and between CZ 6 and k2 C t 1 , o u t b o a r d o f t h e f l a p e n d , a r e
d i v i d e d by t h ed i f f e r e n c eb e t w e e n kl C z 1 and k2 c t 1 t a k e n a t t h e
endof t h ef l a p .T h u s ,t h er e s u l t i n gv a l u e s o r f a c t o r s , F can
beexpressed as f o l l o w s :

and f o r 2
- :> 2y *
b b

36
1
I .

Figure 5 . - TypicalLoad D i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r O b t a i n i n g F a c t o r s f o r Altering

Two-dimensional Data.
T h e s e f a c t o r s are r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e t o l i f t - c u r v e s l o p e
and may b e u s e d i n t h e n o n - l i n e a r p o r t i o n s o f th.e l i f t c u r v e s .

Incalculatingthe abovementioned d i s t r i b u t i o n s , any

convenientvaluesofthediscontinuity 8 andwingangleofattack
may beused. Wing t w i s t i s o m i t t e d i n th.ese computations.
Havingobtainedthefactors F th.e v a l u e s of maximum l i f t c o e f f i -
c i e n t are t h e n a l t e r e d a c c o r d i n g t o :

where ( C l r n a x l o i s t h . e two-dimensionalvalue of s e c t i o n maximum

l i f tc o e f f i c i e n t and A ‘!%ax i s t h ei n c r e m e n it n clmax due
toflapdeflectionatthe endof th.e f l a p .

F i g u r e 6 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e methodof obtaining the final

c o r r e c t e dl i f tc u r v e s . A t e a c ha n g l e of a t t a c k (a,) t h . e two-
d i m e n s i o n a lu n c o r r e c t e dv a l u eo f liftcoefficient ( ‘10) as ,
o b t a i n e df r o mt h ea i r f o i ld a t a , i s factoredtogivethecorre-
spondingvalueof lift coefficient corrected for proximity to
t h e f l a p endth.us,

‘ 1 max (44)
‘1 cor = ‘ l o
(‘2 max)o

T h . i s v a l u e of l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t wouldcorrespond t o a value
o f a n g l eo fa t t a c k a’ on thetwo-dimensional l i f t c u r v e . Due
to the fact that each wing s e c t i o n i s n o t o p e r a t i n g i n a true
t w o - d i m e n s i o n a lf l o w ,b u tf o r m sp a r t ofa f i n i t e - s p a n winga
c o r r e c t i o n mustbe made t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a c t t h . a t t h e a i r
canflowaround the wing t i p s . T h i s e x t r a d e g r e e of freedom
i m p l i e s t h a t a s e c t i o n on a f i n i t e - s p a n wingmust operateat a
h i g h . e ra n g l eo fa t t a c kt h . a nt h e same s e c t i o n i n s t r i c t l y two-
d i m e n s i o n a lf l o wi no r d e rt oa c h i e v e the same v a l u e of l i f t
c o e f f i c i e n t .T h i sc o r r e c t i o n w a s f i r s t d e r i v e d by Jones,Ref-
e r e n c e 48, i n t h e formof t h . e e d g ev e l o c i t yf a c t o rg i v e nb y :

E =
Qe - Qto (45)
a0 - QI 0

Jones originally derived the correction factor for a wing

of e l l i p t i c planform and e x p r e s s e d it a s ,

38
 Inboard o f f l a p end

t ' I/

'i

QI
I
a, a.

Outboard of flap end

a
Uncorrected 2-Dimensional
Characteristics

_ _ - Final Characteristics
Corrected for 3-Dimensional
Effects

I
I
I

I
!
t i
.I
". \r
a

Figure 6 . Illustration of Method f o r Correcting Two-dimensional

Section Data.

39
semi-perimeter wing
E= wingspan

Reference 2 g i v e s a more accurate e x p r e s s i o n , a p p l i c a b l e

t o wingsofotherthanellipticalplanform,in t h . e form,

E =Jq (47)

Thus, t h e e f f e c t i v e a n g l e of a t t a c k , a e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o th.e
two-dimensionalangle of a t t a c k , a ’ , i s g i v e nb y ,

and s i n c e a 1 i s r e l a t e d t o t h e o r i g i n a lv a l u e a. by

t h e n t h . e c o r r e c t i o n which. must be made t o Q O t o a c c o u n t f o r

b o t h e d g e - v e l o c i t y and f l a p p r o x i m i t y i s o b t a i n e d a s

F i g u r e 6 shows t h e f i n a l c o r r e c t e d l i f t c u r v e s as compared
t o t h . e o r i g i n a l t w o - d i m e n s i o n a ld a t af o r two s t a t i o n s , one
inboard and the o t h e ro u t b o a r do ft h ef l a pe n d .

The abovemethodof c o r r e c t i n g t h e two d i m e n s i o n a l s e c t i o n

d a t at oa c c o u n tf o rf l a pd i s c o n t i n u i t y i s substantiated
e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by Reference 2.

I t shouldbenoted that the Jones edge velocity correction

a p p l i e s r e g a r d l e s s ofwh.ether th.e f l a p i s d e f l e c t e d o r n o t .

3.2.5 C a l c u l a t i o no fO v e r a l l Wing C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
Once thespanwise l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n of a winghasbeen
calculatedthedeterminationofdragandpitching moment

40
I' c o e f f i c i e n t s i s a s i m p lm e a t t esri n c teh e s q
e u a n t i t i eds e p e n d
on t h e l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n .
By theuseofSimpson's Rule, t h e i n t e g r a t e d v a l u e s of
l i f t , induceddrag,profiledragandpitching moment c o e f f i c i e n t s
aregivenby:

wh.ere

I n e q u a t i o n ( 5 5 ) t h e s e c t i o n l i f t a n dd r a gf o r c e sa r e assumed
t oa c tt h r o u g h .t h eq u a r t e r - c h o r dp o i n t s .

The m u l t i p l i e r s Tm u s e di ne q u a t i o n (51) through ( 5 4 ) a r e

d e f i n e d by :

Step-by-stepcomputationalproceduresbased ?n t h e p r e c e d i n g
analysisarepresentedinthefollowingsectlon.

41
 SECTION 4

COMPUTER PROGRAM

The s o l u t i o n o f t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l model d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n
3 was accomplished bymeans of a specially developed digital
computerprogram. T h i s s e c t i o np r e s e n t s a d e t a i l e dd e s c r i p t i o n
o ft h ec o m p u t a t i o n a lp r o c e d u r e s , the r e q u i r e ds e c t i o nd a t a , and
the implementationofthecomputerprogram. T h e r e s u l t s of
sample c a l c u l a t i o n s are a l s o p r e s e n t e d .

4.1 COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURES

The f o l l o w i n g i s a m a t h e m a t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
stepsusedinthecomputationofthewingspanwiseloaddistrib-
utions. Th.e s e q u e n c eo ft h ec a l c u l a t i o n s i s e s s e n t i a l l yt h e
same as t h a t set up i n t h e computerprogram wh.ich. i s d e s c r i b e d
l a t e r . Thecomputationalprocedurescover three s e p a r a t ec a s e s ;
wings with no f l a p s , wings w i t h f u l l - s p a n f L a p s andwingswith
part-spandeflectedflaps.

4.1.1ComputationofBasic Parameters
(a) C a l c u l a t et h ef o l l o w i n gg e o m e t r i cq u a n t i t i e s

e =J G 2

2yo 2B’ 2h 2A’ 2e’

where Yo,B,H, A , e b 1-
are, r e s p e c t i v e l y , - b >b’b’b

( b ) C a l c u l a t e a number of p o i n t s y ’ on t h e exposedwing
s p a nf o re v e ni n c r e m e n t s of 8 u s i n g

Yl= y o + ( I - Y ~1 cos e

42
 where

e= ( ;- yo )
--Yo
2
. .
Y -Y
= cos-' ( -;)
I

(c) Compute t h . e a v e r a g e( n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l )d i s t a n c e s of
t h ep o i n t s Y i from t h . e f o c i i of t h . e e l l i p t i c f u s e l a g e u s i n g

where f o r t h e wing t i p

(dl Transformfrom t h . e u - p l a n e t o t h e 0 - p l a n e u s i n g th.e

followingrelationsh.ipsforanellipticalfuselage.

and

(65)

I f t h . e f u s e l a g e has a c i r c u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n compute

(66)

43

I
and

-
y'= y'
[I-
Y l 2A+2H 2 1 (67)

where A i s t h ec r o s s - s e c t i o n a lr a d i u s( n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l ) ,
( e ) C a l c u l a t e a new set of p o i n t s Y on t h et r a n s f o r m e d
spanforevenincrementsin t h . e spanwise v a r i a b l e 0 a s f o l l o w s

-
Y = cos e (68)

where

( fU s i n gt h er e l a t i o n s h . i po f Y ' t o y' obtainedabove,

interpolate to find the points on th.e p h y s i c a l s p a n , Y ,
corresponding to Y .

(g) For an e l l i p t i c a lf u s e l a g ec r o s s - s e c t i o no b t a i nv a l u e s
for

where

o r , ifthecross-section is circular,use

R B = l + A2 (Y2-H2)
- du ( Y2+H2I2

44
 (h)Ifthe winghas a d e f l e c t e d p a r t - s p a n f l a p c a l c u l a t e
1, the location of the endof t h e f l a p i n t h e E -plane using

where

( i ) F o r a w i n gw i t hl i n e a rt a p e r i n both.ch.ord and
t h i c k n e s s f r o m f u s e l a g e s i d e t o wing t i p c a l c u l a t e

(t/c) =
(t/c),
I 1- (75)

and

45

I
where Re’ i s th.e f l i g h t Reynolds number based on t h . e exposed
wing mean aerodynamicchord c ’ which f s givenby

Note t h a t t h e g e o m e t r i c w i n g twist,€ , i s n o n - l i n e a ra n d t h . a t
thespanwisedistributionofwingsection camber l e v e l i s t a k e n
t o be l i n e a r .
For a wingplanform which. i s n o t t r a p e z o i d a l t h e f o r e g o i n g
q u a n t i t i e s may bedeterminedfrom a drawing or from a s p e c i a l
calculation.

(j) F i n a l l y , c a l c u l a t e t h e m u l t i p l i e r s B m k , T m , and t h e
m a t r i xo fc o e f f i c i e n t s K i j u s i n ge q u a t i o n s ( 2 3 ) ( 5 6 ) and ( 3 0 )
respectively. Also, f o r p a r t - s p a nd e f l e c t e df l a p so b t a i n c12c/68
and a c k 1 6 from equations(38) and (39).

4.1.2 Wings With. No F l a p s or With F u l l - S p a nD e f l e c t e dF l a p s

I f the wing h a s d e f l e c t e d o r undeflected full-span flaps

t h . e computations are s i m p l i f i e d s i n c e no c o r r e c t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d
f o r s p a n w i s ed i s c o n t i n u i t i e si ni n d u c e da n g l e of a t t a c k . In
t h i s case t h ec o m p u t a t i o n a lp r o c e d u r e i s a sf o l l o w s :
( a > For the d e s i r e d body angle of a t t a c kc a l c u l a t e the
d i s t r i b u t i o n ofgeometric a n g l e of a t t a c k u s i n g

( b )O b t a i nt h ec o r r e s p o n d i n g C l and (20 v a l u e s by i n t e r p o l a -
tioninthetwo-dimensionalsectiondata a t t h . e properReynolds
number, t h i c k n e s s - c h o r d r a t i o andcamber level.

( c ) C a l c u l a t e an i n i t i a l approximation t o t h . e d i s t r i b u t i o n
oftheloading on t h e transformedwingusing:

( d )C a l c u l a t e t h . e correspondingvaluesofinducedangle
of a t t a c k Ci u s i n ge q u a t i o n ( 2 1 ) and determine t h . e e f f e c t i v e wing
anglesofattackintherealplane f r o m e q u a t i o n (11).

46
9 ( e ) Now computee qt huei v a l e n t angles of attack, QO , for
use w i t h t h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l s e c t i o n data thus

(82)

where E i s givenbyequation (47).

. (f) U s i n gt h es e c t i o nd a t ao b t a i nt h ev a l u e s of l i f t
coeffic-ientcorrespondingto and t h e n c a l c u l a t e new v a l u e s
of cl c/b . QO

( g ) Compare th.ese v a l u e s t o t h . e guessedvaluesof CI c/b

and i f agreement i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e o b t a i n a set o fv a l u e s
of Aj by a p p l y i n gt h em a t r i x K i j t o t h . e d i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e n
t h e c a l c u l a t e d andguessed values as shown i n e q u a t i o n - ( 3 0 b ) .
Add th.e r e s u l t s t o t h . e o r i g i n a l g u e s s e d v a l u e s o f c f c / b and
o b t a i n a new and b e t t e r s e t o fa p p r o x i m a t ev a l u e s .R e p e a ts t e p s
( d )t h r o u g h( g )u n t i ls a t i s f a c t o r ya g r e e m e n t i s reached.
( h . ) Havingdeterminedthe l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o no b t a i ns e c t i o n
v a l u e so fp r o f i l e - d r a gc o e f f i c i e n t ,i n d u c e d - d r a gc o e f f i c i e n t
and p i t c h i n g moment c o e f f i c i e n t .
( i ) F i n a l l y ,u s i n ge q u a t i o n s( 5 1 )t h r o u g h( 5 6 ) , c a l c u l a t e
t h . e v a l u e s o f CL , CDO , C D i , and CM .
4.1.3 Wings
-
-.
With
" _ Part-Span Deflected Flaps

( a ) Determine the l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e p l a i n u n t w i s t e d ,
unflappedwing-bodycombination a t a na n g l eo fa t t a c k which i s
w i t h , i n t h e l i n e a rr a n g e of t h . e s e c t i o n l i f t c u r v e s .S c a l e the
resulting lift distribution to give a v a l u e ofwing lift coeffic-
i e n te q u a lt ou n i t y . Denote t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n by c f , .
( b )F o r t h . e u n t w i s t e d ,f l a p p e dw i n g body combination, s e l e c t
a body a n g l e o f a t t a c k w i t h i n t h e l i n e a r r a n g e ofboth the
f l a p p e d a n du n f l a p p e ds e c t i o nl i f t - c u r v e s .O b t a i nt h ev a l u eo f
section lift coefficient, c l R , fortherootsection from t h e
airfoildata.
( c ) C a l c u l a t et h ei n i t i a la p p r o x i m a t i o nt ot h el i f td i s t r i b -
utioninthetransformedplaneusing

47
and

( d l T a k i n gt h ev a l u e of 6 as t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e
f l a p p e d and u n f l a p p e d z e r o l i f t a n g l e s of t h e s e c t i o n a t t h e
endoftheflap,determinetheresultantangles of a t t a c k , a e , a t
t h e r e a l w i n gu s i n ge q u a t i o n s( 1 1 ) , ( 3 6 ) , ( 3 7 ) ,( 3 8 1 ,( 3 9 ) .C o r r e c t
theseanglesforedgevelocity and t h e n u s e t h e s e c t i o n d a t a t o
o b t a i n new v a l u e s f o r t h e l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n . Repeat t h i s i t e r a -
tivecycleuntil a convergence i s o b t a i n e d i n t h e l i f t d i s t r i b -
u t i o n .D e n o t et h i sd i s t r i b u t i o n by C j s .
( e ) C a l c u l a t et h ec o r r e c t i o nf a c t o r s F from e q u a t i o n s (41)
and ( 4 2 ) .

( f ) Usingequation (81) o b t a i nt h ef i r s ta p p r o x i m a t i o n
of t h e f i n a l l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n andcompute t h e v a l u e of s e c t i o n
lift coefficient at t h . e f l a pe n d , c/ *, th.us

c/* = (F)
(+) (+) (&) (85)

( g ) Determine t h eu n c o r r e c t e dv a l u e of l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t a t
theend o f t h . e f l a p u s i n g

where F F i s t h ev a l u e of 1 +F A max / t a k e na tt h ef l a p
s i d e of T * . Cb* (CI

( h ) O b t a i nt h ea n g l e of a t t a c k v a l u e , Q o , whichcorresponds
,
t o c l , fromtheflappedsectiondataandcorrect it t o obtain
the equivalent angle of a t t a c k , ae 8 t h u s

( 5 )I n t h . e same way f i n d t h . e e q u i v a l e n ta n g l e of a t t a c k ,
“ I 8 = o f o r t h e u n f l a p p e d s i d e of V*.

48
d, (j) The f i r s t approximate
value of t d
h ies c o n t i n u i t y in
angleofattack 6 i s then given by

( k )A g a i n , use e q u a t i o n s (111, (361, (371, (381,and(39)

together with equation (88) to obtain values of th.e r e s u l t a n t
anglesofattack, Q, , a t e a c h s t a t i o n on t h . e real wing.
(1) The c o r r e s p o n d i n gu n c o r r e c t e da n g l e so fa t t a c ka r e
then found using

( m > U s e thetwo-dimensionalsection liftdatatoobtain

v a l u e s of c! a tt h e s ea n g l e s of a t t a c k and f a c t o r th.em t o g i v e
thecorrectvalues of l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t , th.us

( n ) Compare t h . i s c a l c u l a t e d l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n t o t h e
a p p r o x i m a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n and r e p e a t t h e i t e r a t i v e p r o c e s s u n t i l
th.e convergence i s ach.ievedwithin t h e s p e c i f i e d limits.

( 0 ) F i n a l l y ,o b t a i nt h eo v e r a l l wing-body c h , a r a c t e r i s t i c s
u s i n ge q u a t i o n (51) through (56).
4.2 SECTION DATA CHARACTERISTICS

The a c c u r a c y o f w i n g s p a n w i s e l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n s computed
by t h i s program l a r g e l y d e p e n d s on t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of
t h ea v a i l a b l es e c t i o nd a t ac h . a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The s e c t i o nc h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c s r e q u i r e di nt h ec o m p u t a t i o n sa r e : Th.e two-dimensional
s e c t i o nl i f t - c o e f f i c i e n tv e r s u ss e c t i o na n g l e of a t t a c k , t h e
section profile-drag and t h . e quarter-ch.ordpitch.ing-moment
c o e f f i c i e n t sv e r s u ss e c t i o nl i f tc o e f f i c i e n t .I d e a l l y , th.e d a t a
shouldbeavailableforasbroad a range of Reynoldsnumbers
andthickness-chordratiosas i s r e q u i r e dt oc o v e rt h er a n g eo f
t h e s ep a r a m e t e r se x p e c t e d i n a c t u a lf 1 i g h . t .O t h . e r w i s e ,l i n e a r
i n t e r p o l a t i o n and e x t r a p o l a t i o n of t h e e x i s t i n g s e c t i o n d a t a a r e
requiredtoperformthecomputationsat the v a l u e s ofReynolds
number a n d / o r t h i c k n e s s - c h o r d r a t i o o u t s i d e t h e a v a i l a b l e r a n g e .

49

I .. - ..
 The most r e l i a b l e a i r f o i l s e c t i o n d a t a which. are now
a v a i l a b l e are summarized i n References 5 and 6.. Reference 5
presentg the data obtained for Reynolds numbersbetween3x106
t o 9x10 w h i l e Reference 6 e x t e n d 8t h e s e measurements t o values
ofReynoldsnumbers down t o 0 . 7 ~ 1 0 .
4.2.1 C o r r e c t i o no f the S e c t i o n Data
The s e n i o r a u t h . o r o f Reference 6 h a s i n d i c a t e d t h . a t e r r o r s
exist i n t h e v a l u e s o f l i f t curve s l o p e f o r a l l a i r f o i l s t e s t e d
a t Reynoldsnumbers o f l e s s t h a n3 . 0 ~ 1 0 6 . These e r r o r s are
a t t r i b u t e d t o an a n g l e o f a t t a c k c h a n g e a s s o c i a t e d with. a i r leak-
age a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e t e s t a i r f o i l and t h e wind t u n n e l
walls. The e v i d e n c eo ft h ei n c o n s i s t e n c i e s a t lowReynolds
numberscanbenotedbyexamining t h . e b e h a v i o r of t h e v a l u e s
o fs e c t i o nl i f t - c u r v es l o p e a s a functionofReynoldsnumber,
sh,own i nF i g u r e 1 7 of Reference 6. S i n c e t h . e v a l u e s of l i f t
coefficientsobtainedfromforcemeasurements are known t o b e
correct the irregularities i n t h e t r e n d s o f C ~ Qversus Reynolds
number can o n l y b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th.e e r r o r s i n a i r f o i l angle
of a t t a c k .
T h e r e f o r e , a c o r r e c t i o np r o c e d u r eb a s e d on e x t r a p o l a t i o n
ofthehighReynolds number l i f t - c u r v e s l o p e d a t a w a s employed
togenerateapproximatesectiondata f o r l o w Reynoldsnumbers.
This procedure which w a s approved by t h e s e n i o r a u t h o r of Refer-
ence 6 i s describedbelow.

For e a c h a i r f o i l s e c t i o n t h e v a r i a t i o n of l i f t - c u r v e s l o p e
withReynolds number was p l o t t e d as shown i n F i g u r e 7. A
straight-lineextrapolat'onof th.e b e s t f i t t o t h e d a t a for
Reynoldsnumbersof 3x10' and g r e a t e r w a s u s e d t o o b t a i n v a l u e s
of l i f t - c u r v e s l o p e a t l o w Reynoldsnumbers. Th.ese v a l u e s were
thenusedtocorrect t h . e q u o t e da n g l e so fa t t a c ka tc o n s t a n t
v a l u e s of l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t . I n making th.e e x t r a p o l a t i o n s ,
account was takenof the v a r i a t i o n of l i f t - c u r v e s l o p e with
t h i c k n e s s - t o - c h . o r dr a t i oa tc o n s t a n tR e y n o l d s number a s sh.own
i nF i g u r e 8. F u r t h e r m o r e ,a ne f f o r t w a s made t o e n s u r e t h a t the
e x t r a p o l a t i o n t r e n d s were compatible w i t h . t h . e t r e n d s of t h . e
highReynolds number d a t a . T h e magnitude of t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r
a t y p i c a ls e c t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 9. Table I i n d i c a t e s
which a i r f o i l s e c t i o n d a t a r e q u i r e d t h i s c o r r e c t i o n .

4.2.2 P r e p a r a t i o n of t h eS e c t i o nD a t af o r Computer

The a i r f o i l s e c t i o n d a t a , c o r r e c t e d a s r e q u i r e du s i n g t h e
p r e v i o u s l yd i s c u s s e dp r o c e d u r e s ,a r ep r e p a r e di nt h ef o r mo f
s p e c i a lt a b l e s ,w h i c ha r eu s e di n t h . e computer.For a given
a i r f o i 2 th.ese d a t a r e p r e s e n t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s of c [ v s . tl ,Cdo
v s . Cl , and Crnc/4 v s . C1 f o r c o n s t a n t v a l u e s ofReynoldsnumber.
T y p i c a l t a b u l a t i o n of t h e s e s e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s u i t a b l e
f o r th.e u s e i n t h e computer a r e shown i n F i g u r e 10.

50
 .12

NACA 64409

.10

.12
NACA 64412

UI
r
.10

.12
NACA 64415

.10 .5 1 2 3 4 5 20
Reynolds number x
0 Data from NACA TN 1945

Figure 7. E x t r a p o l a t i o n s o f L i f t Curve Slopes a t Low Reynolds Number

 NACA 64418

a,
a
0

NACA 23012

e
.rl0
c,
0
al NACA 23015
m

R e y n o l d sn u m b e r x
0 Data from NACA TN 1945

Figure 7. Continued
F i g u r e 7. Concluded
" . . ...-. -
" .. -

Thickness-chord ratio, t
C

Figure 8. Variation of Section Lift-.CurveSlope with

Thickness-Chord Ratio at Constant Reynolds number
NACA 644 Sections

54
 1.

1.

Angle of attack - degrees

Figure 9 - Corrected Lift Q r v e s for NACA 64-421 Airfoil at Low Reynolds Numbers
 TABLE I , - AIRFOIL SECTION DATA AVAILABLE FOR USE WITH THE COMPUTER FROG-

I
II -
63 4XX I I
I
I 64-4XX

! 2 4XX

a Data c o r r e c t e da t Reynoldsnumbersbelow 3x106 .

b No d a t aa v a i l a b l ef o rs e c t i o nw i t h 60' s p l i tf l a p .
 R ynold'
-.-- .. . - .

~ ~ _ _
..
._..
-o~-7". 1.0 1.5 1 2.0
Cf -90.8 0 0 0
-14.0-0.34 -0.40
- -0.50 -0.60

/
li.6 1:37 1142
- 1:48 1: 47
20.0 1.22 1:28 1130 1126
/ 90.6 10.0
___.

I" -
Titi-
max
"
1.51
13.4)
d

T a b l e of Cd Values

. "
"

0.7 1.0
.
"

2.000 2.0002.0002.000
0.011 0.0090.0090.007
0.008 0.608 0.6070.607
0.50 0.640 0 . 6 2 0 0.619
"_2.000
"_
0.
0.-.
-"-l-+o
2.000 2.000
0.
2.000

Table of Cm Values
"\
\,
J "

0.7
. . ~

Reynolds Number x ~ O - ~
- 1.0
"

t; "

\
0. 0. 0.
C
mc
'4

* For c o m p u t e r c o n t i n u i t y o n l y .

F i g u r e 10. - Method of T a b u l a t i o n o f S e c t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

57
 The t a b u l a t i o n o f s e c t i o n lift d a t a i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e
most c r i t i c a l as compared t o the two sets o f d a t a c i t e d a b o v e .
For a g i v e n a i r f o i l t h i c k n e s s - c h . o r d r a t i o , values of l i f t
c o e f f i c i e n t are c a r e f u l l y r e a d a t s e l e c t e d angles of a t t a c k f o r
eachReynolds number so as t o b e s t d e f i n e t h e l i f t - c u r v e s
e s p e c i a l l y i n th.e v i c i n i t y of C l max.. Large scale p l o t s of
C l V S . Q (e.g. NACA o r i g i n a l s ) are recommended f o r t h i s p u r p o s e
f o r improvedaccuracy.

Th.e v a l u e s o f l i f t coefficientth.usobtained are e n t e r e d

i n an a r r a y as shown i n F i g u r e 10 w i t h t h . e f i r s t and l a s t
e n t r i e s ofangleofattackbeing -90° and +900 corresponding
t o l i f t c o e f f i c i e n tv a l u e so fz e r o and 10.0 r e s p e c t i v e l y . Th.e
lattervalueofsectionliftcoefficient i s enteredonlyfor
t h ep u r p o s eo ft h ec o m p u t e ri no r d e rt oa v o i dc o m p u t a t i o n a l
d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e case o f wings w i t h . p a r t - s p a n f u l l y d e f l e c t e d
f l a p s . T h e bottom two r o w s of the a r r a y c o n t a i n t h e v a l u e s of
maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t ( c [ m a x ) and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n ga n g l e s
o f a t t a c k a t which t h e s e first occur ( a m a x )
is repeatedforeachvalueofairfoilthickness-chordratiofor
. T h . i s procedure

which d a t a i s a v a i l a b l e .

S i m i l a r l y ,u s i n gt h ep l o t s of cdo v s . cI and c m d 4 v s . C ~
th.e d r a g and p i t c h i n g moment t a b l e s a r e p r e p a r e d and t a b u l a t e d
as shown i n F i g u r e 10. I n t h e s e a r r a y s of d a t a t h . e l a s t two
rows are e n t e r e d as z e r o s .

Thus, a l i b r a r y o f s e c t i o n c h . a r a c t e r i s t i c s t a b l e s i s prepar-
ed. The d a t a i s key-punchedand s t o r e dr e a d yf o r use i n t h . e
computer. The f a m i l i e s of a i r f o i l s for wh.ich d a t ah a sb e e n
prepared are summarized i n Table I.

4.2.3 A i r f o i lD a t aT a b l e Look-up Procedures

The b a s i c a i r f o i l d a t a a r e r e a d i n t o th.e computerrow-wise

and s t o r e d on tape.Duringexecutionoftheprogram the d a t a
i s r e a df r o mt a p ei n t oc o r ei nt h ef o r m of f i l e s . Th.e a r r a n g e -
mentand designationofthefiles i s sh.own d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y
i n F i g u r e 11. E a c h f i l e must c o n t a i n a t l e a s t two,butnot more
t h a n f i v e , l e v e l s or v a l u e s ofthickness-chord ratio. Each l e v e l ,
or each t a b l e o f d a t a , i s l i m i t e d t o 25 rowsand 1 2 columns.
T h . i s f i l e s i z e i s a d e q u a t e f o r most p u r p o s e s ,b u t may be
increased if desired bychanging t h . e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s r e l a t i n g
t o f i l e s i z e i n t h e program.
L i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n i s usedthrough.outand i s performed
f i r s t f o r th.e r e q u i r e d v a l u e o f R e y n o l d s number t h . e n t h i c k n e s s -
ch.ord r a t i o and f i n a l l y f o r t h e g i v e n v a l u e o f camber. Wh.en th.e
r e q u i r e da n g l eo fa t t a c k i s o u t s i d et h er a n g eo ft h e maximum
anglesofattacklistedinthetableforthe two bracketing

58
 interpolates
File 1 cc VS. Q

S u b r o u t i n e 'ARC'

.
File 2 C,A
U
vs. e1
""

~,
E u b r o u t i n e 'LOOK':
interpolates
,- within
each. l e v e l __

File 4 cf V S . Q F i l e 2 0 CC vs. Q
with flap deflected with flap deflected

A i r fd
o afri lo
tAaroitr f d
o afti ilo
t par
camber l e v e l eg. 230XX camber l e v e l eg. 430XX
F i g u r e 11. - S c h e m a t i cR e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f S e c t i o n Data S t o r a g e
i n t h e Computer.

59

I
valuesoftheparametersunderconsideration,simplelinear
interpolation formulae are utilized with no s p e c i a l o r d e r of
i n t e r p o l a t i o n . A s p e c i a lc o m p u t a t i o n a lp r o c e d u r e i s required
t o obtainvaluesof lift c o e f f i c i e n t when t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k
f a l l s b e t w e e nt h et a b u l a t e dv a l u e s of a r n a x . T h i sp r o c e d u r e
i s b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d i n th.e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s a s a n a i d
to understanding the program listing.

U s i nFgi g u r e s 12(a) and 1 2 ( b )t ,hve a l u eos f and

‘l max a t t h e r e q u i r e d v a l u e ofReynoldsnumber, R e , are determined
f o r each.of t h e b o u n d i n g v a l u e s o f t h . i c k n e s s - c h o r d r a t i o , ( t / c ) ,
and(t/c)2
points
. T h i sy i e l d sv a l u e s of l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s a t t h e
, and m 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Dependingonwhetherthegiven
v a l u eo fa n g l eo fa t t a c k , Q , is greater or less t h a n t h e v a l u e s
of Qrnax , a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e s o f Ct ( d e n o t e d by X I , x 2 1 a r e o b t a i n e d
foreachbracketingvalue of t h i c k n e s s - c h o r d r a t i o .

Knowing t h e v a l u e s a t p o i n t s ml and m 2 , new v a l u e s of ctmax

and amax a r e c a l c u l a t e d c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d v a l u e of
t h l c k n e s s - c h o r d r a t i o and a r e d e n o t e d by t h e p o i n t m3 . Using
t h e p r e v i o u s l y computed v a l u e s a t p o i n t s X I ( o r X 2 1 t o g e t h . e r
withthevaluesatm3, t h . e above i n t e r p o l a t i o n c y c l e i s r e p e a t e d
t oo b t a i nt h ev a l u e of ct a t th.e r e q u i r e d t h . i c k n e s s r a t i o .

T h . i s valueof Cl now c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e r e q u i r e d v a l u e s of
Reynolds numberand t h i c k n e s s - c h . o r dr a t i o ,b u ta p p l i e so n l yt o
t h e camber l e v e l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t i p a i r f o i l series. The
aerodynamicdatafortherootairfoil series i s t h e n c a l l e d i n t o
c o r e andth.eprocess i s r e p e a t e d . Th.e f i n a li n t e r p o l a t i o n sh.own
i n F i g u r e 1 2 ( d ) i s p e r f o r m e df o r t h . e c o r r e c t v a l u e of camber
level in the sameway asthatusedforthickness-chordratio.

4.3 DESCRIPTION O F THE COMPUTER PROGRAM

The c o m p u t a t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e s d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 4 . 1 h.ave
been programmed f o r u s e on t h e NASA CDC 6600 s e r i e s computer
l o c a t e d a t LangleyResearch Center. Th.e program i s w r i t t e n i n
t h eF o r t r a n I V machinelanguage. An i n t e r n a l l i s t i n g of t h e
program i s p r e s e n t e d i n Appendix A and a b l o c k d i a g r a m i l l u s t r a -
tingthemajorlogicfeatures i s presentedinFigure13.

Th.e program i s i n i t i a t e d by r e a d i n g i n t h e b a s i c c o n f i g u r a -
t i o n p a r a m e t e r s punchedon cardsasindicatedinFigure14.
The v a l u e s of e i t h e r aerodynamic or geometric t w i s t may be i n p u t .
Whichever t w i s t i s s p e c i f i e d t h e column r e s e r v e d f o r t h e o t h . e r
t w i s t must c o n t a i n 100. Columns 1 t o 11 on c a r d #2 c o n t a i nt h e
maximum a l l o w a b l e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e c a l c u l a t e d and
a p p r o x i m a t ev a l u e s of C l ‘/b a t t h . e end of e a c h i t e r a t i o n . A
v a l u e of.001wasused i n the c o m p u t a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d l a t e r
in this report.

60
 ) :1 1 (5) 2

'3

\
\
\ '
\ "Re

Re Re, t/c

(512

Q a

Figure 12. Nomenclature for Developing InterpolationFormulae.

61
 f-" CALCULATE

c2
BEGIN YES TRANSFORMATION
PARAMETERS

+
TABLES ONTO
READ CASE DATA
n , 1 ETc
- CALCULATE
OR READ IN
CONFIGURATION
GEOMETRY
NO
-
L

t
CALC. FACTORS CALCULATE
MULTI PLIERS
2 -DIMENSIONAL
SECTION DATA P m k - 7i

I +
"i PRINT OUT
DISTRIBUTION
OF CHORD,TWIST
ETC.
CALCULATE

acK/6,

CALCULATE FIRST
PRINT
FIRST
READ OUT APPROXIMATION TO
VALUE OF Q B CASE HEADING L I F T DISTRIBUTION
I" T I
I
I

+
READNEXT
VALUE OF aB
I

+
CALCULATE

ETC.AND
PRINT OUT
CALCULATE NEW
LIFT DISTRIBUTION - CALCULATE INDUCED
ANDEFFECTIVE WING
SECTION ANGLESOF
ATTACK

CALCULATE BElTER
APPROXIMATION TO
L I F T DISTRIBUTION

t1"' SELECT VALUES OF

O B SO AS TO DEFINE
EXACT STALLING
ANGLE AND REPEAT
CALCULATION
I
FIGURE 13 COMPUTER PROGRAM BLOCKDIAGRAM

62
 -
No.
I
1% x r bf
b

No. 2 j A A B H O=No Flap 6

4, f X Z E a
l=Flap

No.
--\
No. 4 Levels, Title
options, etc.
i "- _ . ',// - . x - . ._ ,.~.. . ". -=..\./--...

No.
51 Angles of Attack

No. 61
Angles of Attack
 Normally t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s u c h p l a n f o r m p a r a m e t e r s a s
c h o r d , t w i s t , l o c a lR e y n o l d sn u m b e r ,e t c . are c a l c u l a t e db u t
p r o v i s i o n i s made t o r e a d t h e s e i n i f t h e p l a n f o r m i s not
trapezoidal. The programperformsthecomputations using 10
c o n t r o lp o i n t sp e r wingsemi-span.This number of s t a t i o n s i s
u s u a l l ya d e q u a t ef o rm o s tp u r p o s e s , h.owever, i f it i s d e s i r e d t o
i n c r e a s e ( o r d e c r e a s e 1 th.e number of p o i n t s t h . e programcan
easily be modified.

Having c a l c u l a t e d , o r r e a d , t h . e geometricparametersand
computed t h e p a r a m e t e r s g o v e r n i n g f u s e l a g e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ( i f a
fuselage i s present), the values of t h e m u l t i p l i e r s Prnk and 'I;
a r e computedand s t o r e d .I ft h ec a l c u l a t i o n i s f o r a wing w i t h . a
deflectedpart-spanflapthevalues o ft h ep a r a m e t e r sa s s o c i a t e d
w i t h a s p a n w i s ed i s c o n t i n u i t yi na n g l e of a t t a c k a r e computed.
Th.e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e m a t r i x K i j , g i v e n by e q u a t i o n( 3 0 b ) , @re
now computed u s i n g a m a t r i x i n v e r s i o n s u b r o u t i n e t o o b t a i n s u c c e s s -
i v ea p p r o x i m a t i o n st o th.e l i f td i s t r i b u t i o n .I ft h ec a l c u l a t i o n
i s f o r a f l a p p e d wing t h e programbranches t o compute the two
loaddistributionsrequired t o o b t a i n th.e f a c t o r s u s e d i n
a l t e r i n gt h et w o - d i m e n s i o n a ls e c t i o nl i f td a t a . Havingobtained
t h . e s ef a c t o r st h eb a s i c program i t e r a t i v e l o o p i s e n t e r e d and
e x e c u t e d u n t i l a l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n i s c a l c u l a t e d which. a g r e e s
withtheguesseddistributiontowithintherequiredtolerance.
The computed d i s t r i b u t i o n s of s e c t i o n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t , etc.,
and t h ec o r r e s p o n d i n gi n t e g r a t e dv a l u e sa r ei m m e d i a t e l yp r i n t e d
out for each case run.

I f , a t a n yp o i n t on t h e w i n g , t h e s t a l l i s d e t e c t e d ,i . e .t h e
computed v a l u e o f e f f e c t i v e s e c t i o n a n g l e of a t t a c k e x c e e d s t h a t
f o r maximum l i f t , t h e c o m p u t a t i o n s a r e t h . e n r e p e a t e d f o r a value
of a n g l e of a t t a c kh a l f - w a yb e t w e e n t h e l a s t two v a l u e s .I f
atthisintermediatevaluethe wing u n s t a l l s the program i n c r e a s e s
t h . e a n g l e o f a t t a c k by 0.2 d g g r e e s u n t i l s t a l l a g a i n o c c u r s or
u n t i lt h e increments t o t a l 1 . S i m i l a r l y ,i fs t a l l is still
d e t e c t e da tt h ei n t e r m e d i a t ev a l u e ,t h ea n g l e of a t t a c k i s
d e c r e a s e d u n t i l t h e wing i s u n s t a l l e d or u n t i l th.e t o t a l d e c r e a s e
e q u a l s lo.
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , i f , for a g i v e n body a n g l e of a t t a c k wing s t a l l
i s n o to b t a i n e d ,t h ec o m p u t a t i o n sa r ep e r f o r m e df o rt h . en e x t
i n p u t e dv a l u eo f body i n c i d e n c e u n t i l t h e v a l u e of aB = 99 i s
e n c o u n t e r e dw h e r e u p o nt h ec a l c u l a t i o n sa r es t o p p e d . A typical
p r i n t o u t o f th.e f i n a l r e s u l t s i s p r e s e n t e d i n Table 11.

The computerprogramdescribedhereincanbeusedtopredict
th.e d i s t r i b u t i o n s and t h e i n t e g r a t e d v a l u e s of l i f t , d r a g and
p i t c h i n g moment c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r wings of t r a p e z o i d a l p l a n f o r m
w i t hz e r o sweep i n th.e p r e s e n c e ofa fuselageatallangles of
a t t a c ku pt o a n di n c l u d i n gs t a l l .I na d d i t i o n , t h e s e computations

64
 64 2 S E R I E S FLAP C A S E

SPANWISE S T A T I O N S
( 11 $.57711503E-01 ( 21 9.61459121E-01 ( 31 9.02092175E-01 ( 41 8.21185699E-01 ( 5) 7.20940345E-01
I 61 6eC4219115E-01 ( 71 4.74712490E-01 I 81 3.37573147E-01 9) 2.02203541E-01 I101 1.00000444E-01
(111 -2.02203541E-01 I121 -3.37573147E-01 (13) -4.74712490E-01 (141 -6004219115E-01 (151 -7.20940345E-01
(16) -€.21185699E-01 (17) -9.02092175E-01 (181 -9.61459121E-01 I191 -9.97711503E-01 (

ALPHA M A X
( 11 1060889831E+01 I 2 1 1.61635207E+01 I 31 1.63227454€+01 ( 41 l e 6 6 4 1 7 2 6 3 E + 0 1 I 51 1.72603411E+Ol
I 61 1.85084020EtOl 7) 2.37034870E+Ol I 81 1.25746196E+01 I 91 1.39745350E+Ol 1101 1.43900028E+OL
I
I 1111 1*39745350E+Ol 112) 1.25746196E+01 ( 1 3 1 2.37034870EtOl t 141 1.85C84020E+01 1 1 5 ) 1.72603411E+OL
16) 1.66417263E+01 ( 1 7 1 1.63227454€+01 ( 1 8 1 1.61635207E+01
(191 1e6088983 1E +01 (

CL MAX
I 11 1 ~ 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 3 E t 0 0( 2 1 1.55650944Eb00 I 31 1.57042592E+00 ( 41 1.59829929E+00 ( 5 1 1.65222564E+00
I 61 1.76061569E+00 I 71 2.12708990€+00 I 81 2.55834961E+00 I 9) 2.6458441OE+OO 1101 .2.73499988E+OO
~ 1111 2.69584410E+00 112) 2.55834961Et00 113) 2.12708990EeOO (14) 1.76061569E600115) 1.65222 564E+00
I161 1.59829929E+00 ( 1 7 1 1.57042592E+00 (181 I . 5565C944E+00 ( 19) 1.5500C003E+00 (

THICKNESS / CHORD DISTRIRUTION

I 11 1.20152566E-01 I 21 1.22569392E-01 ( 31 1.265271RBE-01 41 1.3192C953E-01 ( 5) 1.38603977E-01
cn 1.79999970E-01
cn I 61 1.46385392E-01 ( 7) 1.55019167E-01 ( 8) 1.64161790E-01 ( 91 1.73186431E-01 110)
I111 1.73186431E-01 (121 1.64161790E-01 (131 1.55019167E-01 (141 1e46385392E-0115 1 1.38603977E-01
(16) 1.31920953E-01 1171
1.26527188E-01 (181 1.22569392E-01 (191 1.20152566E-01 I

SECT ION REYNCLOS NUMBER

I ( 1) 6~00060006E+00 ( 2 ) 6 ~ 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 E + 0 0( 3 1 6.00060006E+00 ( 41 6.OCO600C6Et00 I 51
I I 61 6 ~ 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 E + 0 0 ( 71 6.000600C6E+00 I 8 1 6 ~ 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 E + 0 0 I 91 6 ~ 0 0 0 6 0 0 C 6 E + 0 0I 1 0 1
(111 6.OC060006E+00 ( 1 2 1 6.00060006E+00 1 1 3 ) 6 ~ 0 0 0 h 0 0 0 h E + 0 0( 1 4 1 6.0006C006E+00 ( 1 5 1
1161 L ~ 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 E ~ 0 1171
0 6 ~ 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 E + 0( 108 1 6.00060006Et00I191 6.00060006E+00 I

CHORD DISTRIBUTION
I 1) 1 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ee00 I 21) ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E + 0 0 I 31 1 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E + 0 0 ( 41 1~COOOOOOOE+00I 51
I 61 1.00000000E+00 I 71 1.00000000E~00 I 8) 1.00000000E+00 I 9 ) l~OOOOOOOOE+OO (101
(111 1 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E ~ 0 101 2 1 L ~ O O O O O O O O E + O O t 131 1 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E ~ 0 0( 1 4 1 1~CCOOOOOOE+001 1 5 )
1161 1 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E + 0 0 1171 1 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E + 0 0( 1 8 1 1 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E + 0 0I 1 9 1 1.000CCOOCE+00 (

GEOMETRIC T W I S T
11 -4.92881352E+00 I 21 -4.72977270EtOO ( 31 -4.40382321€+00 I 41 -3.95561265E+00 I 5) -3.40922351E+00
I 6) -2.76837490E+00 ( 71 -2.05732909Et00 I 81 -1.30437645Et00 t 91 -5.61140405E-01
1101 -2.43856132E-06
1111 -5061140405E-01.1121 -1.30437645E+OO 1131 -2.05732909E+00 ( 14) -2.76837490E+00 (151 -3.40922351E+00
1161 -3.55961265E+001171 -4.40382321Et00(181 -4.72977270E+00 (19) -4.92881352E+00 I

TARLE 11. T y p i c a l Somputer Output

 6 4 2S E R I E SF L A P CASE

.f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f~.f..f*.f..f..f..f~.f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f~.f../../.~/../../*./..

BODY AYGLE OF ATTACK, DEG.

BODY HEIGHT /SPAN.
=
=
16.00
.10
. VALUE OF O I S C R I C I N A N T .
B3DYWIDTH / SPbN. .. . .. . . -==- .001000
.10
ASPECT R A T I O
YING a o D Y INCIDENCE,
ROOT T H I C K N E S S CHORD
DEG
=
=
-
6.00
0 .oo
.18
. .- WING HEIGHT
T IHPI C K N E S S
/SPAh.
CHCRD.
GEOMETRIC T W l S T r DEC
. = 0

0
--
0.00
.12
-4.94
NUMBER OF SPANWISE STATIOIJS. = 20.00 AERODYNAMIC T W I S T , DEG = -5 00
FLAP
SPAN
FLAP
SETTING,
f WING SPAN.
DEC.
COORDIYATES OF MOMENT REFERENCE
=
=
POINT
.45
60.00
TAPER RATIO.
REYNOLDS
X=
NUMBER.
0.00
.. ....
2=
o =
=
0.00
1.00
6.00

./../..f*.f..f..fO.f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..fO.f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f..f.~f..f..f../..f..~..f../*

O I S T R I B U T I O N CF S E C T I O NL I F TC O E F F I C I E N T
cn 1) 3.42250509E-01 ( 62. 3
10 9 5 5 9 4 0 E - 0 1 ( 83. 6
15952551E-01 I 14. 01 6 1 7 0 5 6 1 E + 0 0 ( 5 ) 1.24114608E+00
cn I1 *6 4) 3 7 2 3 5 3 7 E + 0 0 7) 1.82981852EtOD I 81 2.23042330Et00 ( 29. 412 2 6 8 7 3 7 E(t1 200.0514 3 5 8 4 2 2 E t 0 0
(11) 2 . 4 2 2 6 8 6 8 6 E(2
+1.022013 0 4 2 0 7 4 E + 0 0 (13) 1 . 8 2 9 8 5 5 5 7 E1
(+1.0403) 7 2 3 2 2 6 E +1( 1O
. 25O4) 1 1 4 5 7 8 E + 0 0
(161 1 . C 6 1 7 0 6 2 6 E18t10. 7
60)5 9 5 4 4 7 9 E(6-10.83110 9 5 9 0 8 5 E - 0 1 (19) 3.42254744E-01 1

STALL M A R G I ND I S T R I B U T I O N
( 1) 1.2C774952E+00 I 9 2. 2) 5 5 5 3 4 3 8 E - 0 1 ( 73. 014 4 7 3 3 6 6 E - 0 1 ( 54. 3
16 5 9 3 6 7 9 E - 0 1 t 51 4.11079557E-01
( 36
o )2 3 3 8 0 3 2 2 E - 0 1 ( 27. 91 7 2 7 1 3 7 8 E - 0 1 ( 81 3.27926310E-01 I 9) 2.73156732E-01 (101 1.91415661E-01
(111 2 . 7 3 1 5 7 2 4 2 E3 (1
-.0217) 9 2 8 8 7 3 E12-10.39117 2 3 4 3 3 4 E(31 - .042113 3 8 3 4 3 6 E(41
- .051111 0 7 9 8 5 9 E - 0 1
(51.6316 5 9 3 0 2 3 E(7-1.0701)4 4 7 1 4 3 8 E(9-1.0821)5 5 5 0 3 5 3 E11-10. 921)0 7 7 4 5 2 9 E + 0 0 (

.......................... BODY ANGLE OF ATTACK. DEG. = 16 e 0 0 L IC

0.........................................0........0........0.0......0.'00*..~..~.*..**.,
FTOEFFICIENT . = 1.666010

TABLE 11. Concladed

$1 i n c o r p o r a t teh e f f e c t s of l i n e asrp a n w i sve a r i a t i o insne c t i o n
camber f o ru n f l a p p e dw i n g s . The e f f e c t of a d e f l e c t e d p a r t - s p a n
f l a p on t h e l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n s i s included. However, d r a g and
p i t c h i n g moment r e s u l t s are n o t i n c l u d e d f o r t h e s e c a s e s b e c a u s e
of thelackof s e c t i o n d r a g and p i t c h i n g moment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
for flapped airfoils.
The computer program described above constitutes a part
of t h i s r e p o r t and i s t h e r e f o r e a v a i l a b l e f o r p u b l i c use through
ComputerSoftware Management and I n f o r m a t i o n Center (COSMIC),
a s s t a t e d i n Appendix B.
4.4 RESULTS OF SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
The computerprogramwasused to calculate the character-
i s t i c s of threeunflappedwingsand onewinghaving a 60% span
splitflap. Thesecomputer r e s u l t s were c o r r e l a t e dw i t ht h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n gt h e o r e t i c a lp r e d i c t i o n s ofReferences 1 and 2 and
t h ea v a i l a b l ee x p e r i m e n t a ld a t a .F i g u r e s 15, 1 6 , and 17 p r e s e n t
computed l i f t , d r a g and p i t c h i n g moment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r
u n f l a p p e dw i n g so fa s p e c tr a t i o8 . 0 4 , 10.05 and12.06, and Figure
18, shows t h e v a r i a t i o n o f l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h a n g l e of a t t a c k
f o r a f l a p p e d wingof a s p e c t r a t i o 9.02,having a 60% span,
20% c h o r ds p l i tf l a p .I n c l u d e d i n these f i g u r e sa r et y p i c a l
s p a n w i s e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of s e c t i o n l i f t , d r a g and p i t c h i n g moment
coefficients.
The c o r r e l a t i o n of t h e computer r e s u l t s v e r s u s t h e o r e t i c a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ofReferences 1 and 2 and t h e a v a i l a b l e e x p e r -
i m e n t a ld a t aa r ep e r f o r m e d , w h e r e p o s s i b l e on t h e b a s i s of t h e
integratedvaluesas w e l l asthespanwisedistributions of wing
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,m e a s u r e m e n t s ofwingcharacter-
isticsinthepresence ofa f u s e l a g e ,e s p e c i a l l y of t h es p a n
loading,areextremelydifficult t o o b t a i n f o r t h e c l a s s ofwing-
f u s e l a g ec o m b i n a t i o n sc o n s i d e r e dh e r e i n , A s a r e s u l t ,t h e r e is
a l a c k of s u i t a b l e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a of t h e t y p e r e q u i r e d f o r
t h ep r e s e n tc o m p a r i s o n s . Some e x p e r i m e n t a ld a t ae x i s t sf o r swept
wingbodycombinationsbutsuchdata i s n o ta p p l i c a b l ef o r
correlationswiththestraight wing r e s u l t s .
Examining F i g u r e s 15 through18, i t c a nb en o t e dt h a t the
computer r e s u l t s a r e i n good a g r e e m e n tw i t ht h ea v a i l a b l ee x p e r -
i m e n t a ld a t a . The s l i g h td i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e nt h ep r e s e n t compu-
t a t i o n s and t h o s e ofReferences 1 and 2 a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o hand
v e r s u sm a c h i n ef a i r i n g of t h e s e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

67
1.

1.

1.

1.

Drag coefficient, CD Angle of attack, “CB Pitching-moment

coef ficlent , Cm

Geometric Washout = 4.5’ Root Section 4416

Aspect Ratio = 8.04 Tip Section 4412
Reynolds Number = 4 . 3 2 ~ 1 0 ~ Taper Ratio = .4

Figure 15. Exp3rimental and Calculated Characteristics for a Wing

of Aspect Ratio 8.04.
 0 04 .6 .8
Fraction semispan
032

024

016

.008

Figure 15. Concluded

69

I
 I4
U

al
0
u

Drag coefficient, CD Angle of attack,oEB Pitching-moment

coefficient , Cm
Geometric Washout = 3.5' Root Section 4420
Aspect Ratio = 10.05 Tip Section 4412
Reynolds Number = 3.49~106 Taper Ratio = .4

Figure 16. Experimental and Calculated Characteristics for a Wing of

Aspect Ratio 10.05
 Fraction semispan
.024

016

.008

- 080
- .090

- .loo

Figure 16. - Concluded

71
 Pitching-moment
Drag coefficient, CD Of attack, <B coefficient, cm

Geometric Washout = 3.0' Root Section 4424

Aspect Ratio = 12.06 Tip Section 4412
Reynolds Number = 2 . 8 7 ~ 1 0 ~ Taper Ratio = .4

Figure 17. - Experimental and Calculated Characteristics for a Wing

of Aspect Ratio 12.06.
 ~-
Fraction semisDan

Figure 17. Concluded

73
 Fractionsemispan

(a)Calculatedspanloaddistribution€or LOo a n g l e o f a t t a c k .

Angle of a t t a c k

( b ) C o m p a r i s o no fe x p e r i m e n t a la n d c a l c u l a t e d l i f t curve.

F i g u r e 18. Experimentaland Calculated!Characteristics f o r Wing

w i t h 60% Flap;AspectRatio 9.02; TaperRatio
0.4; Washout 2'.

74

111 II I I
 SECTION 5
PARAMETRIC INVESTIGATION
The computer program was used to determine the effect of
wing geometryon the spanwise lift distribution, the location of
the initial stalling point and the corresponding of value
the
effective maximumwing lift coefficient,CLmax. A similar
investigation based on a linearized formulation of the lifting-
line theoryis reportedin Reference 49. Th.e present results
may be considered as an extension of this work in that a broader
range of parameters was investigated and the more accurate non-
linear theory was employed.
5.1 RANGE OF PARAMETERS
The range of parameters selected for this study is representa-
tive of that applicable to present-day 1igh.t aircraft.
Computations were performed for wings utilizing the three basic
NACA 64 series, 44 series
airfoil series commonly encountered,
and 230 series. These calculations were selected to show
the effect of the three major geometric parameters, aspect ratio,
taper ratio and section thickness, together with the influence
of washout and linear camber variation from to root
tip. Varia-
tions in flight Reynolds number, based on the wing mean aerodynamic
chord, were also investigated as were the influences of a part-
span deflected flap and the presence of a fuselage.
The variation of wing thickness and ch.ord length. was linear
in all cases but the distribution
of washout was non-linear in
contrast to that used in Reference
49. Th.e non-linear wash.out
distribution chosen ensures straight-line leading and trailing
edges. Washout was aerodynamic which is defined as the angle
between the zero-lift lines of the root and tip sections. All
wings were of trapezoidal planform without rounded tips, and zero
sweep.
The investigation encompassed 331 different configurations
which are summarized in Table111. The configuration defined an by
aspect ratio of 6, a Reynolds number of 6x106 and a root and tip
thickness chord ratio of0.18 and 0.12 respectively was selected
as a standard case for systematic variation of the parameters.
These variations included the values of aspect ratios 6, 8of
,
and 10, aerodynamic washout ofO o , 2%', 5O, and 7k0, taper ratios
of 0.5, 0.75 and1.0; root th.ickness ratios 0.21,
of 0.18, 0.15,
and 0.12; and tip thickness ratios 0.12 of and 0.15.
The complete range of calculations were not performed for
untapered wings having 7S0 washout since this amount of twist
would not normally be used on wings of this planform. However,
to assist in establishing trends, few
a computations were obtained
for this washout.

75
 TABLE 111 - SUMMARY OF
CONFIGUMTIONS
STUDIED
( a > Wings of NACA 44XX A i r f o i l S e c t i o n

i Tip t / c \Aerodynamic e. N o b
I
j Washout -Deg.
I
10-
I "
Comments
I
1. .75 .5!6 8 10i.12 .15 .18 . 2 1 ! . 1 2. 1 5 .18jO 2.5 5.0 7.: 3 6 9
x x x ;x X
1
; x
1-X
.-
IX x x -i
x x x ~ xj X ' X x x X Aspect

Ix x
x x X ' X ti x x x X Rati o
x x x X , x X X Variation
x X ' x x ! X ' X I X X
"_ X
X
.
"I
x
x
x
x
x
x jx
x Ix
x ix
'x
ix
1
x
x
x
x
X
X
X
X
Root ( t / c >
Variation
I
1I
x x Ix ! X X I
X
t
... -.. .
X

II xx
x
x
x
x
x
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X ".
X

X
X
X
X Tip (t/c>
Variation
j
I
I
X X
i X X Reynolds NO.
I
i
X Variation !
x x x ] X I X x
X / x x

T o t a l number o f c o n f i g u r a t i o n s = 106
 TABLE I11 - SUMMARY OF CONFIGURATIONS STUDIED - Continued
(b) Wings of NACA 230XX Airfoil Section
-- --
-.

'
"

Taper ; AspectRoot t/c 1 Tip t/c

I
!Aerodynamic;Re. N0-I
1
Ratio i Ratio !
I !
i Wash.out-kg. I x l o m 6
! Comments
I
'1. .75.5 6 8 1 0 / . 1 2. 1 5 .18 .21!.12.15 .1810 2.55.07.5( 3 6 9
I I

i
I

!
, x x x , x X i x ix x x 4 x : I
x x ' x !x x x X ! Aspect I
I X
! x x x ;
x ;,
X
X ix /x x x
~

! X 1 Ratio
I
I x x ]x X x
j
X / X j Variation
X X x . x
X ! x ! .. -.
" . ..
x j x
."_____
j jI
xx xx x : x
X / x :x x x I
X I X !x x x ' X II Root (t/c) j
I

1
I X ~ X I x x j Variation
,I I
~

I x x Ix X / x X I x 1
x x x X / x I x
!
-"
. X I - I
x x
x
x x
x x
X
X
I
I
I
X
X
/x x
::: : x
x
i x
.x x
: Tip (t/c)
Variation
---.
-

1
"" +. +-."
~

x x x x X X
x x x x X j x x Reynolds No.
x x x x X ! x X / X Variation
x x x x X X X I X

Total number of configurations = 99

 TABLE 111 - SUMMARY OF CONFIGURATIONS STUDIED - Continued

,1 .Taper

Ratio
""

Aspect
Ratio
1
:
(c> Wings of NACA 642XX Airfoil Section

Root t/c Aerodynamic

Washout-Deg.
. .-. . . . .. -.
" -. .- ... ..- ..-. . . Comments
'1. .75 .5. 6 8 1 0 , . 1 2 .15 .18 .21! . 1 2 .15 .18 0 2.55.0 7.:
" . +"" -. -
-. -.. .- - - .- .

, x x x x X X x x x x :
. x x X ' x X X x x x X Aspect
: x x x X X X x x x x II Ratio
~ x x x X X X x , Variation
x x X X X X x :
I
x ."x.":~ X _ X _- X ~- I "
X1.
Ix x x x x / x ' X x x
] x x x : x X ) x !x x x x i
jx x x x I X x : Root (t/c>
\ x x x
X
X I X
jx
I
x x X x .
~ Variation
x x .x X ! X I X x
I
x x , x X ___ ~
# X I
. .. - , ____" X X I
' X x x . x X X 'x x x

Total number of configurations = 99

 TABLE I11 - SUMMARY
OF
CONFIGURATIONS
STUDIED - Concluded
( d ) Effects of Camber, FuselageandFlaps on Wings of Various NACA Airfoil
Sect ions.

: Tipi
~-~
j Taper I Aspect!Root I -
7""
i Wing/Body !
'
-
Ratio \ Ratio 1 t/c
--
Aerodynamic Re.No
"___."
j
t / c ; Washout-Deg. ; x
- ". -
!Flap Span
I I n c i d e n c e , Wing-Span i
Comments
"

!
:
"

0 0 0
'1. . 7 5 .5 : 6 1 .18 . 1 2 . 0 . 2 . 5 5.0 3 6 9 10 2 4 1-45 .go - 7 5
I
Effect o f !
0.2 Camber 1

Increase
FuselageEffect,l
High Wing I
L=1/10 SDan
I
I
F l a p Effect

,
"

T o t a l number of c o n f i g u r a t i o n s = 2 7

Grand t o t a l of c o n f i g u r a t i o n s s t u d i e d = 331
5.2 METHOD O F PRESENTATION O F RESULTS

The e f f e c t s o f v a r i o u s d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s on t h e s t a l l i n g
c h . a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f unsweptwing a i r c r a f t are h . e r e i n p r e s e n t e d
i n th.e formof p l o t s sh.owing t h e s t a l l m a r g i n d i s t r i b u t i o n s ,
l o c a t i o n and movement of s t a l l b o u n d a r i e s and t h e maximum v a l u e s
of i n t e g r a t e d w i n g l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t .

5 . 2 . 1S t a l lM a r g i nD i s t r i b u t i o n s
T h e s t a l l m a r g i n , A C t , i s d e f i n e d a s th.e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
t h e maximum s e c t i o n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t and the s e c t i o n l i f t c o e f f i -
c i e n t when t h e s t a l l f i r s t o c c u r s on t h e wing.Figure19 shows
t y p i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s of C l ,Cf rnax a n d A CI computed f o r t h e
c o n d i t i o n si n d i c a t e d . The s p a n w i s el o c a t i o no fz e r os t a l lm a r g i n
c o r r e s p o n d st ot h ep o i n t ofonset o f s t a l l and t h e r a t e ofsepara-
tionofthe ACl c u r v e from t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s i n d i c a t e s t h e r a t e
of s t a l lp r o p a g a t i o na c r o s st h es p a n . A wing i s u s u a l l y assumed
t o h a v e s u f f i c i e n t s t a l l margin i f a v a l u e o f ACl = 0 . 1 i s i n d i c a -
tedatthe 70% s e m i s p a ns t a t i o n .
Since i t w o u l d b e i m p r a c t i c a l t o p r e s e n t a l l th.ree distrib-
u t i o n s ( i .e. C t , C t max , and Act 1 for e a c h of t h e 331 cases
computed, i n t h e manner p r e s e n t e d i n F-igure 1 9 ,o n l y t h e d i s t r i b -
u t i o n s of s t a l l m a r g i na r eg i v e n .

5.2.2 S t a lB
l oundaries

I ng e n e r a l , th.e c u r v er e p r e s e n t i n gt h es p a n w i s el i f td i s t r i b -
utionattheonset ofwing s t a l l i s t a n g e n tt o t h e s e c t i o n Clrnax
c u r v ea t more thanoneDoint.This i m p l i e s t h a t a few a d j a c e n t
wing s e c t i o n s ( i . e . a p o r t i o n of t h e w i n gs p a n )c a nb es t a l l e d
s i m u l t a n e o u s l ya t a g i v e no p e r a t i n gc o n d i t i o n . The limiting
valuesofspanwiselocationsencompassing t h e s e s t a l l e ds e c t i o n s
a r ed e f i n e da s t h e s t a l lb o u n d a r i e s .U s i n gs t a l lm a r g i nd i s t r i b -
u t i o n s , such. a s shown i n F i g u r e 1 9 , t h e i n n e r and outerboundar-
i e s of t h . e s t a l l e d wing a r e a c a n b e e s t i m a t e d a s t h e spanwise
l o c a t i o n s where ACl= 0.01. Furthermore, t h . e movement of t h e s e
stallboundariesaffectingthegrowth and the propagationof
wing s t a l l a r e a s c a n b e e x p r e s s e d a s a f u n c t i o n of t h e b a s i c
d e s i g np a r a m e t e r s . F o r e x a m p l e ,u s i n gF i g u r e s1 9 ( a >a n d1 9 ( b 1
the stall areas for t h . e unflappedand t h . e f l a p p e d wing c o n f i g u r a -
t i o n sc o n s i d e r e da r ed e f i n e d by t h e s t a l l b o u n d a r i e s 50% t o 68%
and 10% t o 40% of t h e w i n gs p a n ,r e s p e c t i v e l y .
5.2.3 Maximum L i f t C o e f f i c i e n t
Maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t i s an i m p o r t a n t c r i t e r i o n i n
assessingwingstallch.aracteristicsasaffected by t h e v a r i a t i o n
o fb a s i cd e s i g np a r a m e t e r s . Th.is l i f tc o e f f i c i e n t i s defined
a st h ei n t e g r a t e dv a l u eo b t a i n e df r o mt h es p a n w i s el i f td i s t r i b u -
t i o n s when any one o f t h e wing s e c t i o n s i s s t a l l e d . Such s t a l l

80
 .8

.7

.6

05

04

03

.2

.1
0
0 .4 .6 .8 1.0
Fraction semispan
(a) Unflapped wing - 230 series sections.

3.

3.

2.

2.

2.

1.

1.

. 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
Fraction semispan
(b) Flapped wing - 60% span flap - 642 series sections.

Figure 19. - Typical Lift Distributions AlongWing Span

81
i s o b t a i n e d when t h e l o c a l s e c t i o n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t Cf e q u a l s
t h . e maximum v a l u e ( C f max 1 of t h . a t s e c t i o n . T h . i s valuedepends
p r i m a r i l y on s e c t i o n t h i c k n e s s - c h o r d r a t i o , R e y n o l d s number
and t h e a i r f o i l t y p e . T y p i c a l v a r i a t i o n s of t h . e maximum s e c t i o n
l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t ( C f m a x 1 w i t h th.ese p a r a m e t e r s i s sh.own i n F i g u r e
20. The e f f e c t s o fv a r i o u sd e s i g np a r a m e t e r s on i n t e g r a t e d
maximum wing l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t a r e h e r e i n p r e s e n t e d i n t h e form
of c a r p e t p l o t s . T h e s e p l o t s f a c i l i t a t e l i n e a r r e a d i n g s ofnon-
l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n th.ree v a r i a b l e s and th.us p e r m i t
more a c c u r a t e i n t e r p o l a t i o n (or e x t r a p o l a t i o n ) f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e
values oft'neparameters. However, s i n c e t h i s methodof data
p r e s e n t a t i o n i s n o t a s commonly u s e d a s t h e f a m i l i a r X-Y p l o t , a n
e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h eu s eo fc a r p e tp l o t s i s presentedinthe
f o l l o w i n gs u b - s e c t i o n .

5 . 2 . 4C a r p ePt l o t s

The p r o c e d u r e f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g and r e a d i n g c a r p e t p l o t s c a n
b eb e s ti l l u s t r a t e d by t h . e followingexample: T h e c a r p e tp l o t
shown i n F i g u r e 2 1 r e p r e s e n t s t h . e v a r i a t i o n of C L m a x w i t h Reynolds
number and t a p e r r a t i o f o r a wingemploying 230 s e r i e s s e c t i o n s
and a c o n s t a n tv a l u e ofwashoutof 7%O. Curve ( a b c ) on t h i s
c a r p e t i s a c o n v e n t i o n a l( x - y )p l o t of C L m a x v Reynolds number
f o r a c o n s t a n tv a l u eo ft a p e rr a t i oo f0 . 5 . T h e i n d i c a t e dh o r -
izontalunitdistancecorresponds t o a change i n Reynolds number
o f 1 x 1 0 6 .T h u s ,p o i n t( a )c o r r e s p o n d s t o Reynolds number of
3x106and p o i t ( b ) which i s 3 h o r i z o n t a l u n i t s from ( a ) , c o r r e s -
ponds t o 6x10' and p o i n t ( c ) t o 9x106. T h e c u r v e( d e f )p r e s e n t s
a similarplotfor a t a p e r r a t i o of0.75.
However, i n s t e a d of p l o t t i n g d a t a f o r x = .75 on t h e same
horizontal scale as th.at for curve ( abc 1 a new s c a l e i s ch.osen
whose o r i g i n i s 2% h . o r i z o n t a 1 u n i t s t o t h . e r i g h t of t h . e p o i n t
( a ) , r e f l e c t i n g t h . e change i n t a p e r r a t i o from0.5 t o 0.75. T h u s ,
asregardschangesintaperratio, each. h o r i z o n t a l u n i t c o r r e s -
ponds t o a c h a n g ei n X e q u a l t o 0.1. S i m i l a r l yc u r v e( g h i )f o r X
= L. 0 i s p l o t t e d 5 u n i t s t o t h . e r i g h t o f p o i n t ( a ) o r 2% u n i t s
t o t h er i g h . tf r o mp o i n t( b ) .A f t e r a new o r i g i n i s s e l e c t e d
f o r e a c ht a p e rr a t i o ( i . e . p o i n t ( a ) f o r X = 0 . 5 ,p o i n t( d )
f o r X = 0 . 7 5a n dp o i n t( g )f o r X = 1.01, t h e p l o t t i n g o f t h . e C L m o x
vs. R e c u r v e s f o r each t a p e r r a t i o i s a c c o m p l i s h e di n t h . e conven-
t i o n a l way. If a l l p o i n t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e same v a l u eo f CL max
Reynolds number a r e now j o i n e d ,e : g .c u r v e s( a d g )( b e h ) and ( c f i ) ,
the resulting curves s h o w t h e v a n a t i o n of C L m a x w i t h t a p e r
r a t i o forconstantvalues ofReynoldsnumber.

Reading t h e c a r p e t i s as s i m p l ea sc o n s t r u c t i n g it. I f
t h ev au e of C L m a x i s r e q u i r e d , s a y , f o r x
= 0.62and Re =
5 . 3 ~ 1 &0
= i t c a nb eo b t a i n e da sf o l l o w s : For a l l t h r e e values
of t a p e r r a t i o l o c a t e and j o i n p o i n t s ( j ) , (k) and (1) correspond-
i n gt o R e = 5 . 3 ~ 1 0 6 . T h i s i s accomplished bymoving 2.3

82
I

Reynolds Number x l@

Figure 20. Variation of Vmax withReynolds Number andThickness-Chord r a t i o -

230 series s e c t i o n s ,
 i
:

=In

1
i

Reynolds Number

Figure 20. Continued - 44 series sections

 1.

cf r n c

1.

1.

1.

1.

1.

Figure 20. Concluded - 642 series s e c t i o n s

 1

hax

1.

1.

1.:

1.1

Figure 21. - Variation of C h a x w i t h Reynolds

Number and Taper Ratio.

86
h o r i z o n t a lu n i t st o w a r d st h er i g h tf r o mp o i n t (a) tolocate
p o i n t (j) on t h e X = 0 . 5c u r v e ,2 . 3h o r i z o n t a lu n i t sf r o mp o i n t
(d)tolocatepoint (k) on th.e x = 0.75 curve and t h . e same
number o f u n i t s f r o m p o i n t ( g ) t o l o c a t e p o i n t (1) on th.e x = 1.0
c u r v e .S i m i l a r l y ,l o c a t ea n dj o i np o i n t (m) ( n ) and ( 0 ) moving
1 . 2 h o r i z o n t a lu n i t sf r o mp o i n t s ( a ) , ( b )a n d( c ) on t h . e c o r r e s -
pondingReynolds number c u r v e s ,r e s p e c t i v e l y . The p o i n t of i n t e r -
s e c t i o n( p )o ft h e curves ( i h l ) and (mno) y i e l d s t h e r e q u i r e d
valueof C L = 1.445
~ ~ fo ~ r X = 0.62and Re = 5.3~106.

5.3 COMPUTER
RESULTS
Presented in this section i s a compilationofwingstall
d e s i g nc h a r t so b t a i n e df r o mt h ec o m p u t e rp r o g r a m .T h e s ec h a r t s
canbeusedinpreliminarydesign of unsweptwing a i r c r a f t f o r
d e t e r m i n i n g optimum g e o m e t r i c p a r a m e t e r s o f a wing t o y i e l d good
s t a l l i n gc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The e f f e c t s of th.ese geometricpar-
a m e t e r s on s t a l l i n g b e h a v i o r of s t r a i g h t wing a i r c r a f t are
d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n gp a g e s .
5 . 3 . 1E f f e c to fA s p e c tR a t i o
F i g u r e s 2 2 , 2 3 , and24 show t h . e e f f e c t o f a s p e c t r a t i o on
wing s t a l l m a r g i n s , s t a l l boundariesand t h e v a l u e s of maximum
wing l i f tc o e f f i c i e n t ,r e s p e c t i v e l y . Each. o f th.ese f i g u r e s i s
p r e s e n t e df o rt h r e ed i f f e r e n t families of a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s , i. e .
230,44and642 s e r i e s , and f o r a r a n g eo fw i n gt a p e rr a t i o s
between0.5and 1.0 andwingwash.outbetween 0 and 74O.

Examining F i g u r e 22 i t c a n b e n o t e d t h a t a n i n c r e a s e i n
aspect ratio results in a r e d u c t i o no f t h . e s t a l l margins a t o u t -
b o a r dw i n gs t a t i o n s . T h i s e f f e c t i s minimized a t h i g hv a l u e s
of wash.outandwing t a p e rr a t i o s .F u r t h e r m o r e ,a sc a nb es e e n
f r o mF i g u r e s 2 3 and24,anincrease i n aspect r a t i o appears t o
h.ave l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e s p a n w i s e l o c a t i o n o f s t a l l b o u n d a r i e s
and y i e l d s o n l y a s m a l l i n c r e a s e i n wing maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t .
I t c a nt h e r e f o r eb ec o n c l u d e dt h a ta l t h o u g h . wing a s p e c t r a t i o
i s import ant from a i r c r a f t performance considerat ions, i t s
e f f e c t on t h e s t a l l i n g h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s v e r y small. F o rt h i s
r e a s o nt h er e m a i n i n g s t a l l r e s u l t s which. a r e p r e s e n t e d i n this
sectionforaspectratio o f 6 o n l ya r ec o n s i d e r e d t o betypical
and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f o r t h e r a n g e ofaspectratiosassociated
withpresentday1igh.taircraft.
5.3.2 E f f e c t of Taper R a t i o
."

F i g u r e s 22 through24 a l s o show t h . a t t a p e r r a t i o i s one of

t h e m o s td o m i n a n td e s i g np a r a m e t e r sa f f e c t i n gw i n gs t a l lc h a r a c -
teristics. F o ra n yf i x e da s p e c tr a t i o andwingwashoutan
increaseintaperratio from x = 0.5 t o X = 1 . 0 ( r e c t a n g u l a r

87
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. Deg. 2% 5 Deg. 7% k g .

0 2Y/b 1 0 2y/b 1 0 1
Taper Ratio = .5

0 Taper Ratio = .75

Aspect
Rat io
"-
-.-.-..
6
8
10
Root Section 23018
Tip Section 23012
Re = 6x106
0

L
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg. 5 Deg. 7% Deg.

Taper Ratio = .5

aJ
W

0 Taper Ratio = .75

.8
Aspect
Ratio
-"
- 6
.4 -.- 8
10
Root Section 4418
ACJ Tip Section 4412
R e = 6x106
0
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg.
.8

.4

Taper Ratio = .5

0 Taper Ratio = .75

.8
Aspect
- Ratio
"- 6
.4 - 8
10
Root Section 64218
Ac, Tip Section 64212
Re = 6x106
I
0 Taper Ratio = 1
~4 ~ I F P . 22. Concluded
 Deg. =2%0 Deg.
WASHOUT 5 Deg. 7% Deg-.

Taper Ratio = .5
10

AEZ

U
Taper Ratio = .75

10

Root Section 23018

8 Tip Section 23012
Re = 6x106
Au
L
Taper Ratio = 1
Figure 23. Effect of Aspect R a t i o on Wing Stall Pattern.
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg.
10

TaperRatio = .5
10

AR

10

Root S e c t i o n 4418
8 T i p S e c t i o n $412
R e = 6x10
AR

6
Taper Ratio = 1
Figure 23. Continued
 WASHOUT = 2% Deg.

1.4

1.5
WASHOUT = 5 Deg.
'kax

1.4

1.3

1.5
WASHOUT = 7% Deg.
Root S e c t i o n 23018
max T i p S e c t i o n g3012
R e = 6x10
1.4

F i g u r e 24. E f f e c t of A s p e c tR a t i oa n dT a p e rR a t i oo n Cbaxm

94
l1q- -

WASHOUT 5 Deg.

CLTlax
WASHOUT = 7% Deg.
1.4 Root Section 4418
Tip Section 2412
Re = 6x10

1.3

Figure 24. Continued

95

~~
 1.5

CLmaX

1.4

1.3
1.5

'Lmax
WASHOUT 2%
1.4

1.3
1.5

'r+nax

1.4
WASHOUT = 5 Deg.

1.3

1.5

'hax
WASHOUT = 7% Deg.
1.4 R o o tS e c t i o n6 4 2 1 8
Tip S e c t i o n 6 4 2 1 2
R e =' 6x106

1.3

Figure
24.
Concluded

96
wing) r e s u l t s i n a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n s t a l l margin on
t h eo u t e rp o r t f o no f t h . e w i n g .T h i si n c r e a s ei ns t a l lm a r g i n
i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s h i f t of s t a l l b o u n d a r i e s t o w a r d t h e i n n e r
p o r t i o n o f t h e wing.
The a d v a n t a g e o f t h e f a v o r a b l e s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o b t a i n a b l e by i n c r e a s i n g wing t a p e r r a t i o i s somewhat o f f s e t by
a r e d u c t i o n o f wing C L m a x and h e n c e , f o r a g i v e n wing l o a d i n g , an
increase i n s t a l l i n gs p e e d .T h i sr e d u c t i o n , whichcanbe as
h i g h a s 12% based on t h e CL rnax v a l u e s f o r a r e c t a n g u l a r w i n g ,
depends on t h e a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s and wingwash.out.

5.3.3 Effect of Wing Washout-

Washout i s o f t e n u s e d t o promote d e s i r a b l e s t a l l i n g c h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c s . F o r a g i v e nv a l u e ofwing l i f tc o e f f i c i e n t ,t w i s t i n g
thetipsectionrelative t o th.e r o o t s e c t i o nr e d u c e st h ev a l u e s
of s e c t i o n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t i n t h . e t i p r e g i o n s and i n c r e a s e s
s e c t i o nl i f tc o e f f i c i e n ta ti n b o a r ds t a t i o n s .S i n c et h ed i s t r i b -
u t i o n of s e c t i o n maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t i s u n a f f e c t e d by t w i s t ,
thenetresult i s t o increasethestallmarginsinthetipregion
and t o s h . i f tt h es t a l lb o u n d a r i e si n b o a r d of t h e wing. Th.ese
e f f e c t sc a nb es e e nf r o mF i g u r e s 2 2 and 23.

Examiningth.esefigures it c a n b e n o t e d t h a t f o r a taper
r a t i o of 0.5 washout e x e r t s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l i n f l u e n c e on t h e
s t a l l m a r g i n sa t 70% semispan. A s t a p e rr a t i oi n c r e a s e s , however,
t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s ofwash.outbecomes g r e a t e r and i s most e f f e c t i v e
f o r a r e c t a n g u l a r wing ( 1 = 1). However,a r e c t a n g u l a r wing i s
u n l i k e l y t o r e q u i r e wash.out s i n c e ,a sd i s c u s s e dp r e v i o u s l y ,w i n g s
o f t h i sp l a n f o r mn o r m a l l ye x h i b i t good s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
The b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t of washoutappears t o b e o f f s e t by t h e
a d v e r s ee f f e c t of t h el i n e a r l yd i m i n i s h i n gR e y n o l d s number. There-
fore,theuse ofwash.outseems most j u s t i f i e d f o r moderatevalues
o f wing t a p e r r a t i o .

Furthermore,Figure 2 4 i n d i c a t e st h . a tf o rf i x e dv a l u e s of
a s p e c t r a t i o and t a p e r r a t i o , wingwash.out t e n d s t o r e d u c e t h e
v a l u e of CL max .The amount of t h i s reductiondepends on t h . e wing
s e c t i o n s and t h e v a l u e of washoutused.

I n a d d i t i o n t o theeffectsdiscussedabove, washout may

a f f e c t wingperformancethrough.changes i n b o t h wing p r o f i l e
and induceddrag. T h e i n c r e a s ei ni n d u c e dd r a gc o e f f i c i e n t
due t o washoutabove t h . a t f o r an untwistedwing i s p r e s e n t e d i n
F i g u r e 25 f o r t w o v a l u e s of a s p e c tr a t i o 6 and 10. Th.e d a t a i s
f o r awingh.aving230 series s e c t i o n s w i t h r o o t and t i p t h i c k n e s s -
c h o r dr a t i o s of .18 and .12, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
A s canbe seen, a t low v a l u e s of l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t t h . e use
of w a s h o u t c a u s e s a n i n c r e a s e i n i n d u c e d d r a g w h i l e a t h i g h . v a l u e s
of CL washout r e d u c e si n d u c e dd r a g .I n c r e a s e di n d u c e dd r a gl e v e l s

97
 001

0
A CDi

001

0
.75
AcDj

- 001
-.002

AcDi

- 001
1

-.002

-. 003

F i g u r e 25. - IncrementofInduced-DragCoefficient ,
Due t o Wash.out
-
230 s e r i e s a i r f o i l s e c t i o n a s p e c t r a t i o = 6 , R e = 6x106

98
 Taper
Ratio
.5

AcDj

-.001 .75

-. 002

- 003

-. 00 1

“002

-. 00:

Figure 25. - Concluded - aspectratio = 10

99
a t low l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s may i m p a i r cruise perfonnance depending
on t h e amount o f t h e i n c r e a s e r e l a t i v e t o t h e o v e r a l l d r a g
c o e f f i c i e n t of t h ea i r p l a n e .C h a n g e s i n p r o f i l ed r a gd u et o
washout were found t o b e s u f f i c i e n t l y small t h a t t h e i r e f f e c t s
on wing performance can be neglected.

5.3.4 Effect of Root Thickness-Chord R a t i o ~~ ~~

The e f f e c t o f r o o t t h i c k n e s s - c h o r d r a t i o onwing s t a l l i n g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c sc a nb ed e p i c t e df r o mF i g u r e s2 6 , 27 and 28. Th.ese
f i g u r e s are p r e s e n t e d f o r a n a s p e c t r a t i o o f 6 wing having the
tipthicknessfixed a t a c o n s t a n tv a l u eo f 1 2 % and t h e r o o t
t h i c k n e s sv a r y i n gb e t w e e n 12% and 21%. T h r e e f a m i l i e s o f a i r f o i l
s e c t i o n s are c o n s i d e r e d ; 230 s e r i e s , 44 s e r i e s and 642 series.

T h e s e f i g u r e s sh.ow t h . a t f o r t h e wingemploying230 series

airfoilsincreasingrootthickness-chordratio r e s u l t s i n an
i n c r e a s e i n s t a l l margins for o u t b o a r dw i n gs e c t i o n s , a general
i n b o a r d movement o f t h . e s t a l l b o u n d a r i e s a n d a d e c r e a s e i n wing
maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t .

S i m i l a r e f f e c t s of t h . e r o o t t h i c k n e s s - r a t i o c a n b e n o t e d f o r
t h e w i n ge m p l o y i n g4 4 - s e r i e sa i r f o i l s ,h o w e v e r ,i n t h i s case
thevariationinthestallingch.aracteristics i s l e s s pronounced.

For th.e wingemploying 642 s e r i e s a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s , an

increaseinrootthickness-ch.ordratio causes a r e d u c t i o n i n t h . e
s t a l l marginson th.e o u t b o a r d p o r t i o n o f t h . e wingand tends to
move t h e s t a l l b o u n d a r i e s o u t b o a r d i n c o n t r a s t t o th.e t r e n d s
i n d i c a t e d by t h e r e s u l t s f o r t h e o t h . e r series. T h . i s e f f e c t i s
primarily due to the variation of C t max w i t h . t h i c k n e s s - c h o r d r a t i o
forthisparticularairfoil series. A s canbe seen fromFigure
20 t h e amount by wh.ich clrnax d e c r e a s e s w i t h . i n c r e a s e s i n s e c t i o n
t h i c k n e s s - c h o r d r a t i o s above12% i s g r e a t e s t f o r t h e 230 s e r i e s
a i r f o i l s , less f o r t h e 4 4 s e r i e s and l e a s t f o r t h e 642 s e r i e s
s e c t i o n s .I n f a c t , f o r Reynoldsnumbersgreaterthan6x106the
642 series shows a small r i s e i n C l rnax wh.en t h e s e c t i o n t h . i c k n e s s
c h o r dr a t i oi n c r e a s e sf r o m .12 t o .15.

F u r t h e r m o r e ,f o r a g i v e n s p a n w i s e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s e c t i o n
Reynolds number and t h i c k n e s s - c h o r d r a t i o t h e c u r v e of Cfrnax
versusspanwisedistance w i l l be f l a t t e s t f o r t h e wingemploying
642 s e r i e s s e c t i o n s . T h . i s h.as t h . e e f f e c t ofpromoting stall
furtheroutboardthan would b e t h e case f o r t h e wings composed
of e i t h e r 44 o r 230 series s e c t i o n s .

The f a c t t h a tt h ed e p e n d e n c eo f c C rnax on ( t / c ) is l e a s t
f o r t h e 642 s e r i e s a i r f o i l s i s a g a i n r e f l e c t e d i n t h e results
f o r wing maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t as shown i n F i g u r e 28. For
thiscaseincreasingrootthickness-chordratio results i n t h e

100
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg. 5 kg. 7%. k g .

1
Taper Ratio = .5

0 Taper Ratio = .75

Root SecYTon
-23012
"-23015
"-23018
-.--23021
Tip Section 23012
Aspect Ratio = 6
Re = 6x106
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg . 2% Deg. 5 Deg.

Taper Ratio = - 5

0 Taper Ratio = .75

.8
Root Section
-
"- 4412
.4
-.-.-4415
-..-.. 4421
4418
Tip Section 4412
Aspect Ratio = 6
Re = 6x106
0 Taper Kat io = 1
Figure 26. Continued
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg. 5 Jkg.

TaperRatio = .5

r
0
w

0 Ratio Taper = .75

Root S e c t i o n
-64212
“64215
“-64218
-*%4221
T i p S e c t i o n 64212
Aspect Ratio = 6
Re = 6x106
0 Ratio Taper = 1
Figure 26. - Concluded
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg. 5 Deg. 7% k g .

a. -
Taber Ratio = -5 "

Y
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 5 Deg.

T a p e rR a t i o = .S

T a p e rR a t i o = .75

Root Sectdon 44XX

T i pS e c t i o n 4412
A s p e cRt a t i o 6
R e = 6x106

T a p e rR a t i o = 1
F i g u r e 27. .Continued
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg. 5 Deg. 7% Deg.

r
0
b\

TaperRatio = .75

Root S e c t i o n 642XX
T i p S e c t i o n 64212
Aspect Ratio 6
R e = 6x106

F i g u r e 27. Concluded
 Washout = 0 Deg. 2% Deg.

1.

1.

1.

1.
5 Deg. 7% Deg.

1.

1.

1.

1.

1.
Root Section 230XX Aspect Ratio = 6
Tip Section 23012 Re = 6x106
Figure 28. Effect of Root Thickness-Chord Ratio on C h a x

107
 Washout = 0 Deg. 2% Deg.

5 Deg. 7% Deg.

1.

1.

1.

1.

Root Section 44XX Aspect

Ratio 6
Section
Tip 4412 Re = 6x106

Figure 28. Continued

108
 Washout = 0 Deg. 2% Deg.

1.5

1.4

5 Deg. 7% Deg.

Root S e c t i o n 642XX AspectRatig = 6

Tip S e c t i o n 64212 R e = 6x10

Figure 2 8 . Concluded

109
smallest r e d u c t i o n i n t h e v a l u e o f maximum wing l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t .

5.3.5 E f f e c t of Tip Thickness-Chord R a t i o

~~

F i g u r e s 29 and30 show t h e e f f e c t s o f t i p t h i c k n e s s - c h o r d
r a t i o onwing s t a l l i n g characteristics. The results are p r e s e n t e d
f o r a winghaving a r o o t t h i c k n e s s - c h o r d r a t i o f i x e d a t a constant
valueof0.18and tipthickness-chordratios o f 0 . 1 2 and 0.15.
Limitedcomputations were performed f o r t i p t h i c k n e s s - c h o r d r a t i o
of0.18primarilyforthepurposeofestablishingextrapolation
trendsforthevariationof wing maximum l i f t c o e f f i c L e n t .

F i g u r e s 29 and30 indicatethattheeffect o fi n c r e a s i n gt h e
tipthickness-chordratio i s toreducethestallmargins and t h e
v a l u eo f maximum wing l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t .T h i s i s due t o t h e f a c t
thatanincreaseintipthickness-chord r a t i o resultsinreduced
valuesofsection maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f
t h e wing t i p ,t h u sy i e l d i n gl o w e r s t a l l margins. A l s o , t h e
reductioninthevaluesof maximum wing l i f t c c e f f i c i e n t i s
smallerthanthat due t o i n c r e a s i n g r o o t t h . i c k n e s s - c h o r d r a t i o .
T h i s i s b e c a u s et h em a j o re f f e c t of changes i n t i p t h . i c k n e s s i s
confined t o t h e t i p r e g i o n s where t h e wingloading i s least.
Althoughtheeffectoftipthickness-chordratio on s t a l l
boundaries i s n o t p r e s e n t e d , i t i s expected t o be s i m i l a r t o
thatoftherootthickness-chordratiodiscussedintheprevious
sub-section.

5 . 3 . 6E f f e c to fF l i g h tR e y n o l d s Number

S i n c e t h e maximum l i f t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f most a i r f o i l
s e c t i o n s are inftuencedbyReynolds number (see F i g u r e 2 0 ) t h i s
parameter vtent1ally represents an effective means o f c o n t r o l l i n g
o v e r a l l wing s t a l l b e h a v i o r .
The e f f e c t of f l i g h t Reynolds numberon stall margindistrib-
u t i o n s , s t a l l boundariesandwing maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t i s
shown i nF i g u r e s 31, 32 a n d3 3 ,r e s p e c t i v e l y .T h e s ef i g u r e s
indicatethatfor wingsemploying230and 44 s e r i e s s e c t i o n s a n
increaseinflight Reynolds number r e s u l t s i n i n c r e a s e d s t a l l
m a r g i n so v e rt h eo u t b o a r d wing s t a t i o n a n d a s h i f t of s t a l l bound-
a r i e s towardsthe wing r o o t . However, e x a c t l yo p p o s i t et r e n d s
a r e i n d i c a t e d f o r wingsemploying 642 a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s . An
explanationofthisbehaviorcanagainbeobtainedusingthe
r e s u l t s ofFigure 20.

It canbenotedfromthisfigurethatforthe 230 and 44 ser-

i e s a i r f o i l s t h e r a t e of i n c r e a s e o f maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h
Reynolds number i s l a r g e r f o r t h . e t i p s e c t i o n s ( t / c = 0.12)than
t h a tf o rt h er o o ts e c t i o n s ( t / c = 0 . 1 8 ) .T h i sp r o d u c e sl a r g e r
stallmarginsattheoutboard(thinner) wing s e c t i o n s w i t h i n c r e a s e
i n f l i g h t Reynoldsnumber.

110
 WASHOUT = 0 k g . 2% Deg. 5 Deg. 7% k g .

Taper Ratio = .5
.8

r
r e 4
r

A9

0 Taper Ratio = .75

-Tip23012
Section
“-
23015
Root Section 23018
Aspect Ratio = 6
Re = 6x106

0 Taper Ratio = 1
~i~~~~ 29. Effect of Tip Thickness-Chord Ratio on Stall Margin Distribution.
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg.

0 10 1
TaperRatio = .5

TaperRatio = .75

.a
-T i p4412
Section
”-
4415
.4 Reot S e c t i o n 4418
AspectRatio = 6
Re = 6x106

0 TaperRatio = 1
F i g u r e 29. Continued
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg. 5 Deg. 7% Deg.

T a p e r R a t i o = .5

0 TaperRatio = .75

- Tip S e c t i o n
"- 64212
64215
Root S e c t i o n 64218
Aspect Ratio = 6
Re = 6x106

0 Taper Ratio = 1
Figure 29. Concluded
 111 I I i

WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg.

5 Deg. 7% k g .

1.5

1.4

1.3

Root S e c t i o n 23018 AspectRatio = 6

T i p S e c t i o n 230XX R e = 6X106

F i g u r e 30. - E f f e c t o f TipThickness-ChordRatioon Cbax

114
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg.

5 Deg. 7% Deg.

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2

Root S e c t i o n 4418 AspectRatio = 6

Tip Section 44XX R e = 6X106

F i g u r e 30. Continued

115
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg.

5 Deg. 7% Deg.

1.

1.

1.

Root Section 64218 Aspect Ratio - 6

Tip Section 642XX Re = 6X106-

Figure 30. Concluded

 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg. 5 Deg.

Taper Rat.io = .5

Taper Rat:io = .75

Reynolds
- Number
3x106
”.-
”- 6x106
9x10
6

Root Section 23018

Tip Section23012
Aspect Ratio = 6
‘Taper Ratio= 1
Figure 31. Effect of Reynolds Number on Stall Margin Distribution.
WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg. 5 Deg. 7% Deg.

TaperRatio = .5

TaperRatio = .75

Reynolds
- Numbgr
3x106
”-

6x106
-e-#- 9x10
Root S e c t i o n 4418
T i p S e c t i o n 4412
AspectRatio = 6
Taper Ratio = 1
F i g u r e 31. Continued
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg. 5 Deg. 7% Deg.

Taper Ratio = .5

0
Taper Ratio = -75
-8
Reynolds
Number
- 3x1066

-4 ---
- 0 - 6x106
9x10
Root Section 64218
Tip Section 64212
Aspect Ratio = 6
Taper Ratio = 1
Figure 31.Concluded

I
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg . 2% Deg. 5 Deg. 7% Deg.

Taper Ratio = 5.

Taper RatTo = .7!5

9x

Root S e c t i o n 23018
6 Tip 23012
" Aspect Ratio = 6
Re
~-
3
Taper Ratio = 1
Figure 32. Effect o f Reynolds Number on Wing S t a l lP a t t e r n
 WASHOUT = 0 k g . 2% Deg. 5 Deg. 732 k g .

9x

6
Re
3
0 10 10 10 1
Taper Ratio = .5

9x

6
Re
3
Taper Ratio = .75

9x

Root Section 4418

6 Tip Section 4412
Aspect Ratio = 6
Re
3
Taper Ratio = 1
Figure 32. Continued
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Beg. 5 kg. 7% k g .

'Taper R a t i o = .5

T a p e rR a t i o = .75

9x

RootSection64218
6 Tip 64212
A s p e c tR a t i o = 6
Re
3
TaperRatio = 1
Figure
Concluded
32.
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg.

1.

1.

1.

1.

5 Deg.

Root Section 23018 Tip Section 23012 Aspect Ratio = 6

Figure 33. Effect of Reynolds Number on C h a x

123

I
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg.

5 Deg. 7% Deg.

1.5

1.4

1.3

124
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg. 2% Deg.

1.

1.

1.

1,

5 Deg. 7% Deg.

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1

Root S e c t i o n 64218 T i pS e c t i o n 64212 Aspect Ratio = 6

F i g u r e 33. Concluded

125
 However, f o r t h e 642 series s e c t i o n s F i g u r e 20 i n d i c a t e s t h . e
o p p o s i t e e f f e c t , namely t h a t t h e r a t e o f increase of m a x i m u m
s e c t i o n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h R e y n o l d s number i s much l a r g e r f o r
t h ei n b o a r ds e c t i o n s ( t / c = 0.18) t h . a n t h a t f o r the outboard
s e c t i o n s ( t / c = 0.12). T h i s produces a s p a n w i s ev a r i a t i o no f
maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t which h a s an i n c r e a s i n g l y downward s l o p e
t o w a r dt h ew i n gt i p sa n d ,s i n c et h e value o f l o c a l l i f t c o e f f i c -
i e n t a t a n yw i n gs e c t i o ni n c r e a s e sw i t hR e y n o l d s number, t h e
s t a l l margins a t t h . e o u t b o a r d s e c t i o n s w i l l bereduced.
The e f f e c t ofReynolds number onwing maximum l i f t c o e f f i c -
i e n t shows t h e e x p e c t e d i n c r e a s e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g R e y n o l d s number.
F o r t h e 230 s e r i e s wing the maximum lift c o e f f i c i e n t i n c r e a s e s
almostlinearlywithReynolds number between 3 and 6 m i l l i o n , b u t
with a further increase to 9 m i l l i o n t h e r a t e of i n c r e a s e i s
r e d u c e d .T h i st r e n d i s p r e d i c t a b l ef r o mt h es e c t i o nc h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s where i t canbeseen th.at thegreatestch.angesinsection
maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t o c c u r s b e l o w R e y n o l d s numberof 6x106.
F o r t h . e wingserie.s44and 642 t h e v a r i a t i o n of maximum wing l i f t
c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h Reynolds number i n the rangeof 6 t o 9 million
i s more l i n e a r , a g a i n r e f l e c t i n g t h e t r e n d o f t h e a i r f o i l
section characteristics
5 . 3 . 7E f f e c to f Wing Camber
Th.e e f f e c t of a l i n e a r r o o t - t o - t i p i n c r e a s e i n wingcamber
on t h e s t a l l margins i s shown i n F i g u r e 3 4 f o r t h . r e e v a l u e so f
t a p e rr a t i o ,t h r e e Reynoldsnumbersandzerowingwash.out. Th.e
r e s u l t s are compared w i t h t h o s e f o r a c o n s t a n t camber. Th.e
camber v a r i a t i o n c h o s e n was 64218 r o o t s e c t i o n and 64412 t i p sec-
tion.

A s c a n b e seen from t h i s f i g u r e t h e p a r t i c u l a r camber v a r i a -

t i o n chosen i s n o t v e r y e f f e c t i v e i n changing t h . e s t a l l m a r g i n s
on t h eo u t b o a r ds e c t i o n so f t h e w i n g .T h i si n e f f e c t i v e n e s s is
attributed,inpart, t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h o i c e of a l i n e a r v a r i a -
t i o n ofcamber. I t i s e x p e c t e dt h a t a l a r g e r i n c r e a s e i n s t a l l
marginswouldbeobtainedfor a d i f f e r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n ofcamber
andwing a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s .

5 . 3 . 8E f f e c o
t fF u s e l a g e

F i g u r e 35 p r e s e n t s th.e computer r e s u l t s f o r a wingaloneand

a h.igh. wingmountedon a f u s e l a g e of e l l i p t i c a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n .
T h ew i n gh a sa na s p e c tr a t i o of 6 (based on t h e g r o s s wing a r e a )
w i t hz e r ow a s h o u t ,a n dr o o t and t i p t h i c k n e s s r a t i o s of0.18and
0 . 1 2 ,r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The computations were performed f o r t a p e r r a t i o s of0.5,

0.75and 1.0 and wing-fuselage s e t t i n g s o f O o , 2' and 4'. The
spanwise d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t a t s t a l l were found

126
 6
Re = 3x10
Taper Ratio = .5 TaDer Ratio = -75 Taper Ratio = 1

-
-"
Tip Section
Washout
64218
64212
64228 64412
Root Section AspectRatio = 6
= 0 Deg.

Figure 34. -Effect of Wing Camber on S t a l l Margin Distribution.

 Taper R a t i o = .5 Taper
Ratio = .75 Taper
Ratio = 1
2.

1.

I
W F r a c t i o n semispan u r n a c t i o n semispan
\-/Fraction
semispan

-Wing alone Root S e c t i o n 4418

”- Wing w i t h F u s e l a g e T i p S e c t i o n 4412
Washout = 0 Deg. Aspect Ratio = 6
R e = 6x106

Figure 35. - _E f f e c t of Fuselage.

 fd t o b en e a r l yi d e n t i c a fl o r a l l t h ew i n g - f u s e l a g es e t t i n g s
considered, thus resulting i n the value of maximum wing l i f t
c o e f f i c i e n t ( C L m a x ) b e i n g u n a f f e c t e d by t h e w i n g - f u s e l a g e
i n c i d e n c e . The e f f e c to fp o s i t i v ew i n g - f u s e l a g es e t t i n g is
merelytoreducethe body a n g l e o f a t t a c k a t which t h e s t a l l
f i r s to c c u r s .T h i sr e d u c t i o n i s a p p r o x i m a t e l ye q u a lt o the
w i n g - f u s e l a g ei n c i d e n c e .
F i g u r e 35 i n d i c a t e s t h a t f o r t h . e h i g h w i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n
shown, t h e e f f e c t o ff u s e l a g e i s t o s l i g h . t l yr e d u c et h e wing
l o a d i n gs p e c i a l l y i n t h er e g i o nc l o s et ot h ef u s e l a g e . A similar
r e d u c t i o n i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s of Reference
50 where the l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n ona h i g h w i n g c i r c u l a r f u s e l a g e
combination i s p r e s e n t e d .
5 . 3 . 9E f f e c to fP a r t i a l Span F l a pD e f l e c t i o n

F i g u r e 36shows theeffectsofflapdeflection and f l a p

span on t h e s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r e c t a n g u l a r wing w i t h
64-seriessectionsoperatingat a f l i g h t R e y n o l d s numberof 6
million. The r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e winghaving a 20%
c h o r ds p l i tf l a p ,d e f l e c t e d 60° and e x t e n d i n go v e r 45%, 60% and
70% of t h . e wingspan.

I t canbenotedfrom thisfigurethat,thedeflection of a
part-spanflaplowersthestallmargins on t h e o u t b o a r d p o r t i o n
of t h e wingand causesthewingtostallfurtheroutboard.
Furthermore, for t h er a n g ec o n s i d e r e d ,i n c r e a s i n gf l a ps p a n
moves t h e s t a l l b o u n d a r i e s i n b o a r d and i n c r e a s e s wing maximum
liftcoefficient. I t s h o u l db en o t e dt h a tt h es t a l lp o i n t on a
flappedwingdoesnotalwaysoccurattheflarendas would be
p r e d i c t e d by s i m p l e sa n a l y t i c a lm e t h o d st h . a n h.e oneusedIn
t h . i s program.

A d i s c u s s i o n of t h e above r e s u l t s and t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on
t h e d e s i g n of an a i r p l a n e f o r good s t a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s
g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 7.

129

I .
 WASHOUT = 0 Deg.

2.

2.

2.

Root Section64218
-.b f / b 0
- “

45
0
Section Tip
Aspect Ratio = 6
R e = 6x106
64212
”-
.60
A”
.70
Taper Ratio = 1
Flap Deflection = 6d
Figure 36. Effect of the Span of a 20% Chord S p l i t Flap on the
Wing stalling Characteristics.

130
 SECTION 6

SCALE
MODEL WIND TUNNELTESTING

It haspreviouslybeen shown t h a t t h e s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s o fa ni s o l a t e dw i n g ,w i t h or w i t h o u t d e f l e c t e d f l a p s , c a n
beadequatelypredictedthroughapplicationofexistingtheoret-
i c a l methods. I n t h e case of a c o m p l e t ea i r p l a n e ,h o w e v e r ,t h e
i n t e r f e r e n c e o f t h ef u s e l a g e ,e n g i n en a c e l l e s ,p r o p e l l e rs l i p -
stream, e t c . , ontheflowoverthewing may be such. as t o d r a s -
t i c a l l y modify t h e wing s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The i n t e r f e r -
e n c e e f f e c t s of t h e f u s e l a g e and nacelles are p r e d i c t a b l e w i t h a
fair degree of reliability as l o n g as p o t e n t i a l f l o w c o n d i t i o n s
p r e v a i l .U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,t h e body i n t e r f e r e n c ee f f e c t so f t e n
precipitateflowseparation and a v a i l a b l e t h e o r i e s are n o t c a p a b l e
o fp r e d i c t i n gs u c h phenomena. A t t h ep r e s e n t t i m e no t h e o r y i s
availabletoadequatelypredicttheeffectofthepropellerslip-
s t r e a m onwing s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
F o rt h e s er e a s o n s , i t i s h i g h l yd e s i r a b l et oo b t a i ne x p e r -
i m e n t a li n f o r m a t i o nc o n c e r n i n gt h ec o m p l e t ea i r p l a n es t a l l i n g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c sb e f o r et h ea i r p l a n eg o e si n t op r o d u c t i o n .I n
c e r t a i n c a s e s economicconsiderations may i n d i c a t e t h e c o n s t r u c -
t i o n o f a p r o t o t y p e model o f t h e a i r p l a n e w i t h s u b s e q u e n t f l i g h t
testing to obtain experimental information uponwhich t o p r e d i c a t e
t h ef i n a ld e s i g n .I no t h e r cases, i t may b e more f e a s i b l e t o
conduct a scale modelwind t u n n e l i n v e s t i g a t i o n e a r l y i n t h e
airplanedesignstageinordertoobtainthedesiredinformation.
During the period prior to World War I1 wind t u n n e l t e s t s
were o r d i n a r i l y made o f m o d e l s w i t h o u t p r o p e l l e r s a n d e m p i r i c a l
methods w e r e r e l i e d on t o account f o r t h e e f f e c t s o f p r o p e l l l e r
o p e r a t i o no nt h eo b s e r v e dc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Such a procedure w a s
shown t o b e i n a d e q u a t e when q u a n t i t a t i v e f l i g h t t e s t d a t a became
a v a i l a b l e .I nc o n s e q u e n c e i t i s now c o n s i d e r e de s s e n t i a lt h a t
wind t u n n e l model e v a l u a t i o n o f a i r p l a n e f l y i n g q u a l i t i e s ,
whetherth.eybeconcernedwithstalling or w i t h s t a b i l i t y and
control,shouldinvolvethe use of a poweredmodel.
The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n w i l l t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r some of t h e
f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n poweredmodelwind tunnel testing.
6.1 SCALE
MODEL
REQUIREMENTS
The s e l e c t i o n o f t h e model scale w i l l bedependent on t h e
s i z eo ft h e wind t u n n e l t o b e u t i l i z e d i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . As
a rough rule o f thumb the s c a l e s h o u l d b e c h o s e n s u c h t h a t t h e
modelwing span does not exceed approximately 75% o f t h e w i d t h ,
or d i a m e t e r ,o ft h e wind t u n n e l t e s t s e c t i o n .L a r g e rv a l u e so f
model s i z e result i n e x c e s s i v e l y l a r g e v a l u e s o f windtunnel
b o u n d a r yc o r r e c t i o n s( R e f e r e n c e 23).

131
 It i s essential t h a t t h e model b e t r u l y g e o m e t r i c a l l y similar
t o t h e f u l l scale a i r p l a n e . I n this r e g a r d ,t h el e a d i n g - e d g e
p o r t i o no ft h ew i n g is particularly sensitive to deviations from
c o n t o u r .C a u t i o n must t h e r e f o r e b e e x e r c i s e d t o ensure t h a t t h e
airfoilshapeovertheforward 10 o r 15 p e r c e n t o f t h e c h o r d are
t r u e t ot h et h e o r e t i c a lo r d i n a t e s . Small d e v i a t i o n s from t r u e
c o n t o u r are n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i t i c a l o v e r the a f t p o r t i o n s o f
t h ea i r f o i l . Wood, metal, p l a s t i co rc o m b i n a t i o n st h e r e o f may
be satisfactorily utilized as material f o r model c o n s t r u c t i o n .
However, i t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t c o m p o s i t e wood and metal surfaces
are n o t s a t i s f a c t o r y b e c a u s e t h e wood s h r i n k s a n d s w e l l s w i t h
change i n atmospherichumidityconditionsandthusgives rise t o
u n d e s i r a b l e surface d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s .I f wood c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t o
be utilized, specially selected mahogany from t h e m a i n l a n d o f
t r o p i c a l America i s s u g g e s t e d as b e i n gt h e most s a t i s f a c t o r y . It
hasbeenfoundthat mahogany from t h e i s l a n d s of t r o p i c a l America
is notsuitablefor model c o n s t r u c t i o n b e c a u s e i t s h r i n k sa n d
swells more and h a s a g r e a t e r t e n d e n c y t o warp t h a n mahogany
from t h em a i n l a n do ft r o p i c a l America. S i m i l a r l yr t P h i l l i p i n e "
mahogany i s n o t s u i t a b l e f o r model c o n s t r u c t i o n .

6.2 PROPELLER DRIVE SYSTEM

S p e c i a l l yc o n s t r u c t e d , compact s q u i r r e lc a g ei n d u c t i o n
motorshavebeenutilizedextensively as t h e p r o p e l l e r d r i v e in
poweredmodels.Suchmotors are u s u a l l y water c o o l e d i n o r d e r
t oi n c r e a s et h e i r power o u t p u tr a t i n g .I nr e c e n ty e a r s some
p r e f e r e n c eh a sb e e ng i v e n t o theuseof compactpneumaticmotors.
The s e l e c t i o n o f m o t o r t y p e w i l l depend t o a l a r g e e x t e n t on
.availability of appropriate e l e c t r i c power supply or compressed
a i r supply a t t h e w i n d t u n n e l facilities being utilized.

Propeller rotational speed can be measured through the use

of a h i g h p r e c i s i o n t a c h o m e t e r a n d t h e measurementof propeller
t o r q u e may b e a c c o m p l i s h e d u s i n g a n a p p r o p r i a t e s t r a i n g a g e
balancesystem. If a s q u i r r e l - c a g ei n d u c t i o nm o t o r is utilized
it is possibletoobtain a straightlinecalibrationoftorque
v e r s u s minimum c u r r e n t . The minimum c u r r e n tp o i n t i s o b t a i n e d
by v a r y i n g t h e v o l t a g e - f r e q u e n c y r a t i o o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l power
supply u n t i l t h e minimum c u r r e n t p o i n t i s a r r i v e d a t .

The v a l u e o f dynamic p r e s s u r e a t whichpower-on t e s t s of an

a i r p l a n e model canbeconducted i s l a r g e l y d i c t a t e d by t h e t o r q u e
r a t i n g of t h ep r o p e l l e rd r i v em o t o r .F o rt h i sr e a s o n it i s
a d v i s a b l e t o a t l e a s t make anapproximate estimate of t h e c r i t i c a l
s i m u l a t i o nr e q u i r e m e n t sb e f o r es e l e c t i n gt h ed r i v em o t o r .

6.3 SIMULATION
OF
POWER
CONDITIONS

I n ordertoadequatelysimulatetheeffectsof power i n t h e
w i n d - t u n n e lt e s t i n go fm o d e l s , it i s essential that the axial
and r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e p r o p e l l e r b e i n t h e

132
same r a t i o t o t h e f r e e stream v e l o c i t y as t h a t which p r e v a i l s
u n d e rt h e free f l i g h tc o n d i t i o n sb e i n gs i m u l a t e d .T h i sr e q u i r e s
that the values of the propeller operating thrust and torque
c o e f f i c i e n t s will change as t h e a i r p l a n e f l i g h t s p e e d or o p e r a t i n g
v a l u eo ft h el i f tc o e f f i c i e n t i s a l t e r e d . It i s u s u a l l y most
convenient to investigate the wind t u n n e l model through i t s
operating range of lift coefficients a t a f i x e d v a l u e of dynamic
p r e s s u r e ,( c o n s t a n tv e l o c i t y ,f i x e dR e y n o l d sn u m b e r ) . To simulate
the flight operating conditions during the constant velocity tests
i n t h e wind tunnel i t i s t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e a differ-
ent operating condition of the propeller at each different value
of l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t or angle o f a t t a c k i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h e wind
tunnel.
Varioustechniqueshavebeendevelopedforsatisfyingthe
c o n d i t i o n so f power s i m i l i t u d e i n wind t u n n e lt e s t i n g . It appears
t h a t e a c h d i f f e r e n t wind t u n n e l s t a f f h a s i t s own p r e f e r e n c e as t o
t h ep a r t i c u l a rt e c h n i q u et o employ. I t i s suggested,however.
t h a t t h e power m a t c h i n g t e c h n i q u e d e s c r i b e d i n R e f e r e n c e 21.
i s most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r u s e i n wing s t a l l i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
b e c a u s et h a tt e c h n i q u ee n s u r e s a nearlyexactcondition ofpower
s i m i l i t u d e a t each t e s t c o n d i t i o n andhence no i n t e r p o l a t i o n of
observedresults i s required.
6.4 FLOW V I SUALI ZAT ION-
I

Numerous methods o f v i s u a l i z i n g t h e f l o w o v e r t h e a i r p l a n e
model i n t h e wind t u n n e lh a v eb e e nu t i l i z e d . The m o s t f a m i l i a r
are p r o b a b l y t h e smoke f l o w t e c h n i q u e , some v a r i a t i o n o f t h e
lamp b l a c k and k e r o s e n e meth.od and t h eu s eo ft u f t s . Of the
v a r i o u st e c h n i q u e st h a th a v eb e e nd e v e l o p e d ,t u f t i n g is theleast
complexand i s u s u a l l y t h . e most s a t i s f a c t o r y . I n u t i l i z i n g t h i s
t e c h n i q u e , numerous t u f t s a r e a t t a c h e d o v e r t h e u p p e r wingand
f u s e l a g es u r f a c e s by c e l l u l o s e t a p e o r by o t h e r means.The tufts
s h o u l db eo ff l e x i b l em a t e r i a ls u c ha s wool o rn y l o ny a r n . The
l e n g t ho ft h et u f t s i s n o tc r i t i c a l .U s u a l l y a t u f t l e n g t h of
approximately 3 or 4 p e r c e n t of t h e wingchord w i l l befound
a p p r o p r i a t e .T u f t ss h o u l dn o tb el o c a t e df o r w a r d of 20% chord.
T h e n a t u r e of t h e s t a l l c a n bedetermined by n o t i n g t h e
b e h a v i o ro ft h et u f t sd u r i n gt h et e s tc o n d i t i o n s .V i o l e n t
f l u c t u a t i o n s and r e v e r s a l o f t h e f l o w d i r e c t i o n as i n d i c a t e d by
thetuftsprovidesevidence of s e p a r a t i o n of t h e a i r f l o w from
t h es u r f a c eu n d e ro b s e r v a t i o n . The b e h a v i o ro ft h et u f t ss h o u l d
ofcoursebeobservedthrough a rangeofangle of a t t a c k from w e l l
below t o w e l l beyond t h e a n g l e for maximum l i f t .
The f l o w c o n d i t i o n a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e t u f t s may b e r e c o r d e d
photographically, using either a s t i l l camera or a movie camera,
o r i t may be recorded manually on t h e b a s i s of v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n .
Eachmethod h a s i t s own p a r t i c u l a ra d v a n t a g e s .A t t e n t i o n i s drawn,

133
however, t o t h e f a c t t h . a t s t i l l phot0graph.s of t h e t u f t f l o w
p a t t e r n can b em i s l e a d i n g .T h i s stems f r o mt h e f a c t t h a t i n
t h e case of some c o n f i g u r a t i o n s t h . e nature of t h . e a i r f l o w a s
t h e s t a l l i s approached may b ev e r yu n s t a b l ea n de r r a t i c . At
one p o i n t i n t i m e , t h e t u f t p a t t e r n may i n d i c a t e t h e f l o w t o b e
attachedtothe surface, an i n s t a n t l a t e r t h e t u f t p a t t e r n may
i n d i c a t el a r g e areas o f separatedflow. If a s t i l l p i c t u r e were
o b t a i n e d a t t h e i n s t a n t of a t t a c h e d f l o w it c o u l d l e a d t o a n
e r r o n e o u sc o n c l u s i o n .

6.5 REYNOLDS NUMBER CONSIDERATIONS

S t a l l i n g b e h a v i o r of an a i r c r a f t c a n n o t b e r e l i a b l y p r e d i c -
t e d u s i n g small scale models i n th.e wind t u n n e l . T h . i s i s p r i m a r i l y
due t o t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t i f n o ti m p o s s i b l e
t o d u p l i c a t e i n t h e wind t u n n e l t h . e valuesoff1igh.tReynolds
numbers u n l e s s r e c o u r s e i s made t o a compressed a i r , t u n n e l or t o
a t u n n e l u t i l i z i n g a highdensitygassuch as Freon as a t e s t
medium.

I t h a s b e e n w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h . e maximum l i f t c h a r a c -
teristics, includingthewingstallingcharacteristicscanbe
c r i t i c a l l y d e p e n d e n t on t h . e v a l u eo f t h . e t e s t Reynolds number.
I nc o n s e q u e n c e , judgment must b e e x e r c i s e d i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e
windtunnel s t a l l t e s t r e s u l t s i n terms of t h . e a i r p l a n e f l i g h t
Reynoldsnumberscondition.

As anaidininterpretingthe wind t u n n e l s t a l l o b s e r v a t i o n s ,
i t i s s u g g e s t e dt h a tt h et h e o r e t i c a la n a l y s i sd e s c r i b e d earlier
i n t h . i s r e p o r tb ea p p l i e dt op r e d i c t t h . e s t a l l a t a Reynolds
number c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the wind t u n n e l t e s t c o n d i t i o n a n d a t a
Reynolds number c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h . e a i r p l a n ef 1 i g h . tc o n d i t i o n .
By t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e o r y and e x p e r i -
ment a t t h e t e s t Reynoldsnumber,animprovedestimateofthe
s t a l l i n g c h . a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t t h ef 1 i g h . tv a l u e o f Reynolds number
may b eo b t a i n e d . T h i s approach.sh,ould a t l e a s tg i v ea ni n d i c a t i o n
as t o w h . e t h , e r th.e f r e e f l i g h t s t a l l c o n d i t i o n w i l l be more or l e s s
severeth.anthe s t a l l c o n d i t i o n o b s e r v e d i n t h e wind t u n n e l t e s t s .

6.6 MACH NUMBER CONSIDERATIONS

The e f f e c t of Mach number on t h . e maximum l i f t c h . a r a c t e r i s -

t i c s of a i r f o i l s h a s n o t b e e n i s o l a t e d ’ and s t u d i e d a s t h . o r o u g h l y
as t h e e f f e c t o f Reynoldsnumber.

The r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n R e f e r e n c e 51 i n d i c a t e t h a t a t a
g i v e n v a l u e of Reynolds numberan i n c r e a s e i n Mach number c a u s e s
a moderatedecreasein maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s
such. t h a t t h e l o c a l v e l o c i t i e s on t h . e s u r f a c eo f t h . e wing a r e
somewh.at belowsonicspeed. I t h a s a l s ob e e nc l e a r l yd e m o n s t r a t e d
b y t h e r e s u l t s ofReferences 9 , 5 1 and 5 2 , t h a t when t h . e f r e e

134
9- -

1, stream Mach number i s i n c r e a s e d t o t h . e p o i n t h a st o n i cs p e e d

r e a c h e d ,l o c a l l y onth.ewing,alargereduction
is
i n maximum l i f t
c o e f f i c i e n tt a k e sp l a c e . The same r e s u l t s show t h . a t c r i t i c a l
local velocities can occur at values of t h e f r e e s t r e a m Mach.
number a s l o w a s 0.20. Therehavebeeninstancesinthepast
wherewind tunnelinvestigatorshaveattempted t o improveth.e
test v a l u e of theReynolds number by c o n d u c t i n g t h e t e s t s a t
h i g hv a l u e s of t h e wind t u n n e la i r s p e e d . Such. aprocedurecan
lead t o quite misleading test results, particularly if the free
stream Mach number i s s u f f i c i e n t l y h.igh t o p e r m i t t h . e a t t a i n m e n t
of c r i t i c a l l o c a l v e l o c i t i e s o v e r t h e wing surface.

135

iI
 SECTION 7
DESIGN PROCEDURES
The results presented in Section5 are intended to serve
as a guide in the preliminary design phase anof unswept wing
aircraft to determine the effects of wing geometric and aero-
dynamic parameters on aircraft stalling behavior. While this
data does not cover all the possible combinations of taper,
twist, etc. which may be encountered, it should provide a basis
for the assessment of the relative effectiveness of different
wing designs in promoting acceptable airplane stalling character-
istics.
In the early design stage of an airplane the values of wing
aspect ratio, taperratio, and root and tip thickness ratios
are usually chosen from considerations of performance, structural
strength, etc. rather than stalling characteristics.
In regard to
wing performance, the computer program described
in this report
can be of valuein providing data on wing lift, drag, and
pitching moment characteristics through the complete angle of
attack range, as wella information on the span load distributions.
The stalling characteristics of the basic wing design can
in Section5, and
be assessed from the design charts presented
if poor stalling behavioris indicated, the effectiveness of
various methods for improving the stall can then be investigated
When awing design emerges which promises to fulfill the perform-
ance and stall requirements a final quantitative evaluation of
its stalling characteristics can be made using the computer
program which constitutes a part of this report.
7.1 APPLICATION OF THE RESULTS OF THE PARAMETRIC STUDY
The use of in Section5 is
the design charts presented best
illustrated by a sample calculation described below.
Consider a light, single engined airplane having the follow-
ing ch,aracteristics:
aspect
ratio
Wing 6

ratio
taper
Wing 0.5

Mean aerodynamic 5.4 ft.

chord (m.a.c.1
2
Wing loading 17.2 lb/ft
airfoil
Root
section 23016.5

airfoil
Tip
section 23012

136
 C r u i s e154
speed m.p.h.

Cruise a l t i t u1d0e, 0f(0ts.0

t,a n d adrady )
A l i k e l ys t a l l Y n gs p e e df o r such. a n a i r p l a n e , f l a p s UD, is
about 70rg.p.h.. o r a Reynoldsnumber,basedon the m.8.c. of
3.55 x 1 0 . A good e s t i m a t eo f th.e s t a l l i n g m e e d f o r t h e
u n t w i s t e d wing i s o b t a i n e d a s follows:
( a ) A number o f speeds i n t h . e neigh.borh.oodof 70 m.p.h. i s
selected and the corresponding Reynolds numbers a r e c a l c u l a t e d
thus
V ft/sec. - 90 , 95 9 100, 110,
V m.p.h. = 61.35,
64.76,
68.17,
74.98,
Re - 3.11, 3.80,
3.46,
3.28,

( b )U s i n gF i g u r e3 3f o r 0 . S t a p e r r a t i o and a r o o tt h i c k -
n e s s ch.ord r a t i o o f0 . 1 8 ,t h ef o l l o w i n gv a l u e so f CLrnax are
o b t a i n e dc o r r e s p o n d i n gt o the Reynoldsnumbers calculatedin
step (a),
-- 1.47,
1.45,
1.435,
1.42,
C L r n a x + / ~=. 1 8
( c > From F i g u r e 2 8 t h e p e r c e n t a g e ch.ange i n CLrnax due t o
c h a n g i n gr o o tt h i c k n e s s - c h o r dr a t i o from.18 t o .165 i s e s t i m a t e d
t o b e 2%. S t r i c t l y , t h . e d a t aa p p l i e so n l y t o Re = 6 x lo6, but
t h e s e c t i o nc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,F i g u r e2 0 ,s u g g e s t t h a t approximately
t h e same c h a n g e s c a n b e e x p e c t e d a t l o w e r v a l u e s o f Reynolds
number.

( d) T h e i n c r e m e n t si n CLrnax o b t a i n e df r o ms t e p (c) are

added t o t h e CLrnax v a l u e s from s t e p ( b ) y i e l d i n g :

Th.e r e s u l t s t h u s o b t a i n e d a r e p l o t t e d v e r s u s s t a l l i n g meed
inFigure 37.

s h i p CLmax = 2 X W/S a r ec a l c u l a t e dt h u s :
p v2 2w/s
C L m a x = T = 1.78, 1.445,
1.60, 1.19
P V
Th.ese r e s u l t s a r e a l s o p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 37.
( f ) Th.e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f these c u r v e sy i e l d s t h e v a l u e s of
'Lrnax s t a l l s eedandReynolds number a s 1.47.5,67.5m.o.h.
and3.42 x log, r e s p e c t i v e l y ,a s shown i n F i g u r e 37.

137
1.8

1.7

1.6

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1
S t a l l speed - ft/sec

Figure 37.Variationof Wing Maximum L i f t

Coefficient with Stall Speed.

138
i:j
A t thisvalueofReynolds number F i g u r e s 31 and 32 show t h a t
t h e s t a l l margin a t t h e 70% s t a t i o n is o n l y 0.02and thatthe
stallbeginsinboard a t about 35% semispanandextends toabout
70% semispan.Obviously t h i s i s n o ta c c e p t a b l ea n d some means
must beemployed t o move t h e s t a l l i n b o a r d a n d i n c r e a s e t h e
margin a t t h e 70% s e m i s p a n s t a t i o n .
An a c c e p t a b l e s t a l l p a t t e r n wouldbetheone i n which t h e
outeredgeofthestalled area b e g a n , s a y , i n b o a r d o f t h e 40%
s t a t i o n a n d t h e s t a l l margin a t 70% of t h e s e m i s p a n w a s a t least
0.1. F i g u r e3 1 shows t h . a t , f o rt h eg i v e nt a p e rr a t i oo f 0.5, a
s t a l l margin of 0.1 a t 70% semispan can be obtained with P4
d e g r e e so fw a s h o u t .F o rt h i s case t h ec o r r e s p o n d i n g s t a l l
b o u n d a r i e s l i e between 15% and37%semispan.Sincethe use
of w a s h o u t i n f l u e n c e s t h e v a l u e o f C b a x a n d h e n c e s t a l l i n g s p e e d ,
steps(b)through(f) are r e p e a t e d u s i n g t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d f o r
7% washout. I ft h e s ec o m p u t a t i o n s are performedthe new v a l u e s
of CLmax , s t a l l i n gs p e e da n dR e y n o l d s number are 1.4, 6 9 m.p.h.
a n d3 . 5m i l l i o nr e s p e c t i v e l y .U s i n gt h e new v a l u e o f Reynolds
number andwashoutof 7?.5O, Figures31and 32 i n d i c a t e t h a t
s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s e l e c t e d wing are
attained with the safe s t a l l marginof 0.1 a t 70% semispanand
inboardstallboundariesextendingbetween15%and 36%semispan.
I f t h i s amountof washout i s u s e d , a p e n a l t y may r e s u l t i n
induceddrag a t t h ec r u i s es p e e d . The m a g n i t u d eo ft h ei n c r e a s e
i n induceddragcoefficientatthecruiseliftcoefficient of
.38andcruiseReynolds number ofapproximately 6 m i l l i o n i s
obtainedfromFigure 25 a s A C o i = -0012. The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s
d r a gi n c r e a s ed e p e n d s on t h ed r a gc o e f f i c i e n t of t h e complete
airplane. For a na i r p l a n eh a v i n g a d r a gc o e f f i c i e n te q u a lt o
0 . 0 2 , a ni n c r e a s ei ni n d u c e dd r a gc o e f f i c i e n t of 0.0012 r e p r e s e n t s
a 4m.p.h. reductionincruisingspeed a t t h e c r u i s e power s e t t i n g .

An a l t e r n a t i v e t o u s i n g a l a r g e amountof washout a s
h i g ha s 7% d e g r e e s i s t o i n c o r D o r a t e a t i p s e c t i o n of
h i g h e r camber t h a n t h e r o o t s e c t i o n w i t h l i n e a r f a i r i n g i n
between,e.g.changethe t i p s e c t i o n from 23012 t o 43012. On
t h e b a s i s of t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 3 4 , f o r awing
e m p l o y i n gl i n e a r camber i n c r e a s e f r o m r o o t t o t i p , i t appears
t h a t i n c r e a s i n g camber a l o n e w i l l n o t r e s u l t i n any s i g n i f i c a n t
improvement i nt h es t a l l i n gc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .C o m b i n a t i o n s of
l i n e a r camber i n c r e a s e w i t h m o d e r a t e amountsofwashout may
result in an effective compromise t o y i e l d s a t i s f a c t o r y p e r f o r m -
anceandacceptablestallingcharacteristics of t h . e s e l e c t e d wing
configurations. The p a r a m e t r i ci n v e s t i g a t i o n s o fs u c he f f e c t s
can be easily performed utilizing the computer program presented
i n t h i s report.

139
 I f a n e f f e c t i v e combinationofcamber increase andwashout
cannot be found the only remaining wing parameters which migh.t
i n f l u e n c es t a l l i n gc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are a s p e c tr a t i o ,t h , i c k n e s s
distribution and taper ratio.
On t h . e b a s i s o f t h e r e s u l t s sh.own i n F i g u r e 23, ch.anging
a s p e c tr a t i o i s i n e f f e c t i v e .I n c r e a s i n gr o o tt h i c k n e s s - c h o r d
r a t i o from .165 t o s a y .18 i s a l s o o f l i t t l e value a c c o r d i n g t o
the results presentedinFigure 27.

While a n i n c r e a s e i n wing t a p e r r a t i o would r e p r e s e n t a

majorchange i f t h . e wing d e s i g n were s u f f i c i e n t l y f a r advanced,
i t migh.t be less e x p e n s i v e , i n t h . e l o n g run t o make such. a
ch.angeth.an t o t r y t o s o l v e badwing s t a l l problems by o t h e r
means d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t t e s t i n g p h a s e ofdevelopment.

An i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e w h i c h i s e x e r t e d
by t a p e r r a t i o onwing s t a l l i n g C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s provided by
r e p e a t i n g th.e abovecalculationsfor a t a p e r r a t i o of0.75 with
2S0 ofwashout. T h e i n c r e a s e dt a p e rr a t i o i s achieved by reduc-
i n g t h e r o o t ch.ordandincreasing t h e t i p c h o r d by t h e same
amount s o a s t o m a i n t a i n t h e same wing a r e a as i n t h e o r i g i n a l
design .
By i n t e r p o l a t i o n b e t w e e n these r e s u l t s . a n d r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d
fortaperratio o f 0 . 5 i t i s found t h a t a nI n c r e a s e i n taper
r a t i o from 9.5 t o 0.65 w i l l produce a s t a l l margin a t 7/10th
s e m i s p a ne q u a lt o0 . 1w i t ht h es t a l l e da r e ae x t e n d i n gb e t w e e n
10% and 40% semispan. T h e c a l c u l a t i o n sa l $ o show t h a t t h e change
intaperratio and t h ei n c o r p o r a t i o no f 2% ofwashoutdoesnot
a l t e r t h e s t a l l i n g speed t o any s i g n i f i c a n td e g r e e .F u r t h e r m o r e ,
t h e induceddragpenaltyduetowashoutfor th.is taper ratio
is negligible.
I f a l l of t h e abovemeasures failtoindicateacceptable
s t a l l i n g c h . a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h e n i t must b e l e f t u n t i l the flight
test p h a s e t o t r y t o improvemattersby the use of t h e v a r i o u s
" f i x e s "d i s c u s s e di nS e c t i o n 2. Even a t this s t a g e t h e computer
p r o g r a ms h o u l dp r o v ev a l u a b l ei na s s e s s i n g t h e r e l a t i v e rnerits
o f t h ep o s td e s i g nm o d i f i c a t i o n s . For example, i f the i n s t a l l -
a t i o n ofsharpwedgesover a p o r t i o no f t h e l e a d i n ge d g e i s
b e i n gc o n s i d e r e d , ap r e c i s ee v a l u a t i o no f the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of
such a device can be made by u s i n g the computerprogram i f d a t a
is availablepertainingto t h . e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
s h a r pn o s e ds e c t i o n s . Some d a t a on t h e e f f e c t o fs h a r pl e a d i n g
edges on s e c t i o n maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t c a n b e f o u n d i n
References 53 and 54.

7.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

T h e d e s i g np r o c e d u r e sd i s c u s s e di n t h i s s e c t i o nf o g e t h e r
w i t h . the s t a l l chartspresentedinSection 5 are considered

140
7- -

adequate for most practical casesin evaluating stalling character-

#$
\.? i istics of unswept wing aircraft. These procedures and charts
should be specially valuable in the preliminary design phase in
which numerous trade-off studies are required to obtain the best
compromise in aircraft configurations. Once a given design has
been frozen ensuring satisfactory aircraft performance, stalling
characteristics, handling qualities, etc. it is recommended that
the computer program presented as part of this report be utilized
to more accurately predict the stalling behavior of the final
aircraft configuration. A s a by-product, the computer program
will also yield valuable performance information assuch
distributions and integrated valuesof wing lift, drag and pitching
moment coefficients, for cruise or any other aircraft operating
condition.

141
 SECTION 8

CONCLUSI ONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Using t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s r e p o r t , t h e f o l l o w i n g
c o n c l u s i o n s andrecommendations a r e made:
1. Based on good c o r r e l a t i o n so b t a i n e db e t w e e nt h et h e o -
r e t i c a l r e s u l t s and t h e a v a i l a b l e t e s t d a t a , i t i s c o n c l u d e dt h a t
t h e l i f t i n g l i n e t h e o r yc a nb ec o n f i d e n t l yu s e d t o predict stall
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of w i n g sh a v i n ga s p e c tr a t i o s of 6 and l a r g e r .
T h i s t h e o r y i s expected t o y i e l d s a t i s f a c t o r y p r e d i c t i o n s of
o v e r a l ll o a dc h a r a c t e r i s t i c sf o rw i n g s of a s p e c t r a t i o s a s low
a s4 . 0 .

2. From t h e r e s u l t s of t h ep a r a m e t r i cs t u d y i t can b e
concludedthattaperratio i s one of t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e d e s i g n
p a r a m e t e r si n f l u e n c i n ga i r c r a f ts t a l lc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .I n c r e a s e
in taper ratio results in an increase of thestallmargins on
t h e o u t b o a r d s e c t i o n s of t h e wing and i n a n i n b o a r d s h i f t of
s t a l lb o u n d a r i e s . T h i s , however, i s accompanied by a r e d u c t i o n
of maximum wing l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t .

3 . Washout may beused t o improve s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

of moderate t o h i g h t a p e r r a t i o wings. T h i s improvement,however,
may e n t a i l a performance penalty associated w i t h a r e d u c t i o n of
wing maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t and a n i n c r e a s e i n winginduced
and p r o f i l e d r a g .

4. An i n c r e a s e i n r o o t t h i c k n e s s - c h o r dr a t i o and f l i g h t
Reynolds number y i e l d s f a v o r a b l e e f f e c t s on wing s t a l l i n g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e 230 and 44 s e r i e s a i r f o i l s .
F o r t h e 642 series s e c t i o n s s u c h i n c r e a s e s r e s u l t i n unfavorable
e f f e c t s .I n c r e a s i n g t i p t h i c k n e s s - c h o r dr a t i oh a sa nu n f a v o r a b l e
effectforallthreeairfoilseries. F o r a l l c a s e s t h e v a l u e s of
wing maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t a r e r e d u c e d .
5. F o r t h e w i n gc o n f i g u r a t i o n si n v e s t i g a t e di n this
report,deflection of p a r t - s p a n f l a p s l o w e r s t h e s t a l l m a r g i n s
on theoutboard p o r t i o n of t h e wing and s h i f t s t h e s t a l l bound-
a r i e so u t b o a r d .I n c r e a s i n gf l a ps p a n moves t h es t a l lb o u n d a r i e s
inboard and i n c r e a s e s wing m a x i m u m l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t .

6 . The e f f e c t s of a s p e c tr a t i o ,l i n e a rc a m b e r , and f u s e l a g e
on wing s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a p p e a r t o besmalland may be
n e g l e c t e d f o r most p r e s e n t - d a y l i g h t a i r c r a f t .
7 . The a n a l y s i s and t h ed e s i g nc h a r t sp r e s e n t e d in this
r e p o r t a p p l y s t r i c t l y t o unpowered f l i g h t , out of ground e f f e c t ,
a s would b e t h e c a s e i n a i r c r a f t a p p r o a c h t o l a n d i n g .

142
 8 . Basedon t h e work accomplished i n t h i s program, i t i s
recommended t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s b e e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e
p r o p e l l e rs l i p s t r e a m and ground e f f e c t s . Furthermore, a d d i t i o n a l
f l i g h t t e s t and wind tunnel test data should b e obtained for the
purposeof v e r i f y i n gt h et h e o r y .

143
 SECTION 9
REFERENCES

1. S i v e l l s , James C . , andNeely , Robert H. : Method of Calcu-

l a t i n g Wing C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by L i f t i n g - l i n e TheoryUsing
N o n l i n e a rS e c t i o nL i f t Data. NACA Rep. 865,1947.
2. S i v e l l s , James C., and W e s t r i c k , G e r t r u d e C. : Method f o r
C a l c u l a t i n g L i f t D i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r Unswept Wings With
FlapsorAilerons by u s e of N o n l i n e a r S e c t i o n L i f t Data.
NACA Rep. 1090,1952.

3. Theodorsen,Theodore:Theory of Wing S e c t i o n s of A r b i t r a r y
Shape. NACA Rep. 411,1931.

4. Multhopp H.: Aerodynamicsof t h eF u s e l a g e . NACA TM 1036,

1942.
5. A b b o t t , I r a H . , vonDoenhoff,Albert E . , and S t i v e r s ,
Louis S.: Summary of A i r f o i lD a t a . NACA Rep. 824,1945.

6. L o f t i n ,L a u r e n c e K., Jr. andSmith,Hamilton A.: Aero-

dynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of 15 NACA A i r f o i l S e c t i o n s a t
SevenReynolds Numbers from 0. 7x106 t o 9 .0x106. NAC-4
TN 1945,1949.
7. B o l l e c h , Thomas V.: E x p e r i m e n t a la n dC a l c u l a t e dC h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s of SeveralHigh-Aspect-RatioTapered Wings I n c o r p -
o r a t i n g NACA 4 4 - S e r i e s , 230 Series, and Low Drag 6 4 - S e r i e s
A i r f o i lS e c t i o n s . NACA TN 1677,1948.

8. Sweberg,Harold H. and D i n g e l d e i n ,R i c h a r d C.: Summary of

Measurements i n L a n g l e y F u l l - s c a l e T u n n e l o f Maximum L i f t
C o e f f i c i e n t s and S t a l l i n g C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of A i r p l a n e s .
NACA Rep. 829,1945.

9. F i t z p a t r i c k , James E . and S c h n e i d e r , W i l l i a m C. : E f f e c t of
MachNumber V a r i a t i o n Between 0.07and0.34 a d Reynolds
Number V a r i a t i o n Between 0 .97x106 and 8 . 1 0 ~ 1 0 on t h e 2
M a x i m u m L i f t C o e f f i c i e n t of a W i n g of NACA 64-210 A i r f o i l
Series. NACA TN 2753, 1952.

10. F e d e r aA
l viation Agency: A i r w o r t h i n e s S
s tandards: Normal,
U t i l i t y andAerobaticCategoryAeroplanes. FAA Regula-
t i o n s ,P a r t 2 3 , Current.

11. Wimpenny, J. C.: Low Speed S t a l l i n gC h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

AGARD Rep. 356, 1961.

144
12. Zalovcik, John A.: Summary of Stall Warning Devices.
NACA TN 2676, 1952.
13. McCullough, GeorgeB. and Gault, DonaldE.: Examples of
Three Representative Typesof Airfoil-Section Stall at
Low Speed. NACA TN 2502, 1951.
14. Gault, DonaldE.: A Correlation of Low-Speed, Airfoil-
Section Stalling CharacteristicsWith Reynolds Number
and Airfoil Geometry. NACA TN 3963, 1957.
15. Anderson, RaymondF. : Determination of the Characteristics
of Tapered Wings. NACA Rep. 572, 1936.
16. Pearson, HenryA.: Span Load Distribution for Tapered
Wings With Partial-Span
Flaps. NACA Rep. 585, 1936.
17. Pearson, HenryA., and Anderson, Raymond F.: Calculation
of the Aerodynamic Characteristics of Tapered Wings With
Partial-Span Flaps. NACA Rep. 665, 1939.
18. Sivells, James C., and Spooner, StanleyH.: Investigation
in the Langley 19-Foot Pressure Tunnel of Two Wings of
NACA 65-210 and 64-210 Airfoil Sections With Various
Type Flaps. NACA Rep. 942, 1949.
19. White, JamesA., and Hood, Manley J.: Wing Fuselage Inter-
ference, Tail Buffeting,and Airflow About the Tail of
a Low-Wing Monoplane. NACA Rep.482, 1934.
20. Weick, Fred E.: The Behavior of Conventional Airplanesin
Situations Thoughtto Lead to Most Crashes. NACA TN 363,
1931.
21. Phj.llips, WilliamH. : Appreciation and Predictionof
Flying Qualities. NACA Rep. 927, 1949.
22. Prandtl, L.: Applications of Modern Hydrodynamicsto
Aeronautics. NACA Rep. 116, 1921.
23. Glanert, H.: The Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew Theory.
Cambridge UniversityPress, Second Edition,1959.
24. Sherman, Albert: A Simple Method of Obtaining
Span Load
Distributions. NACA TN 732, 1939.
25. Tani, Itiro: A Simple Method of Calcuating the Induced
Velocity of a Monoplane Wing. Aeronautical Research
Inst. Tokyo Imp. Univ. Rep.
111, Vol. IX, 1934, page 3.

145
26. Multhopp, H.: The Calculation of the,LiftDistribution of
Airfoils. Luftfahrforschung, Deutschland (R.T.P. Trans-
lation No. 23921, 1938.
27. Boshar, John: .The Determination
of Span Load Distribution
at High Speeds by the Use of High-speed Wind Tunnel
Section Data. NACA ARC4B22, 1944 (Wartime Rep. L-436).
28. Weissinger, J.: The Lift Distribution
of Swept-Back Wings.
NACA TM 1120, 1947.
29. Mutterperl, William: The Calculation of Span Load Distribu-
tions on Swept-Back Wings. NACA TN834, 1941.
30. Schlichting, H., and Kahlert, W.: Calculation of Lift
Distribution of Swept Wings. R.A.E. Rep. Aero. 2297, 1948.
31. Falkner, V.M.: The Calculation of the Aerodynamic Loading
on Surfaces of any Shape. ARC &R M 1910, 1943.
32. Garner, H.C.: Methods of Approaching an Accurate Three-
Dimensional Potential Solutionfor aWing. R & M No.
2721, Brit. A.R.C., 1954.
33. Garner, H.C. : Theoretical Calculations of the Distribution
of Aerodynamic Loadingon a DeltaWing. R & M No. 2819,
Brit. A.R.C., 1954.
34. Multhopp, H
: Methods of Calculating the Lift Distribution
of Wings. (Subsonic Lifting Surface Theory). R & M No.
2884, Brit. A.R.C., 1955.
35. Schlichting, H.: Aerodynamics of the Mutual Influenceof
T No. 171,
Aircraft Parts (Interference) Volkenrode& R
Trans. 275, 1946.
36. Flax, A.H., and Lawrence, H.R.: The Aerodynamics of Low
Aspect Ratio Wings and Wing-Body Combinations. Proc.
Third Anglo-American Aeronautics Conference, Brighton,
1951, page 363.
37. Lennertz, J.: Influence of the Airplane Bodyon the Wings.
Aerodynamic Theory; W.F. Durand, Editor,Vol. IV, Division
K, Chapter 111, page 152, Durand Reprinting Committee,
1943.
38. Pepper, P.A.: Minimum Induced Dragin Wing-Fuselage
Interference. NACA TN 812, 1941.

146
39. Zlotnick, M., and Robinson,S.W., Jr.: A Simplified
,

Mathematical Model for Calculating Aerodynamic Loading

and Downwash for Wing-Fuselage Combinations With Wings
of Arbitrary Plan Form. NACA TN 3057, 1954(also NACA
RN L52J27a, 1953).
40. Weber, J., Kirby, D.A., and Kettle, D.J.: An Extension of
Multhopp's Method of Calculating the Spanwise Loading of
Wing-Fuselage Combinations. R & M No. 2872, Brit.
A.R.C., 1956.
41. Dynasciences Corporation: Effects of Propeller Slipstream
on V/STOL Aircraft Performance and Stability. TRECOM
TR 64-47, 1964.
42. George, M., and Kisielowski, E. : Investigation of
Propeller Slipstream Effectson Wing Performance.
USAAVLABS TR 67-67, 1967.
43. Laurence, H.R., and F l a x , A.H.: Wing-Body Interference at
Subsonic and Supersonic Speeds - Survey and NewDevelop-
ments. J. Ae.Sc., V o l . 21, No. 5 , page 289, 1954.
44. Ribner, H.S., and Ellis, N.D.: Theory and Computer Study
of a Wing in a Slipstream. AIAA Paper No. 66-466, 1966.
45. Ribner, H.S.: Theory of Wings in a SlipstreamUTIAS Rep.
60, 1959.
46. Wieselsberger, C.: Contribution to the Mutual Interference
of Wing and Propeller. NACA TM 754, 1934.
47. Yaggy, PaulF.: A Method for Predicting the Upwash Angles
Induced at the Propeller Plane
of a Combinationof Bodies
With an Unswept Wing. NACATN 2528, 1951.
48. Jones, RobertT.: Correction of the Lifting-Line Theory
for the Effectof the Chord. NACA TN 817, 1941.
49. Soul&, H.A., and Anderson, R.F.: Design Charts Relating
to the Stalling of Tapered Wings. NACA Report703, 1940.
50. Schlichting, H. : Report on the Special Field "Interference"
to the Wind-Tunnel Committee in February 1945. NACA
TM 1347,1953.
51. Furlong, G. Chester and Fitzpatrick, JamesE.: Effects of
Mach Number and Reynolds Numberon the Maximum Lift
Coefficient of a Wing of NACA 230-Series Airfoil Sections.
NACA TN 1299, 1947.

147
52. Furlong, G. Chester and Fitzpatrick, JamesE.: Effects of
Mach Number up t o 0.34 and Reynolds Number up to
8x106 on the Maximum Lift Coefficienta Wingof of NACA
66-Series Airfoil Sections. NACATN 2251, 1950.
53. Jacobs, Eastman N.: Characteristics of Two Sharp-Nosed
Airfoils Having Reduced Spinning Tendencies. NACA TN
416, 1932.
54. Weick, Fred E. and Scudder, NathanF.: The Effect of Lift,
Drag, and Spinning Characteristics of Sharp Leading
Edges on Airplane Wings. NACA TN 447, 1933.
 APPENDIX A

INTERNALLISTING OF THECOMPUTER PROGRAM

L
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
L
C
c
C
C
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C
C
C

6 )
C
1E
2,
3 9'
4T
5L

149
L
C: INTEKCHANGE ROWS
C
so, 30
30

40
C
c I % T E R C H A h G E CULUMNS

JK=kK+J
.Il=.IP+.I

D I V I D E CIULCIMN B Y t l N U S P I V O T ( V A L U E OF
P l V O T € L F M E N T 15 C O N T A I N E L ) It4 B I G A )
80 9 0 , 9 0 9 lU0
90
100
1 LO
170
L
FL

130
14 0

r
150

15 0
v-
PRODUCT OF P I V O T S
D=D+b 1 G A
E ' R E P L A C EP I V O T BY R E C I P R O C A L
I .

F I N A L ROW AND
COLUMN
INTERCHANGE
C
K=N
190
200
2 LO

J K = J d l +J
HOLU=4(.JK)
JI=JK+J
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2 2 0 A (.J I 1 =:i(?LD
2 3 0 J=Pl ( K 1
I F ( J-IO
240 KIz5-N
DO 2 5 0 I
KI=KI+h
tlrlLd=A ( K

250
260

C
C S U t > K C ; U l I N € TO G E T 1ALILE FFctlM D I S K ANU P U T
C I T I K T O ClJRE
C

C
C TAHLE P K t S F N T L Y I N COKE I S INNOW
C
C I Fr 4 B L E I S A L R E A O Y I N CUKE THEN R E T U l i N
C IF X I I T Tt{€Pl G E T T A L L E I-RLtM D I S K
C
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READ( I F I L E ) ARK.?Y
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c . KtSET TABLE PKESLNTLY I N C O RI tN U I C A T C l R
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20
30
40 L; )=O.
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60

S U L 3 R T J U T I r < t C H E C K S S W l T C H S E T T I N G SO ND A T A
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15 2
SUbROtiTIYE M A K E SL I E C I S I O N B A S E D CiN THC
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I P J I T I A L I Z EL E V E L S I N WHERE

L O O P T O R E A D I N L E V E L S OF A S E T OF E I T H E K
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MOMENT

FtEAO A N DP R I N TN U M B E K OF KOWS,’ COLUMNS, TAU

V A L U E S F O R A G I V E NL E V E L

153
 S T O R E NUMBER OF CCLUMNS
MXCL.lL( . L V L 1 = N C O L
c'
C- S T O R E NUMBER UF RGWS
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15 4
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L4 C PRIMARY
CUBES
AKF NIJMEERED 1 , 2 9 3 9 4
c
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NFW=LbF.i+5
C
C S T U A E XMAX
C
X?X=XE; A X . "

C
C D E T E K H I N E I F S I N G L E V A L U E I S T O B E U S E D OK
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L
C S E T UP OF
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CCINSTANT X
C

c S E T UP F O K V A R I A H L E VALUE OF X

155
L

s scr UP A L P H A V A L U E

c
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260
270
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290
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15 6
 SbbKi.:C,TINE TCj I N T E N P O L A T E BETWEEN L E V E L S OF
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15 7
 I F (.ALPfiA-c)9
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1.10 I F I.CVA.L-999
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160 I f (.itEYON-99
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2.1u I S = 5
GO T O 2 7 0
220
230
240
250
260
270 x c ,.I t

9 1s
,280

2 90

300

3 10

320
3 30
340
358

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369

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158
 420 CVAL=DUKY L-CLK A t UUW Y 2 r ' A L R (*1 CVAL1
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450 IF (.ALPHA- DUMY 2
460 I F ( . A L P H A - DUP!YZ
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480 C L t j = T E K P ( . 4 L k 2 1.. c3)

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K E rUKh
490 C l=ALPb!A
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500 C l = R E Y h
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159
 I 5 T HRt E Y N C J L D S NUMdER iJE A R E L O O K I N G FOR
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REYNGLDS
.'JUM:!EK S I V k N kLUhuG T H E F I R S T KUW ~JF T H E
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Third M A X R E Y N W J X ~ F R 1'4 T A B L E T H E N WE,-
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160
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F O R L I F TT A B L E . CJUKY 1 AND D U M Y ZA R E THE

C f J A X i . P " J IKh T E K P 3 L A T E D
VALUES FUR G I V E N
c
a
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MAX AND C V A LM A X
210

L ,'MAX!? 9 L O C R ,2 5 0
70 9 2 6 0 9 2 6 0

270
280
230
300 10
310 L P H Z ) ) 320,55095 5 0
32CI
340,330
330

340
H l - A L P H Z ) + ( ALPHA-DUhY
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360
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400 (.AL 5 5 0 9 550
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4 30
ALPHZ-AL PHA-DUMY1)
440 550,550
456
460

161
 GO ra 600
4 70 Cl=A(LVL,d,.LCCR
CVAL=DUPV2+ ( A (.L ,Cl)/(ALPHZ-AL .PHl)*(ALPHA-DUMYl
GO T O 600
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I f (.ALPH 1-A (.LVL, 0
500 C O N T I lLUE
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GO T O 600
5 LO C L = A L L V L 9.J ,.LO.Cil
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530 CClNT I N U C

54 0

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C
C
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L
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:
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162
 ZtIERE MLCOL MA Z L
Y:HEKE MYCOL MAYY
XHEKk MwCOL HAWW
AHERE MACOL MAAA
BHEKE MBCOL MAD0
CHERE MCCOL MACC
DHEKE MDCUL MADO

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C R k A D F K( I R A) N DP R I N T E R( I P L) O G I C A LU N I T
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C L A Y O U T OF FOURTH D A T A C A R D
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163

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50
60
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 S P E C I A L C A S E I F VALUEH S AVE BEEN READ I N
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54 0
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167
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580
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C FO? X P A X = l O C I , ARC b I L L L U G U
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c F O h XF(AX=O. A R C WILL LOOK UP C L PAX

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169
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171
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q-

APPENDIX B

AVAI+-ILITY O F THE COMF'IJTER PROGRAM

The computerprogramdeveloped f o r t h e CDC 6400and 6600

s e r i e s computers has been stored in t h e COSMIC Computer Center
and i s a v a i l a b l ef o rp u b l i cu s e . A l l i n q u i r i e sp e r t a i n i n g
t o a v a i l a b i l i t y and use of t h e program should be directed to:
COSMIC
Computer Center
Barrow H a l l
U n i v e r s i t y of Georgia
Athens,
Georgia 30601

Telephone: (404) 542-3265

189

"
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Presented herein is a compilation of a total 243 technical
of
wing, and wing-body
reports related to the state of theof art
aerodynamics. For convenience, the following papers are arranged
of each
in an alphabetical order by authors within the subgroups
of the three main groups; Theoretical Methods, Wind-Tunnel Tests,
and Aircraft Flight Tests.
1. THEORETICAL METHODS
(a) Wing Theory
1. Allen, H. Julian: Calculation of the Chordwise Load
Distribution over Airfoil Sections with Plain, Split
or Serially-hinged Trailing Edge Flaps. NACA Rep. 634,
1938.
2. Allen, H. Julian: A Simplified Method for the-Calculation
of Airfoil Pressure Distribution. NACA TN 708, 1939.
3. Allen, H. Julian: General Theory of Airfoil Sections
Having Arbitrary Shapeor Pressure Distribution. NACA
ACR 3G29, 1943.
4. Allen, H. Julian: Notes on the Effect of Surface Distor-
tion on the Drag and Critical Mach of Airfoils.
Number
NACA ACR 3129, 1943.
5. Anderson, Raymond F: Determination of the Characteristics
of Tapered Wings. NACA Rep. 572, 1936.

6. Anderson. Raymond F.: A Comparison of Several Tapered

Wings Designedto Avoid Tip Stalling. NACA TN 713,
1939.
7. Boshar, John: The Determination of Span Load Distribution
at High Speeds by the Use of High-speed Wing Tunnel
Section Data. NACA ACR 4B22, 1944 (Wartime Rep.L-436).
8. Weissinger, J.,: The Lift Distribution of Sweptback Wings,
NACA TM 1120, 1947.
9. Crabtree, L.F., Kuchemann, D., and Maskell, .C.
E : A
Survey of Some Research on the Stalling of Wings of
Contemporary Design in Progress at the R.A.E. R.A.E.
TN Aero 2331, 1954.

190
10. De Young, John: Theoretical Symmetric Span Loading
Due to Flap Deflection for Wings of Arbitrary Plan
Form at Subsonic Speeds. NACA Rep. 1071, 1952.

11. De Young, John & Harper, Charles W.: Theoretical

Symmetric Span Loading at Subsonic Speeds for Wings
Having Arbitrary PlanForm. NACA Rep. 921, 1948.
12. Diederich, Franklin W. & Zlotnick, Martin: Calculated
Spanwise Lift Distributions, Influence Functions, and
Influence Coefficients for Unswept Wings in Subsonic
Flow. NACA Rep. 1228, 1955.
13. Furlong, Chester G. & McHugh, James G.: A Summary and
Analysis of the Low-Speed Longitudinal Characteristics
of Swept Wingsat High Reynolds Number. NACA Rep.
1339, 1957.
14. Glauert, H.: Theoretical Relationships for an Aerofoil
with Hinged Flap. R & M No. 1095, British ARC, 1927.
15. Glauert, H.: The Effect of Compressibilityon the
Lift of an Aerofoil. R& M No. 1135, BritishARC, 1927.
16. Glauert, H. & Gates, S.B.: The Characteristics of a
Tapered and Twisted Wing With Sweep-Back. ARC & MR
1226, 1928.
17. Goldstein, Sidney: Low-drag and Suction Airfoils,
Eleventh Wright Brothers Lecture, J. Inst. Aeronaut
Sci., Vol. 15, No. 4, 1948, pages 189-214.
18. Harper, CharlesW. & Maki, Ralph L.: A Review of the
Stall Characteristicsof Swept Wings. NASA TN D-2373,
1964.
19. Jacobs, Eastman N.= Preliminary Report on Laminar Flow
Airfoils and New Methods Adopted for Airfoil and
Boundary-layer Investigations. NACA ACR, June, 1939,
(Wartime Rep. L-345).
20. Jones, Robert T.: Correction of the Lifting-Line Theory
for the Effect of the Chord. NACA TN 817, 1941.
21. Kus, Yung-Huai: On the Stability of Two-Dimensional
Smooth Transonic Flows. J. Ae. S., Vol. 18, No. 1,
(19511, page 1.
22. Lippisch.,A.: Method for the Determinationof the
Spanwise Lift Distribution. NACA TM 778.
23. Martina, Albert P.: Method for Calculating the Rolling
and Yawing Moments Due to Rolling for Unswept Wings
With o r Without Flapsor Ailerons by Use of Nonlinear
Lift Data. NACA Rep. 1167, 1954.
24. Muggia, Aldo: Remark on the Theory of Lifting Surfaces.
NACA TM 1386, 1956.
25. Multhopp, H.: The Calculation of the Lift Distribution
of Airfoils. Luftfahrforschung, Deutschland (RTP
Translation No. 23921, 1938.
26. Multhopp, H.: Methods for Calculating the Lift-Distrib-
ution of Wings (Subsonic Lifting SurfaceTheory).
R.A.E. Rep. No. Aero 2353, 1950.
27. Munk, Max. M.: The Determination of the Anglesof Attack
of Zero Lift and Zero Moment, Based on Munk's Integrals.
NACA TN 122, 1923.
28. Munk, Max. M.: Elements of the Wing Section Theory and
of the Wing Theory. NACA Rep. 191, 1924.
29. Munk, Max M.: Calculation of Span Lift Distribution
(Part 21, Aero Digest,Vol. 48, No. 3, 1945, page 84.
30. Naiman, Irven: Numerical Evaluation of the E -Integral
Occurring in the Theodorsen Arbitrary Airfoil Potential
Theory. NACA ARR L4D27a, 1944 (Wartime Rep. L-136).
31. Naiman, Irven: Numerical Evaluation by Harmonic Analysis
of the E -Function of the Theodorsen Arbitrary Poten-
tial Theory. NACA ARR L5H18, 1945 (Wartime Rep. L-153).
32. Nitzberg, GeraldE.: A Concise Theoretical Method for
1944.
Profile-drag Calculation. NACA ACR 4B05,
33. Pankhurst, R.C.: A Method for the Rapid Evaluation of
Glauert's Expressions for the Angle of Zero Lift and
the Moment atZero Lift. R & M No. 1914 British ARC,
1944.
34. Pearson, Henry A.: Span Load Distribution for Tapered
Wings with Partial-Span Flaps. NACARep. 585, 1936.
35. Pearson, Henry A. and Jones, Robert T.: Theoretical
Stability and Control Characteristics of Wings with
Various Amounts of Taper and Twist. NACA Rep.635, 1938.

192
 36. Pearson, HenryA. and Anderson, Raymond F.: Calculation
of the Aerodynamic Characteristicsof Tapered Wings
With Partial-Span Flaps. NACA Rep. 665, 1939.
37. Reissner, E.: Note on the Theory of Lifting Surfaces,
Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences, Vol.
35, No. 4, 1949, pages 208-215.
38. Roshko, A.: Computation of the Increment of Maximum Lift
Due to Flaps. Douglas Aircraft Rep. SM-23626, 1959.
39. Sherman, Albert: A Simple Method of Obtaining Span Load
Distributions. NACA TN 732, 1939.
40. Sivells, JamesC.: An Improved Approximate Methodfor
Calculating Lift Distributions Due to Twist. NACA
TN 2282, 1951.
41. Sivells, JamesC., and Neely, RobertH.: Method of
Calculating Wing Characteristics by Lifting-Line Theory
Using Nonlinear Section Lift Data. NACA
TN 1269, 1947,
Also NACA Rep. 865, 1947.
I 42. Sivells, James C.and Westrick,Gertrude C.: Methodfor
Calculating Lift Distributions for Unswept Wings With
Flaps or Ailerons by Use of Nonlinear Section Lift
Data. NACA Rep. 1090, 1952.
43. Soule, Hartley A. and Gough, V., Melvin N.: Some Aspects
of the Stalling o f Modern Low-Wing Monoplanes. NACA
TN 645, 1938.
44. Squire, H. B. and Young, A.D.: The Calculation of the
Profile Drag of Aero foils. &R M No. 1838, British
ARC, 1938.
45. Tani, Itiro: A Simple Method of Calculating the Induced
Velocity o f a Monoplane Wing. Aeronaut. Research Inst.
Tokyo Imp. Univ. Rep.111, Vol. IX, page 3, August 1934.
46. Tetervin, Neal: A Method for the Rapid Estimation of
Turbulent Boundary-layer Thickness for Calculating
Profile Drag. NACA ACR L4G14, 1944 (Wartime Rep. L-16).
47. Theodorsen, Theodore: On the Theory of Wing Sections with
Particular Reference to the Lift Distribution. NACA
Rep. 383, 1931.
48. Theodorsen, Theodore: Theory of Wing Sections of Arbitrary
Shape. NACA Rep. 411, 1931.

193

I
49. Theodorsen, Theodore: Airfoil Contour Modification
Based on€-Curve Method of Calculating Pressure
Distribution. NACA ARR L4G05, 1944 (Wartime Rep.
L-1351.
50. Theodorsen, Theodore, and Garrick,I. E.: General
Potential Theory of Arbitrary Wing Sections. NACA
Rep. 452, 1933.
51. von Doenhoff, Albert
E.: A Method of RapidlyEstimating
the Laminar Separation
Point. NACA TN 671, 1938.
52. von Karman, T.: Turbulence and Skin Friction, J. Aeronaut.
Sci., Vol. 1, No. 1, 1934, pages 1-20.
53. von Karman,T.: Compressibility Effects in Aerodynamics,
J. Aeronaut. Sci., Vol. 8, No. 9, 1941, pages 337-356.
54. Walz, A.: Theoretical Calculation of the MaxYmum Lift
Coefficient of WingsWith and Without Lift-Flaps. ZWB
Research Report No. 1769, 1943 (Translated by Frank,
Richard and Fahle, John, Cornel1 Aeronautical Laboratory,
Inc., 1951).
55. Weich, Fred E., Flanagan, L.E., Jr., and Cherry, H.H.:
An Analytical Investigation of Effect of High-Lift
Flaps on Take-Off of Light Airplanes. NACA TN 2404,
1951.
56. Weich, Fred E. and Abramson, H. Norman: Investigation of
Lateral Control Near the Stall. Analysis for Required
Longitudinal Trim Characteristics and Discussion of
Design Variables. NACA TN 3677, 1956.
57. Wimpenny, J.C.: Low-Speed Stalling Characteristics. A G m D
Rep. 356, 1961.
(b) Interference Methods
1. Ch.ester,D. H.: The Lift of a Propeller-Wing Combination
Due to the Slip-Stream. Israel Journal of Technology,
Vol. 3, No. 1, 1965, page 102.
2. Dynasciences Corporation: Effects of Propeller Slipstream
on V/STOL Aircraft Performance and Stability, TRECOM
TR 64-47, 1964.
3. Ellis, N.D.: A Computer Study of aWing in a Slipstream.
UTIAS TN 101, 1965.

194
4. Flax, A.H. and Treanor, C.E.: A Variational Calculation
of Subsonic Wing-Body Interference According to Lifting-
Line Theory, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. (To
be published.)
5. Franke, A. and WeinigF.: The Effect of the Slipstream
on an Airplane Wing. NACA TM 920, 1939.
6. George, M. and Kisielowski, E.: Investigation of Prop-
eller Slipstream Effectson Wing Performance. USAAVLABS
TR 67-67, 1967.
7. Lawrence, H.R. and Flax A.H.: Wing-Body Interferenceat
Subsonic and Supersonic Speeds- Survey andNew Develop-
ments. J. Ae. Sc., Vol. 21, No. 5 , Page 289, 1954.
8. Lennertz, J.: Influence of the Airplane Bodyon the Wings,
Aerodynamic Theory;W. F. Durand, Editor,V o l . IV,
Division K, Chapter 111, Durand Reprinting Committee,
1943.

9. Low, L., and Stone, H. N.: The Subsonic Aerodynamic

Characteristics of Wings in Combination with Slender
Bodies of Revolution, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory,
Bumblebee ReportNo. CAL/CM-679, 1951.
10. Matthews, ClarenceW.: A Comparison of the Experimental
Subsonic Pressure Distributions About Several Bodiesof
Revolution with Pressure Distributions Computedby
Means of the Linearized Theory. NACA Rep. 1155, 1953.
11. Multhopp, H.: Aerodynamics of the Fuselage, NACA
TM
1036, 1942.
12. Munk, Max M.: The Aerodynamic Forces on Airship
Hulls,
NACA TR 184, 1 9 2 4 .
13. Pepper, P.A., Minimum Induced Drag in Wing-Fuselage
Interference, NACATN 8 1 2 , 1941.
14. Pitts, WilliamC., Nielsen, Jack N., and Kaattari, George
E.: Lift and Center of Pressure of
Wing-Body-Tail
Combinations at Subsonic, Transonic, and Supersonic
Speeds. NACA Rep. 1307, 1957.
15. Ribner, H. S. and Ellis, N.D.: Theory and Computer Study
of a Wing in a Slipstream. AIAA Paper No.66-466, 1966.
16. Ribner, H.S.: Theory of Wings in a Slipstream. LITIAS
Rep. 60, 1959.

195
1 7 . S c h l i c h t i n g , H . , Monograph on theAerodynamicsof
Mutual I n t e r f e r e n c e Between t h e Componentsof the
A i r p l a n e ,N a t i o n a lR e s e a r c hC o u n c i lo fC a n a d a ,T e c h -
n i c a l T r a n s l a t i o n No. TT-92,1949.
18. White, RichardP., Jr.: VTOL P e r i o d i c Aerodynamic
Loadings. TheProblems-What i s Being Done and What
Needs t o b e Done. P a p e rp r e s e n t e d a t t h e Symposium
on t h e N o i s e a n d L o a d i n g A c t i o n s o n H e l i c o p t e r V/STOL
A i r c r a f ta n d Ground E f f e c tM a c h i n e s , a t University
of Southampton,Hampshire,England, Aug. 30 t o
S e p t . 3, 1965.

1 9 .W i e s e l s b e r g e r , C.: C o n t r i b u t i o nt ot h e Mutual I n t e r -
f e r e n c eo f Wing and P r o p e l l e r . NACA TM 754,1934.

20.Yaggy,PaulF.: A Method f o rP r e d i c t i n gt h e Upwash

AnglesInduced a t t h e P r o p e l l e r Planeof a Combination
of Bodies with an Unswept Wing. NACA TN 2528,1951.

2 1 . Young, A.D.: Noteon t h eE f f e c to fS l i p s t r e a m on

BoundaryLayer Flow.
Rep. B.A. 1 4 0 4 ,B r i t i s h RAE, 1937.
2 2 . Young, A . D.: F u r t h e rN o t e on t h eE f f e c t of S l i p s t r e a m
onBoundaryLayerFlow.Rep. No. B.A. 1 4 0 4 a ,B r i t i s h
RAE, 1938.
23. Young, A.D., andMorris D.E.: F u r t h e r Note on t h eE f f e c t
ofSlipstreamonBoundaryLayer Flow.Rep. No. B.A.
1 4 0 4 b ,B r i t i s h RAE, 1939.
24. Z l o t n i c k M., andRobinson, S.W., Jr.: A S i m p l i f i e d
Mathematical Model f o r C a l c u l a t i n g AerodynamicLeading
and Downwash f o r Midwing Wing-FuselageCombinations
w i t h Wings o fA r b i t r a r yP l a n f o r m , NACA RN L52J27a,1953.

25. Z l o t n i c k , Martin andRobinson,Samuel W . , Jr.: A

S i m p l i f i e d M a t h e m a t i c a l Model for C a l c u l a t i n g Aero-
dynamicLoadingand Downwash for Wing-Fuselage Combina-
t i o n s With Wings o f A r b i t r a r yP l a n Form. NACA TN 3057,
1954.
( c )T o t a lA i r c r a f tA n a l y s i s

1. Goranson, R. Fabian: A Method f o rP r e d i c t i n gt h eE l e v a t o r

D e f l e c t i o nR e q u i r e dt o Land. NACA WR L-95 ( O r i g i n a l l y
i s s u e d a s ARR L41161,1944.

2. G r a h a m , E r n e s t W. & Luskin,Harold:TheDeterminationof
t h e S t a l l i n g Speedandthe Maximum L i f t C o e f f i c i e n t i n
Flight. J.A.S., page
95,
Feb.,
1946.

196
i. 3. Howe, JohnT.: Some Fluid Mechanical Problems Related
1968.
to Subsonic and Supersonic Aircraft. NASA SP-183,
Lovell, J. Calvin & Lipson, Stanley: An Analysis of the
Effect of Lift-Drag Ratio and Stalling Speed on Landing-
Flare Characteristics. NACA TN 1930, 1949.
5. Pinsker, W.J.G.: TIZero Rate of Climb Speed” as
Low a
Speed Limitation for the Stall-Free Aircraft. ARC
C.P.
931, 1966.
6. Priestley, E.: A General Treatmentof Static Longitudinal
Stability With Propellers, With Application to Single-
Engined Aircraft. ARC R& M 2732, 1953.
7. Staff of Langley Research Center: A Preliminary Study
of
V/STOL Transport Aircraft and Bibliography of NASA
I TN D-624,1961.
Research in the VTOL-STOL Field. NASA
! 8. Zalovcik, JohnA.: Summary of Stall Warning Devices.
NACA TN 2676, 1952.
2. WIND TUNNEL TESTS
(a) Section Characteristics
1. Abbott, Frank T., Jr.,and Turner, Harold R.,Jr.: The
Effects of Roughness at High Reynolds Numbers on the
Lift and Drag Characteristics of Three Thick Airfoils,
NACA ACR No. L4H21, 1944 (Wartime Rep. L-46).
2. Abbott, Ira H., and Greenberg,Harry: Tests in the
Variable-Density Wind Tunnelof the NACA23012 Airfoil
With Plain and Split Flaps. NACA Rep. 661, 1939.
3. Abbott, Ira H., von Doenhoff, Albert E., and Stivers,
Louis S.: Summary of Airfoil Data. NACA Rep. 824,
1945.
4. Abbott, Ira H. & Sherman, Albert: Flow Observations With
Tufts and Lampblack of the Stalling of Four Typical
Airfoil Sections in the N.A.C.A. Variable-Density
Tunnel. NACA TN 672, 1938.
5. Aeronautics Laboratory, Cambridge: An Experimental Study
of the Stalling of Wings. ARC &R M 1588, 1933.
6. Bullwant, W. Kenneth: Tests of the NACA 0025 and 0035
Airfoils in the Full-scale Wind Tunnel. NACA Rep.
708, 1941.

197
7. Cahill, Jones F.: Summary of Section Data on Trailing-
Edge High-lift Devices. NACARM No. L8D09, 1948
(Also NACA Rep. 938, 1949).
8. Cahill, Jones F.: Two-dimensional Wind-tunnel Investiga-
tion of Four Types of High-lift onFlapan NACA65-210
Airfoil Section. NACA TN 1191, 1947.
9. Cahill, Jones F., and Racisz, Stanley: Wind-tunnel
Development of Optimum Double-slotted-flap Configurations
€or Seven Thin NACA Airfoil Sections. NACARM No.
L7B17, 1947, alsoTN 1545.
10. Clay, William C.: Characteristics of theN.A.C.A. 23012
Airfoil From Tests in the Full-scale and Variable-Density
Tunnels. NACA Rep. 530, 1935.
11. Fischel, Jack, and Riebe, John M.: Wind-tunnel Investiga-
tion of a NACA 23021 Airfoil with a 0.32-airfpil-chord
Double Slotted Flap. NACA ARR No. L4J05,1944 (Wartime
Rep. L-7).
12. Fitzpatrick, James E. & Schneider, WilliamC.: Effect of
Mach Number Variation Between 0.07 and 0.34 and Reynolds
Number Variation Between 0.97 x 106 and 8.10 x 106 on
the Maximum Lift Coefficient of a Wing of NACA 64-210
Airfoil Series. NACA TN 2753, 1952.
13. Fullmer, Felicien F., Jr.: Wind-Tunnel Investigation of
NACA 66(215)-216, 66, 1-212, and 65,-212 Airfoils With
0.20-Airfoil-Chord Split Flaps. NACAWR L-140 (Originally
Issued as CB L4G101, 1944.
14. Fullmer, Felicien F., Jr.: Two-dimensional Wind-tunnel
Investigation of the NACA 641-012 Airfoil Equipped With
Two Types of Leading-edge Flap. NACATN 1277, 1947.

15. Furlong, G. Chester & Fitzpatrick, James E.: Effects of

Mach Number and Reynolds Number on the Maximum Lift
Coefficient of a Wingof NACA 230-Series Airfoil Sections.
NACA TN 1299, 1947 (Originally issuedMRasL6F04, 1946).
16. Gault, Donald E.: Boundary-Layer and Stalling Characteris-
tics of the NACA 63-009 Airfoil Section. NACA TN 1894,
1949.
17. Goett, Harry J.& Bullivant, W. Kenneth: Tests of N.A.A.A.
0009, 0012, and 0018 Airfoils in the Full-Scale Tunnel.
NACA Rep. 647, 1939.

198
 Graham, DonaldJ.r The Development of Cambered Airfoil
Sections Having Favorable Lift Characteristics at
Supercritical Mach Numbers. NACA Rep.947, 1949.
Harris, ThomasA.: Wind-tunnel Investigation of an
NACA Airfoil With Two Arrangements of a Wide-chord
Slotted Flap. NACA TN 715, 1939.
Harris, ThomasA., and Recant, IsidoreG.: Wind-tunnel
Investigation of NACA 23012, 23021, and 23030 Airfoils
Equipped with 40-percent-chord Double Slotted Flaps.
NACA Rep. 723, 1941.
! '

21. Harris, ThomasA., and Lowry, JohnG. : Pressure

Distribution Over an NACA 23012 Airfoil with a Fixed
Slot and a Slotted Flap. NACA Rep. 732, 1942.
\ 22. Hood, Manley J., and Gaydos, M. Edward: Effects of
Propellers and of Vibration on the Extent of Laminar
Flow on the NACA 27-212 Airfoil. NACA ACR, October
1939, (Wartime Rep. L-784).
23. Jacobs, Eastman N., and Abbott, Ira
H.: Airfoil Section
Data Obtained in the NACA Variable-density Tunnel as
Affected by Support Interference and Other Corrections.
NACA Rep. 669, 1939.
24. Jacobs, Eastman N., and Pinkerton, RobertM.: Tests in
the Variable-density Wind Tunnel of Related Airfoils
Having the Maximum Camber Unusually Far Forward. NACA
Rep. 537, 1935.
25. Jacobs, Eastman N., and Pinkerton, RobertM.: Pressure,
Distribution Over a Symmetrical Airfoil Section With
Trailing Edge Flap. NACA Rep. 360, 1930.
26. Jacobs, EastmanN., Pinkerton, RobertM., and Greenberg,
Harry: Tests of Related Forward-camber Airfoils in
the Variable-density Wind Tunnel. NACA Rep.610,
1937.
27. Jacobs, Eastman N., Ward, Kenneth E., and Pinkerton,
Robert M.: The Characteristics of 78 Related Airfoil
Sections from Tests in the Variable-density Wind
Tunnel. NACA Rep. 460, 1932.
28. Kelly, JohnA. & Hayter, Nora-LeeF.: Lift and Pitching
Moment at Low Speeds of the NACA64A010 Airfoil Section
Equipped With Various Combinations of a Leading-Edge
Stat, Leading-Edge Flap, Split Flap, and Double-Slotted
Flap. NACA TN 3 0 0 7 , 1953.

I
29. Kruger, W.: Wind-tunnel Investigation on a Changed
Mustang Profile With. Nose Flap. Force and Pressure
Distribution Measurements. NACA TM 1177, 1947.
30. Loftin, Laurence K.,Jr.: Theoretical and Experimental
Data for a Number of NACA 6A-Series Airfoil Sections.
NACA Rep. 903, 1947.
31. Loftin, Laurence K., Jr.: Airfoil Section Characteristics
at High Angles of Attack. NACA TN 3241, 1954.
32. Loftin, Lawrence K., Jr.: Aerodynamic Characteristics
of the NACA64-010 and 0010-1.10 40/1.051 Airfoil
Sections at Mach Numbers from0.30 to 0.85 and Reynolds
Numbers from4.0 x LO6 to 8.0 X lo6. NACA TN 3244,
1954.
33. Loftin, Laurence K., Jr.: Effects of Specific Types of
Surface Roughness on Boundary-Layer Transition. NACA
ACR L5J29a, 1945 (Wartime Rep. L-48).
34. Loftin, Laurence K.,Jr. & Bursnall, WilliamJ.: The
Effects of Variations in Reynolds Number Between 3.0
x 106 and 25.0 x 106 Upon the Aerodynamic Characteristics
of a Number of NACA 6-Series Airfoil Sections. NACA
Rep. 964, 1950.
35. S.: Aerodynamic
Loftin, Laurence K., Jr. and Cohen, Kenneth
Characteristics of a Number of Modified NACA Four-digit-
series Airfoil Sections. NACA RM L7122, 1947.
36. Loftin, Laurence K.,Jr. & Smith, Hamilton,A.: Aero-
dynamic Characteristics of 15 NACA Airfoil Sections at
x lo6 to 9.0 x 106.
Seven Reynolds Numbers From 0.7
NACA TN 1945, 1949.
37. Loftin, Laurence K., Jr.& Smith, HamiltonA.: Two-
dimensional Aerodynamic Characteristics of34 Miscell-
aneous Airfoil Sections. NACARM L8L08, 1949.
38. Lowry, JohnG . : Wind-tunnel Investigation of an NACA
23012 Airfoil with Several Arrangements of Slotted
Flap With Extended Lips. NACA TN 808, 1941.
39. Maki, Ralph L. & Hunton, LynnW.: An Investigation at
to the Leading-
Subsonic Speeds of Several Modifications
Edge Region of the NACA 64A010 Airfoil Section Designed
to Increase Maximum Lift. NACA TN 3871, 1956.

200
".I,. 40. McCullough, GeorgeB. & Gault, Donald E.: Boundary-Layer
Iti and Stalling Characteristics of the NACA Airfoil
00664A
Section. NACA TN 1923, 1949.
41. McCullough, George B. & Gault, Donald E.: Examples of
Three Representative Types of Airfoil-Section Stall
at Low Speed. NACA TN 2502, 1951.
42. Peterson, RobertF.: The Boundary-Layer and Stalling
Characteristics of the NACA64A 010 Airfoil Section.
NACA TN 2235, 1950.
43. Pinkerton, RobertM.: Calculated and Measured Pressure
Distribution Over the Midspan Section
of the NACA Rep.
563, 1936.
44. Platt, Robert C., and Abbott, IraH.: Aerodynamic
Characteristics of NACA 23012 and 23021 Airfoils with
of NACA 23012
20-percent-chord External-airfoil Flaps
Section. NACA Rep. 573, 1936.
45. Purser, PaulE. Fischel, Jack, and Riebe, John
M.: Wind-
tunnel Investigation of an NACA 23012 Airfoil With a
0.30-airfoil-chord Double Slotted Flap. NACA ARR
No. 3L10, 1943 (Wartime Rep. No. L-469).
46. Purser, PaulE., and Johnson, HaroldS.: Effects of
Trailing-edge Modifications on Pitching-moment
Characteristics of Airfoils. NACA CB L4130, 1944
(Wartime Rep. L-664).
47. Quinn, John H.,Jr.: Summary of Drag Characteristics of
Practical-Construction Wing Sections. NACA Rep. 910,
1948.
48. Recant, I.G.: Wind-tunnel Investigation of an NACA 23030
Airfoil With Various Arrangements of Slotted Flap. NACA
TN 755, 1940.
49. Sch.uldenfrei, MarvinJ.: Wind-tunnel Investigation of
an NACA 23012 Airfoil With a Handley Page Slot and Two
Flap Arrangements. NACA ARR, February, 1942 (Wartime
Rep. L-261).
50. Sherman, Albert, and Harris,T.A.: The Effects of Equal
of a Clark-Y
Pressure Fixed Slots on the Characteristics
Airfoil. NACA TN 507, 1934.
51. E.: Tests of 16
Stack, John, and von Doenh.off, Albert
Related Airfoils at High Speeds. NACA Rep. 492, 1934.

201
52. University of Southampton: 'Determination of the Forces
Moments on an Airfoil Oscillating Through the Stall.
A.A.S.U. 252, 1964.
53. von Doenhoff, AlbertE., and Abbott, FrankT., Jr.: The
Langley Two-dimensional Low-turbulence Pressure Tunnel.
NACA TN 1283,1947.
54. von Doenhoff, AlbertE., and Tetervin, Neal: Investiga-
tion of the Variation of Lift Coefficient With Reynolds
Number ata Moderate Angle of Attack on a Low-drag
Airfoil. NACA CB, 1942 (Wartime Rep. L-661).
55. Weick, Fred E., and Shortal, JosephA.: The Effect of
Multiple Fixed Slots and a Trailing-edge Flap on the
Lift and Drag of a ClarkY Airfoil. NACA Rep. 427,
1932.
56. Wenzinger, CarlJ.: Wind-tunnel Investigation- of Ordinary
and Split Flaps on Airfoils of Different Profile. NACA
Rep. 554, 1936.
57. Wenzinger, CarlJ.: Pressure Distribution Over an Airfoil
Section With a Flap and Tab. NACA Rep. 574, 1936.
58. Wenzinger, CarlJ.: Pressure Distribution Over an NACA
23012 Airfoil With an NACA 23012 External-airfoil Flap.
NACA Rep. 614, 1938.
59. Wenzinger, Carl J., and Delano, JamesB.: Pressure
Distribution Over an NACA 23012 Airfoil With a Slotted
and a Plain Flap. NACA Rep. 633, 1938.
60. Wenzinger, CarlJ. & Gauvain, WilliamE.: Wind-Tunnel
Investigation of an N.A.C.A. 23012 Airfoil With
a
Slotted Flap and Three Types of Auxiliary Flap. NACA
Rep. 679, 1939.
61. Wenzinger, Carl J., and Harris, ThomasA.: Wind-tunnel
Investigation of an NACA 23012 Airfoil With. Various
Arrangements of Slotted Flaps. NACA Rep.664, 1939.
62. Wenzinger, CarlJ., and Harris, ThomasA.: Wind-tunnel
Investigation of NACA23012, 23021, and 23030 Airfoils
With Various Sizes ofSplit Flap. NACA Rep. 668, 1939.
63. Wenzinger, CarlJ., and Harris, ThomasA.: Wind-tunnel
Investigation of an NACA 23021 Airfoil With Various
Arrangements of Slotted Flaps. NACA Rep. 677, 1939.

202
64. Wenzinger, Carl J., and Rogallo, FrancisM.: Resume
of AirloadData onSlats and Flaps. NACATN 690, 1939.
65. Wilson, Homer B., Jr. & Horton, Elmer A.: Aerodynamic
Characteristics at High and Low Subsonic Mach Numbers
of Four NACA 6-Series Airfoil Sections at Angles of
Attack From -20 to 31O. NACA RM L53C20, 1953.
66. Young, A.D.: A Review of Some Stalling Research. ARC
R & M 2609, 1942.
(b) Wing Alone Tests
1. Bollech, Thomas V.: Experimental and Calculated
Characteristics of Several High-Aspect-Ratio Tapered
Wings Incorporating NACA 44-Series, 230 Series, and
Low Drag 64-Series Airfoil Sections. NACA TN 1677,
1948.
2. Cahill, JonesF.: Aerodynamic Dath for a Wing Section of
the RepublicXF-12 Airplane Equipped With a Double
Slotted Flap. NACA MR No. L6A08a, 1946 (Wartime Rep.
L-544) .
3. Greenberg, Harry: Characteristics of NACA 4400R Series
Rectangular and Tapered Airfoils, Including the Effect
of Split Flaps. NACA WR L-493, 1941.
4. Hamilton, WilliamT. & Nelson, WarrenH.: Summary Report
on the High-speed Characteristics of Six Model Wings
Having NACA 65-Series Sections. NACA Rep. 877, 1947.
5. Hood, Manley J.: The Effects of Some Common
Surface
Irregularities on Wing Drag. NACATN 695, 1939.
6. Jessen, Henry, Jr.: A Summary Report on the Effects of
Mach Number on the Span Load Distribution on Wings of
Several Models. NACA RM A7C28, 1947.
7. Neely, Robert H. Bollech, ThomasV., Westrick, Gertrude
C., and Graham, Robert R.: Experimental and Calculated
Characteristics of Several NACA 44-Series Wings with
Aspect Ratios of 8, LO, and 12, and Taper Ratios of
2.5 and 3.5. NACA TN 1270, 1947.
8. Nonweiler, T.: A Resume of Maximum LiftData for
Symmetrical Wings With Various High-Lift Aids. College
of Aeronautics, Cranfield CoA Note
No. 5, 1954.
9. Noyes, RichardW.: Wind-tunnel Testsof a Wing with a
Trailing-edge Auxiliary Airfoil Used asFlap.
a NACA
TN 524, 1935.

203
10. Palme, H.O.: Summary of Stalling Characteristics and
Maximum Lift of Wings at Low Speeds. SAAB Aircraft
Company, Sweden, TN 15, 1953.
11. Pearson, E.O., Jr., Evans, A.J., and West, F.E.: Effects
of Compressibility on the Maximum Lift Characteristics,
and Spanwise Load Distribution of a 12-foot-span Fighter-
type Wing of NACA 230-series Airfoil Sections. NACA
ACR L5G10, 1945 (Wartime Rep. L-51).
12. Platt, RobertC.: Aerodynamic Characteristics of a Wing
With Fowler Flaps, Including Flap Loads Down-wash, and
Calculated Effect on Take-Off. NACA Rep.534, 1935.
13. Platt, Robert C.: Aerodynamic Characteristics of Wings
with Cambered External-airfoil Flaps, Including Lateral
Control With a Full-span Flap. NACA Rep. 541, 1935.
14. Platt, Robert C., and Shortal, Joseph
A.: Wind-tunnel
Investigation of Wings With Ordinary Ailerons and Full-
span External Airfoil Flaps. NACA Rep.603, 1937.
15. Sherman, Albert: The Aerodynamic Effects of Wing Cut-Outs.
NACA Rep. 480, 1934.
16. Sivells, JamesC.: Experimental and Calculated Character-
istics of Three Wings of NACA
64-210 and 65-210 Airfoil
Sections With and Without 20 Washout. NACATN 1422,
1947.
17. Soule, H. A. & Anderson, R.F.: Design Ch.arts Relatingto
the Stalling of Tapered Wings. NACA Rep. 703, 1940.
18. Stack, John& Lindsey, W.F.: Characteristics of Low-
Aspect-Ratio Wings at Supercritical Mach Numbers. NACA
Rep. 922, 1949.
19. Sweberg, HaroldH. & Lange, RoyH.: Summary of Available
Data Relating to Reynolds Number Effects on the Maximum
RM L6L202,
Lift Coefficients of Swept Back Wings. NACA
1947.
20. Wallace, Rudolf: Investigation of Full-scale Split
Trailing-Edge Wing Flaps With Various Chords and Hinge
Locations. NACA Rep. 539, 1935.
21. Weick, Fred E., and Harris, Thomas
A.: The Aerodynamic
Characteristics of a Model Wing Having a Split Flap
Deflected Downward and Moved to the Rear. NACA TN 422,
1932.

204
22. Weick, Fred E., and Platt, Robert C.: Wind-tunnel Tests
on a Model Wing With FowlerandFlap Specially Developed
Leading-edge Slot. NACA TN 459,1933.
23. Weick, Fred E., and Sanders, Robert: Wind-tunnel Tests
of a Wing with Fixed Auxiliary Airfoils Having Various
Chords and Profiles. NACA Rep. 472, 1933.
24. Wenzing, CarlJ.: Y Wing
Wind-tunnel Tests of a Clark
Having Split Flaps With Gaps. NACA TN
650, 1938.
25. Wenzinger, Carl J. & Harris, ThomasA.: Pressure
Distribution Over a Rectangular Airfoil With a Partial-
Span Split Flap. NACA Rep. 571,1936.
26. Woodward, D.S.: On the Errors Induced at Tunnel Reference
Pressure Tappings by High Lift Models. R.A.E. Technical
Report No. 66049, 1966.
(c> Complete Model Tests
1. Brewer, GeraldW., & May, Ralph W., Jr.: Investigation
of a1/7 Scale Powered Model of a Twin Boom Airplane
and a Comparison of its Stability, Control, and
Performance with Those of a Similar All-Wing Airplane.
NACA TN 1649,1948.
2. Goodman, A.: Effects of Wing Position and Horizontal-Tail
Position on Static Stability Characteristics of Models
With Unswept and 45O Sweptback Surfaces with Some
Reference to Mutual Interference. NACA TN 2502, 1951.
3. Hagerman, JohnR.: Wind-tunnel Investigation of the
Effect of Power and Flaps on the Static Longitudinal
Stability and Control Characteristics of a Single-Engine
High-wing Airplane Model. NACATN 1339,1947.
4. Harper, Paul W.& Flanigan, Roy E.: Investigation of
the Variation of Maximum Lift for a Pitching Airplane
Model and Comparison With Flight Results. NACATN 1734,
1948.
5. Harper, Paul W. & Flanigan, RayE.: The Effect of Rate
of Change of Angle of Attackon the Maximum Lift of
a Small Model. NACA TN 2061, 1950.
6. Hartshorn, A.S., Hirst, D.M.,& Midwood, G.F.: Tests on
Model of "Wapiti" Including Effect of Slipstream.
ARC R& M 1419, 1932.

205
7. Hopkins, Edward J. & Carel, Hubert C.: Experimental
and Theoretical Study of the Effects of Body Sizeon the
Aerodynamic Characteristics ofan Aspect Ratio3.0 Wing-
Body Combination. NACA RM A51G24, 1951.
8. Hopkins, Edward J. & Carel, Hubert C.: Experimental and
Theoretical Study of the Interference Low at Speed
Between Slender Bodies and Triangular Wings. NACA
RM A53A14, 1953.

9. House, Refus0. & Wallace, Arthur R.: Wind-Tunnel

Investigation of Effectof Interference on Lateral-
Stability Characteristics of Four NACA23012 Wings, An
Elliptical and a Circular Fuselage, and VerticalFins.
NACA Rep. 705,1941.
10. Jacobs, Eastman N. & Ward, Kenneth E.: Interference of
Wing & Fuselage from Tests of 209 Combinations in the
N.A.C.A. Variable-Density Tunnel. NACA Rep. 540,1935.
11. Johnson, Harold S.: Wind-tunnel Investigationof Effects
of Tail Length on the Longitudinal and Lateral Stability
Characteristics of a Single-Propeller Airplane Model.
NACA TN 1766,1948.
1 2 . Jordan, GarethH. & Cole, Richard I.:
The Effect of a
Simulated Propeller Slipstream
on the Aerodynamic
Characteristics of an Unswept Wing Panel
With and Without
0.30 to 0.86.
Nacelles at Mach Numbers from NACA TN
2776,1952.

13. Letko, William & Tr7illiams, James L.:Experimental Invest-

igation atLow Speed of Effects of Fuselage Cross Section
on Static Longitudinal and Lateral Stability Character-
istics of Models Having Oo and 45O Sweptback Surfaces.
NACA TN 3551,1955.
14. Letko, William: Experimental Investigation at Low Speed
of the Effects of Wing Position on the Static Stability
of Models Having Fuselages of Various Cross Section and
Unswept and 45O Sweptback Surfaces. NACA TN 3857,1956.
15. Martina, Albert P.: The Interference Effects of a Body
on
the Spanwise Load Distributions of 45'
two Sweptback
Wings of Aspect Ratio8.02 From Low-speed Tests. NACA
TN 3730,1956.
16. Muttray, H.: Investigation of th.e Effect of the Fuselage
on the Wing of aLow-Wing Monoplane. NACA TM517,1929.

2 06
 17. Pitkin, Marvin: Free-Flight-Tunnel Investigation of
,q
-, the Effect of Mode of Propeller Rotation Upon the Lateral-
Stability Characteristics of a Twin-Engine Airplane Model With
Single Vertical Tails of DifferentSize. NACA WR L-354.
(Originally Issued asARR 35181, 1943.

18. Prandtl, L.: Effects of Varying the Relative Vertical

Position of Wing and Fuselage. NACA TN 75, 1921.
19. Ribner, Herbert S. & Mac Lachlan, Robert: Effect of
Slipstream Rotationin Producing Asymmetric Forces on a Fuselage.
NACA TN 1210, 1947.
20. Robinson, Russell G. & Herrnstein, William H., Jr.: Wing-
Nacelle-Propeller Interference for Wings of Various Spans. Force
and Pressure-Distribution Tests. NACARep. 569, 1936.
21. Sandahl, Carl A. & Vollo, Samuel D.: Wind-Tunnel Invest-
igation of the Air Load Distribution on
Two Combinations of
Lifting Surfaces and Fuselage. NACA TN 1295, 1947.
22. Schlichting, H.: Report on the Special Field "Interfer-
ence" to theWind-Tunnel Committee in February 1945. NACATM
1347, 1953.
23. Sherman, Albert: Interference of Wing and Fuselage from
Tests of 28 Combinations in theN.A.C.A. Variable-Density Tunnel.
NACA Rep. 575, 1936.
24. Sherman, Albert: Interference of Tail Surfaces and Wing
and Fuselage From Tests of 17 Combinations in the N.A.C.A.
Variable Density Tunnel. NACA Rep. 678, 1939.
25. Sivells, James C . , and Spooner, Stanley H.: Investigation
in the Langley 19-Foot Pressure Tunnel of Two Wings of NACA
65-210 Airfoil Sections With Various Type Flaps. NACARep.
942, 1949.
26. Sleeman, William C., Jr. & Lindsley, Edward L.: Low-speed
Wind-Tunnel Investigationof the Effects of Propeller Operation
at High Thrust on the Longitudinal Stability and Trimof a Twin-
Engine Airplane Configuration. NACA RM L52D04, 1952.
27. Stuper, J.: Effect of Propeller Slipstream on Wing and
Tail. NACA TM 874, 1938.
28. Teplitz, Jerome: Effects of Small Angles of Sweep and
Amounts of Dihedralon Stalling and Lateral Character-
istics of a Wing-Fuselage Combination Equipped With Partial-and
Full-Span Double Slotted Flaps. NACA Rep. 800, 1944.

207
 29. Wallace, Arthur R., Rossi, Peter F., and Wells, Evelyn
G.: Wind-tunnel Investigation of the Effectof Power
and Flaps on the Static Longitudinal Stability
Characteristics of a Single-Engine Low-Wing Airplane
Model. NACA TN 1239, 1947.
30. Weil, Joseph& Sleeman, William C.,Jr.: Prediction of
the Effects of Propeller Operation
on the Static
Longitudinal Stability of Single-Engine Tractor Mono-
planes With Flaps Retracted. NACATN 1722,1948.
31. Windler, Ray: Tests of a Wing-Nacelle-Propeller Combina-
to 42O. NACA Rep.
tion at Several Pitch Settings Up
564, 1936.
(d) Full-scale Wind-Tunnel Tests
1. Davis, Don D., Jr., and Sweberg, Harold H.: Investigation
of Some Factors Affecting Comparisons of Wind-Tunnel
and Flight Measurements of Maximum Lift Coefficients
for a Fighter-Type Airplane. NACA TN 1639,1948.
2. Fink, Marvin P. & Freeman, Delma C., Jr.: Full-scale
Wind-Tunnel Investigation of Static Longitudinal and
Lateral Characteristics of a Light Twin-Engine Airplane.
NASA TN D-4983, 1969.
3. Kayten, Gerald G.: Analysis of Wind-Tunnel Stability and
Control Tests in Terms of Flying Qualities of Full-scale
Airplanes. NACA Rep. 825, 1945.
4. Roberts, JohnC. & Yaggy, Paul F.: A Survey of the Flow
at the Plane of the Propeller of a Twin-Engine Airplane.
NACA TN 2192, 1950.
5. Sweberg, Harold H. and Dingeldein, RichardC.: Summary of
Measurements in Langley Full-scale Tunnel of Maximum
Lift Coefficients and Stalling Characteristics of Air-
planes. NACA Rep. 829, 1945.
6. White, James A. & Hodd, Manley J.: Wing-Fuselage Inter-
ference, Tail Buffeting, and Air Flow About the Tail
of a Low-Wing Monoplane. NACA Rep. 482, 1934.
3. AIRCRAFT FLIGHT TESTS
1. Anderson, Seth B.: Correlation of Flight and Wind-Tunnel
Measurements of Roll-Off in Low-Speed Stalls on a 35O
Swept-Wing Aircraft. NACA RM A53G22, 1953.

2 08
 "

I T -

Barnes, F. W. & Newman, B.G.: The Effectof Leading-

p1 2. Edge Wedgeson the Stalling Behavior ofthe Wirraway.
?.?
R.A.A.F. Aircraft Research and Development Unit
TN Aero/8, 1951.
3. Bicknell, Joseph: Determination of the Profile Drag of
an Airplane Wing in Flight at High Reynolds Numbers.
NACA Rep. 667, 1939.
4. Donely, Philip & Pearson, HenryA.: Flight and Wind-Tunnel
Tests of anXBM-1 Dive Bomber. NACA.TN-644,1938.
5. Gadeberg, Bernett, L.: The Effect of Rate of Change of
Angle of Attack on the Maximum Lift Coefficient of a
Pursuit Airplane. NACA TN 2525, 1951.
6. Gray, William E., Jr.: NASA Flight Research Center Hand-
ling-Qualities Program on General-Aviation Aircraft,
NASA TM X-56004, 1964.
7. Hunter, Paul A.: Flight Measurements of the Flying
Qualities of Five Light Airplanes. NACATN 1573, 1948.
8. Hunter, P.A. & Vensel, J.R.: A Flight Investigation to
Increase the Safety of a Light Airplane. NACA TN
1203, 1947.
9. Huston, Wilber B. & Skopinski, T.H.: Measurement and
Analysis of Wing and Tail Buffeting Loads on a Fighter
Airplane. NACA Rep. 1219, 1955.
10. Kayten, Gerald G. & Koven, William: Comparison of Wind-
Tunnel and Flight Measurements of Stability and Control
Characteristics of a Douglas A-26 Airplane. NACA Rep.
816, 1945.
11. La Plant 11, Porter & Johnson, AlbinusP.: Evaluation of
the Giannini Dual Stall Warning System and Stall Margin
Indicators Installed in a C-133B. FTC TR-67-5, 1967.
12. Nissen, JamesM. & Gadeberg, BurnettL.: Effect of Mach
& Reynolds Numbers on the Power-Off Maximum Lift
Coefficient Obtainable on a P-39N-1 Airplane as Deter-
mined in Flight. NACA ACR 4F28,1944.
E. & Hamilton,
13. Nissen, James M., Gadeberg, Burnett
William T.: Correlation of the Drag Characteristics of
a Typical Pursuit Airplane Obtained from High-speed
Wind-Tunnel and Flight Tests. NACA Rep.
916, 1948.

2 09

I .
14. Phillips, W. H. & Nissen, J.M.: Flight Tests of Various
Tail Modifications on the Brewster XSBA-1 Airplane.
I-Measurements of Flying Qualities With Original Tail
Surfaces. NACA WR L-412 (Originally Issuedas AEtR 3F071,
1943.
15. Rhode, Richard V.: The Influence of Tip Shape on the Wing-
Load Distribution as Determined by Flight Tests. NACA
Rep. 500, 1934.
16. Silverstein, Abe, Katzoff, Samuel, and Hootman, James:
Comparative Flight and Full-scale Wind-tunnel Measure-
ments of the Maximum Lift of
an Airplane. NACA Rep.
618, 1938.
17. Sjoberg, S.A., Crane, H.L., & Hoover, H.H.: Measurement
of Flying Qualities of a Douglas A-26 B Airplane.
Part 111-Stalling Characteristics. NACAWR L-607
(Originally issued as MR No. L5A04a), 1945.

18. Soule, HartleyA. & Wetmore, J.W.: The Effects of Slots

and Flaps on Lateral Control of a Low-Wing Monoplane as
Determined in F1igh.t. NACA TN 478, 1933.
19. Spreiter, John R. & Steffen, PaulJ.: Effect of Mach and
Reynolds Numbers on Maximum Lift Coefficients. NACA
TN 1044, 1946.
20. Stokke, Allen R. & Aiken, William S., Jr.: Flight
Measurements of Buffeting Tail Loads. NACA TN 1719,
1948.
21. Weick, Fred E.: in
The Behavior of Conventional Airplanes
Situations Thoughtto Lead to Most Crashes. NACATN 363,
1931.
22. Weick, Fred E. & Abramson, H. Norman: Investigation of
Lateral Control Near the Stall. Flight Tests With High-
Wing and Low-Wing Monoplanes of Various Configurations.
NACA TN 3676, 1956.
23. White, M.D. & Reeder, J.P.: Effect of Wing-Tip Slots on
the Stalling and Aileron Control Characteristics of a
Curtiss SB2C-1 Airplane. NACA M R L4K13, 1944.
24. Zalovick, John A.: Profile Drag Coefficientsof Conven-
tional and Low-drag Airfoilsas 0btained.in F1igh.t.
NACA ACR No.L4E31, 1944 (Wartime Rep. L-139).

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