December 2023 | ` 75

A CSIR Publication

PRINCE RUPERT
DROPS
Unravelling the Phenomenal
Strength of Glass Tears!

Nobel Prizes
2023

Shanti Swarup Features

▶▶ Physics-informed Neural
Bhatnagar 2022 Prize Networks
Winners talk about their ▶▶ CSIR’s One Week, One Lab
prize-winning work ▶▶ Quiz, Puzzles & much more
 Vol. 60, No. 12, December 2023
ISSN: 2582-6492 (Online) ISSN 0036-8512 (Print)
National Institute of Science Communication and Policy Research (NIScPR)
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi

contents / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /

Prince Rupert Drops NOBEL PRIZES

Unravelling the 2023
Phenomenal Strength of
Glass Tears!
Ajai Chawla

14

Shanti Swarup
Bhatnagar
(SSB) Awards
2022
 EDITORIAL
Bidding Adieu! 9
Hasan Jawaid Khan

NOBEL PRIZES 2023

Discovery and Synthesis of Quantum Dots Wins 20
the 2023 Chemistry Nobel
TV Venkateswaran

Nobel Prize in Physics for Developing Tools for 24

Exploring Electrons inside Atoms
K Smiles Mascarenhas

///////// COVID mRNA Vaccine Pioneers Honoured with

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
26

Biju Dharmapalan

SSB AWARDS 2022

About SSB Awards 29

Unravelling Tuberculosis 30
Dr Ashwani Kumar

Understanding protein conversations inside 32

human cells
Dr Maddika Subba Reddy

Detecting Anyons in Graphene 35

Dr Anindya Das

Dance of the Neutrinos in the Hearts of Stars 36

Dr Basudeb Dasgupta

Developing catalysts and ligands to create 40

new chemicals, drug molecules and materials
Dr Debabrata Maiti

Development of novel structural fuses to reduce 42

earthquake disaster risks
Dr Dipti Ranjan Sahoo

Integrated Framework Estimating the Contribution of 45

Climate and Human Interventions
Vimal Mishra

Analysing Square Matrices 46

Dr Apoorva Khare

FEATURE
Unlocking the Secrets of Nature with Physics-Informed 48
Neural Networks
Monendra Grover, Dwijesh Mishra & Girish Kumar Jha

REPORT
CSIR’s One Week, One Lab Programme 52

Spectrum  10
What’s New 58
Test Your Knowledge 60
Puzzle Corner  62
Science Cartoons  64
 Bidding Adieu!
THE December 2023 issue of Science Reporter is the last under my editorship. I retire from CSIR
service on 30th November 2023. I have been with Science Reporter for more than 33 years — more
than half my life’s journey. And have been fortunate to have been the editor of the magazine for
almost 18 years.
This long professional journey with Science Reporter, a CSIR publication and among the longest-
running popular science magazines in the country, has been truly memorable and enlightening.
Working here offered opportunities of communicating, reporting, reviewing, critiquing, analysing
EDITORIAL

and witnessing the progress and growth of Indian science at close quarters.
The mentorship and exhaustive training in the skills required in science writing, reporting and
editing provided by Director Dr Bal Phondke and Editor Mr Biman Basu under whom I learned the
ropes is remembered with great gratitude. Of course, the camaraderie and competitive spirit infused
by colleagues like Pallava Bagla & Kollegala Sharma, both renowned science communicators in
their own right, can never be forgotten.
Science Reporter has always strived to impart among its readers awareness about scientific
developments from around the world, apart from developing a scientific and rational attitude imbued
with the sense of reasoning. The magazine has always been at the forefront of documenting the
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DIRECTOR from fertilisers and pharmaceuticals to
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Apart from knowledge-enhancing
EDITOR
& fun columns such as Q&A, Point-
Hasan Jawaid Khan
Counterpoint, Curiosity Corner, Science
Fiction & Cartoons, Quiz & Puzzles, we
ASSOCIATE EDITOR
Sonali Nagar highlighted the work of S&T institutions,
interviewed scientists & researchers, profiled
ASSISTANT EDITOR India’s unsung scientists, reported S&T
Dr Meher Wan breakthroughs, covered natural disasters and
also motivated a band of budding science
LAYOUT & DESIGN writers.
Manender Singh The journey with Science Reporter,
PRODUCTION the most widely circulated popular
Ashwani Kumar Brahmi science magazine in the country, has
Arun Uniyal been professionally fulfilling and is truly
Anil Kumar cherished. One wishes for the magazine to
chart new horizons and keep up its avowed
BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT objective of making the citizens of the country
Neelu Srivastav scientifically enlightened in the years to
Dr Arvind Meena come.
Hasan Jawaid Khan
COVER DESIGN
Manender Singh
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December 2023 | Science Reporter | 9

Spectrum

Petrified Woods!

‘P
ETRIFIED wood’ is wood that has been turned
into stones! Petrified woods are 3-D entities and
perfect replicas of the original material. In India,
petrified woods are found only at four places.
How does petrification or petrifaction happen? Woody
stems get buried in fine-grained wet sediments as in flooded
waterbodies and deltas and in volcanic ash beds. Due to
scarcity of oxygen, insects, and microorganisms are unable to
quickly decompose the woods. The rate of decay depends on
moisture content in the woods and ambient temperature. In the
course of time, cellulose and lignin in the woods get slowly Petrified logs of variable dimensions, Tiruvakkarai
replaced by minerals present in the water. Several minerals
have been identified but the most common are the silica
excellently preserved the woods. Manganese, iron, chromium,
minerals consisting of quartz, opal, and chalcedony. These
and other trace elements provide hues to the petrified woods.
minerals are most resistant to erosion and chemical alteration.
In India, the four geosites that have petrified wood are:
The process of petrification is known as ‘silification’ and may
the two National Fossil Wood Parks in Tamil Nadu; the Akal
happen even near present-day silica-enriched hot springs.
Wood Fossil Park, Rajasthan and Khadir Island, Gujarat.
Minerals like calcite (calcium carbonate) and pyrite (iron
The National Fossil Wood Park, Tiruvakkarai is a
sulphide) are less common in the petrification process.
National Geo-heritage Monument in Villipuram District. The
Over thousands and millions of years ago (Myr), nature
park is 155 km from Chennai and 25 km from Puducherry. In
patiently transformed what were once woods into petrified
1781, M Sonneret was the first to investigate the fossils. This
ones. Petrification faithfully retains the cellular features of the
247 acres park, set-up in 1940, is maintained by the Geological
original plants. Petrified woods are deceptive in appearance
Survey of India since 1957.
but they are much heavier than the usual woods.
The park consists of nine enclosures, but only about
Besides being a collectors’ delight and for researchers,
1 sq km is accessible to the public. The petrified woods lie
petrified woods are cut into shapes to make jewellery and
scattered on or partially buried in the Cuddalore Sandstone
artefacts and sawn and polished to make table tops, bookends,
formation. There are about 200 fossilised trees. Because of
and clock faces. Considering the rarity of petrified woods and
the absence of roots, barks and branches, the trees may have
their age, these objects would be expensive and difficult to
obtain.
Globally, petrified woods are not uncommon but are
limited in their occurrence in sedimentary rocks and volcanic
deposits that consist of pyroclasts, ash and mudflows. Since
petrified woods get converted to coal, we can find them near
coal seams.
Petrified woods as old as 390 Myr have been found,
attesting to the time when woody plants first appeared on
dry land, and in the present times. Petrified “forests” are
entire ecosystems buried by volcanic eruptions. For example,
Amethyst Ridge at Yellowstone National Park (US) depicts 27
successive forest ecosystems!
The most famous locality is the Petrified Forest National
Park in Arizona. About 225 Myr, this was a low-lying
forested area with a tropical climate and was flooded and
filled with sediments brought down by storm-induced rivers.
Coniferous trees of 70m and of 10m in diameter thrived here
and their broken branches, plants and fallen trees got trapped
in the sediments and petrified. Several eruptions from nearby
volcanoes led to the area being covered by volcanic ash.
Petrified woods at Tiruvakkarai, Tamil Nadu
The groundwater dissolved the ash and released silica that

10 | Science Reporter | December 2023


One of the thickest petrified logs at Tiruvakkarai
Plant species of gymnosperm (Mesembrioxylon schmidianum) and
angiosperm (Peuce schmidiana), Tiruvakkarai
been transported to the present location
during massive flooding that occurred
~20 Myr ago. The well-preserved woods
show pit structures and from the annular
rings the age of the trees can be determined
(dendrochronology).
The National Fossil Wood Park in
Sathanur (Sattanur), enroute from Chennai
to Tiruchirappalli, was discovered in
1940. It has a petrified conifer tree trunk
measuring over 18m. This wood of 120-100
Myr age is a testimonial to the presence of
a paleo-sea.
The Akal Fossil Wood Park, 18 km
from Jaisalmer, hosts petrified woods in
an area of 21 hectares. The longest wood
is 13.4m long and 0.9m in width. The
woods indicate the area to have had warm
and humid climate. These factors favoured
growth of lush forests that bordered a sea
that existed 180 Myr in the Thar Desert!
The Khadir Island petrified woods in
Kutch are 187-176 Myr old and located in
the Harappan civilisation site of Dholavira.
The logs are 8m long and up to 1m in width
and lie on sandstone-shale-limestone rocks.
Except for the Tiruvakkarai site
which is just 20 Myr in age, the ages of
the other three sites suggest that dinosaurs
existed between the Triassic and Cretaceous
periods during the Mesozoic Era (252 to 66
Myr). The luxuriant vegetations provided
fodder to these huge creatures as several
of them were vegetarians! A sea or marine
conditions prevailed in or near the three
areas. Perhaps a sea extended from some
areas of Gujarat to Rajasthan and this sea
subsequently dried up (or disappeared
underground?) over millions of years to form
the Kutch and Thar deserts. One evidence is
the expansive deposits of miliolite (a species
of foraminifera) in Saurashtra and Kachchh.
So, the next time you are near any of
the above national geo-parks, do make it a
point to visit and admire the petrified woods
that are in pristine conditions.
Sridhar D Iyer (sdiyer2001@gmail.com) was
formerly with CSIR-National Institute of
Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004.
Ankeeta Amonkar (amonkar@dmscollege.
ac.in) is with the Department of Geology,
Dnyanprassarak Mandal’s College and
Research Centre, Mapusa, Goa 403 507.
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 11
Artificial
Intelligence
Empowering
communication for
disabilities
S
TEPHEN Hawking spent most of his life in a wheelchair,
battling Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, which gradually
paralysed his muscles below the neck. Despite his health
challenges and limited life expectancy, he ventured into the
cosmos of theoretical physics and crafted ground-breaking
theories. It is interesting to know how he achieved all this in
his fragile condition, and this is where the magic of AI comes
into play.
In Stephen Hawking’s story, a computer program called
Equalizer, developed by WordPlus in California, played a
pivotal role. This program allowed Hawking to communicate
using just his thumb. By clicking on characters displayed on
the screen, he converted them into spoken words, somewhat
akin to Morse code. He managed to write at a pace of 15 words
per minute.
As his thumb’s nerves deteriorated further, Intel stepped
in with a program called ACAT (Assistive Contextually Aware
Toolkit). ACAT enabled Hawking to select characters on the
screen using the subtle twitch of his cheek muscles. Sensors
detected these movements, translating them into spoken
words through a voice synthesiser. ACAT empowered him
Artificial
Intelligence in
Agriculture
I
N view of the impending food insecurity in the coming
years, scientists have been exploring whether technologies
like gene editing and artificial intelligence could be
harnessed to combat this problem.
Gene-editing has enabled the creation of transgenic crops
tolerant to many adverse conditions and providing higher yield
apart from being nutritionally richer. The role of Artificial
Intelligence (AI) in aiding agriculture is also slowly being
witnessed.
According to researchers from IT for Change, Bengaluru
AI has already begun to facilitate a number of complex and
routine tasks to make farming easier and more productive. For
instance, the use of robots and surveillance systems for weather
prediction, soil and crop monitoring, various data collection,
precision farming etc.
Weather prediction is one of the most important factors
in agriculture, which is becoming more and more difficult
12 | Science Reporter | December 2023
to operate his entire computer, surf the web, and even make
video calls through Skype. In this journey, both the machine
and Hawking underwent extensive training. As technology
evolved, Hawking’s facial expressions were analysed and
transformed into spoken words. No muscle movement went
unused; even the up-and-down movement of his jaws served
as a mouse input for his computer. These innovations allowed
Hawking to dominate the realm of theoretical physics and pen
down books.
Today, AI is flourishing and becoming increasingly
affordable. These AI systems can read facial muscle
movements and convert them into spoken words, making them
accessible to individuals facing similar challenges. At the
heart of these advancements lies machine learning, a tool that
employs mathematical algorithms to understand and execute
encoded programs. Think of Google’s text-to-speech feature
on our mobile phones, where it transforms our spoken words
into text. Taking a step further, our phones can now recognise
our facial features. Combining these two capabilities with
mathematical models operating in binary code can create a tool
that displays text based on our facial gestures. Replacing the
displayed text with a voice that reads it aloud completes the
system, allowing individuals to communicate through facial
gestures. However, it’s worth noting that this simplicity belies
the complex programming, algorithms, and models working
behind the scenes, requiring significant effort from scientists
to develop and refine.
Scientists from around the world are actively involved in
creating user-friendly models, some of which are listed below:
• Google Project Euphonia: Google Project Euphonia
attempts to develop speech recognition technologies for
persons who have difficulty speaking. It employs artificial
for farmers to determine as climate change is taking its toll.
However, meteorological studies using AI can help to gain
easy insight into it, including weather conditions, sunlight
hours, wind speed etc., with greater accuracy to decide on
sowing seeds and to carry on other farm activities.
Micro and macronutrients in the soil are critical factors
for crop health as well as the quantity and quality of yield.
Usually, these are determined by human observations, which
are often not accurate. Now drones can be employed to obtain
aerial data by using visual sensing artificial intelligence, which
can analyse and interpret them to track crop health and soil
conditions, including its texture as well as moisture, organic
matter and various nutrient contents, so that immediate
measures such as spraying of right quantities of appropriate
fertilisers can be undertaken.
Image recognition systems with AI models have been
developed to detect diseases and pests, which are less
expensive, less labour intensive and more accurate and are
capable of specifically diagnosing with an accuracy of 90.4%.
AI systems can also spot weeds, and also determine their
type and intensity. Researchers from Virginia Tech have
devised smart sprayers that use computer vision to detect
weeds. A camera mounted on a sprayer records the geolocation
of the weeds and analyses the size, shape and colour in order
 intelligence to adapt to individual speech patterns and
give more accurate transcription and voice commands.
• Microsoft’s Seeing AI app: Microsoft’s Seeing AI app is
intended to help people who are blind or have low vision.
It employs artificial intelligence to describe objects, read
text, and recognise people, improving communication
and independence.
• EyeSpeak: EyeSpeak is an eye-tracking communication
technology that allows paralysed people to communicate
by moving their eyes to pick words or symbols on a
screen. AI algorithms aid in the prediction of intended
choices, increasing communication speed.
• SwiftKey Symbols: It is an AI-powered symbol-based
communication software that enables nonverbal people
to communicate between themselves. To facilitate
conversation, the software makes use of predictive text
and symbol suggestions.
• Proloquo2Go: Proloquo2Go is an AAC app that uses
AI to predict words and model language. It is intended
to help people with speech impairments communicate
amongst themselves through text-to-speech technology.
• Communication with Brain-Computer Interfaces
(BCIs): Companies such as BrainCo are creating BCIs
that allow people to control computers and communicate
through brain impulses. These BCIs interpret brain
activity using AI algorithms.
• Emotion Recognition in AAC Devices: Some AAC
devices use emotion recognition technology to assist
individuals in more successfully expressing their
to deliver precise amounts of
herbicides, thus saving time
and labour and avoiding toxic
effects of those on other crops,
environment and public health.
Animals constitute one
of the major components of
agricultural systems. Cattle
Eye, an AI-first company, has
developed a system that uses overhead cameras and computer
vision algorithms to monitor cattle health and behaviour. It
can also count the animals, detect their diseases, and identify
unusual behaviour and monitor significant activities such as
giving birth. Data collected from cameras and on drones can
be combined with other technologies to keep the farmers
informed about health and access to food and water.
The World Economic Forum’s Artificial Intelligence for
Agriculture Innovation (AI4AI) has begun the initiative to
transform agriculture by promoting AI and other technologies.
Led by the Centre for the Fourth Industrial Revolution (C4IR)
India and the Platform for Sharing Future of AI and Machine
Learning, the initiative brings together the government,
academia and business representatives to collaborate on
development and implementation in the agriculture sector.
emotions, hence improving their capacity to communicate
their feelings and needs.
• Customisable Voice Assistants: Voice assistants such as
Amazon Alexa and Google Assistant can be customised
with user-specific voice profiles, allowing people with
different speech patterns to communicate with these AI
systems more naturally.
• Accessibility features in smart home gadgets: To
increase the freedom and quality of life of people
with impairments, many smart home gadgets now
offer accessibility features such as voice control and
compatibility with AAC apps.
• Symbol-depending Communication Apps: Apps like
TouchChat and Proloquo4Text employ AI to suggest
symbols and sentences depending on user input, making
it easier for nonverbal people to communicate.
• Text-to-Speech (TTS): This technology has advanced,
with AI-powered voices becoming more natural and
expressive. TTS solutions for assistive technology
applications have been created by companies such as
Nuance.
• Real-time Language Translation: AI-powered
translation programs such as Google Translate can help
people who speak various languages communicate in
real-time, breaking down language barriers.
Mr Shivakumar R and Mr Aswathy Rajan are PhD Scholars,
Department of Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore.
The government of Telangana in collaboration with
AI4AI has implemented a framework for scaling up the
emerging technologies and improving productivity, efficiency
and sustainability in the agriculture sector. Karnataka
in partnership with a leading MNC, has begun the use of
intelligence predictive models in agriculture. Uttar Pradesh
has collaborated with the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
and the Tata Trust to set up the Indian Agritech Incubation
Network at IIT, Kanpur. Similarly, Maharashtra has launched
the Maha Agri Tech project that aims at using AI to promote
the application of satellites and drones to solve various
agrarian problems and Punjab has taken the initiative to use
AI-based technologies to test potato seeds and pre-immunise
those. IIT-Delhi’s School of Artificial Intelligence is also
developing various AI processes for agriculture.
Dr Ramesh Chandra Parida, Retd Professor of Chemistry,
Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology, Usha
Nivas, 124/2445, Khandagiri Vihar, Bhubaneswar-751030.
Email: paridanana47@gmail.com
Dr Pranab Kumar Ghosh, Assistant Registrar (T)&(E)
of National Institute of Rural Development and
Panchayati Raj, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030.
Email: pkghosh2003@gmail.com
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 13
 PRINCE RUPERT
DROPS
Unravelling the Phenomenal
Strength of Glass Tears!
Ajai Chawla

displays a Prince Rupert’s drop

(Purdue University photo/
Srinivasan Chandrasekar
In the realm of glassy wonders, Prince Rupert Drops reign

Trevor Mahlmann)
supreme, captivating us with their strength, fragility,
and secret inner forces. From impact-resistant glass to
innovative materials, the lessons learned from Prince
Rupert Drops have sparked countless discoveries and
applications in various fields.

14 | Science Reporter | December 2023

H
AVE you ever heard of magical glass tears, stronger
than steel? Glass that is unbreakable and defies the
laws of science? Meet the incredible Prince Rupert’s
Drops!
Imagine a drop of molten glass, shaped like a teardrop
or a tadpole with a large bulbous head, that can withstand a
hammer blow or a bullet, but with a tiny touch to its tail, it
shatters into a thousand sparkling fragments!
Prepare to be amazed by their incredible strength and
mesmerising shape that will leave you wondering, “How is
this even possible?” These mysterious teardrop-shaped glass
wonders hold a secret so astonishing that even scientists
scratch their heads in wonder.
Join us on a journey to discover the fascinating world of
stress and tension, where the secret to their superpower lies.
Get ready to be hooked, because once you learn about these
extraordinary glass marvels, you’ll never see the world the
same way again.
Once upon a time, in the 17th century, a prince named
Rupert was fascinated by the art of glassmaking. He
challenged the talented glassblowers of the kingdom to create
something extraordinary. After many attempts, one ingenious
glassblower crafted these peculiar teardrop-shaped glass beads
that seemed to defy the laws of nature.
Legend has it that these remarkable drops were named
after Prince Rupert of the Rhine, a renowned 17th-century
prince and military strategist. As the story goes, he introduced
these drops to Europe after a victorious battle, where they
were believed to possess mystical properties. But what makes
them so special?
Here’s where things get mind-boggling! These drops are
made by heating glass to a fiery molten state, then rapidly
cooling the outer surface while the inner core remains hot.
The result? A drop-shaped glass bead with a long mesmerising
tail. But don’t be fooled by their delicate appearance! Here’s
the twist: while the bulbous head of the drop seems fragile, it
can withstand hammer blows, and even bullets bouncing off
it like it’s no big deal! The bulbous head of the drop is super
strong, like a mini-superhero of glass, while the tail is as
fragile as a delicate feather. If you merely touch the delicate
Differential cooling results in the formation of a compression layer on the outside and a tensile layer on the
inside. Source of image: https://www.scienceabc.com/pure-sciences/can-glass-really-shatter-bullets-
what-are-prince-ruperts-drops.html
tail, something magical happens. The tension inside the glass
gets released, causing a chain reaction. The drop explodes
into countless sparkling pieces, like a glass fireworks show!
How can something so delicate hold such unimaginable
strength?
Scientists intrigued by this mystery of the drops, delved
into its secrets and experimented with its properties for nearly
four centuries, but it continued to baffle them. It was not until
1994 that they could find a complete solution to the mystery.
Two scientists — S Chandrasekar at Purdue University and
MM Chaudhri at the University of Cambridge utilised the
current day high speed framing photography in slow motion
to observe the shattering process of the Rupert drops. They
conducted mind-bending tests to understand the physics
behind their remarkable strength.
So, what makes the head of the drop so strong and the tail
so fragile? And why do they behave this way?!
Well, it’s all thanks to the fascinating science behind it!
The rapid cooling process creates intense internal stresses
within the glass. The surface of each drop experiences high
compressive stresses, while the interior experiences high
tension forces. These forces make the drop immensely strong,
but the moment you disrupt the balance by touching the
delicate tail, those forces release, and chaos ensues. The head
of the drop is incredibly strong because the outside surface
cools quickly, creating a hard shell while the inside remains
hot and molten.
There is some Chemistry involved too. Inside the glass,
some tiny building blocks called molecules are all jumbled
up. When the glass cools quickly, these molecules don’t have
time to arrange themselves neatly. So, they get trapped in a
state of tension, like a rubber band that’s pulled tight or like a
tightly wound spring.
The foundation of the drops’ astonishing behaviour lies
in their intricate internal structure. As molten glass rapidly
cools, a battle between opposing forces commences. The
outer surface solidifies, creating a robust shell that defies
external forces, while the inner core remains in a molten state,
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 15
 Nature’s Wonders
While Prince Rupert Drops are man-made glass
wonders, there are indeed natural phenomena
in the world that share similar properties and
characteristics. Nature never ceases to amaze us!
Here are a few examples of natural occurrences
that can be considered reminiscent of the
intriguing qualities of Rupert drops:
1. Volcanic Pele’s Tears: During volcanic
eruptions, molten lava can be ejected
into the air. As the lava cools rapidly in the
atmosphere, it forms small, tear-shaped
volcanic glass droplets called “Pele’s Tears”.
These glassy tears are similar to Prince Rupert
Drops in shape and formation, as they are
rapidly cooled droplets with a bulbous head
and a thin, fragile tail. These droplets are
lightweight and often have an elongated tail,
similar to Prince Rupert Drops. While not as
strong as the man-made drops, Pele’s Tears
share the fascinating teardrop shape and
fragility.
2. Volcanic glass: Obsidian is a natural glass that
forms when volcanic lava cools rapidly, usually
upon contact with water. This rapid cooling
process prevents the formation of crystal
structures, resulting in an amorphous material
with properties similar to those of glass. Like
Prince Rupert Drops, obsidian is extremely
strong and can withstand significant force
without breaking.
However, just like the fragility of the tail of
Prince Rupert Drops, obsidian has a distinct
feature known as “conchoidal fracturing”.
When obsidian is broken, it fractures in a
unique manner, creating sharp, curved edges
reminiscent of seashells. These curved
fractures are called “conchoidal fractures”.
While the main body of obsidian is robust,
a sharp strike or pressure on its edges can
harbouring latent tensions within its molecular arrangement.
This rapid cooling causes the molecules in the glass to arrange
themselves in a delicate balance of tension, like a tightly
wound spring. It’s a mind-boggling balance between strength
and fragility, all thanks to the incredible dance of molecules
within the glass.
When the drop is subjected to force, like a hammer
blow on the head, the tough outer layer absorbs the impact,
distributing the force across the surface. Meanwhile, the
tension within the glass helps keep the head intact and prevents
cracks from propagating.
Changing the environment in which drops are formed
was suspected to affect their toughness. To investigate this,
multiple drops were created using different contaminants
in the solution, such as salt, sugar, syrup, oil, ethanol, and
16 | Science Reporter | December 2023
cause it to break into these characteristic,
razor-sharp fragments.
The conchoidal fracturing of obsidian is the
closest natural counterpart to the intriguing
behaviour of Prince Rupert Drops. Both
demonstrate the combination of extraordinary
strength and unexpected fragility, resulting
from the unique ways in which their internal
structures are formed. This structure gives
obsidian its characteristic sharpness and
strength, making it a valuable material.
Historically it was used for cutting tools and
weapons by ancient civilisations.
3. Fragile Crystal Formations: In some natural
environments, delicate crystal formations
can exhibit similar characteristics to Rupert
Drops. These formations may have a strong,
solid structure overall, but certain parts, like
fragile branches or spiky extensions, can be
highly susceptible to breakage upon even a
slight touch. These intricate crystal structures
demonstrate the delicate balance between
strength and fragility, just like the drops.
4. Glass Sponge Spicules: Glass sponges,
found in the deep ocean, possess intricate
skeletal structures made of silica. Within
these structures, there are tiny needle-like
structures called spicules, which resemble
the shape of Prince Rupert Drops. The spicules
have an incredible strength-to-weight ratio and
can withstand high pressures in the deep-sea
environment. However, if the tail of a spicule is
snapped or damaged, the entire structure can
collapse due to the release of internal stresses,
much like the explosive nature of the drops.
While not a perfect replica, the glass sponge
spicules offer an intriguing parallel in terms
of the combination of strength and fragility.
They showcase how nature has evolved to
1994 high-speed photography images of an exploding
Prince Rupert’s drop (Purdue University photos)
 create structures that can endure extreme
conditions while still being susceptible to
specific vulnerabilities.

5. Tektites: Tektites are natural glassy objects

formed when a meteorite impacts the
Earth’s surface, melting surrounding rocks,
and then rapidly cooling and solidifying
as they fly through the air. Tektites often
have distinctive shapes, and their internal
stresses are a result of the rapid cooling
process during their formation.

6. Fulgurites: Fulgurites are glassy tubes or

formations created when lightning strikes
sand or soil. The immense heat generated
by the lightning causes the sand to melt and
fuse together, forming glass-like structures.
Similar to Prince Rupert Drops, fulgurites
showcase the effects of rapid cooling on
molten materials and exhibit unique internal
stress patterns.

7.Stishovite: Stishovite is a rare and dense

mineral that forms when quartz-rich
rocks experience extreme pressure and
heat, such as during meteorite impacts.
Its unique internal structure results from
the high-pressure conditions, making it
one of the densest minerals on Earth.
While not identical to Prince Rupert Drops, Microscope images of small PRDs. A and B are binocular images
of bubble-bearing (A) and bubble-free (B) PRDs. C–F are cross-
stishovite demonstrates how natural forces polarised images of small PRDs obtained by photographing
can create materials with extraordinary through polaroid sheets. (C) Polarisation interference colours
properties. in a PRD that lacks an internal void. (D–F) Distortion of the stress
While these examples in nature share field (shown as distortion of the polarisation fringes) caused by
some visual similarities with Prince Rupert (D) a single bubble in the head, (E) multiple bubbles in the head,
Drops, it is important to note that the glass and (F) multiple bubbles in the tail. (Source: PNAS 2022 Vol. 119)
drops themselves are unique and distinctive
in their strength and fragility, which makes
them a truly exceptional and mesmerising
human-made marvel!

poly vinyl alcohol, while keeping other factors constant,
including the temperature of the solution, the material of the
glass, and the flame used. Testing these drops with a materials
tester revealed that drops made in PVA and ethanol solutions
exhibited greater strength than others.
One unresolved question that still remained a mystery
was the distribution of stresses throughout a Prince Rupert’s
drop, which would help explain their exceptional strength. To
address this, Chandrasekar and Chaudhri collaborated with
Professor Hillar Aben from Tallinn University of Technology,
who specialised in determining residual stresses in transparent
three-dimensional objects like Prince Rupert’s drops.
In their study, published in Applied Physics Letters,
the researchers used a transmission polariscope, a type
of microscope. They suspended a drop in a clear liquid,
illuminated it with a red LED, and measured the optical
retardation of the light as it passed through the drop. This
data allowed them to construct the stress distribution within
the entire drop.
The findings revealed that the heads of the drops have
significantly higher surface compressive stress than previously
believed, reaching up to 700 megapascals, nearly 7,000 times
of atmospheric pressure. This thin, surface compressive layer
accounts for approximately 10% of the diameter of the drop’s
head.
These new stress values indicate an exceptionally high
fracture strength in the droplet heads. To break a droplet, a
crack must enter the interior tension zone, but surface cracks
tend to grow parallel to the surface and cannot penetrate the
tension zone. The easiest way to break a drop is by disturbing

December 2023 | Science Reporter | 17

 A photo of a Prince Rupert’s drop taken with a special polarizer that helps reveals stresses
in the material (Source: Medicine and Health, December 19, 2018)
the tail, as this disturbance allows cracks to enter the tension
zone, unleashing a self-destruct feature. The result is a
beautiful display of glass fragments.
So, the solution to the mystery of Rupert Drops lies
in the interplay of tension, stress, and the specific cooling
process that sets the stage for their mesmerising behaviour.
It’s a captivating blend of physics, chemistry, and materials
science, offering us a glimpse into the hidden complexities of
the everyday materials that surround us.
The tension within the glass, an intricate interplay
of molecular forces, is the key to the drops’ remarkable
attributes. It imbues the bulbous head with exceptional
strength, enabling it to endure powerful impacts unscathed.
The tightly woven network of molecules resists cracks from
propagating, reinforcing the notion that strength often resides
beneath seemingly delicate surfaces.
Understanding the secrets of Rupert Drops not only
amazes us with their mesmerising behaviour but also teaches
scientists valuable lessons about the properties of materials
and the laws of physics. They remind us that even the most
ordinary-looking objects can hold extraordinary surprises!
Innovative Applications
The profound implications of Prince Rupert Drops extend
beyond mere scientific curiosity, as understanding this balance
between strength and fragility has led scientists to explore
new, stronger materials or develop strategies to prevent
catastrophic failures in various applications. Their properties
have inspired novel applications in material engineering.
Engineers have drawn inspiration from their unique structure
and internal stress patterns to create products with enhanced
durability and safety features. By mimicking these internal
stress patterns, they have developed impact-resistant glass,
strong composite materials, and even innovative designs for
engineering and safety equipment.
18 | Science Reporter | December 2023
1. Bulletproof Wonder: The amazing ability of the drops
to withstand hammer blows and bullets has sparked
interest in using them to reinforce bulletproof shields
and body armour. By harnessing the unique properties of
these drops, researchers are developing ultra-tough glass
and composite materials that could potentially be used to
create lightweight and robust body armour. Their unique
design and strength make them excellent candidates for
improving the protection of law enforcement and military
personnel.
2. Protective Eyewear: With their ability to withstand
intense impacts, Prince Rupert Drops have become
an inspiration for the development of impact-resistant
eyewear. Imagine wearing glasses that are not only
fashionable but also incredibly durable, capable of
protecting your eyes during sports or adventurous
activities. These glasses can protect workers in hazardous
environments, such as construction sites or factories,
from flying debris and other potential dangers.
3. Precision Tools: The shape and properties of these drops
have also influenced the design of precision tools. The
bulbous head of the drop, being incredibly strong, has
inspired the creation of stronger drill bits, cutting tools,
and even industrial diamonds. These tools can withstand
high-pressure applications and ensure longer-lasting
performance.
4. Pressure Release Valves: The fragile tails of the Prince
Rupert Drops come in handy when designing pressure
release valves. When the pressure inside a system
becomes too high, the delicate tails can shatter, allowing
for a controlled release of pressure, preventing potential
disasters.
5. Filmmaking Magic: In the world of filmmaking, Prince
Rupert Drops have become secret weapons for creating
breath-taking special effects. By breaking the fragile tail
 From Hooke’s (1665) Micrographia. Note the internal bubbles in the small drop in Left as
well as the conical cracks revealed in the cross-section (Fig. Y) and the intersection of
these cracks with the PRD surface to form circumferential fractures (Fig. X). Reproduced
with permission from the Royal Society. Source of image: PNAS 2022 Vol. 119
of the drop, filmmakers can produce realistic shattering
glass effects without the risk of injury from actual glass
shards. It’s like wielding a cinematic magic wand!
6. Scientific Research: Scientists and researchers continue
to explore the properties of Prince Rupert Drops to gain
insights into material science, fracture mechanics, and
the behaviour of glass under extreme conditions. These
drops serve as fascinating test subjects, helping scientists
understand the fundamental principles of strength and
fragility in materials. Engineers use Prince Rupert Drops
as a tool to study and understand the strength and stress
tolerance of various materials. By subjecting the drops to
different forces, they can simulate real-world scenarios
and analyse how materials respond under pressure.
7. Ultra-Strong Fibres: Scientists have been studying the
structure of Prince Rupert Drops to unlock the secrets
of creating ultra-strong fibres. Imagine clothing or ropes
that are incredibly sturdy and durable, all thanks to the
inspiration drawn from these magical drops.
8. Educational Tools: Prince Rupert Drops serve as
captivating educational tools, helping teachers explain
complex scientific concepts like material properties,
stress, and strain in a fun and interactive way.
9. Artistic Creations: Last but certainly not the least,
Prince Rupert Drops have captured the imaginations
of artists and craftsmen around the world. They have
become a source of inspiration for creating unique glass
sculptures, jewellery pieces, and stunning decorative
items. Who knew that science and art could come
together so beautifully?
The study of Prince Rupert Drops has propelled scientific
discourse into uncharted territories, challenging preconceived
notions and enriching our understanding of material science.
From the intimate knowledge of molecular arrangements
to the applications in engineering and beyond, these glassy
enigmas continue to shape our perception of the world and
inspire new discoveries.
Furthermore, the investigation into the mysteries of
Prince Rupert Drops underscores the importance of pushing
the boundaries of scientific exploration. Their enigmatic
behaviour serves as a poignant reminder that beneath the
surface of seemingly ordinary materials, there lie hidden
treasures of knowledge, waiting to be unravelled through
rigorous study and research.
Scientists love to study Rupert Drops because they teach
us incredible things about the nature of materials and the
power of physics. They help us understand how materials
behave under extreme conditions, like rapid cooling, and how
something that seems ordinary can have hidden surprises!
From protecting lives to advancing scientific
understanding and unleashing creative potential, these drops
are truly game-changers.
Who knows what other wonders await, as scientists and
innovators continue to unlock the mysteries of these magical
glass teardrops? The possibilities are as limitless as your
imagination!
Mr Ajai Chawla is a science communicator and directs/
produces science documentaries under the banner
‘Spectrum Productions’ based out of Delhi.
Email: ajai_c@yahoo.com
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 19
 NOBEL PRIZES 2023

Discovery and Synthesis of

Quantum Dots Wins the 2023
Chemistry Nobel
TV Venkateswaran

Moungi Bawendi, Louis Brus and Alexei Ekimov

Image Credit: Ill. Niklas Elmehed © Nobel Prize Outreach

20 | Science Reporter | December 2023

M
OUNGI Bawendi at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Louis Brus at Columbia University,
and Alexei Ekimov, until recently Chief Scientist
at Nanocrystals Technology, have been jointly awarded this
year’s Nobel Prize for Chemistry for their contribution to the
‘discovery’ and ‘synthesis’ of quantum dots.
Quantum dots are semiconductor nanocrystals with
nanometre-sized diameters that exhibit quantum size effects in
their optical and electronic properties.
Now, what is a semiconductor? Semiconductors have an
electrical conductivity between conductors and non-conductors
(insulators). Conductors like aluminium and copper, used for
electrical wiring, enable the free flow of electrons; insulators
such as ceramics, glass, rubber, and wood do not. If nudged
by applying voltage, semiconductors enable the partial flow
of electrons from atoms to atoms inside its lattice crystal
arrangement, generating electricity. In addition to voltage, the
conductivity can be controlled by manipulating the electric or
magnetic field, modulating the exposure to light or heat, and
mechanically deforming by applying pressure and doping with
impurities.
Semiconductors can be pure elements, such as silicon or
germanium, doped with small impurities or compounds like
gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide. The unique properties
of the semiconductor can be harnessed to design transistors
that control the flow of electrons or use the semiconductors
sensitise to light energy to make solar cells.
Quantum Dots — What are they?
Quantum dots are tiny nano specks of semiconductor crystals,
typically made from combinations of transition metals and/
or metalloids. At nano sizes, between 2 to 20 nm, the
semiconductor crystals exhibit a weird property called the
quantum confinement effect and become quantum dots. A
nanometer is one billionth of a meter.
Early quantum dots were made from transition metals
(Group III, Group IV) with the Vanadium family elements
(Group V), such as gallium, nitride, or arsenide. Presently,
quantum dots are based on compounds of Alkaline Earth
Metals (Group II) with Chalcogens (Group VI) such as
cadmium telluride; compounds of Alkali Metals (Group I) with
Transition Metals (Group III) and Chalcogen (Group VI), such
as Copper Gallium Oxide; Transition-metal Dichalcogenides
(such as Tungsten disulfide, Tungsten diselenide, Molybdenum
disulfide), Perovskites (such as methylammonium lead iodide,
caesium lead bromide), and carbon nanomaterials (such as
single-walled carbon nanotubes).
We can ‘excite’ an atom and boost an electron to a higher
energy level by supplying energy. The excited atom will
relax, and the excited electron will return to a lower energy
level by emitting a photon. The energy of the emitted photon
will be the difference between the energy of the exited stated
and relaxed state. The photon’s frequency is determined by
its energy, and the energy levels of electrons in an atom are
quantised; therefore, each element will emit photons of only
specific wavelengths. Hence, the emission spectra of each
element are unique, like a fingerprint. That is why atoms
give off different colours in the flame test: iron looks green,
sodium looks orange, calcium looks orange-red, lithium looks
red and barium pale green.
Quantum dots do the same trick but with a twist. When
illuminated with any wavelength, a vial of quantum dots,
irrespective of the materials it is made up of, absorbs the
energy and re-emits it as a single distinct, vivid colour. The
re-emitted light’s colour depends on the quantum dot’s size.
Make them small, and we get an intense blue. Make them
bigger, though still nanoscale, and the colour shifts to red.
In other words, in bulk, calcium shines only as orange-
red, but nano-sized can give off any colour just by adjusting its
diameter. When the particle size drops below a specific value,
the quantum size effect (quantum confinement) suddenly
appears magically. At that stage, the whole nanoparticle
acts like a virtual atom. Irrespective of the material, the
quantised energy levels in the nanoparticle depend upon only
its dimension.
What is the quantum confinement effect?
To understand this better, let us break down ‘quantum’ and
‘confinement’. Quantum here implies we are talking about
magnitude comparable to the atomic and molecular scales.
The word ‘confinement’ means the random motion of the
valence electron is restricted to certain discrete energy levels.
Imagine a huge dance floor that can accommodate tens
of dancers for a ballet performance. On that stage, each
performer can freely move from one end to another and
shake their body and feet without much constraint. But if we
confine the performance to a small platform, only a handful
of dancers can take part, and each of them has to ensure that
the movement of one does not come in the way of another.
Further, every dancer has to be conscious of the geometrical
constraints and be constantly aware of the boundaries of the
stage so as not to fall down.
Likewise, a bulk semiconductor has billions and billions
of atoms. For example, a typical drop of water has more than
5 thousand million million million atoms. That is 5, followed
by a whopping 21 zeros! In this case, the orbitals available for
the bonding are countless. On the other hand, a typical quantum
dot has just 1,000 to 10,000 atoms, where the electrons are
trapped and can occupy only defined energy levels. In other
words, the electrons ‘feel’ the border of the quantum dot and
respond by adjusting their energy. The quantum dot behaves
like a ‘virtual atom’ with specific energy levels.
Now, instead of a stage, assume we have only a school
bench that can seat three. The options for the dancers will
be bounded. And, if the show has to be made standing on a
stool, then the motion is heavily circumscribed. In a quantum
dot, the movement of the electrons is confined to all three
spatial dimensions. This restriction leads to unique electrical
and optical properties of quantum dots.
When the quantum dots are relatively big, the electron
wave can be comparatively bigger, producing longer
wavelengths in the spectrum. If quantum dots are smaller,
the electron wave is also constrained, emitting shorter
wavelengths. This implies that the big ones make red light
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 21
while the small dots are blue. The intermediate-sized dots
produce colours that are in between in the spectrum.
Stained glass
From the Middle Ages, glass blowers were known to
manufacture stained glass by mixing metals, metal oxides,
and semiconductors while making glass. Using the same
technique, physicists started to produce and use coloured
glasses as optical filters.
When sand, comprised of tiny grains of quartz crystals
made up of molecules of silicon dioxide, is heated to a high
enough temperature, it melts and loses its crystalline structure.
As the molten material is allowed to cool, it gains a different
form: an amorphous solid. This is a hybrid structure where
some features of a solid’s crystalline structure are coupled
with a liquid’s molecular randomness.
Glass, composed of pure silica (99.9%+), is colourless
and crystal clear. We can change the colour of the glass by
mixing certain chemicals. When chromium- or iron-based
chemicals are added to the molten sand mixture, we get green-
tinted glass, whereas mixing in cobalt salt produces blue glass.
The wavelength of the visible light determines its
colour. Visible light between 380 to 450 nm will appear
violet; between 450 to 485 nm as blue, 500-565 nm green,
565-590 nm yellow and 625-750 nm red. As a filter, red glass
will absorb all other wavelengths and permit only 625 to 750
nm waves to pass through. Therefore, physicists began to use
coloured glasses as optical filters.
A strange outcome appeared when a mixture of cadmium
selenide and cadmium sulphide was added during the
manufacture of the glass. Sometimes there was yellow-tinted
glass and, at other times, red. Physicists explored this mystery
and suspected that the size of the suspended particles inside
the glass ultimately determined the tint of the glass.
However, the precise cause of the puzzle was unknown.
In 1979, Ekimov decided to investigate the underlying
physicochemical mechanisms. He was working at the SI
Vavilov State Optical Institute in the Soviet Union — a leading
institution with cutting-edge facilities to undertake research in
optics. He decided to investigate the structure and chemical
composition of the added impurities in the final colloidal
structure and the mechanism of their growth.
His initial effort in investigating cadmium sulphide and
cadmium selenide did not yield results. He then turned his
attention to copper chloride. Ekimov annealed both glasses
activated by copper chloride and pure glass for comparison at
700°C for one hour. The absorption spectrum of the activated
glass showed the expected two lines related to the excitonic
transitions connected with a spin–orbit split valence band of
copper chloride. These lines were absent in the pure glass.
This implied copper chloride crystals were simply suspended
as colloidal particles in the glass matrix.
Ekimov varied the annealing temperature and also
modulated the annealing time. He experimented with
temperature ranges from 500°C to 700°C, with annealing
time from one hour to 96 hours. The absorption spectral lines
22 | Science Reporter | December 2023
now differed. The lines moved towards blue at a reduced
annealing temperature compared to the bulk position.
Ekimov was sure there was a relationship between the
annealing parameters and particle diameter. To make sure,
with the help of his student Alexei Onushchenko, he took
small-angle X-ray scattering images of the glass matrix
samples. The glass matrix annealed at 500°C for four hours
contained copper chloride particles that were just 1.7 nm
wide, while the ones annealed at 700°C for 1-hour particle
size was 31 nm. In short, the particle’s radius was a function
of the inverse of the annealing temperature; it also depended
upon the annealing duration.
Putting things together, Ekimov concluded that as the
particle size became smaller, the absorption lines of copper
chloride mysteriously shifted towards blue.
Ekimov was well versed in condensed matter physics and
could recognise the size-dependent quantum effects predicted
by Herbert Fröhlich. Quantum mechanics was taking shape
during the 1930s. Electrons and other subatomic particles
behaved both as waves and particles. In 1937, solving the
Schrodinger equation (the mathematical model for electron
behaviour) for electron behaviour when the material is not
bulk but incredibly microscopic, Fröhlich stumbled upon the
size-dependent quantum effects. He found that the electrons
in such a tiny particle will be squeezed together, resulting in
drastic changes in the material’s properties.
Using Fröhlich’s theoretical prediction, Ekimov was
able to explain why the observed wavelengths correlated with
the size of calcium chloride nanocrystals. In two seminal
papers published in Soviet journals, Ekimov made the crucial
connection, tying his enigmatic observations to quantum size
effects.
Meanwhile, in the USA
Oblivious to the significant breakthrough in the Soviet Union,
Brus and his team were exploring liquid colloids in the Bell
labs. Their aim initially was not quantum size effect. They were
keen to explore the possibility of photochemistry and photo-
catalysis reactions using solar energy. Chemical processes
in industry depended on highly polluting technologies that
used high pressure and extreme temperatures to synthesise
chemical molecules. But plants use just sunlight to synthesise
complex chemicals such as carbohydrates. The semiconductor
material cadmium sulphide was known to absorb and release
solar energy. Brus and his colleagues thought that by using
cadmium sulphide, one could develop specific applications
that could replace polluting industrial processes with green
technology.
Compared to a lump, powdered sugar has more surface
area for a given weight. Hence, the powder takes much less
time to dissolve in water than the lump. Chemical reactions,
such as dissolving, take place on the surface. Therefore, Brus
prepared colloids containing nano-sized cadmium sulphide
crystals for the research.
One day, they had freshly prepared a cadmium sulphide
aqueous colloid sample and accidentally left it on the lab bench
to rest for a day. The aged colloid appeared in a different
colour. The researchers had earlier noticed that the colloidal
solution’s colour shifted over time after they were made.
Brus suspected that the smaller crystals in the colloid
were coalescing into bigger particles. Somehow, the change
in size was resulting in the colour change. They prepared a
fresh sample and measured the absorption spectrum to confirm
their hunch.
In the fresh sample, the size of the suspended cadmium
sulphide was 4.5 nm. However, the spectral lines were not
where they should have been with such tiny crystals. The lines
were shifted towards blue compared to the bulk cadmium
sulphide spectral lines. They allowed this solution to rest
and age. In aged colloids, the average diameter of suspended
particles reached 12.5 nm, and the absorption spectrum was
now closer to the bulk cadmium sulphide spectral lines.
They repeated the experiment with other solutions such as
zinc sulphide, lead sulphide, zinc selenide, and cadmium
selenide. They demonstrated the quantum size effect in each
of them.
How to make quantum dots
Sooji is made by passing wheat through the mill for coarser
grain. Then, it is sifted to remove both germs and bran. Still,
the sizes of the broken grains are not perfectly even. This is
adequate for making our upma and sooji halwa; this does not
work with quantum dots.
The size determines the property. The methods used by
Brus until then were to make nanoparticles and sort them after
to obtain a reasonably same-size sample. This was fine for
undertaking research. However, designing a manufacturing
process for making nanoparticles of reasonably the same size
was essential for quantum dots-based practical applications.
Enter Moungi Bawendi. In 1988, he joined Brus’s lab
as a research student. Bawendi experimented with various
solutes, heating them to multiple temperatures and trying to
obtain even-sized nanoparticles. The efforts were painstaking
and yielded little result. After receiving PhD, Bawendi left
Brus’s lab and joined MIT. Undaunted, he persisted in finding
ways to prepare higher-quality nanoparticles.
The major breakthrough came in 1993. The brainwave
was inspired by the earlier work of LaMer. During the 1950s,
LaMer and his colleagues showed two distinct sequential
events in the formation of nanocrystals in colloids. First, there
is a short burst of nucleation of crystal embryos, followed by
the growth phase of the nuclei.
Bawendi understood that if the nucleations could occur
simultaneously and the subsequent growth of crystals could
be arrested once they reached a particular size, he could get
nanoparticles of the same size.
Bawendi and his team injected as much chemical
ingredients into a hot solvent as needed to precisely saturate
the solution. A burst of simultaneous nucleation of tiny
crystals ensued. However, as the injected reagents were at
room temperature, the solution cooled suddenly. This abrupt
drop in temperature arrested further nucleation. Then, they
tweaked the solution’s temperature, nudging the crystal’s
growth to the desired diameter.
The resulting dots were identical in size and quality.
This ‘hot-injection synthesis’ technique allowed them to stop
the growth of tiny crystals in a solution when they reached a
desired size. Controlling the solvent temperature became the
tool to control the crystal growth size.
Quantum dots applications
Bawendi’s recipe for manufacturing a quantum of the desired
size opened up a world of possible uses for the dots. Some,
like the Quantum dot LED display (QLED) screens, are
already in the market. While other possibilities are showing
promise.
One of the earliest commercial uses of quantum dots
tech was in medical imaging. Cell biologists used them as
fluorescent imaging labels for proteins and other biological
molecules. When illuminated with light, the tags with varying-
sized quantum dots gleamed in different colours, revealing
the intricate structure of tissues. Recently, tagging cancerous
tumours with fluorescent quantum dots to help surgeons spot
them is being experimented with.
In the QLED, the ability of the quantum dots to absorb
light of any frequency and emit at a distinct wavelength
depending upon its size alone is exploited. The blue light
from the LED is made to shine on quantum dots to produce
the three primary colours — Red, Green and Blue (RGB). In
other display screens, primary colour production is always
accompanied by adjacent wavelengths. Therefore, when
we mix and display, the colours are flawed. Quantum dots
emit precise wavelengths; thus, a quantum dots display can
produce the slimmest wavelength of the three primary colours
compared to other displays. With not much of a mixing of
undesirable wavelengths, the resultant colour is vivid and
bright.
Quantum dots technology may revolutionise solar
photovoltaics. One strategy is to harvest as much sunlight
as possible. Most of the solar energy reaching the surface
of Earth is between wavelengths of 250nm to 2500nm. The
silicon-based solar cells can capture wavelengths of only
between 250-1100 nm. The next generation solar cell can be
fabricated with quantum dots of varied sizes that can absorb
more colours, or wavelengths of light, from the visible to the
infrared region of the solar spectrum. Another is to harness the
phenomenon called singlet-exciton fission in quantum dots.
The silicon-based solar cell can never generate more than one
electron from a single photon; however, in the quantum dots,
two excited states can be caused by an arriving photon, thus
yielding two electrons instead of one.
In quantum dots, we modify the size, shape and structure
rather than chemical bonds between atoms and molecules.
This distinction is at the heart of modern nanotechnology and
makes the quantum dots a potent quantum material.
Dr TV Venkateswaran is a senior scientist at Vigyan Prasar,
Department of Science & Technology, New Delhi.
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 23
 NOBEL PRIZES 2023

2023 Nobel Prize in Physics for

Developing Tools for Exploring
Electrons inside Atoms
K Smiles Mascarenhas

Pierre Agostini, Ferenc Krausz and Anne L’Huillier

Image Credit: Ill. Niklas Elmehed © Nobel Prize Outreach

24 | Science Reporter | December 2023

T
HE 2023 Nobel Prize for Physics has gone to three
Physicists. Anne L’Huillier and her team in 1987
discovered a new effect from infrared laser light’s
interaction with atoms in a gas. Pierre Agostini and Ferenc
Krausz demonstrated that this effect could be used to create
shorter pulses of light than were previously possible. Anne
L’Huillier is only the fifth woman to receive a Nobel Prize in
Physics since its inception.
First, a few words about the nomenclature. We are
familiar with prefixes like micro (10-6) and nano (10-9).
Students of science are also familiar with still smaller units
like pico (10-12) and femto (10-15). But not many are familiar
with an atto which is 10-18. An attosecond is therefore a billion
billionth of a second and this year’s Nobel Prize Laureates
are credited with opening up a new branch of Physics called
Attosecond Physics, the science of producing very short
duration of light pulses and to study fleeting phenomenon
using them.
The principle behind the idea of capturing fast moving
phenomenon is not new. A Humming bird flaps its wings at a
rate of about eighty times a second. They are so rapid that the
human eye can perceive it as a blurred effect. Photographers
learnt the trick of capturing the movement of its wings by
using fast shutter speed of the aperture. A British photographer
named Edward Maybridge in the year 1878 proved using such
techniques that a galloping horse at one point of time has all
its legs above the ground. Alternately, by illuminating the
Humming bird with flashes of light with short duration, its
wings can be “frozen”. Mechanical engineers borrowed this
idea and created a Stroboscope. A fault in a fast rotating part
of an engine can be studied by strobing it with flashes of light
with the right frequency.
The same principle applies to methods used to measure
rapid movements. Any measurement must be done more
quickly than the time it takes for the system being studied
to undergo a noticeable change, otherwise the result will be
blurred. This year’s laureates have conducted experiments
that demonstrate a method for producing pulses of light that
are brief enough to capture images of electron dynamics inside
atoms and molecules.
Scientists before the 1980s were trying to capture the
movement of an electron near the nucleus of an atom using
flashes of laser light of short duration. But the limit of duration
of such pulses was greater than about six femtoseconds.
Processes taking place inside the atoms are incredibly
short. In a molecule, atoms can move and turn in millionths
of a billionth of a second, femtoseconds. These movements
can be studied with the very shortest pulses that can be
produced with a laser — but when entire atoms move, the
timescale is determined by their large and heavy nuclei,
which are extremely slow compared to the nimble electrons.
When electrons move inside atoms or molecules, they do it so
quickly that changes are blurred out in a femtosecond. In the
world of electrons, positions and energies change at speeds of
between one and a few hundred attoseconds.
Before the 1980s, short laser pulses of the order of few
femtoseconds (fs) were considered to be the ultimate limit.
The first breakthrough was provided by Anne L’Huillier and
her team when they fortuitously discovered that a beam of
infrared laser when shone through a noble gas like argon can
produce even short pulses. In a series of articles, L’Huillier
continued to explore this effect during the 1990s, including
at her new base, Lund University. Her results contributed to
the theoretical understanding of this phenomenon, laying the
foundation of the next experimental breakthrough.
When the laser light enters the noble gas and affects
its atoms, it causes vibrations that distort the strong electric
field holding the electrons around the atomic nucleus. The
electrons attempt to escape from the atoms. However, the
light’s electrical field vibrates continuously and forces the
electrons to rush back to its atom’s nucleus. During the
electron’s excursion it collected lots of extra energy from the
laser light’s electrical field and, to reattach to the nucleus, it
must release its excess energy as a pulse of light. These light
pulses from the electron create the harmonics that appear as
short duration pulses.
Pierre Agostini and his research group in France
succeeded in producing still shorter duration by using the
well-known trick of Fourier analysis. It is known that by
adding sine waves and its harmonics at the right phase,
shorter duration pulse can be produced. They successfully
isolated the harmonics and produced pulses that lasted just
250 attoseconds.
At the same time, Ferenc Krausz and his research group
in Austria were working on a technique that could select a
single pulse — like a carriage being uncoupled from a train
and switched to another track. The pulse they succeeded in
isolating lasted 650 attoseconds.
Attosecond pulses make it possible to measure the time
it takes for an electron to be removed from an atom, and
to examine how the time this takes depends on how tightly
the electron is bound to the atom’s nucleus. It is possible
to reconstruct how the distribution of electrons oscillates in
molecules and materials. Previously their position could only
be estimated on a probabilistic basis.
Attosecond pulses can be used to test the internal
processes of matter, and to identify different events. These
pulses have been used to explore the detailed physics of atoms
and molecules, and they have potential applications in areas
from electronic devices to Biomedical Sciences. Attosecond
pulses can be used to push molecules, which emit a measurable
signal. The signal from the molecules has a special structure,
a type of fingerprint that reveals what molecule it is, and the
possible applications of this include medical diagnostics.
Heisenberg’s paper of 1925 became the cornerstone in
physics from the beginning of the 20th century. Last year’s
Nobel Prize in Physics on Quantum Entanglement seems
to justify his Uncertainty Principle. But what he could not
anticipate was that what was once ‘in principle’ unobservable
is now becoming accessible in laboratory experiments. We
may not yet be able to observe, in the strict sense, the position
and revolution of an electron around a nucleus, but today we
can “see” the dynamics of electrons in atoms, molecules and
matter in the condensed phase in laboratory experiments.
Dr K Smiles Mascarenhas was formerly a Scientist at the
Millimeter Wave Lab of the Raman Research Institute,
Bangalore. Email: smiles51@rediffmail.com
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 25
 NOBEL PRIZES 2023
COVID mRNA Vaccine
Pioneers Honoured with
Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine
Biju Dharmapalan
Katalin Karikó (left) and Drew Weissman
Image Credit: Ill. Niklas Elmehed © Nobel Prize Outreach
K
ATALIN Karikó and Drew Weissman received
the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for
their groundbreaking research, which facilitated
the creation of the immensely effective messenger RNA
vaccines for COVID-19. These vaccines have become one
of the most commercially successful medications in history.
Their contributions played a crucial role in advancing the
technology that allowed Moderna Inc. and the Pfizer Inc.
BioNTech SE collaboration to rapidly create pandemic
vaccines. These vaccines have been administered to hundreds
of millions globally, representing a pivotal stride in mitigating
the COVID-19 pandemic.
This is for the second consecutive year the Nobel Prize
in Medicine has been conferred upon researchers addressing
critical questions surrounding the novel coronavirus pandemic.
In 2022, the prize was granted to Swedish scientist Svante
26 | Science Reporter | December 2023
Pääbo, whose breakthroughs in Neanderthal DNA offered
crucial understandings into the human immune system,
including susceptibility to severe COVID-19.
The majority of the vaccines used till date employ a portion
of the pathogen they aim to defend against — either the entire
pathogen or a critical element, molecules such as proteins or
glycans derived from the surfaces of viruses or bacteria. They
deliver genetic instructions that cells in the body can interpret
to generate proteins when the pathogen invades the cell. In the
case of COVID-19, these vaccines consist of mRNA encoding
the “spike” protein present on the outer surface of the virus.
Consequently, the body manufactures replicas of this protein,
allowing the immune system to become familiar with it.
Scientists have long aimed to utilise DNA and RNA,
which contain the instructions for creating proteins and are
easier to modify than proteins, to develop vaccines. Within
 human cells, the genetic instructions stored in DNA are
transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA), which serves as a
blueprint for generating proteins. During the 1980s, scientists
were able to generate mRNA “in vitro,” meaning they could
do so without the need to initially cultivate large-scale cell
cultures, a resource-intensive procedure. However, the
mRNA produced in vitro was extremely fragile and triggered
an immune response, resulting in inflammatory reactions
within the body.
Late in 1987, Robert Malone was the one who carried
out an experiment that would go down in history. He created
a molecular stew by combining strands of messenger RNA
with droplets of fat by mixing the two together. When human
cells were exposed to this genetic stew, they were able to
take in the mRNA and start using it to produce proteins.
Recognising the wide possibilities this finding could have in
the field of medicine, Malone, a postgraduate student at the
Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California,
subsequently recorded some written observations, which he
authenticated with his signature and the date. According to
his statement on 11 January 1988, if cells have the ability to
produce proteins from supplied mRNA, it might potentially
be used as a form of medication too. Malone’s work later
that year demonstrated that frog embryos take up this type
of mRNA. This was the first time lipid droplets had been
employed to help mRNA enter a living organism. These
experiments were a stepping stone towards the development
of mRNA vaccines. Unfortunately, Malone’s work has been
largely neglected in the history of mRNA vaccines as it was
not published in a peer-reviewed journal and he locked horns
with his supervisor.
Illustration Credit: Nik Spencer/Nature; Nature 597, 318-324 (2021)
Nevertheless, despite overcoming obstacles in
transporting the mRNA, it remained challenging to utilise lab-
produced mRNA to generate durable and efficient immune
responses. This phenomenon can be attributed to the bipartite
structure of the human immune system. The non-specific
component of the immune system identifies and breaks down
foreign mRNA, initiating an inflammatory reaction.
This year’s laureates devised methods to overcome this
immunological resistance. Karikó and Weissman who met
by chance in the 1990s while photocopying research papers,
could have never anticipated that their research would be
pivotal in the battle against one of the deadliest pandemics in
human history.
While working at the University of Pennsylvania in
Philadelphia (UPenn), Karikó and Weissman demonstrated in
the mid-2000s that swapping one molecule in mRNA, called
uridine, with a similar one called pseudouridine circumvents
the innate immune defences of cells. Scientists at that time
showed little enthusiasm for adopting this novel strategy for
immunisation. Their research work was promptly rejected by
the esteemed scientific publications Nature and Science. The
study was ultimately approved by a specialised publication
known as Immunity in 2005. The work was so ahead of its
times that it received little attention at the time, as many were
sceptical.
However, their efforts caught the attention of two
biotechnology firms: Moderna in the United States and
BioNTech in Germany. These companies delved into research
on mRNA vaccines for conditions like flu and cytomegalovirus.
Unfortunately, these projects couldn’t progress beyond the
clinical trial phase for several years. The COVID-19 pandemic
became a game-changer for their research. The strategy
allowed Moderna and the Pfizer-BioNTech collaboration to
generate vaccines against COVID-19 in less than 11 months.
Katalin Karikó
Katalin Karikó’s path to success has been remarkably
unconventional. Hailing from a postwar communist Hungary,
she was the daughter of a butcher and was raised in a modest
house without running water. Her family cultivated their
vegetables, and amidst this rustic backdrop, she witnessed the
marvels of nature, fostering her resolve to pursue a career
in science. This determination led her to the United States
in 1985, where she arrived as a postdoctoral fellow to work
with Professor Robert Suhadolnik at Temple University in
Philadelphia.
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 27
 Back then, in 1985, there was rationing in Hungary,
and people were allowed to leave with just $100. So, Katalin
smuggled around $1,200 discreetly sewn into her toddler’s
teddy bear and moved to the US along with her daughter
Susan and husband Bela Francia. She left Temple University
in 1988 to work at the Uniformed Services University of the
Health Sciences in Bethesda, Maryland for almost a year
where she learned basic molecular biology and immunology
techniques. In 1989, she joined the University of Pennsylvania
in Philadelphia as a research assistant professor, a nontenured
faculty position. Despite this, her employment at the
University of Pennsylvania was unstable for a considerable
amount of time. She went from laboratory to laboratory,
receiving assistance from more senior scientists as she went.
She never received a salary that was higher than $60,000 per
year.
Karikó toiled in anonymity, confronted cockroaches in
a lab devoid of natural light, and encountered open contempt
and even the prospect of being expelled. She hesitated and
expressed reluctance as renowned research institutions
increasingly merged scientific and financial interests.
However, she remained steadfast in her conviction that a
transient and undervalued molecule known as messenger
RNA had the potential to revolutionise the world. Karikó
held the belief that mRNA might eventually enable regular
cells to function as little factories, capable of autonomously
manufacturing medications as needed. While many other
researchers opted to avoid addressing this complex subject
to pursue more financially rewarding and easily publishable
endeavours, Karikó persevered with it. She made significant
sacrifices to pursue her desire, yet the challenges she
encountered served as a source of motivation, leading to
her eventual success. Her life in science is well explained in
her autobiography “Breaking Through: My Life in Science”
published soon after the Nobel Prize announcement.
Drew Weissman
Drew Weissman was born in Lexington, Massachusetts,
United States, in 1959. Weissman gained work experience
throughout high school by working for his father’s engineering
company, which had a specialisation in manufacturing optical
mirrors for satellite applications.
Subsequently, he pursued studies in biochemistry and
enzymology at Brandeis University, culminating in the
attainment of both a bachelor’s and a master’s degree in
1981. At Brandeis University, he met his future wife, Mary
Ellen Weissman. Later, he enrolled at Boston University and
successfully obtained an MD degree and a PhD in immunology
and microbiology in 1987. In 1990, Weissman undertook
a residency in internal medicine at Beth Israel Deaconess
Medical Centre in Boston. After finishing the training,
Weissman took up a fellowship position at the National
Institutes of Health in Maryland. He conducted studies under
the supervision of American immunologist Anthony Fauci.
In 1997, Weissman joined the University of
Pennsylvania (Penn) in Philadelphia as a faculty of the
Perelman School of Medicine. He started doing research
on dendritic cells, which play an important role in immune
surveillance, and gradually concentrated his efforts on the
28 | Science Reporter | December 2023
Drew Weissman with the sculpture of Pseudouridine, the
molecule that made messenger RNA work, in his office
(Photo credit: The Washington Post)
development of mRNA treatments, particularly in the fields of
vaccine development and gene therapy. Soon after beginning
his studies at Penn, Weissman crossed paths with Karikó,
who also had an interest in using mRNA to prompt immune
responses against viral infections. Soon after, Karikó started
producing mRNA for Weissman’s study, and the two of
them started working together on projects involving mRNA
vaccines.
Beyond the prospect of quelling the pandemic, this year’s
prize recognises a work that was neglected and critisised
by peers. In the foreseeable future, experts anticipate that
injections delivering transient cellular instructions could pave
the way for vaccines targeting conditions such as herpes
and malaria, enhanced influenza vaccines, and, in the event
of continued mutations in the COVID-19 virus, updated
coronavirus immunisations. Moreover, researchers envision a
broader horizon beyond vaccines. They foresee the technology
enabling cost-effective genetic remedies for cancer, cystic
fibrosis, sickle-cell disease, strokes and perhaps even HIV.
Karikó envisions mRNA as a prospective treatment
for epidermolysis bullosa, a debilitating skin condition
characterised by painful blistering. She’s already contemplating
innovative approaches, suggesting, “What if we develop
mRNA that families can store in their refrigerators and apply
when their child’s skin starts to detach?”
Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman were brave enough
to walk a scientific path that very well could have ended in
a dead-end in their research career. But their love for basic
sciences and their resilient attitude took them to the highest
point in science.
Dr Biju Dharmapalan is a science communicator and an
adjunct faculty at the National Institute of Advanced
Studies, Bengaluru. Email: bijudharmapalan@gmail.com
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar
Prize (SSB)
for Science & Technology
2022
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology was instituted in the
year 1957, in the memory of late Dr (Sir) Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar, FRS, the founder
director of the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR). The SSB Prize
is awarded each year on the basis of conspicuously important and outstanding
contributions to human knowledge and progress, made through work done primarily
in India during the five years, preceding the year of the prize.
Any citizen of India engaged in research in any field of science and technology up
to the age of 45 years is eligible to be nominated. Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) and
Persons of Indian Origin (PIO) working in India are also eligible.
The SSB Prize, comprising a citation, a cash award of Rupees five lakh and a
plaque, is given to each person selected for the award in the following disciplines:
Biological Sciences
Chemical Sciences
Earth, Atmosphere, Ocean and Planetary Sciences
Mathematical Sciences
Medical Sciences
Physical Sciences
Engineering Sciences
The recipients of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology are:

Biological Sciences Earth, Atmosphere, Ocean Dr Neeraj Kayal

and Planetary Sciences Department of Mathematics and Computing
Dr Ashwani Kumar Microsoft Research Lab India
Molecular Mycobacteriology Laboratory Dr Vimal Mishra Bengaluru 560 001
CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology Water and Climate Laboratory neeralta@microsoft.com
Chandigarh 160 036 Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar
ashwanilaimtech.res.in Gandhinagar 382 355
vmishra@iitgn.ac.in
Medical Sciences
Dr Maddika Subba Reddy Dr Dipyaman Ganguli
Laboratory of Cell Death and Cell Survival Engineering Sciences Translational Research Unit
Centre for DNA Fiwngerprinting Diagnostics CSIR- Indian Institute of Chemical Biology
Hyderabad 500 039 Dr Dipti Ranjan Sahoo Kolkata 700 032
msreddncdfd.org.in Department of Civil Engineering dipyamantglicb.res.in
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Chemical Sciences New Delhi 110 016
drsahoo@civil.iitd.ac.in Physical Sciences
Dr Akkattu T Biju Dr Anindya Das
Department of Organic Chemistry Dr Rajnish Kumar Department of Physics
Indian Institute of Science Department of Chemical Engineering Indian Institute of Science
Bengaluru 560 012 Indian Institute of Technology Bengaluru 560 012
atbijug.iisc.ac.in Madras Chennai 600 036 anindya@iisc.ac.in
rajnish.ncl@gmaitcom
Dr Debabrata Maiti Dr Basudeb Dasgupta
Department of Chemistry Mathematical Sciences Department of Theoretical Physics
Indian Institute of Technology Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
Bombay, Mumbai 400 076 Dr Apoorva Khare Mumbai 400 005
dmaiti@chem.iitb.ac.in Department of Mathematics bdasgupta@theory.tifr.res.in
lndian Institute of Science
Bengaluru 560 012
khareVisc.ac.in
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 29
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize 2022
Biological Sciences
Unravelling
Tuberculosis
I
NFECTIOUS diseases have been a major cause of deaths
in humans throughout the development of civilisations.
Antibiotics have greatly increased the average human
lifespan and made it easier for people to accept modern
medicines. Since most infections are easy to treat with
antibiotics, lifestyle and geriatric diseases have been given
more attention than infectious diseases. However, the recent
advent of COVID-19 brought back the attention of the
scientific community and healthcare management system to
the scourge of infectious diseases.
Tuberculosis (TB) is a significant health problem
worldwide and is one of the most common infectious
diseases. It kills about 1.5 million people every year, making
it the world’s leading infectious killer. TB is caused by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). It usually affects the lungs
but may also affect other organ systems.
People with lung TB spread the disease through the air
when they cough, sneeze, or spit. A person only needs to
breathe in a few germs to get sick. A person infected with Mtb
sometimes takes two years to show symptoms. Interestingly,
only a fraction of infected individuals displays symptoms of
the disease. In a large fraction of Mtb-infected individuals, no
disease is observed. The immune system of these individuals
can restrict the growth of the Mtb but cannot eliminate the
infection. This kind of infection is called latent TB. These
individuals are not sick and do not spread the disease. It is
estimated that a quarter of the global human population has
latent TB infection. There is a 5–10% chance that these people
will get TB at some point in their lives.
People with weak immune systems, like those with HIV
or individuals getting treatment for an autoimmune disease
that suppresses the immune system, and older people are
more likely to get sick. It is believed that the infectious agent
Mtb actively replicates during active TB, where the infected
individual is sick and has symptoms. In the case of latent
30 | Science Reporter | December 2023
Dr Ashwani Kumar
Molecular Mycobacteriology Laboratory
CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology
Chandigarh
ashwanik@imtech.res.in
infection, the Mtb bacilli remain metabolically inactive and
do not replicate. In this state, it can tolerate the drugs used
to treat TB, and the bacilli is said to be in a non-replicating
persistent state. These observations suggest that Mtb switches
between an actively replicating state and a non-replicating
persistent state, and this switch dictates the outcome of the
infection. This switch is believed to be regulated by the host’s
immune status. When the immune system is inefficient, Mtb
replicates and causes active disease, while when the immune
system is strong enough to kill Mtb cells, the Mtb switches
into a non-replicating state.
Research over the decades has shown that oxygen levels
at the site of infection decrease, creating hypoxia when the
immune system is active through the development of well-
defined granulomas. These observations are summarised in
Figure 1.
The other factor regulating the replication switch is nitric
oxide, a gas the host immune system generates that can put
Mtb cells to sleep or even kill at high concentrations.
My laboratory works on understanding how Mtb senses
the host-generated cues to regulate this switch for acquiring
a replicative or non-replicating state. My work has earlier
shown that Mtb uses DosS and DosT-based nano switches to
monitor the host environment to activate the non-replicating
state. These switches get activated when the Mtb senses
hypoxia or nitric oxide. We have recently shown that Mtb uses
a heme protein called SenX3 to activate the replication state of
Mtb. SenX3 activates the replication switch in response to the
presence of ambient concentration of oxygen. Interestingly,
the mutant Mtb strain that does not have the SenX3 was
retarded for its ability to initiate replication in response to
exposure to ambient oxygen levels after staying in hypoxia
for some time. These observations delineate a plausible
mechanism explaining the oxygen-induced reactivation of TB
disease in humans after many years of latent infection.

Figure 1. Cartoon depicting regulation of mycobacterial replication by
DosS/DosT and SenX3
Figure 2. Cartoon depicting the role of biofilms in protection from
antibiotics and the host immune system
A major problem in the management of TB is its
cumbersome and prolonged treatment. Unlike other bacterial
infections, which could be treated by antibiotics within a
week, TB treatment requires multiple antibiotics for at least
six months. Ironically, this treatment is called short-course
therapy. The enigma is that the drugs are highly effective in
killing the Mtb bacilli in laboratory conditions. Still, we see a
different response when human beings are treated with these
drugs. These observations suggest that the TB bacteria, Mtb,
behaves differently inside humans or in animal models.
My laboratory has recently identified that Mtb could
form biofilms. But why is this observation important?
Let’s understand what biofilms are. Biofilms are a group of
single or multiple types of microorganisms that can grow
on surfaces. A typical example is dental plaque, a slimy
buildup that forms on the surfaces of teeth. One can compare
biofilms to human beings living in gated colonies and how
they provide protection to their residents. Likewise, a biofilm
(made of mostly water, a small component of carbohydrates,
some protein, DNA, and lipids) protects
the biofilm’s residents. It has been shown
that residents of biofilms show up to
1000-fold protection against antibiotics. Now
we know why the discovery and understanding
of biofilm in Mtb is so important to address
the scourge of TB.
Interestingly, disruption of biofilms
reinstates drug sensitivity in Mtb, meaning
that when out of biofilms, Mtb can again be
targeted by antibiotics. In the research carried
out at CSIR-IMTECH over the years, my
laboratory has shown that Mtb biofilms are
made up of cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer
made out of the linear chain of several hundred
to many thousands of glucose units. In nature,
cellulose is found in the cell walls of plants
and provides them with structural integrity.
The experiments done at my laboratory
demonstrated that disruption of cellulose leads
to the disintegration of Mtb biofilms. These
findings and observations have a significant
impact on how we can disintegrate these types
of structural organisations in the human lung
for both diagnosis and treatment of TB.
Cellulose was then used as a biomarker
to detect Mtb biofilms in the lungs of
experimentally infected mice and non-
human primates and in lung tissue sections
obtained from patients with TB. What is also
observed is that Mtb cells that are defective
in biofilm formation cannot survive in mice,
suggesting that biofilms protect Mtb from
the host immune system. Going further,
my laboratory used nebulised cellulase,
the enzyme that can degrade cellulose, and
observed that the administration of this
enzyme enhances the antimycobacterial
activity of the antibiotics used in TB treatment
(isoniazid and rifampicin) in infected mice.
These fundamental observations on how
Mtb is such a successful pathogen will help the research and
clinical community across the world in developing better tools
to address the silent pandemic of TB.
Mtb is an intracellular pathogen. Interestingly, host cells
(macrophages, wherein Mtb primarily resides) try to kill Mtb
cells. Towards this, they produce gases like nitric oxide,
carbon monoxide, and hydrogen sulfide. My laboratory has
delineated the signaling pathways that these gases modulate in
order to eliminate the intracellular Mtb cells.
My laboratory has also developed several tools to
monitor the health status of Mtb cells inside the macrophages.
These include sensors for monitoring ATP/ADP levels and
NADH/NAD levels. ATP is the cellular energy currency,
while NADH/NAD are important cofactors in several cellular
metabolic reactions. Thus, looking at their levels, the metabolic
health of Mtb cells could be ascertained. We are using these
sensors to screen drugs that could inhibit the critical metabolic
pathways and may synergise with the existing drugs.
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 31
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize 2022
Biological Sciences
Understanding
protein
conversations
inside human
cells
W
E are the laboratory of cell death and cell survival
at Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics
(CDFD), Hyderabad, studying everything that
happens in between this dynamic realm. Understanding
the behaviour of a cell from birth until death is essential to
unravel how biological processes operate and their impact on
health and disease.
Our body contains approximately 37 trillion cells. Each cell
has an intricate network of molecules (such as proteins, lipids,
etc.) signalling each other to regulate cellular homeostasis. In
our lab, we study how proteins talk to each other, how they
transmit signals in cells, and their significance for the overall
cellular health. Proteins in general are synthesised alone in
cells, but they will carry out their functions by “talking” to
other proteins via complexes they form.
As said in Dan Peña’s popular quote, “Show me your
friends and I’ll show you your future,” finding interaction
partners for different proteins can reveal their function better
in cells. This is what we do in the lab: finding interaction
partners of different proteins in cells. Any alteration in
the interactions between proteins leads to human diseases.
Therefore, to understand the reasons behind human disease
development and progression, it is very important to
understand the nuances of different protein complexes in cells.
We try to identify new molecular protein complexes
involved in systems that regulate cellular homeostasis,
in other words, systems that maintain the fine balance in
cells. The two systems that we are currently working on are
called the phosphatase and ubiquitin systems. Once proteins
complete their function, they need to be degraded in cells.
Accumulation of proteins or damaged proteins is detrimental
to the cell’s health and leads to human disease. Therefore,
all cells have evolved a system called the ubiquitin system.
Ubiquitin is a small protein that gets linked to proteins and
32 | Science Reporter | December 2023
Dr Maddika Subba Reddy
Laboratory of Cell Death and
Cell Survival
Centre for DNA Fingerprinting
Diagnostics
Hyderabad
msreddy@cdfd.org.in
acts as a signal for the attached protein to be recognised by
degradation machineries in cells. We try to understand how
ubiquitin gets linked to proteins, which is necessary for
understanding the fine balance of protein function in cells.
The second system we work on is called the phosphatase
system. Proteins in general are synthesised as inactive
molecules in the cells. Once synthesised, they need to be
modified to mediate their functions. Enzymes known as kinases
add a phosphate group to the proteins, while phosphatases
are enzymes that remove the phosphate group to maintain the
balance of active and inactive proteins. Any disturbance in the
balance of phospho-proteins is detrimental to cells and leads
to various diseases such as cancers, neurological disorders,
cardiovascular diseases etc. We try to understand how
different phosphatases work in cells to maintain this balance.
In cancers, some proteins get hyperactivated (oncogenes),
while some get suppressed (tumour suppressors). PTEN, a
Phosphatase and second most mutated tumour suppressor
gene in cancers, is known to control cancer cell growth by
suppressing growth factor signalling. We identified a new
partner for this phosphatase involved in the trafficking of
proteins in cells. We demonstrated that activation of this new
partner is essential for controlling the movement of oncogenic
growth factors in cells. This study highlighted a new function
of PTEN that was not known till then in protein trafficking
important for its tumour suppressor role.
In another study, we added a new feather in the cap of
PTEN where it regulates the cellular glucose uptake. Glucose
circulates in the blood of animals as blood sugar and is the
most important source of energy for cellular respiration.
A cell cannot take up circulating glucose without the help
of proteins called glucose transporters (located on the cell
membrane). However, these transporters are made available
at the cell surface from inside the cell through a process called

The Laboratory of Cell Death and Cell Survival at CDFD
recycling. In this work, we identified that PTEN prevents
this recycling process of transporters to the surface, thereby
inhibiting continuous glucose uptake by cells. As glucose is
necessary for the rapid development of tumours, this study
was critical in understanding the tumour suppressing role of
PTEN in the cell.
In a cell, there are nearly 100,000 different forms of
proteins and every protein is known to undergo phosphorylation
at one or the other stage. However, ironically there are
only ~200 phosphatases that can regulate this modification
on proteins. So, how do these limited numbers of enzymes
control all proteins in cells? We identified that the same
phosphatase (for example PPM1G) interacts with different
partners in different cellular compartments, thereby increasing
the diversity of substrates and functions. This makes a lot of
sense for the cell to spend limited energy to produce limited
regulatory proteins but, put them to better use by distributing
the labour in different compartments via forming complexes
in various permutations and combinations.
We did not limit the streams of our curiosity to just
phosphatases but also expanded them to the ubiquitin system.
Around 40 years ago, the ubiquitin system was discovered;
nevertheless, it is still largely believed that it mediates just
protein degradation. In our lab, during the past 14 years, we
found new evidence of non-degradative functions for ubiquitin
system where we have shown its critical
role in functions such as protein secretion
outside the cell, liquid-liquid like protein
phase separation, keeping the chromosomes
together during cell cycle, etc.
Proteins exist in dynamic promiscuity,
where an enzyme can act on multiple
substrates, a substrate can be modified
by multiple enzymes, and even multiple
enzymes can come together to increase the
diversity of their functions. From our lab,
we reported the interplay of a phosphatase
and a ubiquitin ligase, a phosphatase and
a kinase, a phosphatase acting on another
phosphatase, two different ubiquitin ligases
acting together, and many more interesting
and unique angles through independent
studies. This interplay among proteins is also
reflected in modifications either competing
with or facilitating each other. We reported a
study where the removal of a phosphate group
(by SHP1) from histone (the proteins that
bind DNA) facilitates its ubiquitination during
transcription.
In summary, our studies not only challenge
existing norms where a protein can only do what
it has been characterised for but also provide
innovative ideas to explore the additional roles
of proteins and dissect the different routes
corroborating a function. Protein interactions
hold a central role in biological functions
as they control mechanisms responsible for
maintaining healthy and diseased states. In
our attempt to understand how these protein
interactions hold physiological relevance in
diseases, we are currently exploring the role of phosphatases
acting as a molecular bridge in protein trafficking, which also
plays a major role in organ development in humans.
Science is dynamic and does not limit itself to certain
factors or proteins. Then, why should we? Therefore, we are
also exploring other protein modifications like methylation
and neddylation, which are controlling processes behind
neurodevelopmental disorders.
The pace of research in biology and medicine is
accelerating and with the advent of understanding diseases,
we must narrow down to the lowest denominator: the cell.
Our team at CDFD is tirelessly working to answer the bigger
question, “How does a cell behave?” We will find the answers
if we can comprehend the wiring that holds the cell together
and the conversations that take place between proteins.
Our knowledge on how the balance between protein
levels is maintained in cells while proteins carry out different
processes in our body is still nascent. A lot of work is
needed to understand how proteins work, talk to each other,
move from one place to another place in the cell and what
systems regulate these processes in cells. Once we have
this information, the knowledge generated from our work
will provide future therapeutic targets for different human
diseases.
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 33
 Science Reporter’s
Science Fiction
Competition 2023!
Here are the Results!
First

Second Jordan by Third

Amaan Tariq In the Quest of Truth
by Nandini Killa
Bounty by
Aryan Menon A Piece of Moon by
Monalisa Paul

Congratulations to all Winners!

Winning entries will be published In Science Reporter
The other entries that have been found worth publishing are:
1. Cosmic Convergence: The Tale of Dr Carter and Dr Reed by Akanksha Upadhyay
2. The Phantom of the mind by Sanah Kumar
3. Fates Intertwined by G Srivani
4. The Glitch! by Pooja Virmani
5. BLEACHED by Chabungbam Priya Devi
6. Whispers of the Abyss: Reclaiming Earth’s Destiny by Ankit Pratap Singh
7. The Quantum Breakthrough by Shakunthala Natarajan
8. AI Guru at Digital Ashram by Little Raghav and Prashant Raghav

34 | Science Reporter | December 2023

Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize 2022
Physical Sciences
Detecting
Anyons in
Graphene
I
n the universe, different natures of particles exist, like
Fermions, which obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle
and cannot occupy the same quantum state, and Bosons,
which can occupy the same state. However, particles called
Anyons are neither fermionic nor bosonic but rather something
in between, and their properties depend on their trajectory.
This gives rise to some unusual properties, which are not seen
in other particles. As a consequence, these particles could
potentially be used in the context of quantum computing, as
they are the possible building block for so-called topological
quantum computers.
Anyons are two-dimensional (2D) entities that exhibit
movement within a plane and are primarily studied in
Dr Anindya Das
Department of Physics
Indian Institute of Science
Bengaluru
anindya@iisc.ac.in
condensed matter physics. The past few decades have
witnessed extensive theoretical research into these entities
within two-dimensional systems, with strongly interacting
system like the Fractional Quantum Hall (FQH) state serving
as the optimal setting for anyons.
Why anyons are important? Quantum bits, known as
qubits, are the building blocks for quantum computing, but
qubits are highly susceptible to errors caused by factors such
as decoherence (interaction with the environment), thermal
noise, and other forms of noise and interference. However,
if anyons are used as qubits, then their braiding properties
(exchange among themself) can be employed to perform
quantum gates. The braiding of anyons is inherently fault-
tolerant due to the topological nature of their properties,
making them resistant to local errors.
Graphene and its hybrids like twisted bilayer graphene
are natural two-dimensional tabletop platforms, where Anyons
can be found at low temperature. However, in the laboratory,
the detection of Anyons are extremely challenging. The
charge of Anyons are fractional, and in some cases (special
anyons), they are electrically charge neutral, which makes it
almost impossible to detect by measuring electrical current.
It has been theorised that measuring heat (entropy) current
carried by the Anyons is the best bet to identify these particles,
though the heat current carried by these particles are extremely
tiny.
In this context, Anindya’s group at the Quantum
Transport Lab in the Indian Institute of Science has developed
the technique to measure the tiny heat flows that can help in
detection of these particles. So far, his group has detected
the heat current for several Anyons and is working towards
detecting the “special” Anyons in the coming days.
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 35
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize 2022
Physical Sciences

Dance of the
Neutrinos in the
Hearts of Stars
Dr Basudeb Dasgupta
Department of Theoretical Physics
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
Mumbai
bdasgupta@theory.tifr.res.in

S
upernovae, the cataclysmic explosions of massive
stars, are among the most energetic events in the universe.
They release an immense amount of energy and are
responsible for the production of heavy elements, scattering
them throughout the cosmos. These cosmic fireworks also
provide a unique laboratory for the study of fundamental
particle physics, particularly the elusive neutrinos.
Neutrinos are among the most abundant particles in the
universe, yet they are notoriously difficult to detect and study.
However, within the extreme conditions of a supernova,
neutrinos play a central role, undergoing collective oscillations
that hold the key to understanding both the astrophysical and
particle physics aspects of these incredible events.
In this essay, we will explore the collective oscillations
of neutrinos in supernovae, delving into the astrophysical
context of supernovae, the basics of neutrino oscillations, and
the peculiar behaviour of neutrinos in the dense and turbulent
environment of a collapsing star. We will also discuss the
implications of these phenomena for our understanding of
neutrinos, the universe, and the role of neutrinos in shaping
the cosmos.

One of the most remarkable Computer simulation of collective neutrino oscillations.

features of neutrinos is their ability
to oscillate between different
flavors as they propagate through
space. This phenomenon was first
theorised by Bruno Pontecorvo and
independently by Ziro Maki, Masami
Nakagawa, and Shoichi Sakata in the
1960s.
The neutrinos start in one of the flavors (shown in blue)
and periodically convert to the other flavor (red) over very
short times of order tens of picoseconds (shown along the
horizontal axis) and distances smaller than a centimetre
(on the vertical). After a few cycles, the oscillations get less
prominent. This is a signature of mixing of neutrino flavors,
called depolarisation.
Supernovae: Cosmic Crucibles
Supernovae are the final stages in the life cycle of massive stars,
culminating in a spectacular explosion that outshines entire

36 | Science Reporter | December 2023

galaxies for a brief period. The core of a massive star, after
exhausting its nuclear fuel, undergoes gravitational collapse
due to its own weight. The intense pressure and temperature
in the core lead to the rapid production of neutrinos through
various nuclear reactions, primarily electron capture and
positron-electron annihilation.
The neutrinos produced in the core of the collapsing
star are instrumental in the explosion process itself. They
interact very weakly with matter, allowing them to escape
the collapsing core relatively unscathed. This escape carries
away a significant fraction of the gravitational binding energy,
providing a crucial mechanism for the star to shed mass and
explode as a supernova. Neutrinos are, therefore, central
actors in this cosmic drama.
Neutrino Oscillations
Neutrinos are elementary particles that come in three flavors:
electron neutrinos, muon neutrinos, and tau neutrinos.
Each flavor is associated with a corresponding charged
lepton (electron, muon, or tau). Neutrinos are electrically
neutral and have tiny, but non-zero, masses. Their peculiar
property, one that earned them the nickname “ghost particles”,
is their extremely weak interaction with matter. This weakness
makes them exceedingly difficult to detect, as they can pass
through vast amounts of material without leaving a trace.
One of the most remarkable features of neutrinos is their
ability to oscillate between different flavors as they propagate
through space. This phenomenon was first theorised
by Bruno Pontecorvo and independently by Ziro Maki,
Masami Nakagawa, and Shoichi Sakata in the 1960s. The
discovery of neutrino oscillations, which was later confirmed
through experiments like the Super-Kamiokande and SNO,
revolutionised our understanding of neutrinos and particle
physics as a whole.
Neutrino oscillations occur due to a mismatch
between the mass eigenstates of neutrinos (ν1, ν2, ν3) and
their flavor eigenstates (νe, νμ, ντ). As neutrinos travel
through space, they exist as a superposition of these mass
eigenstates. This superposition evolves over time, causing
neutrinos to oscillate between different flavors as they
propagate. The phenomenon is governed by the Pontecorvo
Maki-Nakagawa-Sakata (PMNS) mixing matrix, which
describes the probabilities of neutrino flavour transitions.
Collective Oscillations in Supernovae
When neutrinos are produced in the intense conditions of a
supernova, they are produced essentially as a pure flavor state
(νe, νμ, ντ). As they traverse the outer layers of the star,
these neutrinos encounter the dense and turbulent matter.
The dense matter inside a collapsing star introduces matter
effects that can modify the flavor evolution of neutrinos. In
a process analogous to the Mikheyev-Smirnov-Wolfenstein
(MSW) effect in the context of solar neutrinos, neutrinos
passing through the supernova’s outer layers can experience
resonance conversions, particularly for electron neutrinos.
This means that electron neutrinos can partially convert to
other flavors (νμ, ντ) due to their interactions with ordinary
matter in the dense medium.
However, the most intriguing aspect of oscillations
in supernovae is their dependence on the overall neutrino
density and the presence of self-interactions among neutrinos
themselves. Unlike the case of neutrinos propagating through
empty space or ordinary matter (without neutrinos themselves
forming a big part of the density), the collective oscillations
inside a supernova are governed by the neutrino-neutrino
interaction, and show a much more coherent behaviour. These
oscillations are called “collective oscillations”.
This self-interaction arises from the fact that neutrinos
are electrically neutral but interact via the Weak force (which
is perhaps more famously responsible for radioactivity of
some chemical elements). As a result, they can scatter off one
another through neutral current interactions. The cumulative
effect of these interactions in the case of forward-scattering,
where there is no change in momentum if the neutrino, can
lead to a coherent change in the neutrino flavor distribution,
effectively inducing collective oscillations.
These changes in the flavor distributions occur in a
synchronised way for all neutrinos, across energies and
direction in which they are emitted. This coordinated
evolution is very peculiar, and not seen in ordinary neutrinos
oscillations. Of course, such collective behaviour is seen
in other situations where many independently acting agents
end up acting in sync, e.g., the flights of a flock of birds,
or a school of fish. To a degree even the motion of people
in crowded areas show elements of such collective motion,
whether in the Mexican waves at a cricket stadium or in the
coordinated motions of daily commuters alighting the Mumbai
Local at rush hour! Intriguingly, such changes and motions
in the case of neutrinos can occur within extraordinarily
short times (nanoseconds), due to what is called an
“instability”.
Two questions of prime interest are:
1. What are the conditions under which these collective
instabilities can occur? This is especially crucial to
understand whether instabilities indeed occur in the
dense regions of the star, or do these unusual oscillations
require fine-tuned conditions that are not usually met in
Nature.
2. What are the final states of the neutrinos that have
undergone collective oscillations? Oscillations lead to a
periodic time-dependent change in the flavor composition
of the neutrino flux emitted from the star. But are these
time-dependent changes observable? What impact do
they have?
My work on this topic has focused on these two
questions. In a series of papers we have shown that the
conditions for instability can be mathematically identified
and a simple and rather generic condition must be obeyed
by the emitted neutrino fluxes (or more precisely the phase
space distributions): the fluxes for two kinds of flavors must
be such that for some energies or emission directions one of
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 37
the flavors dominates, whereas the other flavor dominates at
other energies. If a single flavor dominates at all energies or
angles, there is no instability. The final impact of collective
oscillations remains a matter of further study, but our work
suggests that a partial-mixing of the flavors is achieved. This
is called “depolarisation”.
The behaviour of collective oscillations in supernovae is
complex and can vary depending on several factors, including
the neutrino energy spectra, their angular distributions, the
neutrino density profile in the star etc. Various numerical
simulations and theoretical models have been developed
to understand these phenomena, but a complete analytical
description remains a challenging problem.
Implications and Significance
The study of collective neutrino oscillations in supernovae
has profound implications for both astrophysics and particle
physics. Here, we will explore some of the key consequences
and open questions associated with this fascinating
phenomenon:
1. Supernova Explosion Mechanism: As mentioned
earlier, neutrinos play a crucial role in the explosion
of a supernova by carrying away a significant fraction
of the gravitational binding energy. Understanding
the details of neutrino oscillations within the
supernova environment is essential for unraveling the
explosion mechanism and the energy deposition
processes.
2. Neutrino Mass Hierarchy: The mass hierarchy of
neutrinos — specifically, whether the mass eigenstate
which has the smallest overlap with the electron-neutrino
is the heaviest or lightest — remains an open question
in particle physics. Collective oscillations in supernovae
could provide a unique laboratory for probing the
neutrino mass hierarchy, as the hierarchy dependent
flavor conversions may leave imprints on the observed
neutrino signals.
3. Neutrino Properties: Collective oscillations in
supernovae can shed light on various neutrino properties,
including the mixing angles in the PMNS matrix and the
absolute neutrino masses. These insights are valuable for
constraining the Standard Model of particle physics and
beyond.
4. Supernova Neutrino Observations: The detection of
neutrinos from a supernova is a unique and direct way
to study the inner workings of these cosmic explosions.
Several neutrino detectors, such as Super-Kamiokande,
IceCube, and the future DUNE experiment, aim to
observe neutrinos from supernovae and gain insights into
collective oscillations and other phenomena.
5. Astrophysical Implications: Collective oscillations may
have implications for the synthesis of heavy elements
in supernovae, as the flavor evolution of neutrinos
can influence the conditions within the explosion.
Additionally, they could impact the nucleosynthesis of
rprocess elements, contributing to our understanding of
38 | Science Reporter | December 2023
the astrophysical origin and cosmic abundance of certain
isotopes.
Challenges and Future Prospects
Despite the exciting prospects associated with the study of
collective neutrino oscillations in supernovae, significant
challenges persist. The complexity of the problem,
characterised by the interplay of matter effects, neutrino-
neutrino interactions, and multi-dimensional simulations,
makes a comprehensive understanding elusive. Here are some
of the ongoing efforts and future prospects:
1. Numerical Simulations: Advanced numerical simulations
are essential for capturing the intricate behaviour of
collective oscillations. These simulations involve solving
the neutrino transport equation coupled with the equations
of hydrodynamics for the collapsing star. Improving the
accuracy and sophistication of these simulations is an
ongoing endeavour.
2. Experimental Observations: The detection of neutrinos
from nearby supernovae is crucial for testing theoretical
models of collective oscillations. Besides existing
experiments like Super-Kamiokande and IceCube,
the upcoming DUNE (Deep Underground Neutrino
Experiment) and Hyper-Kamiokande experiments hold
great promise for observing supernova neutrinos with
unprecedented precision.
3. Interplay with Other Physics: Collective oscillations in
supernovae are not isolated phenomena but are connected
to various aspects of astrophysics and particle physics.
Understanding their interplay with nucleosynthesis,
neutrino mass hierarchy, and the equation of state of
nuclear matter is essential for a comprehensive picture.
Concluding Remarks
Collective oscillations of neutrinos in supernovae represent a
fascinating convergence of astrophysics and particle physics.
These ghostly particles, produced in the extreme environments
of collapsing stars, undergo complex flavor conversions due to
matter effects and interactions with one another. Studying these
oscillations provides insights into the explosion mechanisms
of supernovae, the properties of neutrinos, and the origin of
elements in the universe.
As we continue to refine our theoretical models and
observational techniques, the study of collective neutrino
oscillations in supernovae promises to unlock the secrets of
both the smallest particles and the grandest cosmic events.
It is a testament to the remarkable synergy between our
understanding of the fundamental building blocks of the
universe and the awe-inspiring phenomena that shape the
cosmos. In this cosmic symphony, neutrinos dance in a
beautiful and enigmatic choreography that continues to
captivate the curiosity of scientists and the imagination of
all who gaze at the night sky and wonder about their own
connection to the Cosmos.
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize 2022
Chemical Sciences
Developing catalysts
and ligands to create
new chemicals,
drug molecules and
materials
A
s synthetic chemists, we aim to make new, harder-
to-access chemicals from easily available starting
materials. Typically, this is accomplished through the
use of cost-inefficient and multistep processes. Our goal is
to simplify the bond breaking and formation processes at the
molecular level, eventually reducing this pathway to a single-
step process with high efficiency. In addition, we take delight
in identifying novel reactivity harnessing transition-metal
catalysis that could ultimately be applicable for the synthesis
of complex natural products, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals,
and valuable materials.
We have developed reactions that are catalysed, which
is a procedure in which the reaction is impacted by chemicals
that stay intact at the end of the reaction. Catalysis alters the
course of a reaction, allowing it to be accessed under much
simpler and gentler conditions.
We have developed reactions that
are catalysed, which is a procedure
in which the reaction is impacted
by chemicals that stay intact at the
end of the reaction. Catalysis alters
the course of a reaction, allowing it
to be accessed under much simpler
and gentler conditions.
Although C–H bonds are common in organic molecules,
breaking them and substituting the hydrogen atom with
another molecule is difficult. We don’t want to activate/break
all of the molecules’ C–H bonds at the same time; that would
be useless. There is also the issue of selectivity when there are
40 | Science Reporter | December 2023
Dr Debabrata Maiti
Department of Chemistry
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Mumbai
dmaiti@chem.iitb.ac.in
numerous similar C–H bonds in the molecule and only one
needs to be activated.
To achieve selectivity, our group has concentrated
primarily on the discovery of novel organometallic
catalysts and the design of ligands. This site-specific C–H
functionalisation technique would allow chemists for the
introduction of new chemical groups toward the end of
a synthetic sequence, which means new molecules can
be rapidly accessed without laborious de novo chemical
synthesis. Over the last decade, medicinal chemists have
begun to implement LSF strategies into their drug discovery
programmes, affording benefits such as efficient access to
diverse libraries to explore structure-activity relationships and
the improvement of physicochemical and pharmacokinetic
properties. We exploited C–H activation techniques developed
in our lab to accomplish Late-Stage Functionalisation (LSF)
on a number of commercialised medications. In one of our
recent works, our team developed a counter-intuitive chemical
reaction to simplify the production of biologically important
compounds. The reaction activates unreactive C–H bonds to
form essential compounds called lactones, which are found in
natural products and pharmaceuticals.
Besides C–H bond activation, we also aim to harness
the power of cutting-edge electrocatalytic and photocatalytic
strategies to overcome energy barriers for chemical bond
manipulation that are unattainable by current synthetic methods.
Transition-metal catalysed cross-coupling is a transformative
method for carbon–carbon bond formation that accounts for
12% of reactions conducted in the pharmaceutical industry.
We realised that next-generation cross-coupling reactions
are needed to support the greater three-dimensionality of
pharmaceuticals and to reduce reliance on precious metals
and unstable aryl/alkyl nucleophile reagents in the discovery
and manufacture of medicines. In this endeavour, our group
is developing catalysts for C(sp2)–C(sp3) and C(sp2)–C(sp2)
cross-electrophile coupling that rely on abundant aryl and
alkyl halides/pseudohalides electrophiles.    transforming simple organic molecules
C–H activation has just recently begun to show promise
in terms of generating a sustained and cost-effective
chemical reaction. Our developed processes make it easier
to manufacture life-saving medications, agrochemicals, and
other commodities. On the other hand, utilisation of LSF
by medicinal chemists is on the rise, both in academia and
in industry. The maturation of the LSF field to produce
methodologies bearing increased regioselectivity, scope, and
functional group tolerance is envisaged to narrow the gap
between methodology development and medicinal chemistry
research. We expect that the sheer versatility of these
approaches established in our lab in facilitating challenging
chemical transformations of bioactive molecules will continue
to increase the efficiency of the drug discovery process.
A team at IIT Bombay is developing
diverse catalysts and ligands for
into complex natural products, drug
molecules and materials in step and
atom-economic fashion.
Overall, our team at IIT Bombay is developing diverse
catalysts and ligands for transforming simple organic
molecules into complex natural products, drug molecules
and materials in step and atom-economic fashion. These
conceptual developments have significantly impacted materials
research, agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals industry.
Besides, we have been closely working with research-focused
companies aiming at new drug discovery, agrochemicals and
materials.
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 41
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize 2022
Engineering Sciences
Development of novel
structural fuses to
reduce earthquake
disaster risks
T
he Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
2015-2030 outlines four action plans for reduction
of disaster risks. Considering about 58% of India is
vulnerable to earthquakes, the mitigation of earthquake risks
through strengthening the existing infrastructures and building
seismic-resilient structures is paramount in this context.
The term “seismic-resilient” refers to the system capable
of bouncing back to its original stage within a short time after
an earthquake event with minimum disruptions, loss of life
and damage to property. This can be achieved by adopting
cost-effective technologies involving robust seismic design,
earthquake absorbing systems and novel materials in the
construction of civil infrastructures.
Traditionally, seismic design methods adopted worldwide
allow the civil structures to get damaged in the event of a
moderate or major earthquake without their complete collapse.
This is due to the fact that it would be expensive to build a
structure to remain undamaged using the traditional design
methods for an earthquake event that may or may not occur
during the design life of the structure. The design concepts
are primarily based on the equivalent lateral forces (i.e., the
product of mass and acceleration) with special reinforcement
detailing of members to ensure that the critical elements of
structures are least damaged to avoid the stability issues. This
means that, after an earthquake, the damaged elements need
to be repaired to make them serviceable. Since there is no
quantification carried out to ensure the extent of damage to
be within the acceptable limits, many recent earthquakes have
shown that the structures designed using the current methods
have either been collapsed completely or been damaged to
such an extent that is beyond repairable.
Supplemental energy dissipation technique is one of the
effective ways to reduce the damage/collapse of civil structures
42 | Science Reporter | December 2023
Dr Dipti Ranjan Sahoo
Professor of Structural Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
drsahoo@civil.iitd.ac.in
due to earthquakes. The input seismic energy is dissipated in
structures in the form of damage to structural elements. If
the entire seismic energy or a part of it can be dissipated
in supplemental (additional) elements not critical for overall
stability/functionality of structures, the primary load-bearing
elements (such as columns, beams, bridge piers, etc.) shall
remain undamaged or be minimally damaged. Hysteretic
energy dissipation achieved by yielding metallic elements,
such as steel or aluminum, is the most cost-effective technique
adopted for the purpose of supplemental energy dissipation.
This can be implemented in a building/bridge structure
in the form of devices (structural fuses) or systems
(braces).
The metallic elements have a problem of buckling
under compression loading thereby making them ineffective
in resisting seismic loads. To eliminate this undesirable
behaviour and to maximise the energy absorbing capacity,
buckling-restrained devices have been developed. Depending
on the site constraints, these devices may be installed
diagonally between joints of members, or partially filling the
panel or just below the beams of buildings. These devices
are sacrificial in nature meaning that they absorb seismic
Supplemental energy dissipation
technique is one of the effective
ways to reduce the damage/
collapse of civil structures due to
earthquakes. The input seismic
energy is dissipated in structures
in the form of damage to structural
elements.
energy by undergoing inelastic deformation in tension, shear
of flexure. As a result, the main structures (building, bridges,
etc.) are subjected to much less seismic actions compared to
those without these devices.
At IIT Delhi, different types of energy absorbing devices
(structural fuses) have been developed using locally available
materials. The prototype testing and application on building
frames to study their effectiveness under earthquake loading
have been carried out for each one of them. These devices
are not only effective and least expensive, but also ready for
on-site production and installation.
Figure 1 shows a typical application of a structural fuse
in a building frame structure. The structural fuse, named as
Buckling-Restrained Aluminum Shear Yielding Device (BR-
AlSYD), consists of a soft aluminium core plate sandwiched
between restraining elements on both sides of it. These
restraining elements are designed in such a way that their top
segments move along with beam while the bottom segments
remain at their positions. As a result, the aluminum core plate

2.(a)

(a)

1.(a)

2.(b)
(Figure 2: (a) A typical all-steel buckling-restrained brace
and (b) its hysteretic behavior
Shear Stress (MPa)

dissipates energy by undergoing shear yielding deformation

without buckling under earthquake loading. The top portions
are attached to the beam by means of anchor bolts whereas the
bottom portions are attached to a rigid bracing system. This
leads to nearly similar load-bearing capacities and deformability
in both pull and push directions resulting in excellent energy
dissipation. In addition to meeting the energy dissipation
demand due to an earthquake, the hysteretic damping reduces
the maximum vibration response of structures. These passive
devices do not require any electrical/mechanical energy to get
them activated during the earthquakes.
Shear Strain (mm/mm) All-steel Buckling-Restrained Braces (ABRBs) are special
1.(b) structural systems that are installed in buildings/bridges to
Figure 1: (a) Implementation of a shear yielding device in a provide lateral strength and ductility as well as to dissipate the
building frame and (b) typical hysteretic behavior of device seismic energy. As shown in Figure 2(a), ABRBs are made up
under cyclic loading of all steel elements connected to each other by means of bolts.

December 2023 | Science Reporter | 43

 (a)
Figure 3: (a) Upgradation of concrete frame structures using structural fuse
and (b) Performance of structure under cyclic loading
Unlike conventional BRBs, these braces can be assembled
and fabricated at the site using locally available materials
and facilitate the post-earthquake inspection of their central
load-bearing elements. As evidenced in prototype testing,
these braces are equally effective in resisting the lateral loads
and dissipating hysteretic energy under earthquake loading.
This makes them the most effective structural system to resist
earthquake loading with least expenses.
One of the objectives of seismic resilient structures is to
make them useable during and after an earthquake event. Very
often, structures exhibit a permanent residual deformation
after an earthquake leaving them in a tilted position. Whereas
these damages may not be severe from the safety point,
no one would probably occupy a structure which is tilted.
In order to bring them back to their original position, self-
centering structural systems have been developed using novel
superelastic Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) materials. Fe-based
SMA has been adopted as the main load-bearing element to
offer adequate strength, deformability and most importantly,
recentering characteristics. These materials have been tested
in the laboratory to investigate their mechanical characteristics
as well as to quantify their earthquake-resistant properties.
At IIT Delhi, different types of energy
absorbing devices (structural
fuses) have been developed using
locally available materials. The
prototype testing and application
on building frames to study their
effectiveness under earthquake
loading have been carried out for
each one of them.
44 | Science Reporter | December 2023
(b)
The proposed technology is not only effective in the new
constructions but also has a great potential for the upgradation
and retrofitting of seismically deficient Reinforced Concrete
(RC) and steel framed structures, such as residential/office
buildings, hospitals, school buildings. These braces can
also be conveniently adopted in steel and concrete bridges
to enhance their earthquake-resistance. The implementation
of this technique in the existing structures reduces overall
retrofitting cost and minimises the intervention and downtime.
The effectiveness of the metallic yielding-based devices
has been tested on a typical application of concrete frame
buildings with stilt floor (open ground story). Such buildings
have shown to perform very badly during many earthquakes,
including the 2001 Bhuj Earthquake. As shown in Figure 3,
the devices are placed at the beam level of only ground story.
Cyclic testing of the upgraded structure showed that their
performance could be significantly improved even for high
intensity earthquake events. Six patents have been filed on
passive vibration control devices, such as Buckling-inhibited
shear yielding dampers, All-steel buckling-restrained braces
and Self-centering braces using superelastic materials.
In addition to the earthquake energy absorbing systems,
a new seismic design method, namely, Performance-based
plastic design method, has been developed to provide a
flexibility to the designers and owners to design a new
structure for a targeted seismic intensity level in a simplified
way without following an iterative procedure. It also provides
a framework to estimate cost and time required to upgrade
existing seismically deficient structures. Other areas of
research being undertaken at IIT Delhi include cold-formed
(prefabricated and lightweight) steel structures, column-free
steel structures, composite hybrid columns, high-strength
steel and advanced seismic testing methods.
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize 2022
Earth, Atmosphere, Ocean & Planetary
Sciences
Integrated Framework
Estimating the
Contribution of
Climate and Human
Interventions
D
r Vimal Mishra’s research focuses on large-scale
hydrological modelling, remote sensing, and climate
change impact assessment. Dr Mishra examines the
climate change impacts on water resources and hydrological
extremes (floods and droughts).
The water cycle has witnessed profound changes due to
climate change and human interventions. Moreover, climate
change and human interventions have considerably affected
India’s water availability and water demands. However,
the relative contribution of climate change and human
interventions (e.g. irrigation and reservoir storage) on water
availability remained unexplored.
The research group has
demonstrated that while
climate change has affected
the rainfall characteristics that
reduced groundwater recharge,
groundwater pumping for irrigation
caused a rapid groundwater
decline in north India.
Dr Mishra’s research group has demonstrated that while
climate change has affected the rainfall characteristics that
reduced groundwater recharge, groundwater pumping for
irrigation caused a rapid groundwater decline in north India.
He also proposed measures for groundwater sustainability in
north India under the warming climate.
He has developed an integrated framework that combines
in-situ and satellite-based observations and hydrological
Dr Vimal Mishra
Water and Climate Laboratory
Indian Institute of Technology
Gandhinagar
vmishra@iitgn.ac.in
The modelling approach is based
on an integrated framework
that uses observations, climate
projections, and state-of-the-
art hydrological model(s) that
represent human interventions
(irrigation and groundwater
pumping).
modelling to estimate the relative contribution of climate and
human interventions on water resources and hydrological
extremes. Through the modelling experiments, he showed
that excessive groundwater withdrawal from deep aquifers for
irrigation is the primary driver of the massive groundwater
decline in north India. Monitoring and forecasting hydrological
conditions (soil moisture, rainfall, etc.) are essential in
managing water resources. Therefore, his group developed
a near real-time hydrological monitoring and prediction
framework for India.
His modelling approach is based on an integrated
framework that uses observations, climate projections, and
state-of-the-art hydrological model(s) that represent human
interventions (irrigation and groundwater pumping). Thus,
he demonstrated that climate and human activities have
contributed to rapid groundwater decline in north India.
Moreover, groundwater-based irrigation in north India causes
moist heat stress during the pre-monsoon season. Water and
Climate Lab at IIT Gandhinagar has quantified the impacts of
climate change and human interventions on water resources
and hydrological extremes (drought and floods).
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 45
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize 2022
Mathematical Sciences
Analysing
Square
Matrices
H
ow does one use maths to detect changing climate
patterns, or to understand the onset and spread of
disease in a patient? This requires statistical data
analysis, combined with modern mathematical ideas. The
latter are related to one of my research areas in mathematics:
analysing square matrices which are “positive” in a certain
sense, and transformations of these matrices that retain the
“positive” structure.
As we learn in school, a matrix is simply a rectangular
array of real numbers, and is used to systematically encode or
store information about systems. For example, one can store
the prices of five different commodities in seven different
countries, in a 5x7 matrix.
In today’s world of “big data”, matrices are especially
useful and relevant to the statistical analysis of data.
Understanding how multiple variables interact among
themselves — and predicting with a high degree of accuracy
their future behaviour — is very important in today’s world.
For example, studying (with deep statistical analysis) the
behaviour over time of the temperature at multiple points
on the globe, can give an idea of changing climate patterns.
Or, one important tool in understanding the advent of cancer
or a cardiovascular disease, is to understand the interactions
between important gene markers identified in studies. A third
example comes from finance: understanding how different
stocks (or financial instruments) behave can yield important
information about the market and the economy as a whole.
Thus, it is important to understand well, and analyse,
dependencies between pairs of simultaneously varying
quantities. The simplest such dependencies are linear in
nature, and are called covariances. Now one important “big
data” use of matrices is to record the covariances between all
pairs of variables, say X-1, X-2,..., X-2023. This gives not
46 | Science Reporter | December 2023
Dr Apoorva Khare
Department of Mathematics
Indian Institute of Science Bengaluru
khare@iisc.ac.in
In today’s world of “big data”,
matrices are especially useful and
relevant to the statistical analysis
of data. Understanding how multiple
variables interact among themselves
– and predicting with a high degree
of accuracy their future behaviour –
is very important in today’s world.
only a square matrix (same number of rows and columns —
in this case 2023), but this matrix is also symmetric. That is,
the covariance between variables X-3 and X-25 is the same as
that between X-25 and X-3.
My research in matrix analysis focuses on the theoretical
analysis of such covariance matrices, and of the functions
that act on them entry-by-entry to yield covariance matrices
once again. Why might one want functions to act on “sample
covariance matrices”? Think of the covariances between say
temperatures at different points on the globe. A common —
and reasonable — assumption is that temperature patterns at
locations far away from each other, behave independently.
This is manifested mathematically as: the covariance between
variables denoting temperatures at faraway points, should be
zero. Thus we expect several entries of the “true” covariance
matrix to be zero. However, this matrix is unknown to us! So
we are forced to study approximations of it, which are obtained
by measuring and using the data observed at various points in
time and space. Thus we create the “sample covariance matrix”
as an approximation of the “true” covariance matrix. But there
is almost always some “noise” that comes in when observing
data, and this results in many small but nonzero entries,
which should actually have been zero in the “true” matrix.
 In such cases, one way to proceed in mathematically
studying such matrices is to “threshold” the covariance matrix
by changing very small covariance entries to zero, under the
(reasonable) assumption that those were just noise through
observation, as opposed to the true covariance which is zero.
This is how functions such as “thresholding” get applied
entry by entry to a covariance matrix, in order to improve
its properties and to make it fit better to a model. However,
acting by such functions comes with an inherent mathematical
challenge: what is the guarantee that the newly transformed
matrix can still be realised as the covariance matrix of some
dataset? This is not a given, but needs a certain “positivity”
condition as mentioned at the start. So, we need to ensure that
when we apply thresholding or some other kind of function
to (sample) covariance matrices, this operation preserves the
positivity structure.
Thus, one needs to better understand the entrywise
transforms that preserve the set of covariance matrices.
This question has been studied mathematically by experts in
analysis in the 20th century — Schur, Schoenberg, Rudin,
and Loewner to name a few — and my coauthors and I have
contributed further to this programme of research. I began
to work on this problem motivated by statistics, but soon
switched to its facets and connections to other aspects of
mathematics: combinatorics, algebra, and analysis.
My work has led me to discover previously unknown
“bridges” between algebra and analysis. For example, and to
get a bit technical, there is a nice set of 6-variable functions
called “Schur polynomials” that people study in algebra and
discrete mathematics. (Of course, this “6” can be replaced
by any positive integer.) These are also related to a branch
of maths called “Lie theory”, which is a crucial ingredient of
the Standard Model of particle physics (this is the currently
accepted model for the structure of particles that make up our
universe). A priori, these 6-variable Schur polynomials do
not have a connection to analysis, and are studied from the
viewpoint of algebra alone.
What I discovered was indeed such a connection of Schur
polynomials to analysis. In fact, I showed that they arise
very naturally in analysis, in the following (again technical)
fashion: When one acts entrywise by a smooth function f(x)
on multiples of a 6x6 covariance matrix obtained from just
one sample, and then one takes more and more derivatives
of the determinant of the transformed matrix, one obtains all
6-variable Schur polynomials. And as mentioned above, one
can change “6” to any positive integer in all of this.
Now this result had not been shown in the literature,
and so, was new. At the same time, it helped reconcile and
explain some very specific cases that had been worked out by
well-known mathematicians in the 19th and 20th century. For
example, Cauchy had worked out a famous identity in which
f(x) = 1 + x + x^2 + ... in the 1840s! This is one function
for which the above fact was known to hold. Or, Loewner in
the 1960s had worked out the case of a general function, but
only the first few derivatives. (For 6-variables, he worked
out the first 16 derivatives, and they are 0, 0, 0,..., 0, 0, 0,
and 1.) My findings were about every smooth function, and
every derivative of them. And this turned out to unify and
extend the results of Cauchy, Loewner, and Frobenius (also
in the 1800s), and yielded a new bridge between algebra and
analysis.
Together with Terence Tao (a Fields Medalist in
mathematics, currently working at UCLA, USA), in 2021 I
discovered another new bridge between these algebraic Schur
polynomials and analysis: one can explain a phenomenon called
“weak majorization” of 6-tuples of numbers (or replacing 6
by any integer), using Schur polynomials alone. This was
another new connection between algebra and analysis. And
perhaps since I work in multiple areas in mathematics, what
excites me the most in my research is to look for and discover
such bridges between seemingly different areas, which were
previously unknown. This allows one to better understand a
notion by studying it from multiple different angles.
Since I work in multiple areas in
mathematics, what excites me the
most in my research is to look for
and discover such bridges between
seemingly different areas, which
were previously unknown. This
allows one to better understand a
notion by studying it from multiple
different angles.
I conclude with a story about another recent project. I
had wondered whether a fundamental structure in algebra
(abelian torsionfree) is the same as a fundamental structure
in analysis (norm, or length) for every group. (Groups are
fundamental objects in mathematics, and are simply the sets
of symmetries of any system.) I asked many experts but to no
avail. Finally, in 2018 when I asked Terence Tao (UCLA),
he was interested in the question, but our discussions did
not lead to much progress. Tao asked if he could put this
question on his blog, which is very popular among
mathematicians.
I agreed, before boarding a 17-hour nonstop flight from
California to Delhi. When I checked upon landing, there was
tremendous activity on this question, on Tao’s blog! Numerous
people from all around the globe, in multiple timezones, were
contributing to the discussion and making progress. And in
the end, the problem got finished off within five days, and the
answer was: indeed, those two fundamental structures were
one and the same.
So this is another novel bridge that was not realised before
Tao put up my question on his blog. And yet, it connects
two very fundamental structures, which any Mathematics BSc
student sees within the first month of college. So there are still
fundamental and basic connections that wait to be discovered
even today, and I hope to continue to discover some of them
and join new bridges across different areas of mathematics, as
a part of my research activities in the future.
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 47
 Unlocking the Secrets of Nature
with Physics-Informed
Neural Networks
Monendra Grover, Dwijesh Mishra & Girish Kumar Jha
I
n the quest to understand the intricate workings of the
universe, scientists have always been on the lookout
for innovative tools and techniques to advance their
understanding of the physical world. In recent years, one
remarkable fusion of two powerful fields, physics and artificial
intelligence, has emerged to accelerate our comprehension
of complex physical systems. This fusion is known as
Physics-Informed Neural Networks (PINNs), and it's
changing the way we approach scientific discovery.
To grasp the significance of PINNs, we must first
understand the two components at play: physics and neural
networks.
Physics is the fundamental science that seeks to describe
the behaviour of the universe through the formulation
of mathematical laws and principles. These laws govern
everything from the motion of planets to the behaviour of
subatomic particles. Solving complex physical problems often
requires solving intricate differential equations that describe
how physical quantities change over time and space.
48 | Science Reporter | December 2023
Image Credit: pixabay
Neural networks, on the other hand, are a class of machine
learning models inspired by the human brain's structure and
function. These networks consist of interconnected nodes
(artificial neurons) that can learn patterns and relationships
within data. They have revolutionised fields like image
recognition, natural language processing, and game-playing.
PINNs bring these two powerful tools together, offering a
unique approach to solving complex physical problems.
At its core, PINNs are designed to bridge the gap between
data-driven machine learning and physics-based modelling.
They do this by incorporating physics principles directly
into the neural network architecture. This means that while
traditional machine learning models might require a massive
dataset to learn patterns, PINNs leverage the underlying
physical laws to make predictions more efficiently.
The world of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly
evolving landscape, and at the heart of this revolution lies
a technology that has bridged the gap between machine
learning and the fundamental laws of the physical universe.
Physics-Informed Neural Networks, or PINNs, is a ground
breaking concept that has emerged in recent years, promising
to revolutionise various scientific disciplines and industries.
But how did we arrive at this intersection of physics and AI?
Let's take a deep dive into the history of PINNs to understand
their origins and evolution.
Birth of Neural Networks
The inception of Physics-Informed Neural Networks in biology
marks a significant milestone in scientific innovation. This
ground breaking fusion of machine learning and fundamental
biological principles has the potential to transform our
understanding of life sciences. But where did this convergence
of biology and AI originate?
The use of AI and machine learning in biology dates back
several decades. Initially, these technologies were primarily
employed for data analysis and pattern recognition. However,
the introduction of deep learning and neural networks opened
new horizons for the field.
The concept of integrating physics-based modelling into
neural networks gained traction with the rise of deep learning.
Researchers recognised the potential of combining machine
learning's predictive power with biology's underlying
physical principles.
In recent years, pioneering researchers have harnessed
the capabilities of PINNs to address complex biological
PINNs — A Timeline
To truly appreciate the significance of PINNs, we
must first revisit the roots of neural networks
and their development over the decades. Neural
networks, inspired by the biological neural networks
of the human brain, have been around since the
mid-20th century. Early concepts were limited by the
computational power available at the time, but they
laid the foundation for what was to come.
1940s — The Perceptron: The concept of a single-
layer neural network, known as the perceptron, was
introduced by Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts in
1943. Although it had limitations and could only solve
linearly separable problems, it marked the beginning
of neural network research.
1950s-1960s — The AI Winter: During this period,
enthusiasm for neural networks waned due to
limitations in their capabilities and the lack of
sufficient computing power. Researchers turned their
attention to other AI approaches, leading to what
became known as the "AI Winter."
1980s — The Comeback: Neural networks made
resurgence in the 1980s, thanks to advancements
in computing technology and the development of
backpropagation, a method for training multi-layer
neural networks. However, these networks were
primarily applied to tasks like pattern recognition and
lacked a connection to physics.
Emergence of PINNs: The idea of merging
neural networks with physics principles didn't
questions. They've demonstrated that PINNs can learn from
data while respecting the fundamental laws of biology, making
them a versatile tool in various domains.
Key Applications
As the popularity of PINNs grew, so did their capabilities and
applications:
Fluid Dynamics: Researchers harnessed PINNs to simulate
fluid flows, optimising designs in aerospace, energy, and
environmental engineering.
Medical Imaging: PINNs improved medical image
reconstruction, aiding in disease diagnosis and treatment
planning.
Climate Modelling: Climate scientists integrated PINNs
into their models, enhancing predictions of climate change
impacts.
Materials Science: Materials researchers used PINNs to
design novel materials with tailored properties.
Astrophysics: Astrophysicists employed PINNs to model
astrophysical phenomena like gravitational waves and black
hole dynamics.
appear overnight. It evolved gradually, with
multiple researchers and fields contributing to its
development.
Late 20th Century — Computational Physics:
In parallel with neural network advancements,
computational physics was gaining momentum.
Scientists were using computers to solve complex
physical problems, often involving differential
equations that describe how physical systems evolve.
2017 — Physics-Informed Learning Machines: The
term "Physics-Informed Neural Networks" was coined
in a ground-breaking paper by Maziar Raissi, Paris
Perdikaris, and George Em Karniadakis in 2017. Their
work introduced the concept of embedding physical
laws into neural networks, effectively creating a
bridge between data-driven machine learning and
physics-based modelling.
2018 — Expanding Horizons: The following year,
PINNs gained further recognition when researchers
demonstrated their effectiveness in solving a wide
range of physical problems. PINNs were shown to
outperform traditional numerical solvers in terms of
accuracy and computational efficiency.
2019-2020 — Rapid Adoption: In just a few short
years, PINNs began to spread across various scientific
fields and industries. Researchers and engineers
recognised their potential to tackle complex problems
with limited data and high-dimensional spaces.
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 49
Working & Advantages
Here's how PINNs work:
1. Define the Physics: Start by formulating the governing
equations that describe the physical system you're studying.
These equations could be Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
that govern heat transfer, fluid flow, or wave propagation,
among others.
2. Integrate with Neural Networks: Embed these equations
into a neural network as constraints. Essentially, the neural
network learns to satisfy the physical laws while making
predictions.
3. Train the Network: Use available data to train the PINN.
The network learns not only from the data but also from the
underlying physics.
4. Make Predictions: Once trained, the PINN can make
predictions for various scenarios, even in situations where
data may be sparse or noisy.
PINNs offer several significant advantages over
traditional methods:
1. Reduced Data Requirements: PINNs can make accurate
predictions with limited data. This is especially valuable in
scientific research, where data collection can be costly and
time-consuming.
2. Improved Generalisation: Because PINNs incorporate
physics principles, they tend to generalise better to unseen
scenarios. This means they can make accurate predictions in
situations that differ from the training data.
3. Uncertainty Quantification: PINNs provide uncertainty
estimates for their predictions, which is crucial in scientific
research. Scientists can gauge the confidence level of their
models' predictions.
4. Enhanced Optimisation: PINNs can handle complex,
high-dimensional optimisation problems more efficiently than
traditional numerical solvers. This makes them suitable for
problems that were previously computationally infeasible.
5. Interpretable Models: Unlike some black-box machine
learning models, PINNs can provide insights into the underlying
biology due to their connection with physical principles.
6. Biological Optimisation: PINNs can optimise biological
experiments and simulations, saving time and resources in
laboratory settings.
Key Applications of PINNs
Physics-Informed Neural Networks have found a multitude
of applications across various branches of biology,
revolutionising the way we approach biological research and
its practical applications.
1. Drug Discovery and Development: Drug discovery is a
time-consuming and expensive process. PINNs expedite this
by predicting the molecular properties and interactions of
potential drug compounds, significantly reducing the time and
resources required for preclinical testing.
50 | Science Reporter | December 2023
2. Genomics and Proteomics: Understanding the complex
interactions within the genome and proteome is a fundamental
challenge in biology. PINNs can decipher these intricate
networks, aiding in the identification of disease markers and
potential therapeutic targets.
3. Biomechanics: In biomechanics, PINNs can simulate the
behaviour of biological tissues, helping researchers design
implants, prosthetics, and medical devices. This has the
potential to revolutionise the field of personalised medicine.
4. Neuroscience: Neuroscientists use PINNs to model the
electrical activity of neurons and neural networks. This aids
in the study of brain disorders and the development of brain-
computer interfaces.
5. Ecology and Conservation: Ecologists employ PINNs
to model ecosystem dynamics, predict species distributions,
and design conservation strategies. This contributes to our
understanding of the natural world and helps in preserving
biodiversity.
6. Bioinformatics: PINNs enhance the analysis of biological
data, such as protein structure prediction, gene expression
analysis, and biomarker discovery. This empowers researchers
to extract valuable insights from vast datasets.
7. Systems Biology: Systems biologists use PINNs to model
complex biological systems at a holistic level, providing
insights into how different components of a biological system
interact and function.
8. Biomedical Imaging: Medical imaging, such as MRI and
CT scans, generates massive datasets. PINNs can aid in image
reconstruction, denoising, and feature extraction, leading to
more accurate diagnostics.
The Road Ahead
Physics-Informed Neural Networks represent a promising
frontier in scientific research. They not only accelerate
the pace of discovery but also offer a fresh perspective on
longstanding scientific problems. As researchers continue to
refine and expand the capabilities of PINNs, we can expect
even more ground-breaking applications across a multitude of
scientific domains.
However, it is essential to acknowledge that PINNs are
not without challenges. The choice of network architecture,
the selection of appropriate physics constraints, and the
integration of domain knowledge all play critical roles in
their success. Moreover, PINNs require careful validation
and testing to ensure their predictions align with real-world
observations.
Physics-Informed Neural Networks are a remarkable
synergy of physics and artificial intelligence that hold great
promise for advancing scientific knowledge. As they continue
to evolve, PINNs will undoubtedly play a pivotal role in
answering some of the most profound questions about our
universe and enhancing our ability to engineer solutions for
the challenges we face. The journey of discovery is far from
over, and with PINNs, we're on an exciting path towards
unlocking the secrets of the cosmos.
Dr Monendra Grover, Dr Dwijesh Mishra and Dr Girish Kumar
Jha are with the ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research
Institute, Pusa, New Delhi.
CSIR's One Week, One Lab

CSIR-NGRI Celebrates
“One Week, One Lab”
Programme
India, Central Ground Water Board and State Ground Water
Department participated in the stakeholder meeting and held
discussions with the CSIR-NGRI scientists.
Shri Bhuwan Chandra Pathak, CMD, NPCIL, was the
Chief Guest and Dr Ch. Venkateshwar Rao, Additional
Director General, Geological Survey of India, was the Guest
of Honour. The programme started with an introduction to
the CSIR-NGRI activities and contributions by Dr Prakash
Kumar, and it was followed by a talk on “Ease of doing
business with CSIR” by Dr Darokar, Chief Scientist, CSIR
Head Quarters.
The programme ‘Society Connect’ was a potential
campaign mode programme oriented toward strengthening
society and agriculture farmers by promoting scientific
practices for sustainable groundwater management. The
During inauguration programme addressed the farmers’ issues and inculcated the

C
SIR-National Geophysical Research Institute innovative modalities CSIR-NGRI and eminent groundwater
(CSIR-NGRI), Hyderabad, celebrated the “One Week, professionals have developed. Nearly 200 farmers from
One Lab programme” from 04 to 09 September 2023 various states, including Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka,
by organising the weeklong programmes. Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh, besides 40 students,
The programme was inaugurated by Chief Guest Dr PS accompanied by their teachers from local schools in
Goel, Former Secretary, Ministry of Earth Sciences, with Choutuppal, participated. The event was inaugurated by
Guests of Honour Dr N Kalaiselvi, DG CSIR & Secretary Shri Vedire Sriram, Adviser to the Hon’ble Minister,
DSIR and Shri Jayesh Ranjan, Principal Secretary, Dept of Ministry of Jal Shakti, Govt of India. Shri VK Upadhyay,
IT, Telangana. Dr Prakash Kumar, Director, CSIR-NGRI, Director UPGWD and Dr P Rajendra Prasad, Sir Arthur
outlined the week’s schedule and discussed NGRI’s scientific Cotton Geospatial Chair Professor, Andhra University, were
vision, emphasising cutting-edge technologies like AI and the Guests of Honour.
machine learning.
Dr Kalaiselvi, who joined virtually, extended best
wishes, highlighting NGRI’s role in addressing societal
challenges. Shri Jayesh Ranjan praised CSIR’s campaign and
invited NGRI to join Telangana’s Research and Innovation
Circle, offering support for scientific experiments. Dr PS
Goel shared views on future research, emphasising demand-
driven science and collaboration methods.
MoUs were also exchanged with IIT Madras, SRTM
University, and Bundelkhand University for research
collaboration. Dr Goel also inaugurated an R&D exhibition
showcasing NGRI’s research accomplishments.
On 5 September 2023, a Geoscience Conclave was
organised, inviting eminent geoscientists of the country
to speak on their work done in the past decades in various
geoscience disciplines. During this meeting, seven experts
delivered the talks on frontier areas of geophysics. The Workshop on “Geothermal Energy Resources of
The next event, Stakeholder Connect, on 6 September India: Present Status and Way Forward” was organised from
2023, aimed to engage with various stakeholders to ensure 7-8 September to bring together experts, researchers, and
effective communication, gather feedback, address concerns, industry leaders to create a collaborative environment where
and foster mutually beneficial relationships. Representatives knowledge is shared, innovative ideas are exchanged, and a
from NPCIL, ONGC, NMDC Ltd, Geological Survey of roadmap for the future development of geothermal energy

52 | Science Reporter | December 2023

in India is projected. The inaugural session took place on
7 September 2023. The Chief Guest for the event was Padma
Bhushan Dr VK Saraswat, Hon’ble Member of NITI Aayog.
The Guests of Honour included Prof. SK Mehta, Vice
Chancellor of the University of Ladakh, and Padma Shri
Prof. HK Gupta, President of the Geological Society of India.
Dr VK Saraswat delivered a detailed presentation covering
the significance of geothermal energy, national strategies
and targets for the development of geothermal energy in the
country, next-generation geothermal technologies (Enhance
Geothermal System, EGS and Advance Geothermal System,
AGS), current challenges of geothermal resources for
sustainable energy in India and the vital role to be played by
CSIR-NGRI in this context.
Dr Saraswat also released a volume of abstracts, which
serves as a compendium of insights, ideas, and the latest R&D
findings discussed during the workshop. It offers a glimpse
into the current state of geothermal energy resources in India,
the strategies required to propel this renewable energy source
and developing future strategies.
The “Student/Public Connect” was a full-day event held
as part of the ‘Jigyasa’ programme, open to all students,
teachers, and the general public. During this event, CSIR-
NGRI showcased more than ten exhibits featuring various R&D
activities. Attendees, including students and the public, had
the opportunity to interact with scientists and gain knowledge
about rock types, natural resource exploration, earthquake and
“One Week, One Lab”
Programme at CSIR-IMMT
As part of CSIR’s “One Week, One Lab” campaign,
CSIR- Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology (CSIR-
IMMT), Bhubaneswar, conducted a series of weeklong
activities from 11-16 September 2023.
The programme was formally inaugurated on 11 September
2023, by Dr Debashish Bhattacharya, Vice President of
Technology & R&D at TATA Steel. The ceremony was graced
by the presence of notable figures, including Prof. S Basu,
Prof. Shreepad Karmalkar, Director of IIT Bhubaneswar,
tsunami phenomena, earthquake risks, hazard prevention, and
the extent and sustainability of groundwater.
CSIR-NGRI has the country’s first open-air rock museum,
featuring a vast collection of rock samples from different
geological regions. This museum was a major attraction for
students, offering insights into various types of rocks, their
formation, and the valuable information they provide. To
enhance the experience, a student-scientific quiz encouraged
participants to delve deeper into the field of earth sciences.
The Open Day of the “One Week, One Lab” programme
was held on 8 September 2023. It was a captivating and
enjoyable educational event designed to foster a deeper
understanding of Earth Sciences among students. More than
6,000 visitors were during the public connect event, including
over 150 schools, colleges, and institutes, and members of the
general public and NGOs.
The Valedictory ceremony was organised on 9 September
2023. Dr D Srinivasa Reddy, Director CSIR-IICT and
Dr Vinay K Nandikoori, Director, CSIR-CCMB, were the
Guests of Honours. Former Directors of CSIR-NGRI also
graced the occasion. They extended their congratulations
for the successful execution of the “One Week, One Lab”
programme and emphasised the significance and fruitful
outcomes of collaborative events like this. All seven event
coordinators presented summaries of their respective events
during the ceremony. Dr N Purnachandra Rao, Chief Scientist
CSIR-NGRI, proposed the vote of thanks.
Prof. Ashok Kumar Ganguli, Director, IISER Berhampur
and Dr Ramanuj Narayan, Director of CSIR-IMMT.
Prof. BK Mishra, Director of IIT Goa and Former Director of
CSIR IMMT, conveyed his greetings via a video message to
CSIR-IMMT. A “Startup & IPR Conclave” was organised to
kickstart the programme, focusing on engaging students and
young entrepreneurs.
Day 2 was dedicated to the spotlight on “Minerals, Coal,
critical Minerals, REE/PGE,” which are important for India’s
industrial growth, economic development, and employment
opportunities. Mr SS Mohanty, CEO and MD of Essar Minmet
Ltd, and Mr G Suresha, ED of Odisha Asset, Arcelor Mittal
Nippon Steel India Ltd, graced the occasion as Chief Guest and
Guest of Honour, respectively. Approximately 125 delegates
representing Indian Mineral Industries, R&D institutions,
government policy-making agencies, start-ups, MSMEs, and
academia were invited to participate in this significant event
and engage in discussions about the current status of the
mineral industry in India and globally.
On day 3, 13 September, the programme revolved around
Environment, Waste Management, and Pipeline Transport.
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 53
The event was honoured by the presence of Smt. Sulochana
Das, the BMC Mayor, as the Chief Guest. Distinguished
dignitaries included Shri Pallav Bagla, a renowned science
communicator, Prof. Amitav Das, Dean of Faculty Affairs
at IISER Kolkata, and Shri SK Vasudevan, ED of SERPL,
IOCL, Bhubaneswar. They interacted with scientists, students,
and other participants from both industry and academia.
Day 4 was dedicated to the theme “Blue Economy.”
This one-day conclave aimed to facilitate discussions on
sustainable approaches and technological advancements for
harnessing ocean resources. Eminent personalities including
Prof. SK Singh, Director of CSIR-NIO, Goa, Dr GA
Ramadass, Director of NIOT Chennai, and Dr (Mrs) SK
Mishra, Director of CSIR-CGCRI, Kolkata, and experts in
seabed minerals and ocean energy, participated in the Blue
Economy event, fostering valuable interactions.
Day 5 primarily focused on functional materials for
energy applications and featured brainstorming sessions
on CRTDH empowering MSMEs. Prof. Manoj K Dhar,
Director of AcSIR, was the Chief Guest, and Dr Sujata
Chaklanobis, Scientist G & Head of CRTDH DSIR, was the
Guest of Honour. Expert talks and round-table discussions led
by panellists comprising industry experts and academia were
conducted.
On day 6, the programmes was dedicated to honouring school students and their teachers, more than 1000 students
the Research scholars of CSIR-IMMT through a Research from different schools and colleges visited central exhibits and
Scholar’s conclave. During this event, scholars presented various labs.
their research activities to eminent dignitaries from both The valedictory function on the afternoon of Day 6
industry and academia. Prof. MK Dhar, Director of AcSIR, witnessed the presence of Shri MK Gupta, Joint Secretary of
addressed students and scientists. Special talks were delivered CSIR, as the Chief Guest and Prof. Siddharth Das, Former
by Padmashree Prof. AP Dash (VC, AIPH University, Principal of SCB Medical College, as Guest of Honour. About
Bhubaneswar) and Prof. AK Mahapatra (Former Director, 150 superannuated employees of CSIR-IMMT were invited
AIIMS Bhubaneswar) to inspire and motivate the scholars and to this function, where they were honoured by Director
students of the institute. Dr Ramanuj Narayan with mementoes. The event was attended
The programme also included poster presentations, by all CSIR-IMMT employees, other invitees, students,
model exhibitions, live demonstrations, lab and pilot plant project staff, and the family members of the employees.
visits, and theme-based panel discussions. Additionally, to During this gathering, two MOUs were signed with two
cultivate a culture of curiosity and scientific temper among reputable institutes.

CSIR-NAL Celebrates “One

Week, One Lab” Programme
CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories (CSIR-NAL), The first day was inaugurated by Ms Gunjan Krishna,
Bengaluru, celebrated the “One Week, One Lab” from IAS, Commissioner for Industries Development and
19-24 September 2023. On the curtain raiser day, 02 August Director for Industries & Commerce, Govt of Karnataka, on
2023, CSIR-NAL launched the JalDost II (airboat for de- 19 September 2023. The Guest of Honour was Dr Kallappa
weeding of lakes) and the Q-plane (e-VTOL aircraft for Pattada, Boeing India. This was followed by the inauguration
border management). This occasion was graced by Dr VK of the exhibition area in the Golden Jubilee Hangar,
Saraswat, Member NITI Aayog and all the members of the Belur Campus, by the Former Directors of
Research Council of CSIR-NAL. CSIR-NAL.

54 | Science Reporter | December 2023


The first session was “Academia/Research Institute to
Intrapreneurship & Entrepreneurship”. It was designed to
inspire and educate aspiring Intrapreneurs from CSIR-NAL
& entrepreneurs with first-hand accounts of individuals who
transitioned from academic and research backgrounds to
establish successful companies.
The second session was on “Scaling the Innovation
Continuum: Unleashing the power of the Innovation
Continuum”. In today’s rapidly evolving world, researchers
are increasingly transitioning from the academic/research
realm to become entrepreneurs and venture catalysts. This
keynote session brought forth inspiring speakers who have
successfully traversed this path, transforming their research
expertise into entrepreneurial ventures and subsequently
becoming a catalyst for innovation and growth. The venture
capitalist ecosystem for early-stage deep tech innovations and
their perception of the research industry integration were
discussed.
The third and final session was “Bridging the Gap:
Accelerating the Research to Innovation to Industry
Continuum”. The panel discussion explored the critical
journey from research to innovation to industry, highlighting
the challenges and opportunities of effectively bridging
these stages. It provided a platform for experts, researchers,
industry leaders, and policymakers to exchange insights,
share best practices, and discuss strategies for fostering a
seamless transition from research breakthroughs to successful
commercialisation.
The second day was kicked off by Dr Girish S Deodhare,
Distinguished Scientist & DG, ADA and Dr Naresh Palta,
Sr Adviser Aerospace & Aviation, MAINI GROUP, on
20 September 2023. Their talks covered collaboration and
commercialisation. The guests also launched a website for
indigenisation of components and LRU’s.
This day aimed to present the challenges and opportunities
in developing indigenous components/systems by MSMEs
& Start-ups for aircraft programmes like SARAS Mk-II,
HANSA-NG, HAP & RTA. The respective Project Directors
of the aircraft programmes at CSIR-NAL presented the
opportunities.
Additionally, the market potential of UAVs & Electric
Air Mobility were explored and the transformative effects they
bring to sectors such as transportation, logistics, agriculture,
and surveillance were discussed. The panel discussions
focused on the dynamic relationship between start-ups and
research labs, emphasising the collaborative strategies that
foster replicable initiatives in the innovation continuum,
specifically from Prototype to Production (P2P).
The third session was on the High Potential NAL
Technologies for commercialisation presented by the various
Cluster Chairmen of CSIR-NAL. The session provided
opportunities to commercialise technologies with high market
potential by MSMEs and Startups. It also focused on a joint
collaboration with risk and cost-sharing partnership in key
areas of co-development in aerospace. Technology transfer
MoU was signed with select industry partners. The final
session was led by angel investors.
The Skill Development Academia Connect was organised
on 21 September. Dr Abhay A Pashilkar, Director, CSIR-
NAL, inaugurated the event with an insightful address,
highlighting the pivotal role of skill development in the
Aerospace Sector. In his address, Dr Arun Bandyopadhyay,
Director, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology (CSIR-
IICB) stressed the importance of Skill Development and
the various training programmes provided by CSIR-IICB.
Director, CSIR-IICB also discussed the development of
indigenous ventilators and RT-PCR test kits for COVID-19.
Dr S Ravishankar, Head, Aerospace Skill Development
Centre (ASDC), CSIR-NAL, presented the various skill
development initiatives undertaken by the organisation. He
emphasised the importance of nurturing technical expertise
and practical skills among aerospace enthusiasts. He briefed
about the various Aerospace Courses offered at CSIR-NAL
under the Aerospace and Aviation Sector Skill Council and
tailor-made courses provided at ASDC.
Mr Muthukrishnan, Head, Operations, Aerospace and
Aviation Sector Skill Council, discussed the specialised skill
development programmes aimed at the aerospace and aviation
sector, shedding light on industry-specific training efforts.
Mr G Venkatesh, Deputy Director, Regional Directorate
of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship (RDSDE), in
his talk titled “Implementation of Apprenticeship Training
Programme and its Benefits”, offered practical insights
into implementing apprenticeship training programmes. He
outlined the various benefits of such programmes, including
skill enhancement, industry exposure, and increased
employability. Additionally, Mr Venkatesh provided detailed
information about the legalities and different categories of
apprenticeships under the Government of India, ensuring a
comprehensive understanding for the attendees.
Cmde. CD Balaji (Retd), Chairman, K-Tech Centre
of Excellence in Aerospace and Defence, in his talk titled
“Innovation and Skilling for Aerospace and Defence
Ecosystem”, emphasised the importance of innovation and
skilling within the aerospace and defence sectors, exploring
the symbiotic relationship between the two. Mr CA Shashidhar
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 55
Shetty, Chairman, Karnataka Small Scale Industries
Association (KASSIA), shared insights into manufacturing
skill requirements in his talk titled “Manufacturing Skill
Requirements for Job Prospects, An Industry Perspective”,
providing an industry perspective on job opportunities within
the aerospace and defence sectors.
Prof. Rajkumar S Pant from IIT-Bombay delivered a
comprehensive lecture, delving into advanced topics related
to aerospace engineering and innovation. He discussed the
various spin-offs of space technology that are being utilised
in diverse sectors. His session offered attendees profound
knowledge and cutting-edge insights into the field, enhancing
their understanding of the intersection between aerospace
engineering and its practical applications in other industries.
The afternoon session was marked by the signing of
a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with various
academic institutes. These MoUs aimed to strengthen the
collaboration between CSIR-NAL and academia, thereby
fostering research, development and knowledge exchange as
part of the Skill development initiatives.
A captivating live demonstration featuring an Octocopter
was organised in the Golden Jubilee Hangar, CSIR-NAL,
Belur campus, and this enabled the attendees to witness
CSIR-IGIB Celebrates “One
Week, One Lab” Programme
CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology
(CSIR-IGIB), Delhi, kick-started a series of events under the
56 | Science Reporter | December 2023
first-hand the application of drone technology in the aerospace
sector. The attendees also took this opportunity to visit the
exhibition stalls displaying the various technologies developed
by CSIR-NAL.
On the Fourth day of the “One Week, One Lab” Campaign
on the theme “Student Scientist Connect”, 119 students and
27 teachers from ATAL Tinkering Lab schools in rural
Karnataka attended this programme. A set of seven DIY kits
were distributed to each participating school; with these kits,
students can conduct more than 40 science experiments in
their school. Dr VPS Naidu, nodal officer of Jigyasa, briefed
the participants about Jigyasa and its activities.
The Chief Guest of the programme, Prof. RK Pant,
Professor at Dept of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute
of Technology, lectured on “Principles of Flight” along
with an aircraft model demonstration. It was an interactive
session, and students were excited to ask questions.
Dr Abhay Pashilkar, distributed the participation certificates
to all the students and teachers. Aero-quiz was conducted, and
prizes were given to winners and runners. The programme
was concluded by interacting with scientists, visiting the
technologies and aircraft exhibition, and an octocopter flying
demonstration.
Open Day for College Students was organised on the fifth
day to create awareness among engineering students about
NAL’s achievements and to showcase the latest technologies in
the field of Aerospace Engineering and science. Engineering
students from southern states took part in this event, and they
enthusiastically witnessed the exhibition and interacted with
scientists about new innovations.
The Open Day for the public was an excellent opportunity
for the general public to reach out and interact with scientists
about the R&D achievements of CSIR-NAL. Around 750
people gathered from various parts of Bengaluru.
“One Week, One Lab” programme from 18 to 23 September
2023, to highlight the institute’s outstanding research and
technological innovations. The theme of the event was
“Bringing Genomics Closer to the Society”. The event had
major programmes where the goal was to connect to various
stakeholders, including clinicians, industry, school students,
research scholars, and society.
The event’s inauguration commenced on 18 September
at CSIR-IGIB Auditorium, Mathura Road Campus, New
Delhi. The dignitaries that graced the occasion included Chief
Guest Dr Rajesh S Gokhale, DBT Secretary; Guest of Honour
Dr NK Ganguly, Ex-DG, ICMR, and Dr Sudeep Gupta,
Director, Actrec.
The institute inaugurated the comprehensive multi-omics
database of Indian breast cancer patients generated as part of
the CSIR-led Indian Breast Cancer Genome Atlas (IBCGA)
programme. This pan-India collaborative effort between
cancer researchers, data scientists and clinicians is a huge step
towards facilitating breast cancer diagnosis and therapeutics
aimed at profiling 1000 breast cancer patient samples. To
encourage this journey of improving precision medicine in
India, the data release of genomic and transcriptomic data of
200 breast tumours from Indian patients was planned. There
were extensive research exhibitions from various laboratories
to showcase major themes of IGIB.
On 19 September, “Clinical-Connect Day: Renewing
the Old & Forging New Collaborations” had events like
popular lectures, panel discussions and exhibitions. This
was possible because of the Institute’s extensive and long-
term collaborations with medical professionals across India
and mutual trust. The event provided an excellent networking
platform for clinical leaders, scientists, and young medical
and research students to come together and discuss the road
ahead for providing cutting-edge technologies for patient care.
As part of this clinical feast, the Online Portal for the
much-anticipated flagship programme: “Phenome India:
CSIR Health Cohort Knowledgebase” was inaugurated by
Joint Secretary, CSIR, Shri Mahendra Kumar Gupta. This
is a first-of-its-kind pan-India collaborative effort between
all CSIR laboratories to develop personalised risk prediction
scores for communicable and non-communicable disorders
(cardio-metabolic).  
On the third day, 20 September, Industry-Connect was
organised. It was an exciting day involving promoting active
exchange and networking between industry professionals and
researchers. CSIR DG Dr N Kalaiselvi joined online. In her
presence, for the first time, a video was formally showcased
highlighting the activities of the institute. She congratulated
IGIB fraternity that has come out as a leader in a short time
and also emphasised having a larger canvas.
The day was full of inspiring talks by industry leaders
as they shared insights on the future of technology and start-
up space in the country. There was a panel discussion with
experts in the field of Genetic Counselling participating.
The outreach day on 21 September saw a large footfall of
1300 students in both campuses. The young minds caught a
glimpse of lab exhibitions, live demos, facility visits, hands-on
activities, and lots of fun-filled games and quizzes. In addition,
there was a popular science talk by a young entrepreneur,
Mr Aryan Mishra, who also inaugurated the Ramanujan-
Hardy Lab. This is an exclusive space away from the main
lab where school students can pursue their ideas through self-
designed experiments. IGIB scientists will mentor students
and nurture their ideas.
The last theme of the event was an off-site two-day
workshop at the University of Kashmir from 22 to 23
September, where IGIB scientists showcased their innovative
research outcomes through jointly organised training lectures.
The day was filled with engaging talks and stimulating
discussions centred around posters.
During the valedictory session, Hon’ble Minister
S&T, Dr Jitendra Singh graced the occasion and presented
poster awards to students. In parallel, at IGIB, a Zebrafish
Laboratory training workshop was organised from 22 to 27
September that covered aspects of ethics in animal research,
embryonic development in a petri-dish, genetics, and
genomics of zebrafish.
The event culminated with student-led activities, where
the students of IGIB participated with big ideas in the field of
life sciences in the form of the shark tank forum.
December 2023 | Science Reporter | 57
 WHAT’S NEW

Researchers Develop Scalable Wearable Pressure Sensor

Gait and postural deformities are incapacitating. Studies
indicate that the most prominent deformities include splay
foot, flat foot, unstable hind foot with protruding heels, high
arches, and irregular gait.
Therefore, adequate monitoring of gait and postural
deformities is imperative. They can provide valuable clues
to the underlying recovery process or detect various medical
conditions, accelerating the patient’s recovery and avoiding
any long-term harm.
Researchers at IIT Delhi have developed a scalable
wearable pressure sensor based on a nanocomposite material,
that has a unique combination of light-sensitive polymer
and piezoelectric nanoparticles, which offers the advantage
of easy array design for pixelated sensing over large area,
simple process flow, and low-cost implementation for human
movement monitoring and injury rehabilitation. The study
was published in the journal Nano Energy.
Source: IIT Delhi, Press Release

MilliMobile — tiny, self-driving robot powered only by light

and radio waves

Image Credit: Mark Stone/University of Washington

Millimobile is a small self-driving robot that relies on onboard sensors and computing chips to navigate.
Researchers at the University of Washington have developed this tiny robot that can be powered by surrounding
light or radio waves. The newly developed robot has a solar panel-like energy harvester and four wheels, weighs
very light as much as a raisin, and is about the size of a penny. The tiny robot is capable of moving up to 30 feet
(10 meters) in an hour, even on a cloudy day and on various surfaces like concrete or packed soil. This also carries
a camera or sensors, which is nearly three times its weight.
Source: University of Washington, News Release

58 | Science Reporter | December 2023

 IISc Team Develops Gallium Nitride Power Switch

(Photo: Ashutosh Vishwakarma)

Two-inch GaN-on-silicon wafer with power transistors,

developed at CeNSE, IISc
Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, have developed a fully indigenous Gallium
Nitride (GaN) power switch that can have potential applications in systems like power converters for electric vehicles
and laptops and in wireless communications. The study was published in the journal Microelectronic Engineering.Due
to their high performance and efficiency, GaN transistors are poised to replace traditional silicon-based transistors as
the building blocks in many electronic devices, such as ultrafast chargers for electric vehicles, phones and laptops,
as well as space and military applications such as radar.
Source: IISc, Press Release

Skin Patch — Painlessly Delivers Drugs into the Body

An affordable microneedle skin patch that delivers a controlled dosage of medicine directly into the body, eliminating
the need for injections or oral medication, has been developed by a team led by scientists at the University of Bath.
The patch is smaller than a pound coin and is covered in barely visible microneedles.
It is hoped that the patches described in the journal Biomaterials Advances will be ready for use within the next
five to 10 years.
Source: IIT Madras, Press Release

December 2023 | Science Reporter | 59

 TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

All about Oceans

Image Credit: flickr

1. The term “Gyre” in oceans refers to the extensive a) Hawaii and California
system of spiralling oceanic currents. Which of the b) San Francisco and California
following are the five significant gyres?
c) Los Angeles and Hawaii
a) North Pacific Subtropical, South Pacific Subtropical,
North Atlantic Subtropical, South Atlantic d) San Diego and Hawaii
Subtropical, and Indian Ocean Subtropical
b) North Arctic Subtropical, South Arctic Subtropical, 4. Factors such as water ________,________ &
North Atlantic Subtropical, South Atlantic __________ restrict the geographic distribution of
Subtropical, and Indian Ocean Subtropical reef-building corals. __________ Ocean basin has the
c) Only a most corals.

d) Both a & b a) Temperature, Salinity & Clarity and Pacific

b) Temperature, Salinity & Clarity and Atlantic

2. “Great Pacific Garbage Patch” — the largest c) Only a

accumulation of oceanic garbage patch — lies in which d) Both a & b
of the following oceanic divisions.
a) South Pacific Ocean
5. Higher rates of evaporation result in increased salinity
b) North Pacific Ocean of the ocean. The saltiest areas in the sea are typically
c) West Pacific Ocean regions with high evaporation rates or large water
bodies with no outlet to the sea. Identify the saltiest
d) East Pacific Ocean ocean basin from the following options.
a) Atlantic Ocean b) Pacific Ocean
3. Which of the following stretches of the “Great Pacific c) Indian Ocean d) Arctic Ocean
Garbage Patch” has a high concentration of marine
trash? e) Southern Ocean

60 | Science Reporter | December 2023

6. This sea’s high salinity increases the water’s density, a) Regional Seas Programme & Regional Seas
making objects in the water more buoyant. This makes Conventions and Action Plans
swimming in the sea difficult. Which of the following b) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea &
natural waters is known for having the saltiest water Regional Seas Programme
and containing the most mineral content, in the world?
c) Only a
a) Black Sea
d) Both a & b
b) Baltic Sea
c) Salton Sea
12. Which of the following is the UN’s institution
d) Dead Sea responsible for creating a “fair and effective,
generally accepted and implemented legal framework
for the shipping industry”?
7. Select the right option for the units used in measuring
the distance travelled and speed in water, respectively. a) The International Maritime Organisation (IMO)
a) Kilometre & Mile b) Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue
(GODAR)
b) Knot & Nautical miles
c) National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
c) Nautical miles & Knot
d) None of the above
d) Mile & Kilometre

13. In which year was the Coastal Regulation Zone

8. The “Ring of Fire”, around the edges of the Pacific
(CRZ) established, a regulatory framework for
Ocean, is the home of the majority of the Earth’s active
India’s coastal areas aimed at conserving ecosystems
volcanoes and is defined as the_______________.
and resources?
a) String of underwater volcanoes and earthquake sites
a) 1990
b) Magma on land
b) 1992
c) Only a
c) 1993
d) Both a & b
d) 1991

9. The globally recognised regime “United Nations

14. What plan does the Indian Coast Guard (ICG) have
Convention on the Law of the Sea” (UNCLOS) deals
to respond to oil spills in Indian waters that apply to
with ____________.
shipping, ports, and oil industries?
a) “Matters relating to the law of the sea”
a) National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan
b) “Cleaning the world’s oceans only” (NOSDCP)
c) Only a b) Coast Guard Act
d) Both a & b c) Coastal Regulation Zone
d) All above
10. The UNCLOS came into force in accordance with its
article 308 on ______________________
15. Which of the following is the ocean’s twilight zone,
a) 17 November 1994 found between lighter and darker areas? It is a layer
b) 16 November 1994 of water stretching around the whole globe.
c) 20 November 1994 a) Mesopelagic zone
d) 15 November 1994 b) Torrid zone
c) Abyssal zone
11. UNEP, primarily through its ___________________, d) All above
aims to safeguard oceans and seas while
promoting the sustainable use of marine resources. Answers
___________________ is the sole legal framework in 1.a 2.b 3.a 4.a 5.a 6.d 7.c 8.c
the world that protects oceans & seas at the regional
9.c 10.b 11.c 12.a 13.d 14.a 15.a
level.

December 2023 | Science Reporter | 61

 Puzzle Corner
Laugh and Think
The Nobel Prize is a prestigious award that inspires awe in everyone. It is given to recognise
the best work, which requires a lot of hard work, sincerity, and courage to achieve something
big and innovative. However, did you know that there is another type of Nobel Prize which
is given to honour achievements that make people LAUGH and then THINK? These prizes
appreciate the imagination and encourage people's interest in science, medicine, and
technology. Can you guess what this prize is and who confers it?

Image credit: improbable.com

Match the Awardees with the Prize Citation

a. “For their discoveries concerning

nucleoside base modifications that
enabled the development of effective
1. mRNA vaccines against COVID-19”.
Name: ____________
____________
____________

b. “For experimental methods that generate

attosecond pulses of light for the study
of electron dynamics in matter”.
2.
Name: ____________
____________
____________

c. “For the discovery and synthesis of

quantum dots”.

3.
Name: ____________
____________
____________

62 | Science Reporter | December 2023

 SOLUTIONS TO THE PUZZLES PUBLISHED IN NOVEMBER 2023
LAGRANGE POINT
Answer: L1

Identify the image of the world’s only scaly mammal

Answer: Pangolin

December 2023 | Science Reporter | 63

SCIENCE CARTOON

Theme — “Conserve Biodiversity to Preserve Humanity”

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64 | Science Reporter | December 2023

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December 2023 | Science Reporter | 65