What is Ai: A.
It is the science and engineering of making intelligent Agent: Agents Should Act :A rational agent is one that does the right thing.
machines, especially intelligent computer programs. It is related to the
similar task of using computers to understand human intelligence, but AI
does not have to confine itself to methods that are biologically
observable.1 The Turing Test (Acting humanly) *A judge has to find out
which of two hidden agents is a human and which is a machine.*To pass
total Turing test computer need - computer vision to perceive objects -
robotics to move the objects.2 Thinking Humanly: * How human thinks?
*Two ways to determine a given program thinks like human Through
introspection Through psychological experiments *After defining theory,
we can express it as a computer program and check if it is behaving like
human.3 Thinking Rationally:* Several Greek school developed various
forms of logic: notation and rules of derivation for thoughts; may or may
not have proceeded to the idea of mechanization Not all intelligent
behavior is mediated by logical deliberation What is the purpose of
thinking? What thoughts should I have? Acting Rationally: Acting rationally
= to achieve one’s goals, given one’s beliefs.*Difference between acting
and thinking rationally: correct inference is not all of rationality.*Need
ability to represent knowledge and reason with it. Reach good decisions in
a wide variety of situations. PEAS stands for a Performance measure,
Environment, Actuator, Sensor. Agent= Vacuum Cleaner. Performance
Measure= Cleanness, Efficiency, Battery life ,Security. Environment=
Roads, Room, Table ,Wood floo. Actuator= Wheels, Brushes ,Vacuum
Extractor, Mirror. Sensor= Camera ,Dirt detection sensor ,Cliff
sensor ,Bump Sensor. Properties of Environments: • Deterministic/ Non-
deterministic. An environment is deterministic if the next state of the
environment is completely determined by the current state of the
environment and the action of the agent. * In an accessible and
deterministic environment the agent need not deal with uncertainty. •
Episodic/ Sequential. An episodic environment means that subsequent
episodes do not depend on what actions occurred in previous episodes.
Such environments do not require the agent to plan ahead. Static/
Dynamic. • Discrete/ Continuous. Intelligent Agents Definition: An
Intelligent Agent/entity that perceives it environment via sensors and acts
rationally upon that environment with its effectors. - Example: human,
robotic, software agents *Hence, an agent gets percepts one at a time, and
maps this percept into sequence to actions. Automated taxi driving
system: Percepts: Video, sonar, speedometer, odometer, engine sensors,
keyboard input, microphone, GPS, Actions: Steer, accelerate, brake, horn,
speak/display, Goals: Maintain safety, reach destination, maximize profits
(fuel, tire wear), obey laws, provide passenger comfort, …Environment:
urban streets, freeways, traffic, pedestrians, weather, customers, …
OPTIMALITY OF A∗ has the following properties: the tree-search version of
A∗ is optimal if h(n) is admissible, while the graph-search version is optimal
if h(n) is consistent. Suppose n is a successor of n; then g(n’)=g(n) + c(n, a,
n’) for some action a, and we have f(n) = g(n) + h(n) = g(n) + c(n, a, n) + h(n)
≥ g(n) + h(n) = f(n) .The next step is to prove that whenever A ∗ selects a
node n for expansion, the optimal path to that node has been found.
DFS:DFS or Depth First Search starts from the top node and follows a
That is, the rational agent will act such that it will be successful. A
performance measure determines how successful an agent is. Goal- Based
Agent • Choose actions so as to achieve a (given or computed) goal. • A
goal is a description of a desirable situation • Keeping track of the current
state is often not enough – need to add goals to decide which situations are
good||Knowing the world and respond appropriately is not the whole story
Anticipating future … involving planning and search.exa:1: Pathfinding
Robot..Utility- Based Agent • When there are multiple possible
alternatives, how to decide which one is best? • A goal specifies a crude
distinction between a happy and unhappy state, but often need a more
general performance measure that describes "degree of happiness" •
Utility function U: States --> Reals indicating a measure of success or
happiness when at a given state exa : 1: Automated Energy Management
System|| Utility (cost) function maps a state onto a real number. Improve
upon the goal-based agents by having high-quality behavior in most
environment. Table Driven Agent Function: (percept) returns action
*Static: percepts // a sequence, initially empty table // a table, indexed by
percept sequences, initially fully *specified append percept to the end of
percepts *action = LOOKUP (percepts, table)*return action *Limitation: the
table needed for something as simple as an agent that can play chess would
be about 35100 entries *- it would take quite a long time for the designer
to build the table - no autonomy. Simple Reflex Agent: Encode "internal
state" of the world to remember the past as contained in earlier percepts
Needed because sensors do not usually give the entire state of the world at
each input, so perception of the environment is captured over time. "State"
used to encode different "world states" that generate the same immediate
percept.|| Use internal states (or models) to deal with the world that is
only partially observable. Draw diagram..Limitations of intelligent agents
Data availability. Artificial intelligence is highly dependent on past data.
However, the available data may be soiled or of poor quality, thus posing a
challenge to the company. Feeding AI wrong or poor quality data can
undermine its efficiency to do its work and can become a hurdle in the
success of a company. utility-based agent differ from goal-based. A utility-
based agent focuses on maximizing overall satisfaction by evaluating
options based on their utility or value. It considers multiple factors and
aims to achieve the best outcome, even if it doesn't directly align with a
specific goal. In contrast, a goal-based agent specifically aims to achieve a
predefined objective and takes actions that directly contribute to reaching
that goal. exa : 1: Automated Energy Management System. exa: 1:
Pathfinding Robot. Rational Agents :An agent is an entity that perceives
and acts. For any given class of environments and tasks, we seek the agent
(or class of agent) with the best performance. Computational limitations
make perfect rationality unachievable. …. Design best program of given
machine resources. This class is about construction rational agents. An
ideal rational agent should, for each possible percept sequence, do
whatever actions that will maximize its performance measure based on (1)
the percept sequence, and (2) its built-in and acquired knowledge.
path to reaches the end node of the path Depth-first search always
expands the deepest node in the current frontier of the search tree.
The search proceeds immediately to the deepest level of the search
tree, where the nodes have no successors **.1DFS is faster than
BFS.*2 DFS is better when target is far from source.*3 DFS uses a
Stack to find the shortest path..*||DFS is not optimal, meaning the
number of steps in reaching the solution, or the cost spent in reaching
it is high.Mar. BFS: Breadth-first search is a simple strategy in which
the root node is expanded first, then all the successors of the root
node are expanded next, then their successors, and so on. || BFS is
optimal if path cost is a non-decreasing function of the depth of the
node.*1 BFS is slower than DFS..*2 BFS uses a Queue to find the
shortest path.*3 BFS is better when target is closer to Source. .
difference between informed and uninformed searches? Informed
Search is another technique that has additional information about the
estimate distance from the current state to the goal.* It helps search
efficiently.* Examples of informed search include greedy search and
graph search.* It may or may not be complete. uninformed search is
a searching technique that has no additional information about the
distance from the current state to the goal.* The information is only
provided in the problem definition.* Examples of uninformed search
include depth first search (DFS) and breadth first search (BFS).* It is
always complete. Brute force / Blind search › Only have knowledge
about already explored nodes › No knowledge about how far a node
is from goal state. Heuristic search Estimates "distance" to goal state
*Guides search process toward goal state *Prefer states (nodes) that
lead close to and not away from goal state. HEURISTIC FUNCTION
*The choice of f(evaluation function) determines the search strategy
*Best-first algorithms include as a component of f a heuristic function,
denoted h(n). h(n) = estimated cost, Greedy best-first search8 tries
to expand the node that is closest to the goal, on the grounds that
this is likely to lead to a solution quickly.* Thus, it evaluates nodes by
using just the heuristic function; that is, f(n) = h(n). *“greedy”—at
each step it tries to get as close to the goal as it can. *Its search cost is
minimal. It is not optimal. . A* SEARCH: The most widely known form
of best-first search is called A search .*It evaluates nodes by
combining -g(n), the cost to reach the node, and h(n),* the cost to get
from the node to the goal: f(n) = g(n) + h(n) .* A search is both
complete and optimal. .Simulation is a model whereas AI is trying to
impute a model. With simulation you can build a model first and then
validate it. Very often AI is trying to figure out something from
nothing and simulation you build a model that you can see and test
and validate and then you use that model to find i0nformation within
it.
Systematically :The search algorithms that we have seen so far are
designed to explore search spaces systematically .This systematicity is
achieved by keeping one or more paths in memory and by recording which
alternatives have been explored at each point along the path and which
have not. Local Search: algorithm searches only the final state, not the path
to reach there. Local search algorithms operate using a single current state
(rather than multiple paths) and generally move only to neighbors of that
state. Although local search algorithms are not systematic, they have *two
key advantages: *they use very little memory-usually a constant amount;
*they can often find reasonable solutions in large or infinite (continuous)
state spaces for which systematic algorithms are unsuitable. Crossover is a
genetic operator that combines (mates) two chromosomes (parents) to
produce a new chromosome (offspring). The idea behind crossover is that
the new chromosome may be better than both of the parents if it takes the
best characteristics from each of the parents. Mutation is a genetic
operator used to maintain genetic diversity from one generation of a
population of chromosomes to the next. The mutation operator simply
inverts the value of the chosen gene. i.e. 0 goes to 1 and 1 goes to 0. This
mutation operator can only be used for binary genes. WELL-DEFINED
PROBLEMS :A problem can be defined formally by five components: 1. The
initial state that the agent starts in. For example, the initial state for our
agent in Romania might be described as In(Arad). 2. A description of the
possible actions available to the agent. Given a particular state s,
ACTIONS(s) returns the set of actions that can be executed in s. We say that
each of these actions is applicable in s. For example, from the state
In(Arad), the applicable actions are {Go(Sibiu), Go(Timisoara), Go(Zerind)}.
4. The goal test, which determines whether a given state is a goal state. 5. A
path cost function that assigns a numeric cost to each path. Informed
search strategy : Informed search is a type of search algorithm that uses
domain-specific knowledge to guide its search through a problem
space.one that uses problem-specific knowledge beyond the definition of
the problem itself .can find solutions more efficiently than can an
uninformed strategy.
Uniform-cost search is a searching algorithm used for traversing a
weighted tree or graph. This algorithm comes into play when a
different cost is available for each edge. The primary goal of the
uniform-cost search is to find a path to the goal node which has the
lowest cumulative cost. Evaluating Search Strategies: Completeness*
Guarantees finding a solution whenever one exists.Time Complexity
*How long (worst or average case) does it take to find a solution?
Usually measured in terms of the number of nodes expanded. Space
Complexity *How much space is used by the algorithm? Usually
measured in terms of the maximum size that the “OPEN" list becomes
during the search .Optimality/Admissibility *If a solution is found, is it
guaranteed to be an optimal one? For example, is it the one with
minimum cost?
(Evolutionary Algorithms is to maximize the function f(x) = x? with × in
the integer interval [0, 311, i.e., x = 0, 1, - . . 30, 31. 1. The first step is
encoding of chromosomes; use binary representation for integers; 5-
bits are used to represent integers up to 31. \\2: Randomly generate
a set of solutions : randomly generated solutions as : 01101, 11000,
01000, 10011.\\ 3. Evaluate the fitness of each member of the
population : The calculated fitness values for each individual are - \\
(a) Decode the individual into an integer (called phenotypes), 01101 -
> 13; 11000 > 24; 01000 - 8; 10011 - 19; \\ (b) Evaluate the fitness
according to f(x) = x ? 13 – 55.9; 24 – 129.6; 8 > 30.4; 19 – 93.1. \\(c)
Expected count = N * Prob i , where N is the number of individuals in
the population called population size, here N = 4. draw 1st box(String
No:- Total, (sum), Average, Max. Initial Population: X value :Fitness
f(x) =
Prob i :Expected count N * Prob i:) \\4:Selection: We divide the range
into four bins, sized according to the relative fitness of the solutions
which they represent. 2nd draw box( string: prob i: associate bin). By
generating 4 uniform (0, 1) random values and seeing which bin they
fall into we pick the four strings that will form the basis for the next
generation. 3rd dwar box(random : fall into bin: chosen bin)./5
Crossover: For the first pair of strings: 0 1 10 1,, 1 1 0 0 0 - We
randomly select the crossover point:
0 1 1 0 1= 0 1 10 |1= 0 1 1 0 0 ,,1 1 000 = 1 1 0 0 | 0 =1 1 00 1 For the
second pair of strings: 1 1000 ,10011: >
1 1 0 0 0 =1 1 | 0 0 0= 1 1 0 1 1 ,,1 0 0 1 1= 1 0 | 0 1 1= 1 0 000
//6 :Go back and re-evaluate fitness of the population (new
generation) 5th draw box end //7: 1. Initial populations : were 01101,
11000, 01000, 10011 After one cycle, new populations, act as initial
population 01100, 11001, 11011, 10000 2. The total fitness has gone
from 1170 to 1754 in a single generation. 3. The algorithm has already
come up with the string 11011 (i.ex = 27) as a possible solution.