6.1.

Digestion and absorption

The role of the digestive system is to break down the diverse mixture of large carbon
compounds in food, to produce ions and smaller compounds that can be absorbed.

Surfactants break up lipid droplets and enzymes catalyze reactions (Glandular

cells/Dürsenzellen produce some enzymes).

The absorption (selective) of the nutrients released by digestion takes place in the small
intestine and colon.

Structure Function
Mouth - Voluntary control of eating and
swallowing
- Mechanical digestion of food by
chewing and mixing it with saliva
- Saliva contains lubricants and
enzymes* that start starch digestion
Esophagus - Movement of food by peristalsis from
the mouth to the stomach
Stomach - Churning and mixing with secreted
water and acid which kills foreign
bacteria and other pathogens in food
- Initial stages of protein digestion
Small intestine - Final stages of digestion of lipids,
carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic
acids, neutralizing stomach acid
- Plus absorption of nutrients
Pancreas - Secretion of lipase*, amylase* and
protease* (release or production of
enzymes)
Liver - Secretion of surfactants*
(phospholipids such as lecithin) in bile
to break up lipid droplets
Gall bladder - Storage and regulated release of bile
 Large intestine - Re-absorption of water, further
digestion especially of carbohydrates
by symbiotic bacteria
- Formation and storage of feces

Enzymes*- proteins that facilitate chemical reactions in the body.

Lipase*- enzyme that helps break down lipids (fats) into smaller molecules.
Amylase*- enzyme that aids in the digestion of carbohydrates by breaking down complex
sugars- polysaccharides (starch) into simple sugars-monosaccharides (glucose).
Protease*- enzyme that helps break down proteins into smaller protein fragments or
individual amino acids.
Surfactants*- Substances that properties that can reduce the surface tension between liquids
and solids

Structure of the wall of the small intestine

Its wall is made of layers of living tissue. From the outside of the wall going inwards, there are
four layers:

- Serosa – an outer coat

- Muscle layers – longitudinal muscle and inside it circular muscle
- Sub-mucosa – a tissue layer containing blood and lymph vessels
- Mucosa – the lining of the small intestine, with the epithelium* that absorbs nutrients
on its inner surface

Epithelium*- type of tissue that lines the surfaces of organs and structures, it consists out of
only one cell layer and protects the small intestine as well.

Peristalsis

The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle layers of the small intestine mixes the food
with enzymes and moves it along the gut.

The circular and longitudinal muscle is a smooth one rather than striated one. It consists of
relatively short cells, not elongated fibers.

It exerts continuous moderate force with short periods of vigorous contraction.

 Peristalsis is the involuntary (controlled by the enteric nervous system), wave-like

contraction of muscle layers of the small intestine. Peristalsis helps prevent backward
movement of food and maintains the forward movement of the material. Peristalsis
also mixes food with intestinal enzymes.
 It only occurs in one direction, away from the mouth

Pancreatic juice

The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen* of the small intestine.
Lumen*- Is the inside space of a tubular body structure that is surrounded by body tissue
known as an epithelial membrane.

Pancreatic juice is the fluid secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine, it serves multiple
functions in the digestion and absorption of nutrients.

The pancreas contains two types of glad tissue (cells that produce various substances essential
for digestion and blood sugar regulation):

Exocrine tissue: It consists of clusters of cells called acini, which produce and release digestive
enzymes into the pancreatic ducts (Enzymes: amylase(s) (digests starch into maltose and
glucose), lipase(s) (triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides), protease(s) (proteins and
peptides into smaller peptides and amino acids)). The pancreatic ducts (tubes) then transport
these enzymes to the small intestine, where they aid in the breakdown of food for absorption.

The digestive enzymes are synthesized in pancreatic glad cells on ribosomes on the rough
endoplasmic reticulum. They are then processed by the Golgi apparatus and secreted by
exocytosis. Ducts merge to form larger ducts, large volume of pancreatic juice is secreted into
the lumen of the small intestine.

Endocrine tissue: composed of specialized cells called islets of Langerhans or pancreatic islets,
they help maintain the balance of glucose in the body. They contain different types of
hormone-secreting cells like alpha cells, beta, delta cells, etc. Two main hormones produced by
the pancreatic islets are:

Insulin- produced by beta cells, insulin regulates blood sugar levels. It facilitates the
uptake of glucose from the bloodstream into cells, thereby lowering blood sugar
levels.

Glucagon- produced by alpha cells, glucagon has the opposite effect of insulin. It
stimulates the liver to release stored glucose into the bloodstream, increasing blood
sugar levels.

This all is mediated by hormones synthesized in the stomach and enteric nervous system.

Digestion in the small intestine

Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers* in the small intestine.

Monomers*- basic building blocks of larger molecules

The small intestine is divided into three segments: the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Ileum is
the last and longest part, located between the jejunum and the large intestine (colon), absorbs
the most.

The enzymes secreted by the pancreas into the lumen of the small intestine carry out these
hydrolysis reactions (reactions involving breaking down chemical bonds):

- Stach is digested to maltose by amylase

 - Triglycerides are digested to fatty acids and glycerol or fatty acids and monoglycerides
by lipase
- Phospholipids are digested to fatty acids, glycerol and phosphate by phospholipase
- Proteins and polypeptides are digested to shorter peptides by protease.

The wall of the small intestine produces a variety of other enzymes but most remain
immobilized in the plasma membrane of epithelium cells lining.

Examples include:

Pancreatic juice contains nucleases that help in the digestion of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).

- Nucleases digest DNA and RNA into nucleotides.

- Maltase digests maltose into glucose.
- Lactase digests lactose into glucose and galactose
- Sucrase digests sucrose into glucose and fructose
- Exopeptidases are proteases that digest peptides into amino acids
- Dipeptidases digest dipeptides into amino acids
Substrate Enzyme Product(s)

DNA and
nucleases nucleotides
RNA

maltose maltase glucose

Lactose lactase glucose, galactose

sucrose sucrase glucose, fructose

peptides exopeptidases dipeptide remains

dipeptides dipeptidases amino acids

Cellulose (polysaccharide) is not digested due to the lack of enzyme cellulase to break down
beta-1,4-gycosidic bonds that link glucose units to cellulose. It passes on the large intestine as
one of the main components of dietary fibre.

Vili and the surface area for digestion

Vili increases the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is carried out.

Absorption: process of taking substances and transporting them across various tissues and
membranes into the bloodstream or cells or lymphatic system (vessels, organs and tissues).

In the human digestive system (hds) nutrients are absorbed principally in the small intestine.

The rate of absorption depends on the surface area of the epithelium that carries out the
process.
This area is increased by the presence of villi (x10).

Vili are small finger-like projections of the mucosa on the inside of the intestine wall.

Absorption by villi

Vili absorbs monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral ions and vitamins.

Epithelium is permeable (allowing liquids or gases to pass though), while also being a barrier to
harmful substances.

If harmful substances pass through the epithelium they are removed from the blood and
detoxified by the liver.

Methods of absorption

To be absorbed into the body, nutrients must pass from the lumen of the small intestine to the
capillaries or lacteals in the villi.

The nutrients must first be absorbed into epithelium cells through the exposed part of the
plasma membrane that has its surface area enlarged with microvilli.

The nutrients must then pass out of this cell through the plasma membrane where it faces
inwards towards the lacteal and blood capillaries of villus.

The transport is active, meaning it needs energy (ATP) that is produced by mitochondria in the
epithelium cells.

Mechanisms that move nutrients into and out of the villus epithelium cells are: simple
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport and exocytosis.

Examples on the basis of triglyceride and glucose:

1. Triglycerides need to be digested before they can be absorbed. The digestion produces
fatty acids and monoglycerides. These products are then absorbed into the epithelial
cells of the villi through simple diffusion (as they are hydrophobic). Fatty acids can also
be absorbed through facilitated diffusion. Once inside the epithelial cells, fatty acids
and monoglycerides combine to form triglycerides, which cannot diffuse back into the
lumen. Triglycerides combine with cholesterol to form droplets coated with
phospholipids and protein. These lipoprotein particles are then released by exocytosis
through the plasma membrane on the inner side of the epithelial cells of the villi. They
then enter either the lacteals or the blood vessels of the villi.

2. Glucose cannot pass through the plasma membrane by simple diffusion as it is

hydrophilic. The process of transport of glucose starts with transportation of Na+
(sodium ions) from villus epithelium cells to inside of the villi with the help of ATP. This
leads to low sodium concentrations inside the villus epithelium cells. As a result, in the
 intestine glucose attaches to a sodium ion. Special proteins called sodium-glucose co-
transporters then move both the sodium ion and glucose together from the intestine
into the cells of the villi by facilitated diffusion (diffusion with the help of transport
protein). Once in the cell, glucose channels allow glucose to move by facilitated
diffusion into the inside of the villi and on into the blood capillaries in the villus.

Starch digestion in the small intestine:

3. The macromolecular structure of starch makes it impossible for starch to pass through
membranes so must be digested in the small intestine to allow absorption. There are
two types of molecules in starch: amylose (1,4 bonds) and amylopectin (1,4 and 1,6
bonds (dextrins)). Enzyme amylase begins the digestion of both forms of starch.
Amylase can break down any 1,4 bonds but not 1,6. Amylose is therefore digested into
a mixture called maltose and maltotriose. Further enzymes, particularly maltase,
glucosidase and dextrinase complete the digestion of maltose, maltotriose and
dextrins into glucose. Glucose is then absorbed into villus epithelium cells by co-
transport with sodium ions. It then moves by facilitated diffusion into the fluid inside
the villus. The dense network of capillaries close to the epithelium ensures fast
transport of glucose to the blood system. Larger pores of the capillaries also aid the
entry of glucose.

Blood carrying glucose flows into the venules in the sub-mucosa of the wall of the
small intestine. The blood is then carried via the hepatic portal vein to the liver where
excess glucose can be absorbed by liver cells and converted to glycogen for storage.