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AN INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Beginning with the foundations of community development, An Introduction to Community Development offers a
comprehensive and practical approach to planning for communities. Road-tested in the authors’ own teaching, and
through the training they provide for practicing planners and community developers, it enables students to begin
making connections between academic study and practical know-how from both private and public sector contexts.
An Introduction to Community Development shows how planners and community developers can utilize local
economic interests and integrate finance and marketing considerations into their strategy. Most importantly, the
book is strongly focused on outcomes, encouraging students to ask: what is best practice when it comes to
planning for communities, and how do we accurately measure the results of planning and development practice?
This newly revised and updated edition includes:
• increased coverage of sustainability issues;

• discussion of localism and its relation to community development;
• quality of life, community well-being, and public health considerations; and
• content on local food systems.
Each chapter provides a range of reading materials for the student, supplemented with text boxes, a chapter
outline, keywords, reference lists, and new skills-based exercises at the end of each chapter to help students turn
their learning into action, making this the most user-friendly text for community development now available.
Rhonda Phillips, Ph.D., AICP, is Dean of Purdue University’s Honors College, USA, and a Professor in the
Agricultural Economics Department. Previously, at Arizona State University, USA, she served as Professor in
the School of Community Resources and Development; Senior Sustainability Scientist at the Global Institute of
Sustainability; and Affiliate Faculty in the School of Geographical Sciences and Urban Planning. Rhonda is
author or editor of 18 books, including Sustainable Communities: Creating a Durable Local Economy (Routledge
Earthscan, 2013, co-editor). She is editor of the book series Community Development Research and Practice
(Community Development Society and Routledge) and serves as the President of the International Society for
Quality-of-Life Studies (www.isqols.org).
Robert H. Pittman, Ph.D., PCED, is Founder and Executive Director of the Janus Institute and Janus Forum,
USA, whose mission is to advance the community and economic development profession and help communities
in new and innovative ways. Attendees include leading community and economic developers from around
the country and overseas, state directors, corporate executives, and other stakeholders in community and
economic development. Pittman has held a number of executive positions in the field of community and economic
development, including Director of the Global Business Location and Economic Development Consulting Group
at Lockwood Greene, USA, and Deputy Director of the International Development Research Council (now
Corenet). He also served as Associate Professor of Economics and Director of the Community Development
Institute at the University of Central Arkansas, USA. Pittman is a widely published author and frequent speaker
in the field of community and economic development, and an Honorary Life Member of the Southern Economic
Development Council.
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“While there are plenty of books on community development, this book is very comprehensive,
covers most of the aspects of community development, and is perfect for undergraduate courses on
community development. The authors are well respected in the area of community development
with extensive experience and expertise.”
Muthusami Kumaran, Assistant Professor,
Nonprofit Management & Community Organizations, University of Florida, USA
“The topics are excellent and cover almost every facet of community development.”
Joan Wesley, Associate Professor, Urban and Regional Planning,
Jackson State University, USA
“The chapters are eloquent and accessible and provide a good introductory insight into the key
considerations associated with this subject.”
Adam Sheppard, JDL Course Director and Senior Lecturer,
Department of Geography and Environmental Management,
University of the West of England, UK
“I am attracted first by the sustentative content of the book. I especially like the first two parts that
cover the theoretical foundations of community development and the how-to’s of preparation and
planning. The numerous case studies are also essential to illuminate the theoretical points and show
that they work in practice.”
Martin Saiz, Professor, Political Science,
California State University, Northridge, USA
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AN INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Second Edition
Edited by
Rhonda Phillips and Robert H. Pittman
Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group
LONDON AND NEW YORK
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First published 2015

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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2015 Taylor & Francis
The rights of Rhonda Phillips and Robert H. Pittman to be identified as the
authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters,
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Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
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to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
An introduction to community development / edited by Rhonda Phillips, Robert
H. Pittman. -- 2 Edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Community development. 2. Economic development. I. Phillips, Rhonda,
editor of compilation. II. Pittman, Robert H., editor of compilation.
HN49.C6I554 2014
307.1’4--dc23
2014015459
ISBN: 978-0-415-70356-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-415-70355-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-203-76263-9 (ebk)
Typeset in Futura
by Saxon Graphics Ltd, Derby
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Contents
List of Figures viii

List of Tables ix
List of Boxes x
List of Contributors xiii
Acknowledgements xix
Editors’ Introduction xx
PART I
Foundations 1
1 A Framework for Community and Economic Development 3

R HO ND A PH I LLI P S A ND ROB ERT H. PITTMA N
2 Seven Theories for Seven Community Developers 22

R O NALD J. H USTEDDE
3 Asset-Based Community Development 45

ANNA H AI NE S
4 Social Capital and Community Building 57

PAUL MAT TE SSI CH
5 Sustainability in Community Development 72

ST E PHE N M. WHEELER
6 The “New” Local 89

JE NI BUR NE LL AND RHONDA PHILLIPS
7 Community Development Practice 103

JO HN W. VI NC E NT II
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vi CONTENTS
PART II
Preparation and Planning 123
8 Community Visioning and Strategic Planning 125

MI C HAE L M C GR ATH
9 Establishing Community-Based Organizations 154

MO NI E C A WE ST, PATSY KRA EG ER, A N D TIMOTHY R. DA H L S T ROM
10 Leadership and Community Development 178

ALAN PR I CE AND ROB ERT H. PITTMA N
11 Community Development Assessments 190

JO HN W. VI NC ENT II
12 Community Asset Mapping and Surveys 213

GARY PAUL GR EEN
13 Understanding Community Economies 225

HAMI LTO N GALLOWAY
PART III
Programming Techniques and Strategies 239
14 Human Capital and Workforce Development 241

MO NI E C A WE ST
15 Marketing the Community 256

R O BE RT H . PI TT M A N
16 Retaining and Expanding Existing Community Businesses 267

R O BE RT H . PI TT M A N A ND RICHA RD T. ROB ERTS
17 Entrepreneurship as a Community Development Strategy 278

JO HN GR UI D L A N D DEB ORA H MA RKLEY
18 Arts, Culture, and Community Development 295

R HO ND A PH I LLI P S
19 Housing and Community Development 313

20 Neighborhood Planning for Community Development and Revitalization 324

K E NNE T H M. R EA RDON
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CONTENTS vii
21 Measuring Progress 345

PART IV
Issues Impacting Community Development 361
22 Perspectives on Current Issues 363

PAUL R . LACH APELLE
23 Community-Based Energy 375

24 Community and Economic Development Finance 383

JANE T R . H AME R A ND J ESSICA L E VEEN FA RR
25 Conclusions and Observations on the Future of Community Development 398

Index 403
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Figures
1.1 Community Development Chain 9

1.2 Community and Economic Development Chain 17
3.1 Community Needs Map 47
3.2 Community Assets Map 47
3.3 A Community Development Process 50
6.1 Springhill Cohousing Project 92
6.2 Committee of Lost Memories Pop-Up Shop 96
6.3 Framework for Food Cooperatives and Community Development 98
13.1 Less than High School Education Attainment 228
13.2 Community Economic Development Leaky Faucet 234
16.1 Economic Development Activities Performed by SEDC Members 270
21.1 Sustainable Seattle Happiness Initiative 352
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Tables
2.1 Concerns and Related Theories 24

8.1 Civic Index Worksheet 144
9.1 Some Federal Programs for Community Development 159
9.2 Charitable Foundations 167
9.3 Faith-Based Organizations 167
9.4 Public–Private Partnerships 170
11.1 Subjective Rating of Location Factors for Anytown 207
11.2 Factor Rating: Bayshore County 211
13.1 NAICS Hierarchy 226
13.2 Example of Levels in NAICS Coding 226
13.3 Sample Region Data and Analysis 230
17.1 Rate Your Community Support for Entrepreneurs 290
19.1 Housing Typology 315
20.1 Proposed Action Plan 333
21.1 Functions of Indicators 348
21.2 Sample Best Practices Survey Instrument 356
24.1 Summary of Sources and Uses of Funds 394
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Boxes
1.1 Evolution of Community Development 4

1.2 The Underrepresented 5
1.3 Community Well-Being: The Next Generation for Community Development? 10
1.4 Growth vs. Development 11
1.5 Osceola, Arkansas: Community Development Turns a Declining Community Around 15
1.6 Different Definitions of Community Economic Development 16
Case Study: Vermont Sustainable Jobs Fund 18
2.1 Theory to Inform Action 23
2.2 Social Justice and Community Development In a Changing World 27
2.3 Power 38
Case Study: Community Development and International Conflict Resolution 40
3.1 Vision Statement from Ruidoso, New Mexico 51
3.2 Online Support for Placemaking 53
Case Study: Asset Building on the Shores of Lake Superior 55
4.1 Capacity Factors 59
4.2 Building Community Capacity, Capital, and Development via Philanthropy 60
4.3 Appreciative Inquiry (AI): A Brief Overview 63
4.4 28 Factors that Influence the Success of Community Building 66
Case Study: The Good News Garage 69
5.1 The United Nations’ (UN) Millennium Development Goals—Striving for Sustainability
across Dimensions of Well-Being 74
5.2 Gauging Sustainability in the Regional Vancouver Urban Observatory 75
Case Study: City of Santa Monica, California’s Sustainable City Program 84
6.1 The History of Slow Food and a Delicious Revolution: How Grandma’s Pasta
Changed the World 97
Case Study: Creating Small Change in Stirchley Park, Birmingham, UK 99
7.1 “Peace Corps for Geeks”—Technology for Community Governance 104
7.2 Community and Economic Development Training and Certification 104
7.3 Crowdsourcing for the Common Good: A Community Development Approach 105
7.4 Community Development Values and Beliefs 107
7.5 A Place-Based Community Economic Development Approach via the Resource

Center for Raza Planning 110
7.6 How Community Development Created Economic Development in Slovakia 115
Case Study: Mayville and Lassiter County 119
8.1 Heart & Soul Community Planning 127
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BOXES xi
8.2The Civic Index: A Tool to Qualitatively Assess Civic Infrastructure 142

Case Studies:
Eau Claire, Wisconsin 150
Dubuque Iowa’s Vision 151
9.1 Change Agents: Social Entrepreneurs: Meet Doug Rauch, Founder of the Daily Table 156
9.2 University—Community Development Connection: The Great Cities Institute 160
9.3 Community Development Corporations (CDCs) In Massachusetts 163
9.4 The Acenet Cooperative 164
9.5 Cooperatives and Community Development 165
9.6 Council of Foundations 166
9.7 Community Foundations 166
9.8 New Ideas: Social Benefit and Profit Merge-Hybrid Corporations 168
9.9 Faith-Based CDCs 169
Case Study: The Future Melting Pot: From Community Action to the Formation of
A Cooperative Community Interest Company Bringing Change to NEET Youth in
Birmingham, England 173
10.1 Youth Leadership Development: The UNESCO Chair Program in Rural Community,
Leadership and Youth Development 178
10.2 Leadership in Community Development 180
10.3 What Does it Mean to Be a Leader? 181
10.4 Community Development Values and Beliefs 186
Case Study: Bayshore County Competitive Assessment 210
12.1 Capturing Community with Storytelling 220
Case Study: Hazelwood Community Asset Map: Assessing the Services, Needs,
and Strengths of Hazelwood’s Community Service Providers 223
13.1 The Creative Class at the Local Level 227
13.2 Some Limitations of Economic Base Theory 233
13.3 Industry Clusters and Supply Chains 235
Case Study: Plugging the “Leaks” in a Community’s Economy—The Case of Martha’s
Vineyard 237
14.1 A Pressing Global Issue: Youth Unemployment 243
14.2 Vermont Works for Women 244
14.3 The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians 249
Case Study: Collaborating to Develop a High-Tech Workforce in Tulsa, Oklahoma 252
15.1 Examples of Economic Development Marketing Slogans 259
15.2 Suggestions for Effective Economic Development Websites 262
15.3 Some Success Factors for Development Marketing 264
15.4 Some Failure Factors for Development Marketing 264
Case Study: Buffalo Niagara Region 265
16.1 Job Growth in US Driven Entirely By Start-Ups, According to Kauffman Foundation Study 268
16.2 Can Potholes Cause Local Businesses to Relocate? 270

16.3 Strengthening Communities with Locally Owned Businesses 272
16.4 Early Warning Signs of a Possible Business Relocation, Downsizing or Closure 273
16.5 How to Conduct BRE Interviews and Surveys 275
Case Study: The Center for Continuous Improvement 276
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xii BOXES
17.1 Two Ideas about Entrepreneurship 279

17.2 Meet a Business Entrepreneur 280
17.3 Meet a Civic Entrepreneur 281
17.4 Change Agents: Social Entrepreneurs 282
Case Study: Fairfield, Iowa: An Entrepreneurial Success Story 292
18.1 Indigenous Community Development 296
18.2 Arts and Culture in Rural Development 297
Case Study: Leitrim Sculpture Centre and Design House 298
18.3 Elements for Attracting Heritage Tourists 302
18.4 Tourism Destination Planning 303
18.5 Creative Placemaking 305
Case Study: Agritourism: Connecting Farms, Communities, and Consumers 308
19.1 Housing Policy Innovation in Europe 315
19.2 Housing Affordability 317
19.3 Burlington, VT, Cohousing East Village 319
Case Study: Springhill Cohousing, Stroud, England (as Told by Resident Max Comfort) 320
20.1 Crowdsourcing 337
Case Study: Promoting Citizen Participation in Neighborhood Planning 337
21.1 Community Outcome Measurement Practices 346
21.2 Perspectives on Indicators Research 348
Case Study: The Art of Being Happy: The Story of Costa Rica’s APOT (Asociación de
Productores Orgánicos de Turrialba) 357
22.1 Community Development and Democracy 364
22.2 Marginalized Communities 365
22.3 Governance and Power 366
22.4 Holistic Approach 366
22.5 Control and Inequities 367
22.6 Rural Community Vitality 367
22.7 Community Sustainability 368
22.8 The Spiritual Divide 368
22.9 Defining Community Development 369
22.10 Evaluation and Measurement 369
22.11 Financing Community Development 370
22.12 Leadership 371
22.13 Tokenistic Approaches 371
23.1 Fort Collins, Colorado’s Net Zero Energy District Planning 378
Case Studies: Cooperative Energy 379
24.1 A Little Bit about Microfinance 385
24.2 “Crowdfunding” for the Community 391
Case Study: Tangerine Plaza 393
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Contributors
Jeni Burnell studied architecture at the University Hill with an emphasis on community economic
of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia, development in 1999. She graduated from
before pursuing a career in participatory arts, University of California, San Diego, USA, in
community development, and design. She has 1993 with a BA in urban studies.
a Master’s in Development and is Research
Hamilton Galloway is an economist and
Associate at the Centre for Development and
consultant with extensive experience working
Emergency Practice (CENDEP) based at Oxford
in the US as well as the UK on economic
Brookes University, UK. Jeni is Chair of the
research and labor market analysis. Mr. Gallo-
development initiative, the Small Change
way’s primary focus is on helping organiza-
Forum, and Director of the architecture practice,
tions understand economic development
Space Program Ltd.
opportunities, workforce needs and education
Timothy R. Dahlstrom, Ph.D. is a faculty asso- linkages through economic modeling tech-
ciate in the School of Public Affairs at Arizona niques. He has led numerous strategic planning
State University, USA. His research interests and development projects, ranging from work-
include entrepreneurial development programs, force development to comprehensive economic
the nexus of business and government, and development strategies. Galloway has also
organizational leadership. He has practice provided research and assistance in areas of
experience in public entrepreneurial financing international business finance and large-scale
programs, small organization consulting, and adjustments, including NASA’s shuttle program
public–private partnerships. shutdown and Maytag’s closure. He has
authored numerous academic papers and
Jessica LeVeen Farr is Regional Community
several book chapters. Galloway is a frequent
Development Manager for Tennessee for the
speaker at national conferences about know-
Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, Nashville
ledge economies, data-driven analysis for
Branch, USA. She works with banks, nonprofit
regional decision making and new methods of
organizations, and government agencies to
estimating the impacts of further and higher
develop programs that promote asset building,
education.
affordable housing, job creation, and other
related community development initiatives. Gary Paul Green is a professor in the
Previously, Farr was Assistant Vice President Department of Community and Environmental
at Bank of America in Nashville in the Sociology at the University of Wisconsin–

Community Development Corporation (CDC), Madison, USA, and a community development
where she oversaw the single family housing specialist at the University of Wisconsin–
development program. Farr received her Extension. Green’s teaching and research
Master’s in City Planning from UNC-Chapel interests are primarily in the areas of
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xiv CONTRIBUTORS
community and economic development. He of Urban and Regional Planning. Her research
received his Ph.D. at the University of and teaching focuses on planning and
Missouri-Columbia, USA, and has taught at community development from a natural
the University of Wisconsin–Madison, USA, resources or environmental perspective. Her
for the past 20 years. His recent books include research has focused on factors that influenced
Mobilizing Communities: Asset Building as a land division in amenity-rich areas of
Community Development Strategy (Temple Wisconsin, understanding how zoning codes
University Press, 2010); Introduction to affect future build out scenarios, examining
Community Development: Theory, Practice, sustainable zoning, and understanding the
and Service-Learning (Sage, 2011); Asset origination and resilience of local food clusters.
Building and Community Development, 3rd Her extension work has focused on compre-
ed. (Sage, 2012); and Handbook of Rural hensive planning and planning implementation
Development (Edward Elgar, 2014). In tools and techniques, sustainable communities,
addition to his work in the US, he has been and property rights issues.
involved in research and teaching in China,
Janet R. Hamer is Senior Community Devel-
New Zealand, South Korea, Uganda, and
opment Manager with the Federal Reserve
Ukraine.
Bank of Atlanta, Jacksonville Branch, USA.
John Gruidl is a professor in the Illinois Institute Her primary geographic areas of responsi-
for Rural Affairs at Western Illinois University, bility are north, central, and southwest Florida.
USA, where he teaches, conducts research, Hamer has over 20 years of experience in
and creates new outreach programs in housing, community and economic devel-
community and economic development. Gruidl opment, and urban planning. Prior to joining
earned a Ph.D. in Agricultural and Applied the Federal Reserve, she served as Chief of
Economics from the University of Wisconsin- Housing Services for the Planning and Devel-
Madison in 1989, with a major in the field of opment Department of the City of Jacksonville
community economics. Gruidl has created and for three years. For the previous 18 years, she
directed several successful programs in served as Deputy Director of the Community
community development. From 1994–2005, Development Department of the City of
he directed the award-winning Peace Corps Daytona Beach. Before moving to Florida,
Fellows Program, a community-based internship Hamer was employed as a regional planner
program for returned Peace Corps volunteers. in Illinois. She has a BA from Judson College,
Gruidl also helped to create the MAPPING the Elgin, Illinois and an MA in Public Affairs from
Future of Your Community, a strategic visioning Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois.
program for Illinois communities. He currently
Ronald J. Hustedde is a professor in the
serves as Director of the Midwest Community
department of community and leadership
Development Institute, a training program for
development at the University of Kentucky,
community leaders.
USA. He teaches graduate courses in
Anna Haines is a professor in the College of community development and has an Extension
Natural Resources at the University of (public outreach) appointment. He is a past
Wisconsin–Stevens Point, USA, and a land use president of the Community Development
and community development specialist with the Society and has served on the board of
University of Wisconsin–Extension. Haines directors of the International Association for
received her Ph.D. from the University of Community Development (based in Scotland).
Wisconsin–Madison, USA, in the Department His community development work has focused
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CONTRIBUTORS xv
on public issues deliberation, public conflict Civic Review, a 99-year-old quarterly civic
analysis and resolution, leadership devel- affairs journal, and is the organization’s chief
opment, and rural entrepreneurship. He has a blogger. Before joining NCL, he was a reporter
Ph.D. in sociology from the University of and feature writer for Westword newspaper in
Wisconsin–Madison, USA, with three other Colorado and an associate editor of the East
graduate degrees in community development, Bay Express in Berkeley/Oakland, California,
agricultural economics, and rural sociology. USA, covering environmental policy and local
and state government. His freelance articles
Patsy Kraeger received her Ph.D. in Public
Administration from the School of Public Affairs have appeared in magazines, newspapers,
at Arizona State University (ASU), USA. She and online publications. Recently, he
has worked in the public, nonprofit, and private researched and authored a report on local
sectors. She is also a faculty associate at the government and civic engagement for PACE:
ASU School of Public Affairs. She has published Philanthropy for Active Civic Engagement. He
in academic and practitioner journals and has a Master’s degree from UC Berkeley’s
presented at scholarly and professional confer- Graduate School of Journalism and a Bache-
ences; her area of focus is on strategic nonprofit lor’s degree (general and comparative studies)
management and social enterprise devel- from the University of Texas, Austin, USA.
opment. Deborah Markley is Managing Director and
Paul R. Lachapelle is Associate Professor in the Director of Research for the Rural Policy
Department of Political Science at Montana Research Institute’s Center for Rural Entrepre-
State University–Bozeman (MSU), USA, and neurship, a national research and policy center
serves as the Extension Community Development in Lincoln, Nebraska, USA. Her research has
Specialist. Working in partnership with the MSU included case studies of entrepreneurial support
Local Government Center, his responsibilities organizations, evaluation of state industrial
involve providing research, technical assistance extension programs, and consideration of the
and training on various community development impacts of changing banking markets on small
topics including community strategic visioning, business finance. She has extensive experience
local governance, and leadership development. conducting field-based survey research projects
Paul earned his Ph.D. at the University of and has conducted focus groups and inter-
Montana’s College of Forestry and Conser- views with rural bankers, entrepreneurs,
vation with a focus on natural resource policy business service providers, venture capitalists,
and governance. He has conducted research small manufacturers, and others. Her research
and taught in both Montana and internationally, has been presented in academic journals, as
doing applied research in Nepal as a U.S. well as to national public policy organizations
Fulbright Scholar, working with Inuit in several and congressional committees.
arctic national parks with Parks Canada in the
Paul Mattessich is the Executive Director of
Canadian Territory of Nunavut, and working in
Wilder Research, one of the largest applied
South Africa and Guinea, West Africa. Paul is
social research organizations in the United
author of many peer-reviewed journal articles
States, dedicated to improving the lives of indi-
on local governance and strategic planning.

viduals, families, and communities. Dr.
Michael McGrath is Chief Information Officer Mattessich has done research, lecturing, and
of NCL and Senior Editor of the National Civic consulting with nonprofit organizations, foun-
League. He edits the award-winning National dations, and government in North America,
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xvi CONTRIBUTORS
Europe, and Africa since 1973. His book on Greene, USA, and Deputy Director of the
effective partnerships, Collaboration: What International Development Research Council
Makes It Work, (Wilder Publishing 2001, 2nd (now Corenet). He also served as Associate
ed.) is used worldwide, along with the online Professor of Economics and Director of the
Wilder Collaboration Factors Inventory. His Community Development Institute at the
1997 book, Community Building: What Makes University of Central Arkansas, USA. Pittman is
It Work (Wilder Publishing) is widely recog- a widely published author and frequent speaker
nized and used by leaders and practitioners in in the field of community and economic devel-
community and neighborhood development. opment, and an Honorary Life Member of the
He received his Ph.D. in sociology from the Southern Economic Development Council.
University of Minnesota, USA.
Alan Price is the founder of Falcon Leadership,
Rhonda Phillips, Ph.D., AICP, is Dean of Purdue
LLC. Since his retirement from Delta Air Lines in
University’s Honors College, USA, and a
2004, Captain Price has worked with clients
Professor in the Agricultural Economics
across the country and overseas in areas
Department. Previously, at Arizona State
relating to leadership development/crisis lead-
University, USA, she served as Professor in the
ership, strategic planning, safety systems,
School of Community Resources and Devel-
communications, and team development. As
opment; Senior Sustainability Scientist at the
Global Institute of Sustainability; and Affiliate Chief Pilot for Delta’s Atlanta base, Capt Price
Faculty in the School of Geographical Sciences led the recovery efforts for the Atlanta base
and Urban Planning. Rhonda is author or editor following 9/11. His particular passion, which
of 18 books, including Sustainable Commu- grew out of these experiences, is leadership
nities: Creating a Durable Local Economy during a time of crisis, a topic upon which he
(Routledge Earthscan, 2013, co-editor). She is has spoken extensively. Price was a first-in-class
editor of the book series Community Devel- facilitator for Delta Air Lines CRM program,
opment Research and Practice (Community and Pilot Manager of the Human Factors
Development Society and Routledge) and serves department. He developed and led Delta’s new
as the President of the International Society for captain’s leadership program for five years
Quality-of-Life Studies (www.isqols.org). while conducting classes for over 2,000 new
captains. He was for many years a regular
Robert H. Pittman, Ph.D., PCED, is Founder
contributor to Delta’s flight operations safety
and Executive Director of the Janus Institute and
Janus Forum, USA, whose mission is to advance magazine, Up Front, and has written exten-
the community and economic development sively in many publications on the topics of
profession and help communities in new and leadership, safety, and CRM. Capt. Price is a
innovative ways. Attendees include leading frequent speaker, workshop developer, and
community and economic developers from master facilitator for a range of topics dealing
around the country and overseas, state with leadership/crisis leadership, teamwork,
directors, corporate executives, and other communications, and strategic planning. He
stakeholders in community and economic holds a BS degree in engineering science from
development. Pittman has held a number of the USAF Academy and a Master’s in Decision
executive positions in the field of community Science from Georgia State University, USA,
and economic development, including Director and he has done postgraduate work at the
of the Global Business Location and Economic Georgia Institute of Technology in Man-Ma-
Development Consulting Group at Lockwood chine Systems Engineering.
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CONTRIBUTORS xvii
Kenneth M. Reardon is Professor of City and USA, in curriculum and instruction (adult
Regional Planning at the University of Memphis, learning and development). He is a graduate
USA, and engages in research, teaching, and of the University of Central Arkansas’
outreach activities focused on issues related to Community Development Institute in Conway,
neighborhood planning, community devel- Arkansas, USA, and is a certified Professional
opment, community/university partnerships, Community and Economic Developer.
and municipal government reform. Prior to
Monieca West is an experienced economic and
joining the Memphis faculty, Ken was Asso-
community development professional. In 2001,
ciate Professor and Chair of Cornell Univer-
she retired from SBC-Arkansas where she had
sity’s Department of City and Regional
served as Director of Economic Development
Planning. He began his academic career as
since 1992. She is a past chair of the Interna-
Assistant Professor in Urban and Regional
tional Community Development Society and the
Planning at the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Community Development Council and has
Champaign where he helped establish the East
received numerous awards for services to
St. Louis Action Research Project.
community organizations and public education.
Richard T. Roberts is a graduate of the In 2004, West returned to full-time work for the
University of Alabama, who has practiced Arkansas Department of Higher Education
economic development in three Southeastern where she is a program manager for the Carl
states and worked for a variety of communities Perkins federal program which funds career
in Alabama, Mississippi, and Northwest and technical education projects at the post-
Florida. During the past 30 years, he has secondary level. She also does freelance work
managed both rural and metro chambers of in the areas of facilitation, leadership devel-
commerce, economic development authorities, opment, technical writing, association
and a convention and tourism organization. management, and webmaster services.
He has written marketing plans and existing
Stephen M. Wheeler joined the Landscape
industry programs and has established and
Architecture faculty at the University of Cali-
organized multi-county as well as local
fornia at Davis, USA, in January 2007. He is
economic development programs. Mr. Roberts
also a member of UCD’s Community Devel-
currently resides in Dothan, Alabama and is
opment and Geography Graduate Groups. He
employed by the Covington County Economic
previously taught in the Community and
Development Commission.
Regional Planning Program at the University of
John W. Vincent II is currently President of New Mexico, USA, where he initiated a
Performance Development Plus of Metairie, LA, Physical Planning and Design concentration,
a consulting company that he co-founded in and the University of California at Berkeley,
1993. The firm specializes in community devel- USA, where he received his Ph.D. and Master
opment, economic development and organiza- of City Planning degrees. He received his Bach-
tional development consulting. Mr. Vincent has elor’s degree from Dartmouth College, USA.
over 35 years’ experience in various profes- Professor Wheeler’s areas of academic and
sional and technical positions, and he is professional expertise include urban design,
currently an owner and board member of a physical planning, regional planning, climate
homeland security company. He holds a Bach- change, and sustainable development. His
elor’s degree in government from Southeastern current research looks at state and local
Louisiana University, USA, and a Master’s planning for climate change, and evolving built
degree from the University of New Orleans, landscape patterns in metropolitan regions.
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Acknowledgements
Like community development itself, creating a book decades of countless community developers who
on the subject is a team effort. We are thankful first may not be cited by name in the book but have
of all to the chapter authors who have graciously nonetheless had a profound impact on it.
consented to share their professional knowledge We also wish to express our thanks to Routledge
and experience with the readers. While the editors’ and the Taylor & Francis Publishing Group. Their
and authors’ names appear in the book, so many expert assistance throughout the process of
other community and economic development updating this book is acknowledged and appre-
scholars and practitioners have played important ciated. And finally we owe our families much grat-
roles in bringing this book to fruition. One of the itude, for without their support and encouragement
most rewarding aspects of studying and practicing this book would not exist.
the discipline is learning from others along the way. Rhonda Phillips and Robert H. Pittman
This volume reflects the collective input over
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Editors’ Introduction
In this edition, we continue to explore community This text is presented in the spirit of community
development as a complex and interdisciplinary development as planned efforts to improve quality
field of study—one that is boundary spanning in of life. With this goal in mind, 25 chapters
its scope and multidimensional in its applications. covering a range of issues have been selected
Why is this? It’s because community development and organized into four major categories: (1)
concerns not only the physical realm of community, foundations; (2) preparation and planning; (3)
but also the social, cultural, economic, political, programming techniques and strategies; and (4)
and environmental aspects as well. Evolving from issues impacting community development.
an original needs-based emphasis to one that is Part I: Foundations, provides an introduction
more inclusive and asset-based, community devel- and overview of the discipline as well as its under-
opment is a now a distinct and recognized field of lying premises. In Chapter 1 we present the basic
study. Today, scholars and practitioners of concepts and definitions of community devel-
community development are better equipped to opment and how it relates to economic devel-
respond to the challenges facing communities and opment, a central theme of this book. Additionally,
regions. Because its applications are wide-ranging we explore the history and foundations of
yet always aimed at improving quality of life and community development, including a rich legacy
overall community well-being, it is important to of social action and advocacy. Chapter 2, Seven
understand the underlying foundations and theory Theories for Seven Community Developers, distills
of community development as well as the variety a variety of ideas from different fields into a theo-
of strategies and tools used to achieve desired retical underpinning for community development.
outcomes. Hustedde offers seven contextual perspectives that
This text seeks to address the challenging and provide this theoretical core: organizations,
exciting facets of community development by power relationships, shared meanings, rela-
presenting a variety of essential and important tionship building, choice making, conflicts, and
topics to help students understand its complexities. integration of paradoxes. Chapter 3, Asset-Based
The chapter authors represent perspectives from Community Development, focuses on the concept
both academe and practice, reflecting the applied of capacity building, both inside and outside the
nature of the discipline. Importantly, this book community. Haines explains the value of adopting
emphasizes the strong link between community an asset-based approach, and how it is dramati-
development and economic development which is cally different from the needs-based approaches
all too often overlooked in the literature. We believe of the past. Mattessich explains in Chapter 4,
a discussion of one is incomplete without a Social Capital and Community Building, how
discussion of the other. We hope that this book will social capital (or capacity) lies at the heart of
serve to more closely align the study and practice community development. Analogous to other
of these two inextricably related disciplines. forms of capital, social capital constitutes a
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EDITORS’ INTRODUCTION xxi
resource that can be used by communities to guide capital. Chapter 12, Community Asset Mapping
outcomes. Chapter 5, Sustainability in Community and Surveys by Green provides information on
Development by Wheeler, provides background techniques such as asset inventories, identifying
on the concept of sustainability and how it applies potential partners and collaborators, various
to both the theory and practice of community survey instruments, and data collection methods.
development and its relations to planning. It also The final chapter in this section, Chapter 13
gives examples of strategies that can be imple- Understanding Community Economies by
mented to help increase sustainable approaches. Galloway, discusses how to assess the underlying
Chapter 6, The “New” Local by Burnell and strengths and weaknesses of the local economy. It
Phillips addresses newer ideas of the local provides an overview of economic impact
economy movement, along with small change analysis and how it can be used to allocate scarce
approaches. It includes a discussion of local community financial resources.
foods and community development. Chapter 7, Part III: Programming Techniques and Strategies
Community Development Practice, is the final gives several specific application areas for
chapter in this section and outlines the foundation community development and how these areas can
of processes and applications introducing students be approached. Chapter 14, Human Capital and
to community development as a practice. Workforce Development, addresses the vital
Part II: Preparation and Planning covers the question of how to develop a quality workforce
variety of ways in which communities organize, and educational components in the community. It
assess, and plan for community development. provides examples of initiatives that communities
McGrath’s Chapter 8, Community Visioning and have used to address this need. Pittman’s Chapter
Strategic Planning, takes the reader through the 15, Marketing the Community, provides an
process of establishing goals and a vision for the overview of how to attract new businesses into a
future—essential activities for success in com- community to strengthen the local economy.
munity development. Without this foundation, it is Creating recognition for the community, identi-
difficult to accomplish the desired outcomes. fying the appropriate target audience and the
Chapter 9, Establishing Community-Based Organ- most effective marketing message are discussed.
izations, by West, Kraeger, and Dahlstrom In Chapter 16, Retaining and Expanding Existing
addresses the all-important question, “How should Community Businesses, Pittman and Roberts
we be organized?” They outline different types of explain the importance of focusing on businesses
community-based organizations and their struc- already present in communities. An existing
tures, including social enterprise, and show business program can help communities in many
examples in practice. Chapter 10, Leadership direct and indirect ways and is often more effective
and Community Development by Price and in job creation than other approaches. Gruidl and
Pittman, discusses the need for communities to Markley present Entrepreneurship as a Community
effectively integrate skill development into their Development Strategy in Chapter 17 as a vital
activities. The premise is that great leadership component driving economic growth and job
leads to the most desirable community devel- creation. The fundamentals for implementing a
opment outcomes. Vincent’s second contribution, strategy of supporting entrepreneurs and creating
Chapter 11, Community Development Assess- a nurturing environment are outlined. Phillips’
ments, provides a broad perspective on the total Chapter 18, Arts, Culture and Community Devel-
community assessment process. It discuses opment, explores ways communities can build on
comprehensive assessments and the areas that cultural assets to develop approaches around
should be considered, including a community’s historic preservation, arts and culture. A variety of
physical, social, and human infrastructure and models and approaches are reviewed. Chapter
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xxii EDITORS’ INTRODUCTION
19, Housing and Community Development by a wealth of insight into both theory and practice.
Phillips, provides a basic understanding of how Chapter 23 by Phillips, Community-Based Energy,
housing typology, density, and affordability affect addresses issues emerging in alternative energy
housing and community development. It also sources from a community economic development
includes innovative approaches to housing, such perspective. Chapter 24, Community and Economic
as ecovillages and cohousing. Reardon’s Chapter Development Finance by Hamer and Farr, gives an
20, Neighborhood Planning for Community overview and explanation of the different types of
Development and Revitalization, discusses the community development financing from public and
model of participatory neighborhood planning. private sources. It includes definitions of key terms
This model seeks to improve quality of life with as well as ideas on structuring funding partner-
comprehensive revitalization strategies grounded ships. The final chapter offers some concluding
in an asset-based approach. Our final contribution observations on issues and challenges facing our
to this part, Chapter 21, Measuring Progress, by communities, as well as discussing the important
Phillips and Pittman, begins with the premise that role of community development in helping shape
progress evaluation is not only challenging but the future of our society.
vital and organizations must be able to asses and As stated at the outset, community development
demonstrate the value and outcome of their activ- is indeed a complex and interdisciplinary field, as
ities. Community indicators are presented, as well evidenced by the breadth and scope of the
as a discussion of quality of life and happiness chapters presented. We encourage students of
considerations for communities. community development to embrace the “ethos” of
Part IV: Issues Impacting Community Devel- the community development discipline as one that
opment focuses on a few of the many and diverse focuses on creating better places to live and work
issues relevant to community development theory and increasing the quality of life for all.
and practice. Chapter 22, Perspectives on Current
Issues by Lachapelle, provides a summary of Rhonda Phillips
responses from community development scholars Purdue University, USA
and practitioners from across the globe. They Robert H. Pittman
discuss challenges and opportunities, and provide Janus Institute, USA
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PART I
Foundations
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1 A Framework for Community

and Economic Development
Rhonda Phillips and Robert H. Pittman
Overview
Community development has evolved into a recognized discipline of interest to both practitioners
and academicians. Community development is defined in many different ways; some think of
community development as an outcome—physical, social, and economic improvement in a
community—while others think of community development as a process—the ability of commu-
nities to act collectively and enhancing the ability to do so. This chapter defines community
development as both a process and an outcome and explains the relationship between the two.
A related area, economic development, is also defined in different ways. This chapter offers a
holistic definition that includes not only economic dimensions but vital other dimensions impacting
community quality of life and well-being. The model of the community and economic development
chain shows the links, causal relationships, and feedback loops between community and
economic development.
Introduction
Community development has many different defi- contemporary community development (Green
nitions. Unlike mathematics or physics where and Haines 2011). A major contribution of
terms are scientifically derived and rigorously community development has been the recognition
defined, community development has evolved that a city or neighborhood is not just a collection
with many different connotations. Community of buildings but a “community” of people facing
development has probably been practiced for as common problems with untapped capacities for
long as there have been communities. Many self-improvement. Today community is defined in
scholars trace the origin of community devel- many different ways: in geographic terms, such
opment as a discipline and known profession to as a neighborhood or town (place-based or
post-World War II reconstruction efforts to improve communities of place definitions); or in social
less-developed countries (Wise 1998). In the US, terms, such as a group of people sharing common
some cite the “war on poverty” of the 1960s with chat rooms on the internet, a national profes-
its emphasis on solving neighborhood housing sional association, or a labor union (communities
and social problems as a significant influence on of interest definitions).
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4 RHONDA PHILLIPS AND ROBERT H. PITTMAN
BOX 1.1 EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Community development as a profession has deep roots, tracing its origins to social movements (it is, after
all, about collective action) of earlier times throughout the globe. Activism such as the Sanitary Reform
movement in the 1840s and housing reforms a bit later helped push forward positive changes at community
levels. For example, in the 1880s, Jane Addams was among the first to respond to deplorable housing
conditions in tenements by establishing Hull House in Chicago, a community center for poor immigrant
workers. Beyond North America, community development may be called “civil society,” or “community
regeneration,” and activities are conducted by both government and nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs). There may or may not be regulation of organizations, depending on different countries’ policy
frameworks (for a review of community development, see Hautekeur 2005). The Progressive movement of the
1890s through the first few decades of the twentieth century was all about community development (von
Hoffman 2012), although the term itself did not arise until mid-century.
During the 1950s and 1960s, social change and collective action again garnered much attention due to
the need to rectify dismal conditions within poverty-stricken rural and areas of urban decline. The civil rights
and anti-poverty movements led to the recognition of community development as a practice and emerging
profession, taking form as a means to elicit change in social, economic, political, and environmental aspects
of communities. During the 1960s, literally thousands of community development corporations (CDCs) were
formed, including many focusing on housing needs as prompted by U.S. Federal legislation providing
funding for nonprofit community organizations. This reclaiming of citizen-based governing was also prompted
in response to urban renewal approaches by government beginning with the U.S. Housing Act of 1949. The
richness of the CDC experience is chronicled in the Community Development Corporation Oral History
Project by the Pratt Center for Community Development. This includes one of the first CDCs in the US, the
Bedford Stuyvesant Restoration Corporation in New York City.
Today, there are about 4,000 CDCs in the US, with most focusing on housing development as well as other
related activities for improving community quality of life. However, many also include a full range of
community development activities, with about 25% providing a comprehensive array of housing development,
home ownership programs, commercial and business development, community facilities, open space/
environmental, workforce, and youth programs, and planning and organizing activities (Walker 2002).
Throughout the world, many organizations practice community development, including the public sector as
well as the private, for-profit and other nonprofit groups. As the variety of topics in this book attests, community
development continues to be built on social activism and housing to encompass a broad spectrum of
processes and activities dealing with multiple dimensions of community including physical, environmental,
social, and economic factors.
Sources
G. Hautekeur (2005) Community Development in Europe. Community Development Journal 40(4): 385–398.
A. von Hoffman (2012) The Past, Present, and Future of Community Development in the United States. In Andrews,
N.O. & Erickson, D.J. (eds), Investing in What Works for America’s Communities. San Francisco: Federal Reserve
Bank.
C. Walker (2002) Community Development Corporations and Their Changing Support Systems. Washington, D.C.:
Urban Institute.
For more details on the CDC Oral History Project, see www.prattcenter.net/cdcoralhistory.php
To learn more details on the history of community development in the US, see Alexander von Hoffman’s, The Past,
Present, and Future of Community Development in the United States, published by the Joint Center for Housing
Studies, Harvard University, 2012. www.jchs.harvard.edu/sites/jchs.harvard.edu/files/w12-6_von_hoffman.pdf
Civil and social activism throughout the world has served as a basis for community development approaches,
including those built upon works by Paulo Freire, a noted activist educator inspiring many with his classic 1970
Pedagogy of the Oppressed. See Margaret Ledwith’s 2005 Community Development: A Critical Approach for
discussion of Freire’s ideas in community development theory and practice.
For a history of community development in the UK, see The Community Development Reader, History, Theory, and
Issues, by Gary Craig, Marjorie Mayo, Keith Popple, Mae Shaw, and Marilyn Taylor (2011).
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A FRAMEWORK FOR COMMUNITY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 5
The rich and diverse history of community devel- This chapter takes a broad approach to
opment has roots in many areas, evolving into a community development. While it is impossible in
recognized discipline drawing from a wide variety one chapter (or book) to completely cover such a
of academic fields including urban and regional large field, many different aspects of community
planning, sociology, economics, political science, development are included. In particular, we have
geography, and many others. Today there is a observed that the strong interrelationship between
variety of academic and professional journals community and economic development is often
focusing on community development. The interest overlooked in research and practice. This inter-
of researchers and practitioners from many different relationship is one focus of this chapter and book.
disciplines has contributed greatly to the growth Economic development focuses predominately on
and development of the field. However, community the monetary aspects of the processes and
development’s growth and interdisciplinary nature outcomes—generating wealth in a community. It
have led to the current situation where it is defined is, by default, often centered on issues of effi-
and approached in a great variety of ways. Given ciency. This is counter to community development’s
community development’s origins in social emphasis on equity, yet balance can be sought
advocacy and calls to social action, the emphasis between these two elements. It is our intent to
on equity is a common thread. The need for social explore this balance, bringing together both
reform and social justice has always been present, community and economic development to explore
and continue to be critical across communities ways to foster better outcomes or community well-
globally. See Box 1.2 for more information about being and improved quality of life for our towns,
some of the history of social equity. cities, regions, and beyond.
BOX 1.2 THE UNDERREPRESENTED

More than a century prior to the Occupy Wall Street movement, Upton Sinclair, in The Jungle (1906),
described the horrible conditions of the meatpacking factories and the poverty and hopelessness prevalent
in the Back of the Yards neighborhood in Chicago. Inspired by the work of Sinclair, the other Muckrakers,
and the labor organizer John Lewis, Saul Alinsky became a community organizer and took it to the streets,
convinced that the interests of workers and the poor were not being represented and protected by traditional
political processes and institutions. Alinsky “walked the talk,” served many jail terms for nonviolent
demonstrations and, shortly before his death, published his seminal work, Rules for Radicals in 1971. The
book is a primer for community organizing and extols the importance and justification of using non-
conventional means to close the gap between the “haves” and “have-nots.”
Martin Luther King, Jr. and the early civil rights movement adopted Alinsky’s and other nonviolent protesters’
methods. In his eloquent “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” King wrote:
You may well ask: “Why direct action? Why sit ins, marches and so forth? Isn’t negotiation a better
path?” You are quite right in calling for negotiation. Indeed, this is the very purpose of direct action.
Nonviolent direct action seeks to create such a crisis and foster such a tension that a community which
has constantly refused to negotiate is forced to confront the issue.
The Mavis Staples video (www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZWdDI_fkns) dramatically captures the bravery of

the civil rights protesters.
Why has there been a long tradition of community activism in the United States? The reason is that
traditional institutions and political processes have not always given sufficient voice and a “seat at the table,”
for the nation’s poor and minorities. As the urban planning theorist and activist for social justice and equity
Paul Davidoff has written:
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the “great issues” in economic organization, those resolving around the central issue of the nature of
distributive justice, have yet to be settled. The world is still in turmoil over the way in which the resources
of the nations are to be distributed.
(1965: 50)
These issues are as relevant today as when first written by Davidoff 50 years ago. Although economic growth
and development can bring many benefits, those benefits are not evenly distributed and the costs are often
paid by the poorest members of our society. One noteworthy attempt at the local level to address these issues
is the Cleveland experiment from late 1969–1979 in the practice of equity planning. Norman Krumholz and
his staff of professional planners instituted progressive programs and policies that resulted in property law
changes, improvements in public service delivery, protection of transit services for the most transit-dependent,
and the rescue of city parklands and beaches to serve the poor. The Cleveland experience is well worth
reviewing for a politically effective and savvy approach to progressive economic development and growth.
Jay M. Stein, Ph.D., FAICP
Arizona State University, USA
Sources
Saul Alinsky (1971) Rules for Radicals. New York: Random House.
Paul Davidoff (1965) Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning, Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 31(4):
331–338.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (1963) Letter from a Birmingham Jail. Accessed December 21, 2013 at: www.africa.
upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html
Norman Krumholz and John Forester (1990) Making Equity Planning Work. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Upton Sinclair (1906) The Jungle. Chicago: Doubleday, Jabber and Company.
The terms community development and economic life in areas such as reducing poverty or improving
development are widely used by academicians, housing conditions. Most respondents would
professionals, and citizens from all walks of life probably define community and economic devel-
and have almost as many definitions as users. opment in terms of an outcome—physical growth,
Economic development is perhaps more familiar new infrastructure, better housing, or jobs. Probably
to laypersons. If random individuals on the street no one would define them in terms of a process and
were asked what economic development is, some many would not understand how they are inter-
might define it in physical terms such as new related. This is unfortunate because some of these
homes, office buildings, retail shops, and “growth” passers-by are probably involved in community
in general. Others might define it as new busi- and economic development efforts serving as
nesses and jobs coming into the community. A few volunteers or board members for community-ori-
thoughtful individuals might even define it in soci- ented nonprofit organizations, economic devel-
oeconomic terms such as an increase in per capita opment agencies, or charitable organizations.
income, enhanced quality of life, or issues around The purpose of this introductory chapter is to
equity such as reduction in poverty. provide meaningful descriptions of community
Ask the same individuals what community devel- development and economic development as both
opment is, and they would probably think a while processes and outcomes, explore what they entail,
before answering. Some might say it is physical and understand them as distinct but closely related
growth—new homes and commercial buildings— disciplines. First the focus will be on community
just like economic development. Others might say it development, followed by a discussion of
is community improvement such as new infra- economic development and, finally, an exami-
structure, roads, schools, or improving quality of nation of the relationship between the two.
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Community Development community solve their problems by group

decision making and group action.
The first step in defining community development (Long 1975, cited in Mattessich
is to define “community.” As mentioned previously, and Monsey 2004: 58)
community can refer to a location (communities of
place) or a collection of individuals with a common Community development is the “active
interest or tie whether in close proximity or widely voluntary involvement in a process to improve
separated (communities of interest). A review of some identifiable aspect of community life;
the literature conducted by Mattessich and Monsey normally such action leads to the strength-
(2004) found many definitions of community ening of the community’s pattern of human
such as: and institutional relationships.”
(Ploch 1976, cited in Mattessich
People who live within a geographically and Monsey 2004: 59)
defined area and who have social and
psychological ties with each other and with These definitions imply that community devel-
the place where they live. opment is the process of teaching people how to
(Mattessich and Monsey 2004: 56) work together to solve common problems.
Other authors define community development
A grouping of people who live close to one more in terms of an action, result, or outcome:
another and are united by common interests
and mutual aid. Local decision making and the development
(National Research Council 1975, cited in of programs designed to make the community
Mattessich and Monsey 2004: 56) a better place to live and work.
(Huie 1976, cited in Mattessich
A combination of social units and systems and Monsey 2004: 58)
which perform the major social functions …
the organization of social activities. A group of people in a locality initiating a
(Warren 1963, cited in Mattessich social action process to change their
and Monsey 2004: 57) economic, social, cultural and/or environ-
mental situation.
These definitions refer first to people and the ties (Christenson and Robinson 1989, cited in
that bind them and second to geographic loca- Mattessich and Monsey 2004: 57)
tions. They remind us that without people and the
connections among them, a community is just a A series of community improvements
collection of buildings and streets. which take place over time as a result of
Given these definitions, the term community devel- the common efforts of various groups of
opment takes on the context of developing stronger people.
“communities” of people and the social and psycho- (Dunbar 1972, cited in Mattessich
logical ties that they share. Indeed this is how and Monsey 2004: 59)
community development is defined in much of the
literature. Again Mattessich and Monsey found All of these definitions are valid in that community
many such definitions in their literature review: development should be considered both a process
and an outcome. However, as mentioned
Community development is an educational previously, the person on the street would probably
process designed to help adults in a think of community development in terms of a
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physical result (improved infrastructure, better There are four other forms of “community
health care, etc.). Therefore, a definition of com- capital” often mentioned in the community devel-
munity development in simple but broad terms is: opment literature (Green and Haines 2002: viii):
A process: developing the ability to act collec- • Human capital: labor supply, skills, cap-
tively, and abilities and experience, etc.;
An outcome: (1) taking collective action and • Physical capital: buildings, streets, infra-
(2) the result of that action for improvement in structure, etc.;
a community in any or all realms: physical, • Financial capital: community financial
environmental, cultural, social, political, institutions, microloan funds, community devel-
economic, etc. opment banks, etc.;
• Environmental capital: natural resources,
Having arrived at a comprehensive definition of weather, recreational opportunities, etc.
community development, the focus can now be on
what facilitates or leads to community development. All five types of community capital are important.
The community development literature generally However, it is difficult to imagine a community
refers to this as social capital or social capacity: making much progress without some degree of
social capital or capacity. The more social capital
The abilities of residents to organize and a community has, the more likely it can adapt to
mobilize their resources for the accomplishment and work around deficiencies in the other types of
of consensual defined goals. community capital. When conducting community
(Christenson and Robinson 1989, cited in assessments (see Chapter 11), it is useful to think
Mattessich and Monsey 2004: 61) in terms of these five types of community capital.
So far, working definitions of community,
The resources embedded in social relation- community development, and social capital have
ships among persons and organizations that been provided. To complete the community devel-
facilitate cooperation and collaboration in opment equation, it is necessary to identify how
communities. to create or increase social capital or capacity.
(Committee for Economic This process is generally referred to as social
Development 1995, cited in Mattessich capital building or capacity building. Here is one
and Monsey 2004: 62) definition from the literature:
Simply put, social capital or capacity is the extent to An on-going comprehensive effort that
which members of a community can work together strengthens the norms, and supports the
effectively to develop and sustain strong relation- problem solving resources of the community.
ships; solve problems and make group decisions; (Committee for Economic Development 1995,
and collaborate effectively to plan, set goals, and cited in Mattessich and Monsey 2004: 60)
get things done. There is a broad literature on social
capital, with some scholars making the distinction Notice that this sounds exactly like the definitions of
between bonding capital and bridging capital the process of community development given
(Agnitsch et al. 2006). Bonding capital refers to ties above. We have come full circle. The process of
within homogeneous groups (e.g. races, ethnicities, community development is social capital/capacity
social action committees, or people of similar socio- building which leads to social capital which in turn
economic status) while bridging capital refers to ties leads to the outcome of community development.
among different groups.
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Figure 1.1 depicts the community development Increased quantities of specific phenomena
chain. The solid lines show the primary flow of such as jobs, population and income, whereas
causality. However, there is a feedback loop shown development involves structural change in a
by the dotted lines. Progress in the outcome of community including: 1) how resources are
community development (taking positive action used; and 2) the functioning of institutions.
resulting in physical and social improvements in the
community) contributes to capacity building (the By these definitions, a community can have
process of community development) and social growth without development and vice versa. The
capital. For example, better infrastructure (e.g. important point to note, however, is that devel-
public transportation, internet access, etc.) facili- opment not only facilitates growth but also influ-
tates public interaction, communications, and group ences the kind and amount of growth a community
meetings. Individuals who are materially, socially, experiences. Successful communities control their
and psychologically better off are likely to have own destiny through the successful practice of
more time to spend on community issues because community development. Community devel-
they have to devote less time to meeting basic opment empowers communities to change.
human and family needs. Success begets success in
community development. When local citizens see
positive results (outcome), they generally get more Economic Development
enthused and plow more energy into the process
because they see the payoff. Research has shown As with community development, economic devel-
there are certain characteristics of communities that opment has its origins in efforts to improve less
influence their ability to do capacity building and developed countries and the American war on
create social capital (Mattessich and Monsey poverty (Malizia and Feser 1999). Immediately
2004). Chapter 4 of this book discusses some of after World War II and certainly before, parts of
these community characteristics. the US were not unlike developing countries with
Now that the components of community devel- rampant poverty and unemployment due to the
opment and their relationships have been identified, decline of agricultural jobs. Many southern states
we can return to the random individuals on the street developed programs to recruit industries from the
and ask them what the difference is between growth northern US with cheap labor and government
and development. From the definitions above, it incentives (e.g. tax breaks) as bait. In the 1960s,
would seem that development is a more encom- the emphasis on economic development was at
passing term than growth. Green and Haines (2002: the federal level with Great Society programs
5) define growth as: aimed at eliminating pockets of poverty such as
Capacity building Community

community development Social capital development
process The ability to act outcome
Developing the ability to act

Taking action
Community
improvement
Q Figure 1.1 Community Development Chain
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BOX 1.3 COMMUNITY WELL-BEING: THE NEXT GENERATION FOR COMMUNITY

DEVELOPMENT?
Aristotle’s term eudaemonia consists of the words “eu” and “daimon,” meaning “good” and “spirit.” Modern
scholars have seized on this concept in the context of communities and use it to explain renewed interest in
promoting improvements in well-being (Lee and Kim 2014). Common frameworks of concepts and measures
can assist communities in prioritizing goals and values (Phillips 2014); community well-being can then be
thought of as encompassing “the broad range of economic, social, environmental, cultural and governance
goals and priorities identified as of greatest importance by a particular community, population group or
society” (Cox et al. 2010: 72) or, “the concept of community well-being is focused on understanding the
contribution of a community in maintaining itself and fulfilling the various needs of local residents” (Haworth
and Hart 2007: 95). It is further described as a way to bring together social relationship and social
organization with the idea that community “well-being is something that we do together, not something that
we each possess” (Haworth and Hart 2007: 128). The underlying idea is that this broader concept is an
umbrella concept, encompassing ideas of sustainability, happiness, quality of life, and other social domains.
Community and economic development, along with urban and regional planning are seen as approaches to
helping foster improved community well-being in this context. See for example Chicago’s efforts toward
“Quality of Life Planning,” in conjunction with the Local Initiatives Support Corporation (LISC).
Sources
Cox, D., Frere, M., West, S., and Wiseman, J. (2010) Developing and Using Local Community Wellbeing Indicators:
Learning from the Experiences of Community Indicators Victoria. Australian Journal of Social Issues 45(1): 71–89.
Haworth, J. and Hart, G. (2007) Well-Being, Individual, Community and Social Perspectives. Hampshire, UK:
Palgrave.
Lee, S.J. and Kim, Y. (2014). Community Wellbeing: Concepts and Measurements. In S.J. Lee, Y. Kim, and R. Phillips
(eds.), Community Wellbeing: Conceptions and Applications. Dordrecht: Springer, forthcoming.
LISC New Communities Program, Chicago. Quality of Life Planning Handbook, www.newcommunities.org/tools/
qofl.asp
Phillips, R. (2014) Building Community Well-Being across Sectors: “For Benefit” Community Business. In S.J. Lee,
Y. Kim and R. Phillips, Community Wellbeing: Conceptions and Applications. Dordrecht: Springer.
the southern Appalachian Mountains region. In opment organizations were chasing a limited
the 1970s and 1980s, the emphasis shifted to number of corporate relocations/expansions and
states and localities. If they did not already have playing a highly competitive game of incentives
them, many communities created economic devel- and marketing efforts. This highly competitive situ-
opment organizations with public as well as ation became known as a “zero sum game” after
private funding. In many communities, economic Lester Thurow’s description of macroeconomics in
development was part of city or country the now classic The Zero-Sum Society Distribution
government, while in other communities it was and the Possibilities for Economic Change (1980).
under the auspices of the private nonprofit sector In other words, there are no true winners, given a
such as local chambers of commerce. tendency toward a “beggar thy neighbor approach”
Initially, most economic development agencies to enticing industry. The benefit to communities or
focused on industrial recruitment or on enticing new regions of giving expansive tax incentives to keep
companies to locate in their communities. State and or lure industry into the area is not often clear.
local departments of economic development Timothy Bartik addressed this question in Who
aggressively courted industry and increased the Benefits from State and Local Economic Devel-
amount and variety of incentives. Soon it became opment Policies? in 1991; policy makers, scholars,
apparent that tens of thousands of economic devel- and practitioner alike are still debating.
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As communities realized that there were other disciplinary field. In earlier decades, economic
ways to create jobs, they began to focus on development was synonymous with growth, not
internal opportunities such as small business devel- necessarily a positive correlation. A more holistic
opment and ensuring that businesses already definition of economic development includes an
located in the community stayed and expanded emphasis on increasing the quality of life (the
there. Many communities also realized that by general well-being of individuals and collectively
improving education, aesthetics and amenities to as community) through opportunities and
make life better, environmental conditions, improvement. From this perspective, economic
government services, local labor skills and supply, development is undertaken for the purposes of
and the business climate in general, they could increasing standards of living through attaining
make themselves more attractive to both internal greater per capita income, quality and quantity of
and external investments. These wider approaches employment opportunities, and enhanced quality
help encourage better quality-of-life conditions. of life for the persons represented within the devel-
Like community development, economic development district.
opment has evolved into a broad and multi-
BOX 1.4 GROWTH VS. DEVELOPMENT

Growth by itself could be either an improvement or detriment. For instance, a facility that paid very low
wages might open in an area. As a result, the population and overall size of the economy might increase,
but per capita incomes might fall, and the quality of life might suffer (Blair 1995: 14). Of course many
communities would be happy to get any new facility regardless of the wage rate. A minimum wage job may
be better than no job in some situations, and there is a portion of the labor force in most communities that is
a good match for minimum wage jobs (e.g. teenagers and adult low-skilled workers).
Since growth does not always equate with a better standard of living, Blair suggests a higher-order
definition of economic development: Economic development implies that the welfare of residents is improving.
Increases in per capita income (adjusted for inflation) is one important indicator of welfare improvements
(1995: 14).
There are many other indicators of welfare and quality of life for community residents such as poverty
rates, health statistics, and income distribution, but per capita income or income per household is a
common measurement of wealth. Whether wealth equates to a good quality of life depends on the
individual, although there are basic levels needed to have a decent standard of living. Moreover, per
capita income is not necessarily a measure of purchasing power. The cost of living varies from place to
place, and a dollar goes farther where prices are low. Like community development, these descriptions
portray economic development as both a process and an outcome—the process of mobilizing resources to
create the outcome of more jobs, higher incomes, and an increased standard of living, however it is
measured. From this discussion it should be apparent that development has a very different connotation
than growth. Development implies structural change and improvements within community systems
encompassing both economic change and the functioning of institutions and organizations (Boothroyd and
Davis 1993; Green and Haines 2011). Development is a deliberate action taken to elicit desired structural
changes. Growth, on the other hand, focuses on the quantitative aspects of more jobs, facilities construction,
and so on—within the context that more is better. One should carefully distinguish then between indicators
that measure growth versus development. By these definitions, a community can have growth without
development and vice versa. The important point to note, however, is that development not only facilitates
growth but also influences the kind and amount of growth a community experiences. Development guides
and directs growth outcomes.
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Economic development centers on creating many guides on the subject such as those by
wealth and other economic outcomes. One way Entergy and other utility companies, for example.
to view the relationship between these two areas Chapter 16 of this book addresses business
is that community development can be thought of retention and expansion in more detail.
as producing assets and capacities while There is also much communities can do to facil-
economic development mobilizes these assets for itate the start up of new local businesses. Some
economic benefits. As noted, traditional or main- communities create business incubators where
stream economic development has focused on fledgling companies share support services, benefit
economic outcomes, sometimes to the detriment of from reduced rent, or even get free consulting assis-
ecological or social dimensions of community. tance. Financial assistance, such as revolving loan
Now that we have defined economic deve- funds at reduced interest rates, is also a common
lopment, we can discuss what it entails in practice. tool used to encourage small business start-ups.
Most economic developers concentrate on creating Making a community “entrepreneurial friendly” is
new jobs. This is generally the key to wealth the subject of Chapter 17 of this book.
creation and higher living standards. Many While the majority of new jobs in most regions
economic developers refer to the “three-legged are created by business retention and expansion
stool” of job creation: recruiting new and new business start-ups (Roberts 2006), many
businesses, retaining and expanding businesses communities continue to define economic devel-
already in the community, and facilitating new opment in terms of recruiting new facilities. Some
business start-ups. As discussed previously, communities are stuck in the old paradigm of
economic developers originally concentrated on “smokestack chasing”—relying solely on recruiting
recruiting new businesses. Stiff competition for a a new factory when manufacturing employment is
limited number of new or expanded facilities in a declining nationally and many companies are
given year led some communities to realize that moving offshore. These communities may have
another way to create jobs is to work with historically relied on traditional manufacturing
companies already in the area to maximize the companies for the bulk of their employment, and
likelihood that if they need to expand existing oper- when these operations shut down, the only thing
ations or start new ones, they would do so in the they knew to do was to pursue more of the same.
community and not elsewhere. Even if an expansion Elected officials, civic board members, and citizens
is not involved, some businesses may relocate their in these communities need to be educated and
operations to other areas for “pull” or “push” enlightened to the fact that the paradigm has long
reasons (Pittman 2007). They may relocate to be ago shifted. They should be recruiting other types of
closer to their customers, closer to natural resources, businesses such as call centers or service industries
or for any number of strategic business reasons while practicing business retention and expansion
(pull). Businesses may also relocate because of and creating new business start-up programs.
problems with their current location such as an Growing businesses and enterprise locally will
inadequate labor force, high taxes, or simply lack result in better outcomes for communities.
of community support (push). Although communities While economic development today is often
cannot influence most pull factors, they can act to defined by the “three-legged stool,” there is much
mitigate many push factors. If the problem is labor, more to the profession. As shown in a survey by a
they can establish labor-training programs. If the large regional professional association (SEDC
problem is high taxes, they can grant tax abate- 2006), economic developers get involved in work-
ments in return for creating new jobs. Business force development, permitting assistance, and
retention and expansion has become a recognized many other issues, some of which are better
sub-field of economic development, and there are defined as community development.
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Many communities are beginning to realize that As seen, community development is intertwined
it is often better, especially when recruiting new with the idea of economic security and standard of
companies, to practice economic development on living. Through the years, most economic analyses
a regional basis and combine resources with and approaches do not adequately address the
nearby communities. Rather than create an human element; this is required if we are to build
economic development agency providing the community capacity and resiliency for more durable
same services for every community, it is usually economies (Phillips et al. 2013). In his now classic
more efficient to combine resources and market a Small Is Beautiful: Economics as If People Mattered
region collectively through one larger organi- (1973), British economist E.F. Schumacher pointed
zation. Regardless of where a new facility locates out the need to have the human element—people—
or expands, all communities in the region will as the main concern of economic analysis and
benefit as employees live in different areas and development strategies. His work has subsequently
commute to work. inspired a new generation to explore options to
traditional approaches.
To understand the synergies more fully between
The Relationship between Community community and economic development, consider
and Economic Development this definition of community development (Green
and Haines 2002: vii):
Community development and economic devel-
opment are sometimes used interchangeably, Community development is … a planned
and the term “community economic development” effort to produce assets that increase the
is often used as well. While they have distinct capacity of residents to improve their quality
meanings, in practice they can be inextricably of life. These assets may include several forms
linked on many levels and can be highly syner- of community capital: physical, human,
gistic. Striving to achieving balance between social, financial and environmental.
community and economic development is
essential. Economic development, and economic Now consider a classic definition of economic
considerations in general, tend to receive more development focusing on economic outcomes,
attention yet the attributes that community devel- (AEDC 1984: 18):
opment approaches bring are just as vital,
particularly as related to community well-being. The process of creating wealth through the
We call your attention to the following decla- mobilization of human, financial, capital,
ration by the United Nations: physical and natural resources to generate
marketable goods and services. The economic
Everyone has the right to a standard of living developer’s role is to influence the process for
adequate for the health and well-being of the benefit of the community through expanding
himself and his family, including food, job opportunities and the tax base.
clothing, housing and medical care and
necessary social services, and the right to These two definitions are parallel yet not entirely
security in the event of unemployment, alike. The purpose of community development is to
sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or produce assets that can be used to improve the
other loss of livelihood in circumstances community, and the purpose of economic devel-
beyond his control. opment is to mobilize these assets to benefit the
(United Nations Universal Declaration community. Both definitions refer to the same
of Human Rights (Article 25), 1948) community capital assets: human, financial, and
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physical (environmental or natural resources). A search list. Aesthetics and the ability of a
more modern holistic definition of economic devel- community to provide a high quality of life are
opment, as Blair (1995) pointed out, would include increasingly important in investment decisions.
not only wealth and job creation but increasing Whether a community is considered devel-
standard of living for all citizens. This would bring opment ready depends on the type of business
in the equity dimensions of community development looking for a location. For example, important
and the desire for fostering community well-being location criteria for a microchip-manufacturing
and improved quality of life, resulting in a more facility include a good supply of skilled production
sustainable approach. This expanded definition is labor, availability of scientists and engineers, a
certainly compatible with community development. good water supply, and a vibration-free site. A
The definition of economic development does not call center seeking a location would focus more
include social capital per se, but while economic on labor suitable for telephone work (including
developers might not have used this term when this students and part-time workers), a good non-inter-
definition was created, it will be seen that social ruptible telecommunications network, and,
capital is important for economic development as perhaps, a time zone convenient to its customers.
well as community development. While location needs differ, a community lacking
As most economic developers will attest, a key in the location factors listed above would be at a
to success in economic development—new disadvantage in attracting or retaining businesses.
business recruitment, retention and expansion of Shortcomings in these or other location factors
existing businesses, and new business start-up—is would increase a firm’s costs and make it less
to have a “development-ready” community. Most competitive. In addition, companies are risk
businesses operate in competitive markets, and averse when making location decisions.
one of the major factors influencing business prof- There are many location factors that are subjective
itability is their location. When making location and not easily quantified. For example, it is not
decisions, businesses weigh a host of factors that feasible to objectively measure factors such as work
affect their costs and profits such as: ethic, ease of obtaining permits, or a community’s
general attitude toward business (these and other
• available sites and buildings; factors are sometimes collectively referred to as the
• transportation services and costs (ground, “business climate”). Yet in the final decision process
water, air); after as many factors as possible have been quan-
• labor costs, quality, and availability; tified, these intangibles often determine the outcome.
• utility costs (electricity, natural gas); Most company executives prefer to live in desirable
• suitability of infrastructure (roads, water/ communities with good arts, cultural amenities,
sewer); recreational facilities and opportunities, low crime,
• telecommunications (internet bandwidth); and and a neighborly, cordial atmosphere.
• public services (police and fire protection). It should be apparent now how important
community development is to economic devel-
Quality-of-life factors (education, health care, opment. If a community is not development ready
climate, recreation, etc.) are also important in in the physical sense of available sites, good infra-
many location decisions (Pittman 2006), whether structure, quality-of-life factors, and public services,
from external or internal investors. If a community it will be more difficult to attract new businesses
scores poorly in these factors, many companies and retain and expand existing ones. New busi-
would not consider it development ready. A nesses starting up in the community would be at a
weakness in even one important location factor competitive disadvantage. Being development
can eliminate a community from a company’s ready in this physical sense is an outcome of
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community development (taking action and imple- structure improvements, good public education,
menting community improvements). labor training, and many other factors. Commu-
The process of community development also nities that are not adept (or, worse, are totally
contributes to success in economic development. dysfunctional) at the process of community devel-
First, as has been discussed, the process of opment are less likely to win the location compe-
community development (developing the ability tition. Furthermore, others (potential new
to act in a positive manner for community residents, investors, etc.) would probably prefer
improvement) leads to the outcome of not to live in such a place.
community development and a development- As it has been shown, economic development,
ready community. In addition, some of the intan- like community development, is also a process.
gible but important location factors can be influ- Establishing and maintaining good community
enced through the process of community and economic development programs is not easy.
development. Companies and enterprises do not Significant resources must be devoted to accom-
like to locate in divided communities where plishing desired outcomes. Communities that are
factions are openly fighting with one another, successful in community and economic devel-
city councils are deadlocked and ineffective, and opment devote the appropriate resources to the
residents disagree on the types of businesses effort, design good programs, and stay with them
they want to attract (or even if they want to attract for the long haul. Osceola, Arkansas, is an
any businesses). As a company grows, it will inspiring example of good community devel-
need the support of the community for infra- opment leading to success (see Box 1.5).
BOX 1.5 OSCEOLA, ARKANSAS: COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT TURNS A DECLINING

COMMUNITY AROUND
Osceola is a town of about 9,000 in the Mississippi Delta in northeast Arkansas. Like many rural communities,
Osceola and Mississippi County grew up around the agriculture industry. As farm employment declined, the city
attracted relatively low-skilled textile manufacturing jobs which ultimately disappeared as the industry moved
offshore. In 2001 a major employer, Fruit of the Loom, shut down its Osceola plant, leaving the community in a
crisis. Not only was unemployment rampant, the local schools were classified as academically distressed and
were facing a state takeover. Osceola’s mayor stated “we almost hit the point of no return” (Shirouzu 2006).
The remaining businesses were having difficulty finding labor with basic math skills for production work.
To address this problem, executives from these businesses began to work with the city administration to find
a solution. They decided to ask the state for permission to establish a charter school that could produce well-
educated students with good work skills. After many community meetings and differences of opinion, the
community united behind the effort and opened a charter school.
Shortly after the school was established, Denso, a Japanese-owned auto parts company, was looking for
a manufacturing site in the southern states. City representatives showed Denso the charter school and
repeatedly told them how the community had come together to solve its labor problem. Denso decided to
locate the plant in Osceola, creating 400 jobs with the potential to grow to almost 4,000. While Denso cited
the improved labor force as a reason for selecting Osceola, they were also impressed with how the community
came together and solved its problem. An executive from Denso was quoted as saying “It was their
aggressiveness that really impressed us.”
Denso was also concerned about the community’s commitment to continuous improvement in the schools.
Regarding this issue, the Denso executive was quoted as saying “Is there a future here? Are they doing things
that are going to drive them forward? Do they have that commitment to do it? We saw that continuously in
Osceola.” Denso located in Osceola not only because of its labor force, but because they were convinced the
community would continue to practice good community development principles and move forward. Osceola’s
success story was featured on the front page of the national edition of the Wall Street Journal (Shirouzu 2006).
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Shaffer et al. (2006) describe the relationship cably linked and if scholars and practitioners of
and synergy between community development economic development do not address community
and economic development as follows: development, they are missing an important part
of the overall equation.
We maintain that community economic devel- Fortunately, there has been a shift to a more
opment occurs when people in a community holistic approach in community economic devel-
analyze the economic conditions of that opment, one that includes more consideration of
community, determine its economic needs all dimensions of community well-being as a result
and unfulfilled opportunities, decide what can of increased awareness of ecological needs and
be done to improve economic conditions in the push for sustainable approaches and longer-
that community, and then move to achieve term sustainable development. Anglin (2011: 3)
agreed-upon economic goals and objectives. provides a newer definition reflecting this shift:
(p. 61)
Community economic development, and its
They also point out that the link between community
values and practices, are indeed important
development and economic development is some-
strategies to help forge a stronger base for
times not understood or appreciated:
addressing key challenges going forward such
Economic development theory and policy have as (1) development that protects the environment
tended to focus narrowly on the traditional while opening opportunities for the poor to
factors of production and how they are best build wealth and opportunity, and (2) assisting
allocated in a spatial world. We argue that in the larger project of strengthening the
community economic development must be economic competiveness of cities and regions.
broader than simply worrying about land,
labor and capital. This broader dimension We agree that a definition of community economic
includes public capital, technology and inno- development is “a merging of aspects of both the
vation, society and culture, institutions, and the fields of community development and economic
decision-making capacity of the community. development, implying practice aimed at
(p. 64) community betterment and economic improvement
at the local level, preferably encompassing
These authors make it clear that community devel- sustainable development approaches” (Phillips
opment and economic development are inextri- and Besser, 2013: 2). It should be focused on
BOX 1.6 DIFFERENT DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Community development and economic development are frequently used interchangeably, and the term
“community economic development” is often seen as well. Anglin (2011), Phillips and Besser (2013), and
Shaffer and colleagues (2006) use it to describe the integration of community and economic development
processes. Some authors, however, also use it to refer to “local economic development,” encompassing
growth (economics), structural change (development), and relationships (community capital). This term, along
with community regeneration is often seen in the UK or Canada (see e.g. Haughton (1999) or Boothroyd and
Davis (1993)).
Source:
P. Boothroyd and H.C. Davis (1991) Community Economic Development: Three Approaches. Journal of Planning,
Education and Research 12: 230–240.
G. Haughton (1999) Community Economic Development. London: The Stationery Office.
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sustainable approaches that help communities and vice versa, in reality, they are all practicing
build durable economies with resiliency. community economic development.
Now the diagram begun in Figure 1.1 can be
completed to show the holistic relationship between
the process and outcome of community development Conclusion
and economic development (see Figure 1.2).
The community development chain is as Some communities do not believe they can influence
depicted in Figure 1.1: capacity building (the their own destiny and improve their situation. They
process of community development) leads to have a fatalistic attitude and feel they are victims of
social capital which in turn leads to the outcome circumstances beyond their control—a closed
community development. In addition, communities factory, a downsized military base, or a natural
with social capacity (the ability to act) are disaster. In reality, they can build a better future. For
inherently more capable of creating good eco- every community that fails to act, there is another
nomic development programs should they chose that is proactively applying the tools of community
to do so. When these communities take action and economic development to better itself.
(community development outcome), they create Successful communities realize that community
and maintain effective economic development development is a group effort involving all.
programs that mobilize the community’s resources. Sometimes it takes a negative event to shock a
They also improve their physical and social nature community into action. On the other hand, many
and become more development ready, which communities realize that change is inevitable and
leads to success in business attraction, retention choose to be prepared by practicing good
and expansion, and start-up. community and economic development. In today’s
Citizens should understand the community and changing global economy, maintaining the status
economic development chain in order to move quo is rarely an option—either a community moves
their communities forward efficiently and effec- itself forward or by default moves backward.
tively. While community developers might not Achieving desirable quality of life and community
believe they are practicing economic development well-being requires informed action.
Community development
outcome
Taking action
Community improvement
Development-ready community
Economic development
Capacity building
Social outcome
community development
capital Job creation
process
Ability to act Increase in income and wealth
Developing the ability to act
Increase in standard of living
Economic development
process
Creating and maintaining ED programs
Mobilizing resources
Q Figure 1.2 Community and Economic Development Chain
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CASE STUDY: VERMONT SUSTAINABLE JOBS FUND1

This case highlights newer ways of thinking about community and economic development, with an emphasis
on fostering sustainable enterprises. It incorporates ideas of sustainability, socially responsible businesses,
and building competitive advantage via cooperation.
In the summer of 1994, a group of approximately 15 business leaders convened for a day-long retreat in
a rural meadow to discuss their long-term vision for the state of Vermont. All were members of an organization
called Vermont Businesses for Social Responsibility (VBSR), an organization whose mission is to support and
encourage socially responsible business practices and public policy initiatives. The leaders committed to a
vision that included the idea of creating a state entity to support the development and creation of “sustainable”
jobs, which were defined as jobs consistent with VBSR core values—protection of the environment, social
justice, and economic equity. (See below “What Sustainable Means to Vermont.”) These leaders formed the
Sustainable Jobs Coalition to pursue legislation that would translate their vision into reality.
Since the 1960s, Vermont has had a reputation as a national leader on conservation, thanks to laws
protecting the environment, including a landmark land use law, the billboard ban, the bottle deposit law,
Green-Up Day, and the Scenic Preservation Council. Most companies that rely on Vermont’s green image
and fertile land to grow and sell their products approve, and many company leaders are in VBSR. They see
an opportunity for growth through cooperation and networking, particularly in the area of marketing and
advertising, where pooling resources can really pay off.
Consider one industry example of collaboration. Vermont’s artisan and farmstead cheese makers rode a
wave of national popularity in the 1990s. But as Cabot Creamery’s director of marketing, Jed Davis, recalls,
they were “really pretty darn insignificant compared to big states like California. We knew that we weren’t
going to gain as much by being competitors as we are by cooperating.” To grow their businesses—and
create new jobs for Vermonters—participants in the state’s cheese industry knew they would need to work
together to build their reputation as the premier source for small-batch, farmstead cheeses.
So VBSR developed the idea of a sustainable jobs fund. The fund would support growing enterprises and
business networks that demonstrated commitment to a dual bottom line—making profits while pursuing social
responsibility for the environment, social justice, economic equity, and an increased number of jobs. The
purpose of the Vermont Sustainable Jobs Fund (VSJF) was to create a nonprofit arm of the state that, with an
initial state investment, would be able to attract funding from the federal government and private foundations
to support the development of sustainable jobs. VBSR, in concert with allies such as those in the Sustainable
Jobs Coalition, crafted and passed the legislation in 1995 with the modest appropriation of $250,000.
Grant making
The VSJF’s initial approach was twofold: plant as many seeds as possible by providing grants, and build
networks to support existing or emerging businesses. VSJF has acted as a catalyst, leveraging good ideas,
technical know-how, and financial resources to propel innovation in sustainable development, especially in
the realms of organic agriculture and local food systems, sustainable forestry, and biofuels (locally grown for
local use).
Since 1997, the VSJF has made grants of more than $2.7 million to 150 recipients. Grantees have utilized
these funds to leverage an additional $11.8 million to implement projects, test ideas, and assemble the
building blocks of a green economy. Their combined efforts have created approximately 800 local jobs,
supported community development initiatives, preserved resilient ecosystems, filled vital needs in Vermont’s
economy, and provided new models for moving forward.
VSJF funding in 1998 and 2003 was used to help form the Vermont Cheese Council (VCC) and to help its
first 12 members market their products, share technical assistance, develop quality standards for Vermont
cheeses using the Council’s label, develop a fundraising plan, complete the VCC website, and produce a
logo. Today, two-thirds of VCC’s now 36 members have won awards. At the 2006 American Cheese Society
Conference, the Clothbound Cheddar collaboration between Jasper Hill Farm and Cabot Creamery won
best in show.
“People were scratching their heads,” laughs Davis. “Cabot makes the cheese? And Jasper Hill ages the
cheese? And you don’t fight about this? For that cheese to win best in show provided validation for everything
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that Vermont is all about. Not that there’s just great cheese coming out of here, but that our whole approach
to it is innovative and unique.”
The VCC represents a transition from commodity to value-added agricultural production, which yields a
higher rate of return for farmers and a more diverse range of local products for consumers.
Network Building
With limited funds, VSJF was forced to become innovative in supporting businesses. VSJF saw that every
successful business is embedded in a network of relationships, and the stronger the network, the more
sustainable, flexible, and resilient the business. The power of networks was a notion derived in part from
Robert Putnam, author of Bowling Alone (2000), who refers to social capital as “the connections among
individuals (social networks) and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them” (p. 19).
Social capital can be linked positively to innovation, to sales growth, return on investment, international
expansion success, and the like. Given Vermont’s size and connectedness, it’s not surprising that the state is
ranked third in the country according to Putnam’s social capital index. And VSJF saw that creating a
supportive environment to nurture and sustain these kinds of business networks and organizations would be
a prudent way to use limited development resources.
VSJF grants helped enable more than a dozen networks, representing 1,600-plus businesses, to do the
kind of strategic planning, capacity building, information sharing, market research, joint marketing, and
policy development that are crucial to developing a unified voice and competitive advantage in a sustainable
economy.
Market Building
VSJF also recognizes the importance of developing markets for existing businesses. They take the perspective
that markets are made through interactions among businesses, government, nonprofit organizations,
communities, and other resources. For example, four years ago biodiesel was not available in Vermont. VSJF
and its partners conducted pilot projects and educational activities that successfully introduced biodiesel to
large-scale institutional and commercial diesel users, in addition to residential heating oil customers.
To realize this success, VSJF, in cooperation with the University of Vermont Extension Service, conducted
on-farm oilseed production and feasibility studies to help farmers familiarize themselves with these new
crops. They helped a small nascent biodiesel producer expand his capacity with new equipment, enabled
several farmers to construct on-farm production facilities, and assisted the installation of biodiesel pumps at
a fueling station. With a little over $2 million invested over the past four years, more than 30 locations in the
state now carry biodiesel, and many farmers are in the process of developing farm-scale biodiesel production
capacity.
VSJF also has committed to extending its influence outside Vermont’s borders. It is now in the process of
codifying Vermont’s model of local production for local use into a set of sustainable biofuel principles,
policies, and practices that could be applicable in other rural states.
VSJF’s experimentation has affirmed that a little goes a long way. With investments and technical assistance
targeted at the development of markets for sustainably produced goods and services, the building blocks of
Vermont’s green economy are ready to go mainstream.
What “Sustainable” Means to Vermont
The Vermont Sustainable Jobs Fund was established by the Vermont Legislature in 1995 to build markets
within the following natural-resource-based economic sectors:
• environmental technologies;
• environmental equipment and services;
• energy efficiency;
• renewable energy;
• pollution abatement;
• specialty foods;
• water and wastewater systems;
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• solid waste and recycling technologies;

• wood products and other natural-resource-based or value-added industries;
• sustainable agriculture;
• existing businesses, including larger manufacturing companies striving to minimize their impact; and
• waste through environmentally sound products and processes.
The VSJF works with entrepreneurs and consumers to develop both the supply of and demand for goods and
services that provide sustainable alternatives to economic practices that could cause negative impact over
time. Success has come through a combination of targeted, early-stage funding, technical assistance such as
business coaching and the Peer to Peer Collaborative, and a focus on the long term.2
Rhonda Phillips, Bruce Seifer, and Ed Antczak, 2013
Keywords Bibliography
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development, growth, social capital, capacity and Bridging Capital: The Interactive Effects on
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Review Questions Anglin, R. (2011) Promoting Sustainable Local and
Community Economic Development, London: CRC
1 What types of community capital exist in your Press.
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development? Iowa University Press.
4 How is community development related to Committee for Economic Development, Research and
Policy Committee (1995) Inner-City Communities:
economic development?
A New Approach to the Nation’s Urban Crisis,
5 What issues exist in your community that could
New York: Committee for Economic Development.
be understood in the context of the community Dunbar, J. (1972) “Community Development in
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Green, G.P. and Haines, A. (2002) Asset Building
and Community Development, Thousand Oaks,
Notes CA: Sage.
Green, P.G. and Haines, A. (2011) Asset Building
1 This case is reprinted with permission of the authors and Community Development, 2nd ed., Thousand
from Sustainable Communities, Creating a Durable Oaks, CA: Sage.

Local Economy, by R. Phillips, B. Seifer, and E. Huie, J. (1976) “What Do We Do about it?—A Chal-
Antczak, London: Routledge, 2013, pp. 171–175. lenge to the Community Development Profession,”
2 See www.vsjf.org/peer_collaborative/purpose. Journal of the Community Development Society,
shtml 6(2): 14–21.
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Sustainable Communities, Creating a Durable
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Pittman, R.H. (2006) “Location, Location, Location:
Winning Site Selection Proposals,” Management Kick-start your inner social entrepreneur/change-
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A Case Study,” Journal of the Community Devel- global.org, www.planning.org (link through to the
opment Society, 7(1): 5–16. Economic and Community Development Divisions).
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2 Seven Theories for Seven

Community Developers1
Ronald J. Hustedde
Overview
Community developers need theories to help guide and frame the complexity of their work.
However, the field is girded with so many theories from various disciplines that it is difficult for
practitioners to sort through them. Although many undergraduate and graduate community devel-
opment programs have emerged in North America and throughout the world, there is no fixed
theoretical canon in the discipline. This chapter focuses on the purpose of theory and the seven
theories essential to community development practice. Why seven theories? In Western cultures,
seven implies a sense of near completeness. There are seven days in a week, seven seas, seven
climate zones, and seven ancient and modern wonders of the world. Rome was built on seven
hills. While seven may or may not be a lucky number, seven theories are offered as a theoretical
core for those who approach community development from at least seven contextual perspec-
tives: organizations; power relationships; shared meanings; relationship building; choice making;
conflicts; and integration of the paradoxes that pervade the field. Hence, the chapter’s title:
“Seven Theories for Seven Community Developers.” It is a potential canon for practitioners.
Introduction: Why Theory? The starting point is to offer a definition of

community development that is both distinctive
Theories are explanations that can provide help in and universal and can be applied to all types of
understanding people’s behavior and a framework societies from postindustrial to preindustrial. Bhat-
from which community developers can explain tacharyya (2004) met these conditions when he
and comprehend events. A good theory can be defined community development as the process of
stated in abstract terms and help create strategies creating or increasing solidarity and agency. He
and tools for effective practice. Whether asserts that solidarity is about building a deep
community developers want others to conduct sense of shared identity and a code of conduct for
relevant research or they want to participate in the community developers. The developers need that
research themselves, it is important that they have solidarity as they sort through conflicting visions
theoretical grounding. Theory is the major guide and definitions of problems among ethnically and
to understanding the complexity of community life ideologically plural populations. It can occur in
and social and economic change (Collins 1988; the context of a “community of place” such as a
Ritzer 1996). neighborhood, city, or town. It can also occur in
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SEVEN THEORIES FOR SEVEN COMMUNITY DEVELOPERS 23
the context of a “community of interest” such as a intended to build capacity, which makes it different
breast cancer survivors’ group, an environmental from other helping professions. Community
organization, or any group that wants to address developers build the capacity of a people when
a particular issue. Bhattacharyya contends that they encourage or teach others to create their own
creating agency gives people the capacity to dreams, and to learn new skills and knowledge.
order their world. According to Giddens, agency Agency or capacity building occurs when practi-
is “the capacity to intervene in the world, or to tioners assist or initiate community reflection on
refrain from intervention, with the effect of influ- the lessons its members have learned from their
encing a process or the state of affairs” (1984: actions. Agency is about building the capacity to
14). There are complex forces that work against understand, create and act, and reflect.
agency. However, community development is
BOX 2.1 THEORY TO INFORM ACTION

As Green (2008: 50) explains:
If it is to be used in informing practice, theory must help us to interpret and understand the world.
Community theory may benefit from directing more attention to the work that people collectively do to
shape community life. As one step in this direction, models of community development practice should
be revisited to bring in and synthesize theory describing, interpreting, and understanding people’s
strategic action.
The Editors
Seven Key Concerns in the tionships, communicating for change, full partici-
Community Development Field pation, rational decision making, and integrating
micro and macro forces into their community
Following this definition of community devel- development insights.
opment, there are seven major concerns involving Relationships are linked to a sense of solidarity.
solidarity and agency building: (1) relationships, How critical are trust and reciprocity in the
(2) structure, (3) power, (4) shared meaning, (5) community development process? What is
communication for change, (6) motivations for essential to know about relationship building?
decision making, and (7) integration of these Structure refers to social practices, organizations,
disparate concerns and paradoxes within the or groups that play a role in solidarity and
field. Horton (1992) shared similar concerns capacity building. It also refers to the relationships
about African-American approaches to community among them. Some of these social practices and
development. He emphasized historic power organizations may have a limited role. Therefore,
differences and the influence of culture and black to establish solidarity, new organizations may
community institutions in his black community need to be built and/or existing ones could
development model. Chaskin et al. (2001) focused expand their missions.
on neighborhood and other structures and Power refers to relationships with those who
networks in their work on capacity building. Littrell control resources, such as land, labor, capital,
and Littrell (2006), Green and Haines (2002), and knowledge, or those who have greater access
and Pigg (2002) all wove concerns about rela- to those resources than others. Since community
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24 RONALD J. HUSTEDDE
development is about building the capacity for through all the policies to decide which will
social and economic change, the concept of maximize individual and collective needs. Who is
power is essential. Shared meaning refers to more likely to win or lose if a public policy is
social meaning, especially symbols, that people implemented? What are the potential conse-
give to a place, physical things, behavior, events, quences on other aspects of life if the policy is
or action. In essence, solidarity must be built carried out? Essentially, the process of making
within a cultural context. Individuals and groups rational choices can be nurtured as a form of
give different meanings to objects, deeds, and capacity building. The integration of paradox and
matters. For example, one community might see disparate macro and micro concerns are part of
the construction of an industrial plant as an community development practice. How does one
excellent way to bring prosperity to their town, reconcile concerns about relationships, power,
while another community might see a similar structure, shared meaning, communication for
construction as the destruction of their quality of change, and motivational decision making? Is
life. Community developers need to pay attention there a theory that ties some of these economic,
to these meanings if they wish to build a sense of political and sociological concerns together?
solidarity in a particular community or between These seven concerns form the basis for essential
communities. It is important to understand the community development theory: social capital
conceptual underpinnings and models of the theory, functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic
context of power in communities, especially to interactionism, communicative action theory,
increase the likelihood of desirable community- rational choice theory, and Giddens’ structuration
level outcomes (Brennan et al. 2013). theory. Table 2.1 lists these concerns and theories.
Communication for change is linked to the Each of these seven theoretical perspectives will
concept of full participation, a consistent value in be examined and considered as to how they can
the community development literature. Within a be applied to community development practice.
framework often dominated by technicians, the
corporate sector, or national political constraints,
practitioners raise questions about how the voice 1 Concerns about Relationships:
of citizens can be heard at all. Motivation can Social Capital Theory
influence many aspects of community devel-
opment. It helps us understand whether people Community developers inherently know that the
will or will not become involved in a community quality of social relationships is essential for
initiative. It also affects making difficult public solidarity building and successful community initi-
choices, a process which usually involves thinking atives. Friendships, trust, and the willingness to
Q Table 2.1 Concerns and Related Theories
Concern Related theory
1 Relationships Social capital theory

2 Structure Functionalism
3 Power Conflict theory
4 Shared meaning Symbolic interactionism

5 Communication for change Communicative action
6 Motivations for decision making Rational choice theory
7 Integration of disparate concerns/paradoxes Giddens’ structuration
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share some resources are integral to collective are linked too closely with “communities of place”
action. Community developers intuitively build on because memberships in organizations such as
these relationships. Social scientists view these rela- the Sierra Club and other groups have increased
tionships as a form of capital. Social capital is that significantly. They have also asserted that commu-
set of resources intrinsic to social relations and nities with strong social capital can also breed
includes trust, norms, and networks. It is often corre- intolerance and smugness. They have distin-
lated with confidence in public institutions, civic guished between “bonding social capital” and
engagement, self-reliant economic development, “bridging social capital.” They contend a mafia
and overall community well-being and happiness. group or the Klu Klux Klan may have strong
Trust is part of everyday relationships. Most bonding social capital, but it does not build any
people trust that banks will not steal their accounts new bridges that can expand horizons, provide
or that when they purchase a pound of meat from new ideas, or generate wealth. They suggest
the grocer, it will not actually weigh less. Life can focusing more on “bridging social capital”—the
be richer if there is trust among neighbors and formation of new social ties and relationships to
others in the public and private sectors. Think of expand networks and to provide a broader set of
settings where corruption, indifference, and open new leaders with fresh ideas and information. For
distrust might inhibit common transactions and example, some communities have created stronger
the sense of the common good. Equality is links between African-American and Caucasian
considered to be an important cultural norm that faith-based communities or established leadership
is high in social capital because it reaches across programs that nurture emerging and diverse
political, economic, and cultural divisions. Reci- groups of leaders. These activities both create
procity is another cultural norm that is viewed as new community linkages to broader resource
part of social capital. It should not be confused bases and build new levels of trust, reciprocity,
with a quid pro quo economic transaction; it is and other shared norms.
much broader than the concept of “I’ll scratch
your back if you’ll scratch mine.” When indi-
How Can Social Capital Theory Serve as a
viduals, organizations, or communities provide
Guide for Community Development Practice?
food banks, scholarship funds, low-cost homes—
or other forms of self-help, mutual aid, or Community developers can integrate social capital
emotional support—it stimulates a climate of reci- theory into their initiatives. In some cases, they will
procity in which the recipients are more likely to find communities which have relatively low levels
give back to the community in some form. A of social capital. In such cases, they may have to
culture with high levels of reciprocity encourages begin by nurturing “bonding social capital”
more pluralistic politics and compromise which through sharing food and drink, celebrations,
can make it easier for community development storytelling, dance, or public art. They will have to
initiatives to emerge. create opportunities for people to get to know
Putnam (1993, 2000) has argued that social each other and build new levels of trust through
capital has declined in the United States since the shared interests including music, book clubs,
1990s. Social capital indicators have included games, or other pursuits.
voter turnout, participation in local organizations, In other cases, communities may have strong
concert attendance, or hosting others for dinner at bonding social capital but really need “bridging
one’s home. Suburban sprawl, increased mobility, social capital” if they are going to prosper and
increased participation of women in the labor increase their quality of life. Take the case of
force, and television are among the reasons given tobacco-dependent counties in rural Kentucky that
for this decline. Some critics claim the indicators have limited communications with sister counties
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to build new regional initiatives such as agricul- those involved with the growth machine or real
tural and ecological tourism. The Kentucky Entre- estate developers.
preneurial Coaches Institute was created to build Functionalists such as Parsons argue that struc-
a new team of entrepreneurial leaders through a tures often contribute to their own maintenance, not
mutually supportive network and linkages with the particularly to a greater societal good. Concern for
“best and brightest in rural entrepreneurship” from order and stability also leads functionalists to focus
around the world, nation, and region (Hustedde on social change and its sources. They view conflict
2006). Social capital was built through the mutual and stability as two sides of the same coin. If a
support of multi-county mini-grant ventures community development practitioner wants to build
consisting of international and domestic travel community capacity, he or she will have to pay
seminars in which participants shared rooms, attention to the organizational capacity for stimu-
buses, seminars, and programs. These activities lating or inhibiting change. Structural functionalism
led to new forms of bonding and bridging social helps one to understand how the status quo is main-
capital which stimulated not only entrepreneurship tained. Some critics claim that the theory fails to
but an entrepreneurial culture. offer much insight into change, social dynamics, or
existing structures (Collins 1988; Ritzer 1996;
Turner 1998).
2 Concerns about Structure: Functionalism
How Can Structural Functionalism Guide

Second, it is important to look at structure, which
Community Development Practice?
underlies organizational and group capacity to
bring about or stop change. In essence, structure is Structural functionalism is a useful tool for
related to Giddens’ concept of agency or capacity practitioners. Looking at the case of an inner city
building. The theoretical concept concerned with neighborhood that is struggling to create a micro-
structure is known as structural functionalism. It is enterprise business that will benefit local people, if
also called systems theory, equilibrium theory, or one applied structural functionalism to community
simply functionalism. According to this theoretical development practice, one would help the com-
framework, societies contain certain interdependent munity analyze which organizations are committed
structures, each of which performs certain functions to training, nurturing, and financing microenterprise
for societal maintenance. Structures refer to organi- development and what their latent or hidden func-
zations and institutions such as health care, educa- tions might be. A functionalist-oriented practitioner
tional entities, business and nonprofits, or informal is more likely to notice dysfunctions in organiza-
groups. Functions refer to their purposes, missions, tions. If existing organizations are not meeting local
and what they do in society. These structures form needs in this area, the functionalist would build
the basis of a social system. Talcott Parsons and community capacity by transforming an existing
Robert K. Merton are the specialists most often organization to meet the same concerns. A function-
associated with this theory. According to Merton alist would also want to build links with broader
(1968), social systems have manifest and latent social systems, such as external organizations, that
functions. Manifest functions are intentional and could help the community’s micro-entrepreneurs to
recognized. In contrast, latent functions may be flourish. In essence, a functionalist would see struc-
unintentional and unrecognized. For example, it tures as important components of capacity building.
could be argued that the manifest function of urban While structural functionalism is an important tool
planning is to assure well-organized and efficiently for community development, it is limited because it
functioning cities, whereas the latent function is to does not fully explore the issue of power that can be
allocate advantages to certain interests such as found in other theories.
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BOX 2.2 SOCIAL JUSTICE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN A CHANGING WORLD

There are many ways of thinking about social justice in the contemporary world. For philosophers, social
justice represents a normative ideal concerning the society and polity we should strive to achieve. In both
eastern and western traditions, philosophers as varied as the Chinese confucian Mencius (1966) and
classical Greek scholar Plato (1894/2000) have associated justice with ideal properties that should be
sought in the relationship between the governed and those who govern. In more modern times, the concept
of social justice has been linked to liberal notions of fairness and thus a desired future rooted in principles of
desert, need, and equality (Miller 1999) in which the procedure for distributing benefits and burdens
throughout society is based on the arrangement of social and economic inequalities so that it provides the
greatest benefit to the least advantaged (Rawls 1971).
For social scientists, the study of social justice focuses less on aspirational ideals than on legacies of past
injustices. Sociologist Avery Gordon (2008), for example, reminds us that the pursuit of social justice requires
the recognition of shadowy historical forces of injustice, such as the experience of slavery, and the complex
ways in which these experiences continue to impact contemporary life. By examining the cultural, economic,
and political forces that have contributed to these injustices, we are better able to understand how and why
they occurred and thus take steps to minimize if not prevent unjust actions, processes, and outcomes yet to
come.
For activists engaged in organizations and movements pursuing social change, social justice represents
the intertwining of theory and praxis as a foundation for transforming the status quo through the active pursuit
of a more fully representative society. Grounded in the notion of fundamental human rights, mutual
interdependence, and a commitment to the power of human agency, social justice provides a basis for action
whose legitimacy is derived in large part from its universal appeal (Shaw 2001). Tapping a set of values that
transcend political ideology, economic class, and cultural cleavages created by gender, ethnicity, and race,
it provides a framework for uniting and mobilizing disparate interests into a common cause.
The Intersection of Social and Economic Justice with Community Development
Interdisciplinary research focusing on the intersection of social and economic justice and community
development bridge knowledge domains across multiple levels of analysis, from global governance and
national policies and programs to local community and neighborhood initiatives and projects. Though often
focused on processes of change, analytically this research is rooted in a broader critique of the economic,
political, and/or cultural systems and conditions in which social interactions are embedded. Consequently,
it raises questions and exposes dilemmas often ignored and/or overlooked by mainstream disciplinary
approaches, such as why and how income inequality and racial hierarchy persist and how they impact
community development in specific contexts around the globe.
Rooted in a concern for communities’ most vulnerable populations, much of the theoretical work related to
social justice and community development seeks to illuminate the ways in which social stratification and
disparities in economic and political power become engrained in cultural and institutional arrangements,
thus accounting for the persistence of social and economic injustice over time. Antonio Gramsci (1971), for
example, underscores the critical role that cultural hegemony plays in enabling those with power in a society
to maintain their dominance by normalizing and naturalizing their values, interests, norms, and ideologies
thus making them appear commonsensical even to those that may be harmed by them. In her exploration of
the tension between universal ideals and individual and group interest, Iris Marion Young (1990), a prominent
theorist of justice, exposes the myriad ways in which the “five faces of oppression”—exploitation,
marginalization, powerlessness, cultural imperialism, and violence/harassment—block effective group
representation in the democratic process. Focusing to how oppression becomes embedded in the U.S.
criminal justice system, scholar-activist Angela Davis (2003) highlights the ways in which low-income and
minority communities are adversely and unjustly impacted by practices embedded in the penal system.
Connecting local issues and problems to a broader range of experiences and perspectives regarding the
causes and consequences of social and economic (in)justice, brings academics, practitioners, and community
activists together to tackle a wide variety of social justice issues that impact community development. These
include voter suppression, predatory lending, racial profiling, and residential segregation to name but a few.
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As social justice workers, practitioners, academics, and activists function as public intellectuals who expose
and directly challenge the types of oppressive ideologies and practices that perpetuate injustice. They do this
in several different ways.
First, they raise awareness, educating students, policy makers, and community members about the causes
and consequences of (in)justice both formally through courses, papers, and reports and more informally
through participation in community and workplace forums, rallies, and events. In so doing they bring
otherwise disparate individuals and organizations together in a potentially transformative dialogue focused
on finding ways to minimize if not overcome barriers to greater equity and inclusiveness.
Second, they help to organize and mobilize political opposition to the legal and social institutions,
practices and processes, which undermine social injustice. This is exemplified in both the Civil Rights and
Welfare Rights movements of the 1960s, which challenged segregation, racial discrimination, and inequity
by means of nonviolent protest and political and social pressure to extend basic human and social rights.
More recently, the immigrants’ rights movement and the Human Rights Campaign have worked to organize
broad-based coalitions to pursue changes in the law in support of the rights of undocumented workers and
immigrant and LGBT families.
Third, social justice workers seek to give both individuals and groups that have been excluded and/or
marginalized greater voice, thereby helping to empower them as potential agents of change within their own
communities. This is demonstrated in the contemporary era through an explosion of movements and projects
aimed at improving social and economic conditions by fostering social innovation and participatory
governance. Long engaged in the process of catalyzing solidaristic enterprises rooted in the needs of local
communities, the cooperative movement is at the forefront of promoting economic self-sufficiency,
empowerment, and cultural integration—themes of particular interest to members of marginalized communities
(Gonzales and Phillips 2013). By sharing costs, spreading out risk, and promoting internal and external
mutuality, cooperatives allow small producers and socially and environmentally conscious consumers to
respond to the needs of the community while competing effectively in the capitalist marketplace (Briscoe and
Ward, 2005; Fairbairn, 2003). Guided by a clear set of values such as democratic control and concern for
community, which are enshrined in cooperative principles established by the International Cooperative
Association (ICA), both ideationally and pragmatically, cooperatives offer a promising structure for poverty
reduction (Bendick and Egan, 1995), the development of sustainable food systems (Ward, 2005) and
refugee resettlement (Gonzales et al., 2013). Examples of other types of models and projects linked to the
so-called social solidarity economy (Fonteneau et al., 2011) include tenant-managed public housing,
community-owned alternative energy production, participatory budgeting and a variety of other programs
that bring together elected officials, public agencies, and local residents in partnerships that democratize the
ownership and management of community assets.
In the areas of community and cooperative development, social justice organizations and movements draw
from various approaches and traditions to emphasize social inclusion, democratic participation, and a more
equitable distribution of both material and non-material goods. While various groups define social justice in
distinctive ways depending on the particular political and social traditions they draw from, promoting social
justice within the process of community development entails a recognition and support for human interconnection
and social solidarity in the pursuit of a better world (see Adams et al., 2007).
Vanna Gonzales, Ph.D.
Director, Certificate in Economic Justice, Faculty of Justice and Social Inquiry-School
of Social Transformation, Arizona State University, USA.
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in low-opportunity communities. Journal of Community Practice, 2(1): 61–85.
Briscoe, R. & Ward, M. (2005). What co-ops have in common. In R. Briscoe & M. Ward (Eds.), Helping ourselves:
Success stories in co-operative business and social enterprise. Cork, Ireland: Oak Tree Press.
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3 Concerns about Power: Conflict Theory organizations and institutions of civil society and
to interpersonal relations.
Power is the third key issue for community devel- Wallerstein (1984) applied Marxist theory to
opment. Power is control or access to resources understand the expansion of capitalism to a
(land, labor, capital, and knowledge). Since globalized system which needs to continually
community development builds capacity, concerns expand its boundaries. “Political states,” such as
about power are pivotal. Insights into power tend Japan, the UK, the European Union, and the US,
to be found in political science or political soci- are among the core developed states based on
ology. More contemporary theorists have added higher-level skills and capitalization. These states
to the richness of the literature. In his later writings, dominate the peripheral areas such that weak
Foucault (1985) argued that where there is power states are economically dependent on the “core.”
there is resistance. He examines the struggles The low-technology states form a buffer zone to
against the power of men over women, adminis- prevent outright conflict between the core and the
tration over the ways people live, and of psychiatry periphery. Some have applied Wallerstein’s world
over the mentally ill. He sees power as a feature of system theory to regional economics, with places
all human relations (Foucault, 1965, 1975, 1979, like Appalachia serving as a “periphery” to global
1980, 1985; Nash, 2000). Power has fluidity in market forces. Mills (1959), one of the earliest
the sense that it can be reversed and exists in American conflict theorists, examined some of the
different degrees. Beyond conventional politics at key themes in post-World War II American politics.
the state level, Foucault’s focus extends to the He argued that a small handful of individuals from
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major corporations, federal government, and the potential for conflict is not intended to be
military were influencing major decisions. He exhaustive. Instead, it points to some of the major
believed this triumvirate shared similar interests and concerns that can guide community development
often acted in unison. Mills’ research on power and practice.
authority still influences theories on power and
politics today. However, Mills also had critics such
How Can Conflict Theory Serve as a Guide for
as Dahl (1971), who believed that power was
more diffused among contending interest groups.
Galbraith (1971) asserted that technical bureau- Community organizers tend to more readily
crats behind the scenes had more power than those embrace conflict theory as a pivotal component of
in official positions. Neo-Marxists argued that Mills their work. However, it can be argued that
and Dahl focused too much on the role of individual community developers also need conflict theory if
actors. They believed that institutions permit the their goal is to build capacity. Power differences
exploitation of one class by another. They also are a reality of community life and need to be
posited that the state intervenes to correct the flaws considered as development occurs. Take the case
of capitalism and preserve the status quo, both of of an Appalachian community near a major state
which are in the institutions’ interests. forest. The state Department of Transportation
In summary, conflict theory suggests that conflict (DOT) wanted to build a highway through the
is an integral part of social life. There are conflicts state forest. They claimed it would lead to more
between economic classes, ethnic groups, young jobs and economic development. A group of local
and old, male and female, or among races. There citizens questioned this assumption. They believed
are conflicts among developed “core” countries the highway would pull businesses away from the
and regions and those that are less developed. It prosperous downtown area to the edge of town,
is argued these conflicts result because power, lead to sprawling development that would detract
wealth, and prestige are not available to everyone. from the quality of life, destroy a popular fishing
Some groups are excluded from dominant hole, and harm the integrity of the forest. The DOT
discourse. It is assumed that those who hold or refused to converse with the community; they
control desirable goods and services or who claimed the proposed highway’s economic
dominate culture will protect their own interests at benefits were irrefutable.
the expense of others. Conflict theorists such as Conflict theory served as a reference point for
Coser (1956), Dahrendorf (1959), and Simmel moving the community’s interests further. At first
(cited in Schellenberg, 1996) have looked at the glance, it appeared that the DOT was in charge of
integrative aspects of conflict and its value as a making the major decisions about the highway.
contributing force to order and stability. Conflict However, the community developer put conflict
can be constructive when it forces people with theory into practice. Community residents were
common interests to make gains to benefit them encouraged to analyze the power of the DOT as
all. Racial inequalities or other social problems well as its being their own political, technical,
would never be resolved to any degree without economic, and social power. Through its analysis,
conflict to disturb the status quo. Simmel discusses the group was expanded to include downtown
how conflict can be resolved in a variety of ways businesspeople, hunters, and environmental and
including disappearance of the conflict, victory for religious groups. In this particular case, the
one of the parties, compromise, conciliation, and community decided it needed more technical
irreconcilability (Schellenberg 1996). power. They were able to secure the services
This theoretical framework that underlies both of university researchers, such as economists,
the power of one party over another and the foresters, sociologists, and planners, who had the
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credentials to write an alternative impact assessment building solidarity (Collins 1988; Ritzer 1996;
of the proposed highway. This report was widely Turner 1998). This leads to another theoretical
circulated by the community to the media and framework about shared meaning.
prominent state legislators. Gradually, external
support (power) emerged to help the community
and the DOT decided to postpone the project. 4 Concerns about Shared Meaning:
In a similar situation, the use of conflict theory Symbolic Interactionism
took another twist. The opponents of a DOT-
proposed road sought a mediator/facilitator to Shared meaning is the fourth key concern in
help them negotiate with the DOT and other stake- community development. If the field is committed
holders. They believed a neutral third party could to building or strengthening solidarity, then practi-
create a safe climate for discussion, and that tioners must be concerned about the meaning that
during such discussions power differences would people give to places, people, and events. Herbert
be minimized. In this particular case, their use of Blumer (1969) named the theory “symbolic inter-
conflict theory paid off because the dispute was actionism” because it emphasizes the symbolic
settled to everyone’s satisfaction. nature of human interaction rather than a
In summary, community developers need mechanical pattern of stimulus and interaction.
conflict theory because it helps them gain insight For symbolic interactionists, the meaning of a situ-
into why specific differences and competition ation is not fixed but is constructed by participants
have developed among groups and organizations as they anticipate the responses of others. Mead
in a community. It can help them to understand (1982) explored the importance of symbols, espe-
why some people are silent or have internalized cially language, in shaping the meaning of the
the values of elites even to their own disadvantage. one who makes the gesture as well as the one who
Practitioners and researchers can use Simmel’s receives it.
theory to see how people resolve their differences. Goffman (1959) argued that individuals “give”
Alternately, they can borrow from Marx and the and “give off” signs that provide information to
neo-Marxists to consider the sharp differences others on how to respond. There may be a “front”
between and among class economic interests, such as social status, clothing, gestures, or a
gender, race, and other concerns. physical setting. Individuals may conceal elements
Conflict theory can help communities under- of themselves that contradict general social values
stand the kind and extent of competing interests and present themselves to exemplify accredited
among groups. It also can shed light on the distri- values. Such encounters can be viewed as a form
bution of power, whether concentrated in the of drama in which the “audience” and “team
hands of a few or more broadly distributed. players” interact. In his last work, Goffman (1986)
Communities can also explore the use of conflict examined how individuals frame or interpret
to upset the status quo—whether through protests, events. His premise involves group or individual
economic boycotts, peaceful resistance, or other rules about what should be “pictured in the frame”
ranges of possibilities—especially if competing and what should be excluded. For example, a
groups or institutions refuse to change positions or community developer’s framework of a community
negotiate. event might exclude ideas such as “citizens are
While conflict theory is an essential tool for apathetic.” It will probably include shared “rules”
capacity building, it should be noted that critics such as “participation is important.” The emphasis
claim it is limited because it ignores the less contro- is on the active, interpretive, and constructive
versial and more orderly parts of society and does capacities of individuals in the creation of social
not help in understanding the role of symbols in reality. It assumes that social life is possible
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because people communicate through symbols. For example, take a case where some citizens
For example, when the traffic light is red, it means have expressed an interest in preserving the
stop; when the thumb is up, it means everything is farmland adjacent to the city, and have asked a
fine. Flora et al. (2000) investigated how two community developer for assistance. If one
opposing community narratives moved through employed a symbolic interactionist perspective,
the stages of frustration, confrontation, negoti- one would ask them what the presence of farmland
ation, and reconciliation. Their case study could means to them. One would link them with farmers
be viewed as the employment of social interac- and others to see if there were different or
tionism. They concluded that, among the symbols competing meanings. Participants would be asked
that humans use, language seems to be the most how they developed their meaning of farmland. A
important because it allows people to commu- symbolic interactionist wouldn’t ignore the concept
nicate and construct their version of reality. of power. Participants would be asked questions
Symbolic interactionists contend that people as to whose concept of farmland dominates public
interpret the world through symbols but stand back policy. Through the employment of symbolic inter-
and think of themselves as objects. action theory, a sense of solidarity could gradually
For example, a group of Native Americans be established in a community.
view a mountain as a sacred place for prayer and A symbolic interactionist would identify groups
healing and react negatively when someone tries that deviate from the dominant meaning of some-
to develop or alter access to it. Developers, thing and would engage them with other groups
foresters, tourism leaders, and others are likely to in order to move the community toward solidarity.
have other meanings for the mountain. Different Symbolic interactionists would also use symbols
individuals or groups attach a different meaning to build capacity. For example, a community
to a particular event. These interpretations are might choose to preserve a historic structure
likely to be viewed by others as a form of deviance because they believed it was beautiful, or explain
which may be accepted, rejected, or fought over. its importance in a labor, class, racial, or gender
Social interactionists argue that one way people struggle or some other interests. A community
build meaning is by observing what other people developer could augment their meaning with
do, by imitating them, and following their data about the historical and architectural signif-
guidance. icance that external agents see in the structure.
Community capacity could be built in other ways
such as providing information about tax credits
How Can Symbolic Interactionism Serve as a Tool
for historic structures or how to locate grants
for Community Development Practice?
for preservation. Increasingly, community devel-
Symbolic interactionism is essential for community opment researchers and practitioners are asked
development because it provides insight into the to help citizens reflect and understand the
ways people develop a sense of shared meaning, meaning of their work. The symbolic interac-
an essential ingredient for solidarity. When a tionist concepts can be used to aid in collective
community developer helps a community develop evaluations. Essentially, it all boils down to what
a shared vision of their future, she is helping them it means and who gives it meaning.
build a sense of unity. A community-owned vision Symbolic interactionists probe into the factors
comes about through the interaction of people that help people understand what they say and do
and is related through pictorial, verbal, or musical by looking at the origins of symbolic meanings
symbols. A symbolic interactionist would be keen and how meanings persist. Symbolic interac-
on bringing people together to develop a shared tionists are interested in the circumstances in which
understanding. people question, challenge, criticize, or recon-
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struct meanings. Critics argue that symbolic inter- Habermas argues that communicative action is
actionists do not have an established systematic shaped at the seam of a system and lifeworld.
framework for predicting which meanings will be Systems involve macroeconomic and political
generated, for determining how meanings persist, forces that shape housing, employment, racial,
or for understanding how they change. For and class divisions in a particular community.
example, say a group of Mexican workers and a Local politics are also influenced by federal and
poultry-processing firm move into a poor rural state laws, national party politics, and regulations.
community that was historically dominated by Although the system is embedded in language, it
Anglo-Saxon Protestants. The events may trigger is self-producing. Power and markets can be rela-
cooperation, goodwill, ambivalence, anger, fear, tively detached from community, family, and group
or defensiveness. The cast of characters involved values. At the same time, there is the world of
in these events may be endless. What has really everyday life or the lifeworld. Habermas views the
happened and whose interpretation captures the lifeworld as constituted of language and culture:
reality of the situation? Symbolic interactionists
have limited methodologies for answering such The lifeworld, is, so to speak, the transcen-
questions. In spite of these limitations, it is hoped dental site where speaker and hearer meet,
that a strong case has been made as to why where they reciprocally raise claim that their
symbolic interactionism is an essential theory for utterances fit the world . . . and where they
community development practice. can criticize and confirm those validity claims,
settle their disagreements and arrive at agree-
ments.
5 Communication for Change: (1987: 126)
Communicative Action Theory
Habermas is concerned about the domination and
It is safe to assume that community development rationalization of the lifeworld, in which science
occurs within the context of democracy that is and technology are the modi operandi to address
deliberative and participatory. Public talk is not complex public issues. He believes that science
simply talk; it is essential for democratic partici- and technology maintain the illusion of being
pation. It is about thinking through public policy value-free and inherently rational. In practical
choices. Deliberation occurs when the public terms, citizens find it difficult to engage in dialogue
examines the impacts of potential choices and with “more rational” scientists, engineers, or
tries them on, just as one might try on clothing in political and corporate elites. The problem is
a department store before making a choice. In compounded when there is technical arrogance
such settings, public talk involves rich discussions or limited receptivity to local voices. For example,
among a variety of networks. From the community many local newspapers and television stations are
development perspective, participation occurs in corporately owned. It is therefore difficult to hear
a setting where a diversity of voices are heard in local voices, for they are filtered through more
order to explore problems, test solutions, and dominant perspectives. Habermas is concerned
make changes to policies when the community about the colonization of the lifeworld of culture
finds flaws. Communities with robust democratic and language, a colonization that reduces people
networks can be viewed as communicatively inte- to the status of things. He also argues that tech-
grated (Friedland, 2001). This type of integration nical knowledge is not sufficient for democratic
involves the communicative activities that link indi- settings in which community developers work. It
viduals, networks, and institutions into a community must be balanced by hermeneutic knowledge
of place or interest. which he calls “practical interests.” Hermeneutics
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deals with the interpretation of technical tuals. He and has been a powerful influence on
knowledge and what it means for an individual, the formation of social democracies in Germany
his or her family, or community. It is action oriented and the rest of Europe. “Communicative action”
and involves mutual self-understanding. describes the seam where monetary and bureau-
The third dimension of knowledge is emanci- cratic structures meet the lifeworld. This emphasis
patory. It regards the liberation of the self-con- on reason, unfettered public discussion, and the
scious and transcends and synthesizes the other potential for common ground provide an essential
two dimensions of knowledge. While science and theory for community development practice in its
technology may help liberation, they can also concern for process.
suffocate it. Emancipatory knowledge incorpo-
rates both technical and hermeneutic knowledge
How Can Communicative Action Theory Guide
into a fresh perspective and outlook that leads to
action.
In essence, Habermas’ theory of communicative By its very nature, community development involves
action is that it builds a linkage between the the participation of networks, groups, and indi-
“rational” system and the lifeworld. His commu- viduals whose voices are part of the lifeworld.
nicative action theory and political objective are While this lifeworld operates within the context of
based on free, open, and unlimited communi- technical, political, and market realities, it should
cation. It should be noted that Habermas grew up be noted that the principles of community devel-
in Nazi Germany and his focus on reason could opment entail participation of citizens in defining
be viewed as a response to the unreason of the their own problems and dreams. If technicians or
Holocaust. At the same time, unlimited public talk political and corporate interests dominate discus-
could be seen as reaction to the curtailment of sions, citizen involvement and participation
intellectual freedom and public dialogue during becomes a mere afterthought. If technical know-
the Hitler years. Habermas’ insights about ledge is discarded or minimized, community devel-
communicative action theory, and his emphasis on opment efforts may not be successful. Habermas’
reason and unrestrained public talk are viewed by communicative action theory is guided by the inter-
some critics as utopian liberal ideals in which section of technical and corporate knowledge with
people talk their ideas to death. Others assert that local and practical knowledge. Combined, they
universal principles of justice and democracy can lead to a new kind of “emancipatory
have been replaced by relativistic and egocentric knowledge” that offers fresh ideas and action.
perspectives. They assert that “reason” is a There are many ways for community developers
rationale for the powerful to suppress others. to carry out Habermas’ communicative action
While Habermas emphasizes the potential to theory. For example, the National Issues Forums
reach common ground, his detractors claim that are held in many communities wherein individuals,
common ground is not possible and that there is networks, and groups explore public issues
nothing wrong with competition between groups. through the perspective of several public policy
They say he is merely moralizing and that commu- choices. Rather than choose sides, these forums
nicative action theory is a hodgepodge of ideas are designed for the participants to examine the
gathered from the Enlightenment, Karl Marx, Max applicability, strengths, limitations, and values of
Weber, and others. each choice. National Issues Forums are conscious
On the other hand, it should also be asserted acts of deliberation that make it easier for the
that Habermas is continually expanding his system and the lifeworld to interact.
perceptions and that, in spite of these criticisms, In another community development case, an
he is one of the world’s leading public intellec- Appalachian Cancer Network was developed by
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homemakers and health-care professionals to deal because they could pursue these goods whether
with high rates of breast and cervical cancer in that they were active or not. He believed that collective
region. The health-care leaders were tempted to tell behavior could be expected under two conditions:
the homemakers what to do. However, the (1) selective incentives—such as increased stature
community developers who guided this initiative in the community, tax breaks, or other benefits—
did not begin with technical knowledge. They could increase the rewards of those engaging in
started with storytelling in which technical and lay collective action, and (2) the threat of sanctions
participants responded to the questions: Have you against those who fail to participate.
or a family member ever been touched by cancer In recent years, social scientists have explored
or another serious illness? If so, what happened? how four structural factors relate to individual
The stories that emerged told of triumph, heartache, participation in collective activities. One is prior
loss, and anger. The next set of questions was: contact with a group member because it is easier to
What do our stories have in common? What should recruit through interpersonal channels. A second is
we do, if anything, about our common issues? prior membership in organizations due to the like-
Eventually, the community development prin- lihood that those who are already active may join
ciples of full participation were carried out. The other groups and, conversely, isolated individuals
network acted in ways that brought out technical, may perceive joining as a type of risk. The second
practical, and emancipatory knowledge. That is, is a history of prior activism because those with
new ideas and action emerged from this initiative previous experience are more likely to reinforce
that would have been impossible if technicians or their identity through new forms of activism. The
lay leaders had acted independently. fourth factor is biographical availability, which
pulls people toward and away from social move-
ments. For example, full-time employment,
6 Motivation for Decision Making: Rational marriage, and family responsibilities may increase
Choice Theory the risks and costs of becoming involved.
Conversely, those who are free of personal
The rational economic man model was proposed constraints may be more likely to join. There is
by Alfred Marshall (1895). He believed that some empirical evidence that students and auton-
humans were interested in maximizing their utility, omous professionals may be more likely to join
happiness, or profits. The rational man would inves- social movements (McAdam et al., 1988).
tigate each alternative and choose that which Critics of rational choice theory have argued that
would best suit his individual needs. While Marshall actors do not have equal access to information or
recognized that irrational decisions were made, he that information is distorted. Others assert that
believed that the overwhelming number of decision many people’s choices are limited by social,
makers would operate in a maximizing fashion political, and economic interests and values, which
and cancel out irrational actions. Marshall assumed limits their participation in rational choice making.
all the relevant information was available to the
economic man and that he could understand the
How Can Rational Choice Theory Serve as a Guide
consequences of his choices. The focus was on the
for Community Development Practice?
individual rather than the collective. Rational choice
theory has several embellishments and spinoffs Community developers know that while people
from various social scientists. For example, Mancur may have altruistic concerns, they also have their
Olson (1965) explored whether rational calcu- own needs and make choices about how to invest
lation would lead a few individuals to pursue their time. There have been many creative
collective action as a way to obtain public goods responses to rational choice theory. For example,
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the Cooperative Extension Service Master essential concepts for building community
Gardener Program offers free horticultural training capacity. The fluid contemporary theories of social
but participants must volunteer hours back to the capital, communicative action, and the classical
community in order to receive the training. Lead- theory of symbolic interactionism are important for
ership programs have popped up in many commu- creating or strengthening solidarity. There are
nities where participants gain the advantage of obvious tensions inherent in these theories. The
expanding their network and knowledge bases. dualism of macro versus micro characterizes much
Their positive experience in meeting and working of the theoretical thinking in sociology. Sharing
with others in collective settings leads to a greater the same goal of picturing social reality, these
openness and involvement. schools choose to proceed from opposite direc-
When applied to community development, tions. The macro-thinkers attempt to draw a holistic
rational choice theory is concerned with finding picture and lay down the works of society, whereas
appropriate rewards and minimizing risks to indi- the micro-theorists hope to arrive at the same
viduals who become involved in community initia- results by scrutinizing what happens “in” and
tives. Such rewards might be as simple as free “between” individual people. Neither approach is
babysitting services or an awards and recognition entirely successful in producing a complete and
banquet. Both examples would facilitate people’s exhaustive picture for community development
choices to invest their time or money in community practice. In a more recent development, efforts
development efforts. In other situations, there is a have been made at a “microtranslation,” which
tendency toward misinformation, misunder- seeks to visualize social reality as composed of
standing, competing sets of data, or different inter- individuals interacting with one another to form
pretations of the same data. Any or all of these “larger interaction ritual chains” (Collins 1988).
make it difficult to reach common ground and However, recent theory also recognizes that
establish solidarity. In such cases, community devel- social agency itself, pointed out above as a key
opers can find new ways to gather data, interpret concern for community development, needs to be
information, or glean new information from mutually theoretically addressed. This must be done in a
respected third party sources. It should be asserted way that transcends both the established orienta-
that in many settings universities are no longer tions in modern social theory and the whole
viewed as neutral or objective. They may be macro–micro split. In his structuration theory,
perceived as instruments of the state, the corporate Anthony Giddens (1984, 1989) offers a
sector, or a particular political or economic interest. perspective that is more fluid and process oriented.
One of the limitations of rational choice theory is He introduces a third dimension, or an “in-be-
that it can be implemented by technicians, the tween” level of analysis, which is neither macro
corporate sector, and bureaucracies in ways that nor micro. It has to do with cultural traditions,
can overwhelm and silence citizens who may not beliefs, and societal norms, and how actors draw
understand such knowledge. Habermas’ theory of upon those in their behavior (Collins 1988: 399).
communicative action can provide a counter- For Giddens, those normative patterns of society
balance to such shortcomings. exist “outside of time and space” (Collins, 1988:
398–399), meaning they are neither properties of
the empirical social system nor of the individual
7 Integration of Disparate Concerns and actors. Their actuality consists in the moments
Paradigms: Giddens’ Structuration Theory when individuals’ behaviors rise to that level of
society’s traditions and norms. People also draw
The classical theories of structural functionalism, and act upon thought patterns or cultural “molds”;
conflict theory, and rational choice theory are for example, the classical notion of reciprocity—
Account: s7246381
getting one thing in return for something else. Giddens’ concept of modalities is the link between
Cultural traditions and patterns become modalities macro- and micro-theories. Modalities are part of
by virtue of placing them on Giddens’ analytical the analytical scheme in a particular place. For
scheme. They represent a third level, that between example, individualism in the United States is a
individualistic behavior and the macro-structures. strong modality and can keep citizens from united
Even though the reality of modalities may be only action. The notion of the common good is another
momentary, when people actually rise to them in American modality which can be used to transform
their behavior, then the social process and the role a divided community into one with a greater sense
of culture and normative patterns can be better of solidarity. Modalities can be used to influence
visualized. “Actors draw upon the modalities of the macro or micro level of social change. There
structuration in reproduction of systems of inter- are several substantive analyses looking at cultural
action” (Giddens, 1984: 28). Social structure is patterns and systems of ideas and how they
upheld and existing divisions of society carry on mediate the social process. In these analyses,
through these “mental molds.” social processing and the dynamics of social
The laying out of society on the six above- transformation are at least partly carried out on
mentioned levels—social capital theory, function- the level of modalities. Gaventa (1980) examines
alism, conflict, symbolic interactionism, commu- the modalities of Appalachia with a focus on
nicative action theory, and rational choice rebellion and quiescence. He analyzes how
theory—reflects a fluid process in which all levels power is used in the region to prevent or implement
interact. Individuals represent the agency whereby decisions. The use of force and threat of sanctions
interaction among different levels take place. are discussed along with less intrusive aspects
Coming back to the community development such as attitudes that are infused into the dominant
profession and its key concerns, Giddens’ model culture by elites and internalized by non-elites. For
is perhaps best suited to grasp how social agency example, there are perspectives such as “you
is exercised and solidarity established amid and can’t change anything around here” or “you don’t
often against the existing structural divisions of have to be poor if you want to really work.”
society. Behavior is neither haphazard nor merely Gaventa argues that there are other modalities in
a reflection of the existing social structure and its which Appalachian culture has resisted the pene-
divisions. Modalities represent the levels in which tration of dominant social values. Those with less
people establish solidarity by following the power can develop their own resources for
symbolic norms and patterns of their cultures and analyzing issues and can explore their grievances
traditions. openly. He views the “myth of American
Similarly, new rules of behavior also occur democracy” as another modality that can set the
through the medium of modalities, in this instance stage for greater openness and transparency in
their creative redefinition. This is how the existing local government.
divisions can be overcome and new bonds Staniszkis (1984) provides further insights
between people forged. For this to take place, about modalities through her ideas about how
genuine social creativity is necessary. This means workers’ solidarity emerged in Poland. She saw
that people come up with solutions and ideas that the working class under the communist regime as
simultaneously draw on the common reference a unified bloc, both in a positive hegemonic way
point of their cultural traditions and transcend and negatively, as subject to the party’s control
those traditions to establish new bonds and and manipulation. Solidarity and its charismatic
patterns of solidarity. Modalities serve not only as leader Lech Walesa transformed these modalities
the rules for the reproduction of the social system, with references to workers’ common identity, as
but for its transformation (Turner, 1998: 494). opposed to their identity with the Communist party
Account: s7246381

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Copyright © 2014. Routledge. All rights reserved.

• increased coverage of sustainability issues;

First published 2015

ISBN: 978-0-415-70356-7 (hbk)

List of Figures viii

1 A Framework for Community and Economic Development 3

2 Seven Theories for Seven Community Developers 22

3 Asset-Based Community Development 45

4 Social Capital and Community Building 57

5 Sustainability in Community Development 72

6 The “New” Local 89

7 Community Development Practice 103

8 Community Visioning and Strategic Planning 125

9 Establishing Community-Based Organizations 154

10 Leadership and Community Development 178

11 Community Development Assessments 190

12 Community Asset Mapping and Surveys 213

13 Understanding Community Economies 225

14 Human Capital and Workforce Development 241

15 Marketing the Community 256

16 Retaining and Expanding Existing Community Businesses 267

17 Entrepreneurship as a Community Development Strategy 278

18 Arts, Culture, and Community Development 295

19 Housing and Community Development 313

20 Neighborhood Planning for Community Development and Revitalization 324

21 Measuring Progress 345

22 Perspectives on Current Issues 363

23 Community-Based Energy 375

24 Community and Economic Development Finance 383

25 Conclusions and Observations on the Future of Community Development 398

1.1 Community Development Chain 9

2.1 Concerns and Related Theories 24

1.1 Evolution of Community Development 4

7.5 A Place-Based Community Economic Development Approach via the Resource

8.2The Civic Index: A Tool to Qualitatively Assess Civic Infrastructure 142

16.2 Can Potholes Cause Local Businesses to Relocate? 270

17.1 Two Ideas about Entrepreneurship 279

at Bank of America in Nashville in the Sociology at the University of Wisconsin–

on local governance and strategic planning.

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1 A Framework for Community

BOX 1.1 EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

BOX 1.2 THE UNDERREPRESENTED

The Mavis Staples video (www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZWdDI_fkns) dramatically captures the bravery of

Community Development community solve their problems by group

Capacity building Community

Developing the ability to act

Q Figure 1.1 Community Development Chain

BOX 1.3 COMMUNITY WELL-BEING: THE NEXT GENERATION FOR COMMUNITY

BOX 1.4 GROWTH VS. DEVELOPMENT

BOX 1.5 OSCEOLA, ARKANSAS: COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT TURNS A DECLINING

BOX 1.6 DIFFERENT DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Q Figure 1.2 Community and Economic Development Chain

CASE STUDY: VERMONT SUSTAINABLE JOBS FUND1

• solid waste and recycling technologies;

from Sustainable Communities, Creating a Durable Oaks, CA: Sage.

2 Seven Theories for Seven

Introduction: Why Theory? The starting point is to offer a deﬁnition of

BOX 2.1 THEORY TO INFORM ACTION

Q Table 2.1 Concerns and Related Theories

Concern Related theory

1 Relationships Social capital theory