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Lapita Burial Practices: Evidence for Complex Body and Bone Treatment at the Teouma
Cemetery, Vanuatu, Southwest Pacific

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DOI: 10.1080/15564891003648092

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Lapita Burial Practices: Evidence for Complex Body and Bone Treatment
at the Teouma Cemetery, Vanuatu, Southwest Pacific
Frédérique Valentin; Stuart Bedford ; Hallie R. Buckley ; Matthew Spriggs
a b c

a
Department of Archaeology and Natural History, College of Asia and the Pacific, The Australian
National University, Canberra, Australia Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, School of
b

Medical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand School of Archaeology and
c

Anthropology, College of Arts and Social Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra,
Australia

Online publication date: 02 September 2010

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Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 5: 2, 212 — 235
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 Journal of Island & Coastal Archaeology, 5:212–235, 2010 Copyright © 2010 Taylor & Francis
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ISSN: 1556-4894 print / 1556-1828 online
DOI: 10.1080/15564891003648092

SHORT REPORTS

Lapita Burial Practices: Evidence for

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Complex Body and Bone Treatment at

the Teouma Cemetery, Vanuatu,
Southwest Pacific
Fr´ erique Valentin, 1
Stuart Bedford, 2
Hallie R. Buckley, 3
and
Matthew
ed´ Spriggs 4

1
UMR 7041, CNRS, Nanterre, France
2
Department of Archaeology and Natural History, College of Asia and the Pacific,
The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
3
Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, School of Medical Sciences,
University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
4
School of Archaeology and Anthropology, College of Arts and Social Sciences,
The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

ABSTRACT

Excavation of the 3,000-year-old Lapita cemetery of Teouma (Efate, Central Vanuatu) has allowed
the first detailed investigation of mor- tuary practices of these initial colonizers of the Vanuatu
archipelago. Focusing on one component of funerary practice: the adult corpse and bone treatment of 25
mortuary contexts recovered at the site during excavations in 2004 and 2005, the present study
reveals that beyond a complex procedure common for all the deceased, there is marked diversity of
funerary behavior. Utilizing current knowledge and practice regarding the method of field anthropology
or archaeothanatology, including the chronology of joint disarticulation sequences, we were able to establish
the following practices: treatment of corpses by inhumation

ed´erique
Received 27 February 2009; accepted Valentin, UMR
14 September 2009.7041, CNRS,
Address Paris 1 and 10,
correspondence 21 All´
to Fr´ ee de L’Universit´ e,
Nanterre, F92023, France. E-mail: frederique.valentin@mae.u-paris10.fr

212
 Lapita Burial Practices

in a container—pit or wrappers—not immediately filled with sediment, followed by exhumation of the

skull and other bones of the upper part of the skeleton, and secondary deposition of bones,
including the cranium. The identified variations reflect particular attitudes toward human remains which
might be connected to the social position of the deceased and/or individual choice.

Keywords bioarchaeology, Lapita, mortuary behavior, Vanuatu

INTRODUCTION the sea, on the edge of an upraised former beach terrace

Stretching across the Pacific from the Bis- marck
Archipelago (PNG) to Samoa (Figure 1), the Lapita
Cultural Complex appears ataround 3350
cal BP in the west and 3000–2900 cal BP at its eastern
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limit (Burley 2007; Specht 2007). The signature distri-
bution of Lapita is characteristic dentate- stamped pottery that
eventually disappears fromthe archaeological
record between 2800 and 2500 BP (Bedford and Sand 2007).
Burial practices associated with the Lapita Cultural
Complex are poorly understood. They are documented so
far in only nine early sites with a limited number of funerary
features, and some in fact post-date the end of Lapita
pottery production (Table 1). Although hints of complex
mortuary behav- iors are reflected by some of the features,
the details and practices remain to be well defined.
This paper aims to make a twofold con- tribution toward
remedying this deficiency through: 1) characterizing the
corpse and bone treatment at the Lapita cemetery of Teouma
in Vanuatu (c. 3100–3000 cal BP, Bedford et al. 2006), the
earliest and largest of this period discovered to date; and 2) compar-
ing these practices to those from other burials
known from the Lapita Cultural Complex and immediately
succeeding cultures of the third millennium BP.
GENERAL SETTING OF THE LAPITA CEMETERY OF
TEOUMA
The Teouma cemetery, identified in 2004, is
situated on the south coast of Efate Island (Fig- ure 2). The site is
located on a cattle farm, in a quired excavation into the coral rubble beach surface and large
former coconut plantation, about 800 m from
and reef 8 m above sea level. At the time of Lapita settlement,
the site was located on a low promontory bounded by the
sea on its western side, a small stream along its northern margin
and uplifted limestone cliffs extending several hundred meters to
the east and south-east. The 48
funerary contexts numbered during three (2004–
2006) field seasons were uncovered in the former coral rubble
upper beach and from solution holes and the surface of the
uplifted karstic reef terrace covered by a layer of tephra just
prior to settlement by Lapita people.
That the burials are associated with a Lapita
community is clearly demonstrated by the presence of a range
of highly decorated Lapita pots (Bedford and
Spriggs 2007; Bedford et al. 2007), direct
dating of the skeletons themselves (Spriggs
et al. in preparation), and stratigraphic observations
showingthe subsequent sealing of the sepulchral horizon
by some 50 cm of midden deposits resulting from habitation
activities of the Early Erueti phase and dating to about 2800–
2500 BP. These occupation horizons werelater
covered by further tephra-rich non-cultural
deposits (Bedford et al. 2006). The Teouma burials were
not associated with a single event as indicated by the
breakage and scattering of pottery due to successive
mortuary activities at the site. The radio- carbon results
from direct dating of human
skeletal remains suggest that the site was used as a cemetery for
approximately a century.
The contrasting environmental situa- tions between
beach and reef flat at Teouma required somewhat different
grave prepara- tion and infilling. Graves in the beach area re-
coral boulders were placed over the top of the resulting
shallow grave

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 213

 Sex and age at
primary extended on back
death Treatment Bone inventory Articulation Deposition mode(Continued Body
on nextposition
page)

– female, adult secondary,

inhumation
delayed? skull, ribs, limb?bones ?
primary extended
articulated primary seated

articulated primary, double

burial

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inhumation 1 skeleton virtually complete

Table 1. Summary data on excavated Lapita-associated mortuary sites and features.
and parts of another 3 adults at least inhumation incomplete skeletons but
male, 30–40 years inhumation single skeleton virtually
feature partly damaged
complete?

1 – 3200–3300 BP 2 male adults,1and

male
adult a and
and 1 female
sub-adult
young child adults
bones
male adult and
adolescent

Current
chronological
attribution

Site∗ Feature 4 Taplin’s 2 5 WKO013B-

4 4 Taplin’s
Taplin’s 2 2 Taplin’s42
Erica
grave II grave III grave IV
grave I

214
 articulated? primary articulated primaryarticulated
sitting or squatting
articulated limbs extended,
primary primary
on articulated limb flexed,
limbonflexed,
back on back
primary limbs flexed, seated
back (Continued on next page).

primary ? primary primary ? ?

disarticulated ? in pile

disarticulated primary?

disturbed, some joints disturbed,disturbed,

some joints
some joints
articulated articulated
articulated

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7 SAC W3 2633 +/− 33 BP7 7SAC

male,
W6730–40
SAC W7
years
SAC W8 inhumation male,
all 30–35
segment
male,
years
of
mature
skeleton
male,adult
about
well
inh
represented
6 – c. 2700 BP 2 individuals cremation bone fragments from all
anatomical segments

215
 articulated
Sex and age at ? flexed, on right side
death Treatment Bone inventory Articulation Deposition mode Body position
primary head upright.

articulated, skull
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Table 1. Summary 6 September 2010
on excavated Lapita-associated mortuary sites and features. (Continued)
separated

male, 40–50 years

female, 40–60 inhumation
years
female, 35–45 yearsinhumation
single skeleton,
inhumation single
virtually
skeleton, virtually virtually
single skeleton
complete completecomplete

Current
chronological 9 – 2578 +/− 74 BP
attribution
(pooled date)

Site∗ Feature 5 WKO013B-

Anne

216
 Lapita Burial Practices

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Figure 1. Map of Southwest Pacific islands showing Lapita-associated funerary sites and the extent
of the Lapita Cultural Complex.

pits at the end of the mortuary ritual. The burials in voids in excavated. These can be subdivided into 29 discrete features
the uplifted reef were dug into an unweathered tephra. This as three of them include more than one mortuary
sediment was then placed back on top of the burials, making it deposit. One of these features (B26) is a possible
difficult and sometimes impossible to identify burial pits in the reef cremation that is described elsewhere (Scottet
area. al. 2010) while the 28 others are inhumations. Of these
A variety of “grave goods” were associ- ated with 28 features,three have yielded disturbed remains of
mortuary ritual at Teouma. Pots or parts of pots were perinates and 25 intact remains of adults that are the focus
regularly placed next to burials, unworked Geloina shells of the current mortuary study. These 25 features can be
and Conus shell rings were frequently associated with the further subdivided into 20 features containing articulated
deceased, and a tortoise carapace was placed over one burial. remains of one male or one female (Buckley et
Large boulders were placed over the top of several graves, al. 2008) and five collections of bones of one or
including flat, rectangular coral slabs that may have served as several individuals. Further publications will include the other
grave markers. The pottery may have served a similar purpose. recovered mortuary contexts while excavation is continuing.
The mortuary data collection protocol
MATERIAL AND METHODS followed the recommendations and terminol- ogy of Ubelaker
(1989, 2002) and Sprague (2005). This protocol does
not include systematic laboratory
The 2004–2005 excavations at the Teouma site numbered 26
observation of bone surface, including screening
mortuary contexts, two of which (B2 and B8) were not
for cutmarks
completely

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 217

 erique Valentin et al.
Fr´ed´

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Figure 2. The Vanuatu archipelago and Teouma site location.

and breakage, as recommended by Stod- der (2008). Instead it
concentrates on data collected in the field using
method- ology of field anthropology,
named archaeothanatology, elaborated by
Duday (1990, 2006; Duday and Guillon 2006; Duday et al.
1990; see also Willis and Tayles 2009 for an application to
Southeast Asian burial contexts).
This field methodology attempts to re- construct initial
burial situations, taking
count of subsequent taphonomic distortions. In this aim, two sets of
data were recorded for each feature: 1) the anatomical compo-
sition of the bone assemblage, and 2) the spatial
the distribution of the bones within the burial feature. Inventories of
also the bones were recorded in the field and checked in the
laboratory. The spatial distribution of the bone elements
in individual features was recorded using a
series of variables: 1) visible aspect of the bone in plan view; 2)
state of articulation of each joint (fully articulated, partially
articulated, disarticulated); 3) relo- cation of bone or body
ac- segment within the feature resulting from movement due to the
effect of gravity in an empty space or other factors; and 4)
delimitation and restraining

218 VOLUME 5 • ISSUE 2 • 2010

 Lapita Burial Practices

of joint disarticulation sequences (Duday 1990;

Maureille and Sellier 1996). Labile articulations
like those of the hand, toes, and scapulo-thorax
disarticulate before per- sistent articulations like those of the
lumbar vertebrae, sacro-iliac, knee, ankle, and tarsal
joints. Joints between the occipital portion of the skull and the first
cervical (atlas) vertebra, and between the first and the second
(axis) cervical vertebrae are amongst the
most persistent and tend to separate towards the end of the
decomposition process.

INTERPRETATION OF ANATOMICAL COMPOSITION

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DISTRIBUTION OF THE BONES WITHIN THE
FEATURES

Articulated Remains

Bone removal and incomplete inhu- mation.

The 20 features comprising bones
in articulation contained the remains of single skeletons, but
none were complete (Figure 4). In five cases (B1, 10E, 11, 12,
14), some ad- ditional bones representing other individuals were
also found with the articulated remains. The 20 bone
inventories, summarized in Figure 3,
show: 1) the constant presence of hip bones, lumbar
vertebrae, and thigh bones; 2) the absence of lower leg bones
in a few cases; 3) the absence of hand and foot elements in
various numbers in all cases; and 4) the general lack of bones of
the upper part of the skeleton. The inventories also indicate that
80% (16/20) of the burials contained isolated upper and
lower permanent, gener- ally single-rooted teeth (1 to 11 per
feature), 30% (6/20) included hyoid bones, and 90% (18/20)
hand bones. These data demonstrate the initial deposition, in
most cases, of more complete individuals, with forearms
being initially present in at least 18 burials and the head in 17. 1

Figure 3. Presence (in percentage) of skeletal elements in Similar patterns in all the features indi- cate that bone
20 funerary features containing articulated remains absence is not the result of natural disturbance, but due
from the Teouma Lapita cemetery. Of note is the to deliberate bone removal through human agency. This is
presence of a fragment of mandible in supported by: 1) the presence in most of the cases of teeth
association with B12.
and hand bones which

effects on the skeleton as would be caused by a container. Inventory

and spatial data were analyzed in referenceto the
anatomically normal skeleton in terms of the
number of bones and joint articulation, and to current
knowledge on the relative timing of body decomposition
and the chronological order

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 219

 erique Valentin et al.
Fr´ed´

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Figure 4. Examples of funerary features containing articulated remains from the Teouma Lapita
cemetery. Notice the residual condition of the skeleton and the diversity of position.

are susceptible, owing to their small size, to migrating down the the very incomplete, but partially articulated skeleton was found not
cracks and crevices in the reef on which much of the site is formed; in a cavity, but on the surface of the reef. It is likely that the
and 2) the absence of any trace of horizontal and vertical sorting by very residual condition of the skeleton is due, at least in part, to
density of artifacts and bones such as would be generated by moving disturbance of the upper part of the Lapita cemetery deposit by
water—a factor to be considered given the subsequent activity at the site. The presence of worn Lapita
proximity of the shoreline to some of the buri- als (Spennemann potsherds of the cemetery phase in the overlying Erueti
1992; Stojanowski 2002; Turnbaugh 1978). A possible midden dumping layer supports a hypothesis of a mixed
exception to this general pattern is burial B23 interface between the two phases of site use.
where

220 VOLUME 5 • ISSUE 2 • 2010

 Lapita Burial Practices

The pattern of missing bones (in terms of quantity and type) flexed forward (Figures 4b and 4e). In order to achieve this
may have been influenced by the level of decomposition of the position it would have been necessary to cut the tendons and
body. Indeed, the absence of the first cervical vertebra ligaments or to wrench the soft tissues after they
noticed in seven burials (B5A, 7, 9, 11, 15, 20) suggests the had started to decompose. Examination for cut marks on the
possible incidental removal of this vertebra with the skull. These distal ends of femurs, on proximal ends of tibiae, and on
same 7 skeletons are also missing more bones than the the patella of theses skeletons has proved
other 12, with some of them lacking even entire segments of the negative, but is not decisive as defleshing does not
skeleton. The most striking example is burial necessarily leave macroscopically observable traces (Lyman
B15, displaying the absence of the upper half of the skeleton, 1994). The question arises as to whether this flexion of the
with the exception of the vertebral column which is in perfect knees is a pre or post-inhumation operation. The presence of
articulation from the fifth (T5) thoracic vertebra down (Figure 4c). most of the foot bones together in the pelvic cavities
This suggests that some burials were revisited at an earlier in burials B4 and B6, and the prone
stage of decomposition position of burial B1 displaying the preservation of the
than others, when the body was only partially skeletonized. labile articulations of the upper thorax that usually disarticulate
Downloaded By: This Frédérique]
[Valentin, activity ofAt: bone
12:19 6removal
September resulted
2010 in incomplete before the knee and ankle joints are, together, clear indications of
inhumation and specific spatial manipulation at an early stage of body decomposition and
organization of the bones. While complicated by the absence of of a pre- interment manipulation of the legs.
some parts of the skeleton, analysis of the spatial Burials B11 and B20 represent other cases of
distribution of the bones identified the strict preservation body manipulation. Lying on the face, burial B11 presents
of articulation or general coherence between bones forming the the anatomically im- possible superimposition of two
labile joints of the hands or the feet in some cases (B5A, 7, 9, connected segments of the body: the right shoulder in anterior
12, 14, 16, 25). This observation indicates that the view is on the right lower limb in me- dial view. But whether
interment of these individuals had potentially taken place very soon this situation results from a pre- or post-inhumation
after death and before serious decomposition had manipulation is unclear. In burial B20, articulated segments of
set in (Duday and Guillon 2006). Thus, these features may the thoracic vertebrae and disarticulated bones of
representprimary burials.Other features (B2A, 10, 19, 15) the upper part of the skeleton were found
display numerous disartic- ulations of both labile and persistent under the partially articulated lower limbs (Figure 4f). Is
joints that obscurethe definitive interpretation of the this configura- tion the result of a pre or post-inhumation
mode of deposition. Whether they represent primary or manipulation? The spatial distribution of the remains indicates
secondary inhumation remains unclear because the that the manipulation of the body occurred at a
maintenance in articulation of persistent joints does not, on very earlystage of decomposition, before the
its own,constitute positive evidence for primary disarticulation of the labile femoro-patella joints, hinting at
deposition (while maintenance inarticulation of possible manipulation and bone removal before burial. But the
labile joint is a positive indication of primary bone inventory, show- ing the presence of hand bones
deposition (i.e., see Duday and Guillon 2006)) and manipulation and of a rib fragment, suggests the initial deposition of a
of bodies at various stages of decomposition is observed. more complete body. A post-burial in
Body and bone manipulation. Several situ reorganization of the remains is therefore possible in this
features (B1, 4, 6, 11, 18, 20) display evidence of body case.
manipulation. In four cases (B1, 4, 6, 18), the In addition, evidence of bone manipu- lation and
knee joints were unnaturally relocation within the grave has been identified in one
case. In burial B18, the fibulae were moved and replaced
along

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 221


Fr´ed´
the side of the left humerus (Figure 4e). This
particular operation was probably performed after decomposition of
the lower limbs and before, or at the time, of the infilling of the
grave, as the three bones were found parallel to and touching each
other.
Original body position. Analysis of the spatial distribution of
the remains within the graves has identified a wide range of original
body positions in 18 of the 20 features (Table 2). The Teouma bodies
have been positioned in the grave on their faces (prone) as well as on
their backs (supine). The prone position is less frequent (N = 5)
than supine which was observed in at least 12 cases. Despite
the absence of the skull, the presence of teeth,
hyoid, atlas, and axis in the neck area indicates
the anatomical positioning of the head in 17
Downloadedburials. TheAt: 12:19 6 September
By: [Valentin, Frédérique] posture
2010 of
some individuals displays peculiarities. Three individuals were
placed on their back with the head and/or the feet raised above the
rest of the body (B12, 14, 16) and another (B11) was buried on
the face with the neck bent backwards.
The position of the limbs seems indepen- dent of the body
positioning in the grave: several individuals display a similar
position of the limbs, but an opposed body position. For example,
the arms could be placed at the side and the legs extended
whether the body was placed in a prone (B5A) or supine position
(B16). In most cases, the upper arms are placed along the body
with a recurrent 90 ◦
flexion of the elbow at various
planes (Table 2). A possible sagital flexion can be hypothesized
in four cases (B4, 14, 19, 25). In these cases, the hand bones, in
articulation or partially articulated, were found at the contact
of the distal end of the ipsilateral (of the same side) humerus
(Figure 5). To ex- plain this naturally impossible arrangement, it
could be suggested that the hand fell toward this
location after decomposition of the wrist ligaments (as a
consequence, this suggests the initial absence of soil infill of this area
during decomposition). Varying from extension to hyperflexion
with the knees against the chest, the lower limb positions
display a trend to flexure of the hips and the knees joints in
various degrees and planes (Table 2).
222 VOLUME 5 • ISSUE 2 • 2010
erique Valentin et al.
Characterization of the environment within which the
body decomposed. The analysis of the
spatial distribution of bones within the features reveals that
the initial placement of the body had altered in relation to the
corpse’s environment during decom-
position. Collapses due to the effect of gravity on bones released
after decomposition of soft tissue were observed in the nine
incom- plete inhumations excavated in 2005. These movements
have relocated the bones in the space internal to the original
volume of the body in all the observed skeletons and in the area
external to the original volume of the body in several of the
cases (Table 3). The shifting of bone fragments from their
initial position (Figure 5), observed in some cases (B14, 20),
leads to a similar interpretation. These bone movements are
evidence for the absence of immediate replacement of soil on
the decaying parts of the body and for the absence of soil in
the areas immediately surrounding the body, thus suggesting
the use of a body container (cf. Duday 1990, 2006). The
level of articulation of the skele- tons indicates, nevertheless, that
the infilling of the graves occurred a short time after
skeletonization.
No linear delimitation was observed that would have
indicated a wooden coffin or a plank-lined pit. The bone
movements do not exceed the space occupied by the body. The
bones that moved were mainly relocated toward the middle of the
burial (centripetal, cf. Chambon and Lanchon 2003) and there is
evidence of restraining effects on the shoulders and
arms (B12, 16), legs (B14), and feet (B14, 20) and of possible
curvilinear delimitation (B14, 18, 19) (Figure 5). These
indications suggest that the container was adjusted to the
shape and size of the body.
Based on this set of osteological indica- tions, the container
may have been a body- sized pit that was not immediately filled
with soil and which was covered by a removable lid, or a body
wrapper made of perishable material decaying more slowly than
the body and which would have isolated the skeleton from the soil
for a short period of time. The two possibilities are not mutually
exclusive and there is no evidence inthe current
record to distinguish between them; the
 Lapita Burial Practices

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Figure 5. Example of body position observed at the Teouma Lapita cemetery. Drawing of the burial and sketch of the possible initial
positioning of the body. Note the presence of large unworked Geloina shells near the pelvis.

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 223

 erique Valentin et al.
Fr´ed´

Table 2. Initial resting attitude and limb positions (as defined by Sprague 2005) in 18 features
containing articulated remains from the Teouma Lapita cemetery. The post-depositionally disturbed burials B3 and B23 are not
included.

Female and probable

Body position Total ∗
Male burial female burial

Resting attitude
On the back 12 B4, 6, 7, 8, 10E, 14, 18,19, 25 12, 15, 16 On the face 5
B1, 2A, 11 B5A, 9 Undetermined 1
B20

Upper limb position

Arm along the sides 18 B2Al, 4, 7, 10E, 11r, 14, 18l B5A, 9l?, 12, 16 Elbow in extension
81 6 September
Downloaded By: [Valentin, Frédérique] At: 12:19 B7, 25r 2010 B5Al,
B5Ar 12, 16 Elbow flexed (90 ) with
◦

forearm on abdomen
Elbow flexed (90 ) in ◦

5 B4r, 14l, 19, 25l

sagital plane

Lower limb position Thigh tightly flexed on

trunk 3 B11r, 19
Thigh semi-flexed on
trunk sagitally 2 B14r B15r
Thigh in abduction 6 B2Ar?, 7, 10, 14l
Thigh extended 21 B1, 4, 6, 11l, 18, 20, 25 B5A, 9, 12, 16 Knee extended 8
B20? B5A, 12, 16 Knee semi-flexed 5 B7, 14 B15r
Knee tightly flexed 8 B11, 19, 25 B9
Knee reversed flexed 6 B1l, 4, 6, 18r
Crossed legs 2 B7

∗
l = left; r = right.
discrepancies result of missing observation for some features and/or joints.

few observed grave cut features (B4, 6), indicating that cranial remains (B10 cache, B17) and three collections of
some pits were large enough to accommodate body size and shape, infracranial bones (B2B, 5B, 22) (Figure 6). The anatomical
do not help in clarifying the distinction. composition of the three collections of infracranial bones
mirrors, more or less at least in one case (B2B)
the bone composition observed in the nearby incomplete
Bone Collections inhumations and the removed
bone composition in another (B5B) (Table 4). However, whether the
Anatomical composition and spatial organization. Five skulls and infracranial bones come from the
bone collections (Ube- laker 1989) or secondary deposits were cemetery or from an entirely different location,
un- covered during the 2004–2005 excavations at Teouma, including and whether the redeposited bones have been obtained after
two bone collections of decomposition of the body or through

224 VOLUME 5 • ISSUE 2 • 2010

 Lapita Burial Practices

Table 3. Bone relocation in nine mortuary features containing articulated remains from the
Teouma Lapita cemetery.

Bone re-location Evidence Burial

Internal to the body volume

Flattening of the rib cage B12, 14, 16 (partial), 18 Collapse of the pelvic girdle B12l,
14 (partial), 15 (partial),
25 (partial)
Rotation of vertebral segments B15, 25
Shifting of clavicle B12,16
Rotation of lower limb bones B12, 16, 19
Sliding of patella B12
Sliding of scapula and humerus B14, B16, B18
Downloaded By: [Valentin, Frédérique] At: 12:19 6 September 2010
Disarticulation of forearm B16

External to the body volume

Disarticulation of elbow, dispersal of hand bones, shift of lower B12 on left side
leg bones, disarticulation of tarsals, flattening of metatarsals, dispersal of foot
phalanges
Disarticulation of knee and feet B14 Disarticulation of right hip
B18 Disarticulation of hand and left
B15
lower leg
Disarticulation of right hand
B19
bones
Shifting of left patella B19
Vertical fall of hand B14r, 14l, 19, 25l Vertical fall of patella B20
Shifting of in situ broken Right
fragment
humerus breakage in B14,
at distance of initial position
left hip bone breakage in B20

l = left; r = right.

defleshing and/or dismemberment, requires Lapita jar with a flat-bottomed dish serving as a lid (Bedford
further investigation. This can be achieved by pair-matching et al. 2007). The B10 cache comprises three crania and a
between secondary deposits and incomplete inhumations, and mandible in a distinctive arrangement enclosed within
systematic screening for superficial marks and breakage on an coral boulders. Sitting on their bases and facing north, the
extended sample. crania form a line, with male crania on either side of a
The spatial distribution of the five sec- ondary deposits female cranium. A mandible belonging to a fourth individual
points to the diversity of their organization and conception was rearticulated to the female cranium. The third example
(Figure 6). Burial B17 consists of a rearticulated cranium (B22) consists of several in- fracranial bones placed in
and mandible sitting on top of a broken Conus sp. shell bracelet, another decorated Lapita pot (Bedford and Spriggs 2007) with
enclosed in a carinated

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 225

 erique Valentin et al.
Fr´ed´

Table 4. Inventory of five collections of bones recovered from the Teouma Lapita
cemetery.

Burial Anatomical composition Container NMI ∗

B2B Infracranial bones: fragments1, unidentified sex of

no durable container,
ulna, ribs, hip bones, left and
perishable container
right femur, left and right tibia
not investigated
shafts, left and right patellae,
cervical and thoracic vertebrae,
and metatarsal
B5B Infracranial bones: left and right humeral shafts and several no durable container, perishable 1, unidentified sex
ribs container
Downloaded By: [Valentin, Frédérique] At: 12:19 6 September 2010 not investigated
B10cache Three crania and a mandible surrounded by coral
4, including 2 males
boulders
and 1 female
B17 Entire skull (including mandible)
enclosed in two Lapita pots, one used 1, female
enclosed in two pots
as lid
B22 Infracranial bones: fragments of right scapula, vertebrae, ribs,
originally placed within 1, unidentified sex
long bones, phalanx, tarsal,
a Lapita pot
metatarsals, left capitatum and patella

∗
NMI based on bone number and search of double bones except for the cranial remains for which articulation and size were
additionally considered.

apparently no particular pattern. The two remaining and the inhumation (B10E) is very close. The three aligned crania
examples are a bundle of two humeri and several were discovered placed on the bones of the flattened rib cage
ribs parallel to each other (B5B) and a pile with no discernable and arms of the incomplete individual resting on its back. The
pattern (B2B). presence of teeth and hand bones indicates that this individual
Association with incomplete inhuma- tions. The was more complete at the time of inhumation,
collections of bones at Teouma are not isolated features, but are and the spatial distribution of the bone suggests bone
associated with one or more articulated skeletons. The bundle and movements due to decomposition in an empty space. Both of
pile of infracranial bones were recovered close to the lower limbs these are evidence for successive deposits at this
of articu- lated burials (B2A, 5A). The skull enclosed within place. The placement of the secondary deposit occurred on the
the two pots was recovered at the place where the missing skeleton, and not on the fleshed body, perhaps at the time of
skull should have been from an individual lying on its back the infilling of the grave.
(B25). This assemblage was in a reef cavity containing two other
adult burials (B18, 14) along with another
inverted carinated jar (Bedford et al. 2007). In the RECONSTRUCTED SEQUENCE OF TEOUMA
same cavity was the jar enclosing infracranial remains (B22). MORTUARY PROCEDURES
In the case of B10, the association be- tween the
secondary deposit (B10 cache) Teouma mortuary practices reveal a complex form of disposal of the
corpse that comprised

226 VOLUME 5 • ISSUE 2 • 2010

 Lapita Burial Practices

At Teouma, mortuary procedures be- gan with

preparation of the corpse.This is suggested by
the forced flexion of the knees observed in
several individuals, the possibility of wrapping in a container
such as pandanus matting, and the apparent absence of
correspondence between the original po- sitioning of the body
and the positions of the limbs, suggesting that they were part of
two distinct operations.
The corpse was then placed in the ground to
decompose either directly on the coral reef or
in a reef cavity containing unconsolidated tephra, or
in pits dug into the coral rubble and sandy upper
beach deposits at the northern edge of the ceme- tery.
Inhumation appears to have been an important and very
Downloaded By: [Valentin, Frédérique] At: 12:19 6 September 2010 structured component of
the mortuary procedure at Teouma for at least three reasons. First,
the bodies seem to have been placed in the grave in a
manner that facilitated access to the parts of the skeleton that
were later removed. This is shown by the propping up of the
upper part of the corpse
and the initial absence of soil in direct contact with the body.
The second reason is the diversity of the limb
positions. In this case, the absence of a regular pattern may
reflect a range of social factors, expressed in sex-
dependant variation: males, as opposed to females, are never
observed lying in a fully extended position. The
general trend toward flexure may also have been influenced
by practical considerations such as the size of the available reef
cavity.
The third reason includes the care at-
tached to the final infilling of the grave and the addition of highly
decorated pots or tortoise remains with some individuals,
and of un- modified shells with almost half of them, the
distribution of which may also indicate social distinctions.
Unmodified Geloina coaxans shells were found around the
pelvis and/or the knees of six males (B2A, 4, 7, 11, 14, 19) and
a single possible female (B15).
Inhumation of the corpse was followed by a revisitation
of the grave after a period of time. It is impossible to
Figure 6. Examples of secondary bone deposits recovered at evaluate the time elapsed between death, inhumation, and the
the Teouma Lapita cemetery. return to the grave. Indeed, the length of time between
death and skeletonization is

several discrete phases. The treatment of deceased adults

seems oriented toward the recovery and use of
bones during activi- ties at the cemetery. Four
phases of treat- ment are osteologically detectable:
prepa- ration, inhumation, exhumation, and bone
deposition.

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 227

 erique Valentin et al.
Fr´ed´

not directly correlated with time since death even in the same
environment, as shown by exhumations of recent cemeteries
and experimental forensic research (Dent et al. 2004; Haglund
and Sorg 2002; Rodriguez and Bass 1985; Weitzel 2005). Even on
tropical islands this process can take as long as 58 months
(Spennemann and Franke 1995).
The return to the grave was marked by several distinct
activities involving human remains: in situ manipulation and
reorgani- zation of bones, removal of bones, and intro- duction of
additional elements into the grave. In situ reorganization of the
skeleton appears to be restricted to one male. This special
the burial localization within the cemetery (unconsolidated
tephra versus coarse upper beach deposits). These observations
suggest three possible explanations regarding the
scheduling of the procedure. First, that there was
no social/culturalrule or obligation concerning the state of
decomposition of the corpse and therefore no rule concerning the
acceptable time interval between initial deposition of the body
at the cemetery and the removal of the desired bones; or second,
that the time interval was regulated but the time
presumed necessary for thecadaver to become
skeletonized was not adapted to local physical conditions. 2

treatment may indicate diversification from a common system, However, the data hint at a third possibility (which does
highlighting the possible importance of individual behavior within not exclude the second), that several of the deceased
the Teouma community. Post-burial collection of bones appears to received the same treatment at the same time,
Downloadedhave focused Frédérique]
By: [Valentin, mainly At: on 12:19
the upper part 2010
6 September of the skeleton. The independent of their state of decomposition. In this scenario,
cranium, mandible, forearms, clavicles, and sternum are the ex- humation was not a personal practice related to the
regularly missing, but humeri, scapulae, ribs, and metacarpals were mourning period for an individual, but a collective
also purposefully removed in several cases. Bone practice carried out by the community
removal may have been influenced by changes over time at aregular time regard- less of the state
and/or social convention. Three females of decomposition of the bodies.
(B5A, 12, 16) lying in a fully extended position are missing fewer The Teouma archaeological record re- veals a series of
bones than the other, mainly male, individuals. other bone manipulations
Additional cranial remains were some- times deposited in taking place at the cemetery, but possibly also in other locations.
the grave during this stage of the procedure. Enclosed in pots on top of What sorts of behaviors are represented by the three
a large broken Conus ring or surrounded with coral boulders, examples of infracranial bone redeposition in which one was
crania, and mandibles were placed in association with the residual seemingly treated with particular care, having been placed in
skele- ton after the decomposition and reduction of the body. A a unique carinated Lapita vessel with four birds adorning the rim
similar scenario is suggested for the Conus shell rings found in (Bedford and Spriggs 2007)? Their anatomical composition, which
areas where the skulls should have been (Bedford et al. 2006). to some extent matches the residual content
This association of funerary deposits with skeletal remains is of other incomplete inhumations at the
an unusual occur- rence in Pacific Island prehistoric burials. cemetery,suggests at least two possible scenarios. One is
Conversely, grave goods and human bone collections were that it results from the emptying of already visited inhumations
placed with the corpses at the time of initial interment, as at the site with the bones deliberately retained in the
exemplified by some of the second millennium AD burials found on cemetery area. A second possibility is that they represent
Retoka Island (Vanuatu) (Garanger 1972). remains brought from an entirely different location to the
When these activities were carried out at Teouma, the cemetery. The few additional bones found in some of the
bodies were at different stages of decomposition, burials are of no help to distinguish between the
independent of two possibilities because they might represent earlier
inhumations and reuse of burial pits as well as secondary
bone deposition in association with the interred
individual. To

228 VOLUME 5 • ISSUE 2 • 2010

 Lapita Burial Practices

document the issue, a detailed investigation is required of millennium in question. The data gathered in the
pair-matching between sec- earliest mortuary features indicate the use of
ondary deposits and incomplete inhumations that has yet to be amulti-staged form of corpse disposal. Bone
undertaken. removal is suggested by the discovery
The simultaneous secondary deposit of of isolated human remains in occupational
three crania is strongly suggestive of the trans- fer of bones from contexts. Adult and juve- nile human remains
another area of the Teouma cemetery or immediate environs. recovered in a Lapita habitation context in Eloaua island
However, the possibility of curation of cranial elements, and perhaps (Mussau group, New Ireland, Papua New Guinea), whose
other bones somewhere outside the immediate cemetery area, inventory (skull fragments, mandible, humeri, and ribs)
is strongly suggested by the removal of this skeletal matches the set of bones removed at Teouma, have been
part in all the inhumations and by the recovery of only a small interpreted as ancestral relics stored in houses (Kirch et al.
number of crania and mandibles at the site (four crania and three 1989). Human radii modified and trans- formed into tools
mandibles for 20 adult inhumations). (Burley personal commu- nication) were found in the
Tongan Lapita site of Ha’ateiho (Fanga ‘Uta Lagoon,
Downloaded By: [Valentin, Frédérique] At: 12:19 6 September 2010 Ton- gatapu) and a fragment of shaft possibly of a fibula
TEOUMA CORPSE AND BONE TREATMENT IN showing evidence of modification, but not of
THE CONTEXT OF LAPITA AND SUCCESSOR- cannibalism, was identified in the Lapita level at the
GROUP BURIAL PRACTICES Tongoleleka site (Li- fuka island, Ha’apaigroup,
Tonga; Storey 2001). In addition,acomplex
Corpse and bone treatment, and funerary practices in mortuary feature dated to about 2,800 years ago was
general,are components of the Lapita cultural complex discovered at the site of Lapita in New Caledonia
sensu lato that have yet to be exploredin detail. They (Sand et al. 2003). Initial studies of the feature (WKO013B-
have been documented in a limited number of geographically Erica) revealed that it contains infracranial remains of at
dispersed sites containing single or several mortuary contexts least three adults, both articulated and disartic- ulated,
regarded as Lapita-associated or -derived (Figure 1, Table suggesting in situ body decompo- sition and bone
1). Dated prior to 2000 BP, there are reorganization, a complex treatment of the deceased
graves uncovered in the sites of Reber-Rakival (Watom, East (Valentin et al. 2005).
New Britain),Dori (Lasigi, New Ireland), Taplin’s The later Lapita and immediately post- Lapita graves
(Mele, Efate, Vanu- atu), Lapita (Grande Terre, New reflect a simple form of inhu- mation. None appears definitely
Caledonia), Yalobi (Waya, Yasawa, Fiji), and Naitabale to represent incomplete inhumation. Burials recovered in
(Moturiki, Fiji), and isolated human remains found Vanuatu (Taplin’s, Ward and Houghton 1988, 1991), New
in occupational contexts in Eloaua Island (Mussau, Caledonia (Pietrusewsky et al. 1998; Valentin 2003) and Fiji
New Ireland), the Ha’ateiho (Nunn et al. 2007; Pietrusewsky et al. 1997a, 1997b)
site (Tongatapu, Tonga), and the Tongoleleka site (Lifuka island, contained virtually complete skeletons. The absence of the
Ha’apai group, Tonga). Other burials once assigned skull observed in four of the eight Watom Island
to this time period such as Mangaliliu (Efate, skeletons is regarded as post-depositional disturbance
Vanuatu), Natunuku (Viti Levu, Fiji), Wakea (Lakeba, Lau, resulting from later non-mortuary activities (Green and
Fiji), and Pea (Tongatapu, Tonga) have been reassessed or Anson 2000a, 2000b; Green etal. 1989). The absence of
directly dated and are considered to be of a later date (Davidson the skull and/or upper part of the skeleton that
and Leach 1993; Petchey et al. n.d.; and authors’ unpublished is suggested to have been removed at the Dori
data). site, based on stratigraphic observations (Golson
Although the data are limited, they sug- gest changing 1991), is open to other interpretations.
mortuary behaviors over the

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 229

 erique Valentin et al.
Fr´ed´

As in the case of Teouma, the flexure of the lower limbs
appears to be a dominant feature in later Lapita-associated burials,
with the exception of one of the Watom and
two of the Taplin’s burials that displayed extended upper and
lower limbs. Matching the most frequent resting attitude at Teouma,
certain later burials were lying on their backs at Watom
(N = 3) and Taplin’s (N = 2). Differentiating them from the
resting attitudes recorded so far at Teouma, other bodies (N = 5)
were deposited on their sides (N = 2) or in a sitting position (N
= 3) in the grave at the sites of Yalobi, Lapita, Taplin’s,
Dori, and Watom, while none of them were on their faces. Of
note are cases of an association between a burial and a pot. The
skull of the seated burial excavated by Shutler in 1967 at
Lapita (New Caledonia) was covered by a complete pot
Downloaded(Valentin and Frédérique]
By: [Valentin, Sand 2000) and 6aSeptember
At: 12:19 pot was 2010 associated with a
burial in the Taplin’s site (Ward and Houghton 1988). These
are reminiscent of the practices at Teouma (Bedford and Spriggs
2007).
DISCUSSION
Field and laboratory analyses have allowed us
to demonstrate that mortuary practice among the early Lapita
community of Teouma in- volved a complex procedure
of disposal of at leastsomeof the deceased
adults. The method comprised multiple phases of treatment
of the body and ofthe bones. This manner of treating
the deceased relates to the widespread funerary system ethno-
graphically identified as secondary burial (Hertz 1907,
1960). While known world- wide, this practice is
particularly character- istic of Southeast Asian and Oceanic cultures
(Metcalf and Huntington 1991; Thomas 1980, 1985). It is very
common in Melanesia (e.g., Codrington 1891; Goodale 1985;
Leenhardt 1930; Lohmann 2005), including Vanuatu (e.g.,
Deacon 1934; Layard 1934; Speiser 1996).
Beyond the identification of this general system, detailed study
of the Teouma archae- ological data allows us to distinguish
close adherence to conventions and possibilities
for individual action. Among the normative rules are the
inhumation of the corpse at the cemetery and the exhumation
of bones after an undetermined period of time, possi- bly
governed by some temporal regulation and associated
with a collective practice. Individualistic
behavior can be seen in the resting attitude and positioning of
the limbs, the number of bones removed, the body and bone
handling, and the associated cranial bone re-deposition.
Variations in corpse position and num- bers of
bonesremoved seem in the first instance to
be sex-related. In-grave body manipulation and bone
reorganization seem to be rare behaviors reserved
for a few males. In-grave secondary deposition of cra- nial
elements with the skeleton also appears restricted to selected
males. Finally, another rare practice is the secondary
deposition of infracranial remains beside a grave, in a pot,
or without an identified container. The possibility of sex-
dependent variations and of further variations among the male
group suggest that rules concerning social status may have
regulated the mortuary practices of the Teouma community as
were observed in the funeraryrituals of nineteenth- and
twentieth-century Melanesian societies (Dea- con 1934; Wedgwood
1927).
Another sociological aspect is the Teouma tradition
of bone removal and use of cranial remains in funerary
contexts that might indicate that the biological death of an adult
was not a final ending for this Lapita community but a
transition, as was the case in many ethnographically studied
communi- ties. In this respect, Hertz (1960:47) made the
point that in pre-Christian Melanesian societies: “Death is fully
consummated only when decomposition has ended; only then
does the deceased cease to belong to this world so as to
enter another life.” Highlight- ing another dimension is the
deposition of additional elements with the skeleton that
might be interpreted as part of a wider system of exchange linking
the dead, their graves and the living, in the manner
described in the early Contact records for the Roviana
Lagoon region in the Solomon Islands (i.e., Walter et al.
2004). In the case of Teouma adults, however, this
behavior could also

230 VOLUME 5 • ISSUE 2 • 2010


express a particular conception of death, ofthe
deceased and also of the person. The
placement of skullswith previously deposited inhumations
(in two cases) may symbolically emphasize the particularity
of (two) persons, still present in the memories
of the Teouma community while represented by their mineralized
remains at the time of this ceremony. This may acknowledge
the past rank or status of the physical individual who is not yet
socially dead. Alternatively, it can be seen as a method of
reinforcing the social position of the deceased and that of his
social/familial group and descendants. In this perspective, the
person is not limited to the physical individual, but is, as
suggested by Bloch (1993) for other societies, extended to a
wider entity like a genealogical line or a “house” (see Levi-
Downloaded By: Strauss 1975).
[Valentin, The latter
Frédérique] concept
At: 12:19 has already
6 September 2010 been suggested
as ap- plicable to Lapita societies based on pottery motif analysis
(Chiu 2005; Green 2002; Kirch 1997; Noury 2005). Dentate-
stamped pottery with its labor-intensive, intricately applied
motifs and regulated design structure, has long
been recognized as having a social role in Lapita
communities (Golson 1961). The highincidence
ofanthropomorphic designs found on the pottery has
suggested connections with ancestor worship and associated
communal lineage organization (Chiu 2005; Hage 1999;
Kirch 1997; Spriggs 1990).
One must remain wary, however, of the use of ethnographic
analogies to approach the cultural, social, and practical
significance of the mortuary behavior at Teouma, because of the
almost 3,000-year time period that separates the compared
cultural complexes. Other studies of Austronesian societies have
pinpointed the dynamicnature of funer- ary rituals in a given
society even over a short period of time (Parker Pearson
2003; Valentinand Sand 2001). Similar trends may have
also been at play in the Teouma community itself, the burial
ground having been used for only about a skull and long bones were used for other purposes (Deacon
century, and would also explain
divergences between the Teouma and ethnographic
examples of corpse and bone treatments. The addition of
elements in the grave after the initial
JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY
Lapita Burial Practices
interment underlines the significance of the initial stage of
inhumation for the Teouma community. It shows its dual
nature, with inhumation being both temporary (a place of
body transformation) and definitive (a place of
memory). In regional ethnographic descriptions, the first
inhumation is generally reported as abandoned, and even
sometimes destroyed, and prominence is given to the
transferred remains (Hertz 1907; Leenhardt 1930;
Lohmann 2005). The existence of temporal
changes emerges equally from the comparison between the
mortuary practices observed at Teouma and at other slightly later
sites. The limited amount of available data hints at a
change in body treatment over time, from a complex
form of inhumation and bone curation being practiced
during the early Lapita period, to a more simple form of
treatment during the later Lapita and immediately post-Lapita
periods.
As is often the case in archaeology, there
is an equifinality issue. Different communities may have
viewed their dead in different ways, but the
archaeological manifestations may be similar, and similar
beliefs and asso- ciated behaviors can potentially end up
as different archeological traces. This situation is illustrated by
the two kinds of secondary bone deposits in pots. That
both are final burials seems likely at first glance. In
the first case, the skull found enclosed within two pots
was associated with a shell ring, as were other burials
found at the site (a situation that also mirrors
ethnographically documented behavior; Deacon 1934; Hocart
1922). In the second case, the infracranial bones, which
are among those not usually removed from the Teouma
burials, found in a unique vessel constitute a feature also
reminiscent of an ethnographic account: only the small bones of a
high-ranked person were transferred to the sacred place while the
1934:533). However, it cannot be
dismissed that the first case constitutes a form of reliquary, a cult
object, and the second a form of ossuary, connecting the
feature to respectful, but utilitarian management of the
cemetery, types of mortuary feature that are not proper
“burials”.
231
 erique Valentin et al.
Fr´ed´

CONCLUSION in the realization of the illustrations, to

Dr. Christopher Kn usel (University of Ex- eter, UK) and
The excavation of the Teouma cemetery provides us Prof.¨ Ian Lilley (University ofQueensland, Australia)
with a rare opportunity to investigate the for comments on an earlier version of the
mortuary practices of the early Lapita colonizers manuscript. Thanks also to the anonymous reviewers and
established on the south coast of Efate Island in editors for their helpful comments. The support of the
Vanuatu. These are characterized by a wide range of leaseholder of Teouma, M. Robert Monvoisin, and family is
variability. Focusing on one component of the funerary system acknowl- edged, as is the support and assistance of the
—the adult corpse and bone treatment by inhumation—this traditional landowners and population of Eratap Village.
study of 25 mortuary features recovered during the 2004–2005
excavations shows that beyond a general procedure END NOTES
common for all the deceased, there is a
marked diversity of behaviors. The archaeologically 1. In the same vein, more complete hands were originally present in
identified procedures include treatment of at least some burials. In
corpses
Downloaded By: by inhumation
[Valentin, in 12:19
Frédérique] At: a container—pit
6 September 2010and/or wrappers— three burials (B1, 19, 25), carpals and phalanges are present while
not immediately filled with sed- iment, followed by exhumation corresponding metacarpals are missing.
of the skull and other bones of the upper part of the 2. Efate is situated at slightly less than 18 degrees south of
skeleton, and secondary deposition of bone in which cranial and the equator, whereas the ‘Lapita Homeland’ of the
Bismarck Archipelago from whence these Vanuatu settlers may have
infracranial elements appear to be treated differently. In-grave body
come is about 2–5 degrees south in an area of higher temperature and
manipulation and bone reorganization as well as in-grave secondary humidity.
deposition of cranial elements with the skeleton appear to have
been behaviors restricted to disposal of only a few individuals.
While reflecting particular attitudes towards human remains,
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