BASIC WRITING SKILLS/SOPHOMORE

ENGLISH FOR COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY

STUDENTS

ALAMIREW KASSAHUN (PhD)

April 2022
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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Table of Contents
Introduction--------------------------------------------------------------------5
Chapter 1: Basics of Capitalization-------------------------------------------6
Chapter 2: Basics of Punctuation---------------------------------------------15
2.1. Comma (,) -------------------------------------------------------------16
2.2. Semi-colon (;) ---------------------------------------------------------22
2.3. Colon (:) ----------------------------------------------------------------23
2.4. Hyphen (-) -------------------------------------------------------------25
2.5. Apostrophe (‘) ---------------------------------------------------------27
2.6. Quotation Marks (“ “) ----------------------------------------------28
2.7. End Marks--------------------------------------------------------------32
2.7.1. Period/Full Stop (.)------------------------------------------32
2.7.2. Question Mark (?)--------------------------------------------33
2.7.3. Exclamation Point (!)----------------------------------------34
Chapter 3: Types of Sentences-----------------------------------------------36
3.1. Types of Sentences Based on Structure----------------------------36
3.2. Types of Sentences Based on Function-----------------------------39
Chapter 4: Revising/Improving Faulty Sentences-------------------------42
4.1. Subject-verb Agreement---------------------------------------------42
4.2. Sentence Fragments and Run-on Sentences-----------------------46
4.2.1. Sentence Fragments----------------------------------------46
4.2.2. Run-on Sentences-------------------------------------------47
4.3. Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers----------------------------------48
4.3.1. Misplaced Modifiers-----------------------------------------48
4.3.2. Dangling Modifiers------------------------------------------50
4.4. Overloaded Sentences and Unsupported Statements------------51
4.4.1. Overloaded Sentences-------------------------------------51
4.4.2. Unsupported Statements----------------------------------53
4.5. Faulty Parallelism and Comparison--------------------------------54
4.5.1. Faulty Parallelism-----------------------------------------54

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 4.5.2. Faulty Comparison----------------------------------------56
4.6. Empty Expressions and Redundancies---------------------------57
4.6.1. Empty Expressions---------------------------------------57
4.6.2. Redundancies---------------------------------------------59
4.7. Varying Sentence Beginnings-------------------------------------60
Chapter 5: Joining Sentences-------------------------------------------------62
5.1. Coordination--------------------------------------------------------62
5.2. Subordination-------------------------------------------------------67
5.3. Reduction------------------------------------------------------------70
5.4. Appositives----------------------------------------------------------71
5.5. Adjectives-----------------------------------------------------------72
Chapter 6: The Process of Writing--------------------------------------------74
6.1. Pre-writing----------------------------------------------------------74
6.2. Drafting/Writing the First Draft----------------------------------82
6.3. Revising-------------------------------------------------------------83
Chapter 7: Essentials of a Paragraph (Paragraph Writing) ----------------87
7.1. Paragraph Structure------------------------------------------------89
7.2. Paragraph Unity----------------------------------------------------99
7.3. Purpose-------------------------------------------------------------102
7.4. Paragraph Development-------------------------------------------104
7.4.1. Comparison and Contrast--------------------------------104
7.4.2. Cause and Effect------------------------------------------106
7.4.3. Statistics---------------------------------------------------107
7.4.4. Definition--------------------------------------------------108
7.4.5. Exemplification-------------------------------------------110
7.4.6. Classification----------------------------------------------111
7.5. Paragraph Coherence---------------------------------------------116
7.5.1. Chronological Order--------------------------------------116
7.5.2. Spatial Order---------------------------------------------118
7.5.3. Order of Importance------------------------------------119

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 7.5.4. Comparison or Contrast--------------------------------125
7.6. Paragraph Format------------------------------------------------130
7.7. Paragraph Length------------------------------------------------136
Chapter 8: Types of Paragraph---------------------------------------------140
8.1. Narrative Paragraph---------------------------------------------140
8.2. Descriptive Paragraph-------------------------------------------144
8.3. Explanatory/Expository Paragraph----------------------------149
8.3.1. Process Paragraphs------------------------------------150
8.3.2. Definition Paragraphs----------------------------------153
8.3.3. Paragraphs that Reason out--------------------------154
8.3.4. Comparison and Contrast Paragraphs---------------156
8.3.5. Paragraphs of Classification-------------------------- 157
8.4. Persuasive Paragraph------------------------------------------158
Chapter 9: Essay Writing---------------------------------------------------161
9.1. Essay Structure and Outlining an Essay----------------------161
9.2. Writing the Introduction---------------------------------------182
9.3. Writing the Body------------------------------------------------190
9.4. Writing the Conclusion-----------------------------------------194
9.5. Types of Essay---------------------------------------------------195
9.5.1. Narrative Essay----------------------------------------196
9.5.2. Descriptive Essay--------------------------------------197
9.5.3. Explanatory/Expository Essay-----------------------199
9.5.4. Persuasive Essay--------------------------------------201
References------------------------------------------------------------

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Introduction
This book aims at developing your basic writing skills: writing meaningful and
grammatically correct sentences, and writing effective paragraphs and essays. To this
end, the following major topics are included: mechanics (capitalization and
punctuation), types of sentences, joining sentences, revising sentences for faulty
writing, paragraph and essay writing.

A variety of exercises and guidelines/models are provided to help you better understand
the contents of the subject and improve your writing skills. As this is an academic
course, it will surely help you in your attempt to do well in your major field of study and
other academic subjects as well. This is so because most of the term and research
papers, reports and graduation essays that you are required to produce at higher
education institutions presuppose the possession of basic sentence, paragraph and
essay writing skills, among others.

This book is designed to meet the needs of a wide-ranging groups of students studying
in various colleges and universities. Its contents have been tried on different groups of
students of various age groups and have been found to be of general appeal. Students
majoring in English as well as those taking the courses BASIC WRITING SKILLS,
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH, COLLEGE-LEVEL WRITING, or WRITING FOR
ACADEMIC PURPOSES, etc. will find this material more relevant. It must also be
emphasized that anyone interested in developing their basic writing skills will
undoubtedly benefit from working with this material.

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Chapter 1: Basics of Capitalization
One way through which you can make your writing clear, meaningful or effective is by
using capital letters where appropriate. There are many rules governing the use of
capital letters, and this chapter discusses them with the help of examples and exercises.
Proper Nouns and Adjectives
 Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives
A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place or thing. A proper adjective is
formed from a proper noun. A common noun, which is not capitalized, except when it is
at sentence beginnings, is a general name of a person, place or thing.
Common Noun Proper Noun Proper Adjective
person Elizabeth Elizabethan
country Ethiopia Ethiopian
city Paris Parisian

There are many different proper nouns. The rules below and the corresponding
examples will help you solve the capitalization problems that proper nouns present.
A. Names of persons
 Capitalize the names of persons and also the initials and abbreviations
that stand for those names.
Sisay Kassahun
Dr. Amare Masresha
Elizabeth M. Grant
Elizabeth Mason Grant
 Capitalize titles used with names of persons and also the initials or
abbreviations that stand for titles.
Judge Mitiku Lemma
Professor White
Mr. Edward Scott
Dr. Sena Shimelis

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 Rev. Itafa Gobana
 Do not capitalize titles used as common nouns.
Have you seen your doctor?
She is the company president.
The judge entered the courtroom.
 Capitalize titles of very high importance, even when these titles are
used without proper names.
The Pope
The President of the United States
The Prime Minister of Ethiopia a United States Senator
B. Family relationships
 Capitalize such words as mother, father, aunt, and uncle when these
words are used as names. When the noun is modified by a possessive
word, it is not capitalized.
Hello, Mother, Is Dad home yet?
My aunt is going to visit my grandmother next week.
C. The pronoun I
 Capitalize the pronoun I regardless of where it occurs in sentences.
Is he taller than I?
I am sure that he is.
Continents: Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe
Bodies of water: the Pacific Ocean, the Columbia River, the English Channel,
the Gibe River
Landforms: the Cape of Good Hope, the Mississippi Delta
Political units: Great Britain, First Congressional District, Los Angeles
Public area: Awash National Park, the National Museum
Roads and highways: Haile Gebreseilase Street, Lincoln Highway, Route 23
D. Directions and Sections
 Capitalize names of sections of the country.
Industrial production was high in the North.
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 The first English settlements were along the East Coast.
The Southwest is our fastest-growing region.
 Capitalize proper adjectives derived from names of sections of the
country.
Western dress
Southern-style cooking
A New England town
 Do not capitalize directions of the compass.
We headed south for our vacation.
The pioneers moved west over the channel.
The school is southwest of our home.
 Do not capitalize adjectives derived from words indicating direction.
A north wind
The east side of the building

EXERCISE 1: Capitalization
Re-write the following sentences using capital letter as appropriate.
1. The lake is in Siberia, in the soviet union.
2. The island of Capri is in the bay of naples.
3. Of the seven contitnets, asia and Africa are the two largest.
4. lake tana is found in bahir dar.
5. Last summer, we drove along the gulf of mexico to new Orleans and then north
to Memphis.
6. The omo national park has beautiful sceneries.
7. The abay river crosses cairo.
8. Next week we elect the representative from the eighth congressional district.
9. We had a family picnic at langano resort hotel.
10. The blue grotto is a famous tourist attraction on Capri.

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E. Names of Organizations and Institutions
 Capitalize the names of organizations and institutions including
political parties, governmental bodies or agencies, schools, colleges,
churches, hospitals, clubs, businesses and abbreviations of these
names.
Gillette Company
Tulube Junior Secondary School
Unity University
You-Go Bible Club
Pastor David Church
Dembel City Center
St. Paul’s Hospital
 Do not capitalize such words as school, college, church and hospital
when they are not used as names.
This fund benefits the hospital.
Our school is going to be re-built.
F. Names of Events, Documents and Periods of Time
 Capitalize the names of historical events, documents, and periods of
time.
The Battle of Adwa
The Middle Ages
Wuchale Treaty
Bill of Rights
World War II
G. Months, Days and Holidays
 Capitalize names of months, days, holidays, but not the names of
seasons.
March summer
Friday spring

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 Labor Day
H. Races, Languages, Nationalities and Religions
 Capitalize the names of races, languages, nationalities, and religions
and adjectives derived from them
French
African
Amhara
Oromo
Catholic
Lutheranism
Catholic
I. School Subjects
 Do not capitalize the names of school subjects, except course names
followed by a number
physical education
social studies
Financial Accounting I
 Remember that the names of languages are always capitalized.
English
Spanish
Amharic
Afan Oromo
J. Ships, Trains, Airplanes and Automobiles
 Capitalize the names of ships, trains, airplanes and automobiles.
Tekeze
Cutlass
Boeing
Mazda
K. B.C. and A. D.
 Capitalize the abbreviations B.C. and A.D.

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 The first Olympic Games were held in 776 B.C.
The Norman Conquest took place in A.D. 1066.
EXERCISE 2: Capitalization
Re-write the following sentences adding capital letters where necessary.
1. The fourth of july is an important date in American history.
2. My sister is a class president at jimma senior secondary school.
3. I registered for ancient history I, business math II, social studies, English and
music.
4. Our car was made by American motors corporation.
5. In 1898 the treaty of paris ended the Spanish-american war.
6. They own Mercedes benz and suzuki.
7. My favorite subjects are home economics and shop.
8. Prophet Muhammad founded the religion of islam.
9. His followers are called moslems or muslims.
10. In 44 b.c. Caesar was assassinated.
First Words
A. Sentences and Poetry
 Capitalize the first word of every sentence and the first word in most
lines of poetry.
Sentence: My sister likes tennis. She is the captain of her team.
Lines of poetry: Listen my children, and you shall hear
Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere…
B. Quotations
When you write the exact words of a speaker or writer, you are giving a direct
quotation.
 Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation.
Professor Zeleke said, “The presence of life after death is like a joke to me.”
 Sometimes a direct quotation is interrupted by explaining words like
she said. This is called a divided quotation. Do not capitalize the first

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 word of the second part of a divided quotation unless it starts a new
sentence.
“Well,” he said, “what you are saying is quite right.”
“I agree,” he said. “What you are saying is quite true.”
C. Letters
 Capitalize the first word, words like Sir and Madam, and the name of
the person addressed in the greeting of a letter.
Dear Mr. Alemu
Dear Mrs. Tizita
Dear Mr. Tadele
 In the complimentary close, capitalize the first word only.
Yours very truly
Sincerely yours
D. Outlines
 Capitalize the letters and the first word of each line of an outline
I. Improve your handwriting
A. Form letters carefully
1. Watch a, e, r, l and t
2. Watch u, v, and o
B. Proofread your work
E. Titles
 Capitalize the first word and all important words in chapter titles, titles
of magazine articles, titles of short stories, essays, or single poems and
titles of songs or short pieces of music.
Chapter: Chapter 5, “The Undersea World’’
Magazine article: “Sleep and Dreams”
Short story: “The Last Leaf”
Essay: “Nature”
Poem: “O Captain! My Captain!”
Song: “Dangerous”

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  Capitalize the first word and all important words in titles of books,
newspapers, magazines, plays, movies, television programs, works of
art, and long musical compositions.
Book: Fikir Iske Mekabir
Newspaper: The Daily Monitor
Magazine: Tsigereda
Play: Macbeth
Television program: Ethiopian Idol
Movie: Yewendoch Guday; The Proposal
Work of art: Monalisa
Long musical composition: Peter and the Wolf
EXERCISE 3: Capitalization
Re-write the following sentences using capital letters where necessary.
1. the last chapter of the sherlock holmes book valley of fear is “danger.”
2. the famous actor will smith said, “all I know is just what I read in the papers.”
3. “don’t go,” he said. “I haven’t explained yet.”
4. the morning paper is the herald tribune.
5. very sincerely yours,
6. “hurry up!” father said, “if we don’t leave soon, we’ll be late.”
7. did you enjoy the movie the right stuff?
8. the article “images of youth past” appeared last fall in an issue of life magazine.
9. I have always enjoyed the wizard of oz, but I was thoroughly entertained by the
movie the wiz.
10. “I’m afraid so,” genet replied. “we’re too late.”

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EXERCISE 4
Proofread the following letter. Re-write it using correct capitalization.
March 15, 2008
Dear ms harmon:

in february, the evening star ran an ad for your auto wrecking business, compacted
cars company. After reading the ad, I had an idea. I wonder if your company would
donate any used inner tubes to camp lone pine. Our campers could then go tubing on
red mill river. You may be asking yourself, “what is tubing?” let me explain that tubing
is a simple water sport in which swimmers put on inner tubes and float down the river.
Your generosity would make a better summer for the children at our camp. Also, I
would encourage their parents to take their old fords, Chevrolets, and other cars to
your company.

i could pick up the inner tubes on any Tuesday after 1:00 p.m.
thank you for your consideration.

respectfully yours
roger m.glass

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Chapter 2: Basics of Punctuation
In general, punctuation marks are used in order to make your communication clear and
easy to read. They indicate pauses in a sentence, and you need to strike a balance
between too many and too few of them. If you have too many, your document is
broken up too much and becomes disjointed. If you have too few, it becomes difficult
to follow. The following paragraph has no punctuation marks at all. Can you see how
difficult it is to understand what the writer means?

I am afraid that owing to the fact that the Managing Director is out of the office
at the moment it is not possible to agree to your request immediately not that it
is likely to be turned down of course but we do need his approval for agreements
of his nature however he will be back next week and I will make sure that he
deals with it as soon as possible.

Now here is the same paragraph, but this time the writer has over punctuated it:

I am afraid that, owing to the fact that, the Managing Director is out of the
office, at the moment, it is not possible to agree to your request, immediately---
not that it is likely to be turned down, of course; but we do need his approval,
for agreements of his nature. However, he will be back next week; and I will
make sure that he deals with it, as soon as possible.

Can you see how disjointed it is to read? It is almost jerky in fact. Let us see how it
looks when properly punctuated:
I am afraid that, owing to the fact that the Managing Director is out of the office
at the moment, it is not possible to agree to your request immediately-not that it
is likely to be turned down of course, but we do need his approval for
agreements of his nature. However, he will be back next week and I will make
sure that he deals with it as soon as possible.

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This is easier to read than the other two versions, and the sense is quite clear the first
time you read it. Punctuation is often a matter of style, but there are certain rules which
should be followed if your correspondence is to make sense to your readers. In this
chapter, we will be looking at both the rules and the points of style governing
punctuation marks.

PRE-TEST
Try to punctuate this paragraph without reading the various punctuation
marks and their functions discussed in this chapter.
Dannys hobby is collecting old blues records His collection began accidentally When his
sister Laura moved away she gave him hers She said Take care of these Danny Theyre
an important part of the past He thanked her politely but it took him a while to
appreciate the records After listening to them he became an ardent blues fan He liked
the stories in the songs the emotion in the singers voices and the heavy rhythmical beat
of the music Danny started adding to the collection He browsed at record stores second
hand shops and garage sales His interest in the blues gave him a new awareness of
music For Lauras birthday Danny taped some hits from the 80s that showed the
influence of the blues He wanted her to know the past was an important part of the
present.
2.1. Comma (,)
Commas are used to prevent confusion and to keep items from running to one another.
Following are some specific rules for commas that are used to separate items.
A. Items in a Series
 Three or more similar items together form a series. A series can be
composed of words, phrases or clauses.
Words:
a. Blackberries, raspberries, and strawberries are all members of the
rose family. (Nouns)
b. Meseret will sing, dance, or tell jokes. (Verbs)
c. We were tired, dirty, and wet. (Adjectives)

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Phrases:
The cat could be in the closet, under the bed, or behind the couch.
Clauses:
We do not know when we are leaving, where we are going, or what we
should take.
 When a conjunction connects the last two items in a series, some
writers omit the last comma. Although this is acceptable, it can be
confusing. Therefore, it is always better to include the comma before
the conjunction.
Confusing: I had juice, bacon and corn pancakes.
Clear: I had juice, bacon, and corn pancakes.
 You can use a comma to separate adjectives qualifying the same noun
as in:
Please enclose a large, brown envelope.
This again is a matter of preference, and you could just as well leave the comma out.
One situation in which you must leave it out is when the second adjective and the noun
actually form a compound noun together. Take ‘filing cabinet’ as an example. ‘Filing’ is
not a qualifying adjective in this context. It is part of the noun. A filing cabinet is
something very different from an ordinary cabinet, so ‘filing’ does not describe the
cabinet in the way that ‘brown’ describes ‘the envelope’ in the previous example.
Hence, you should not write: Please supply a large, filing cabinet.
B. Compound Sentences
 A comma, together with coordinating conjunctions ( for, and, nor, but,
or, yet and so), is usually used to separate the independent clauses in a
compound sentence.
a. Do not tease the dog, or it may bite you.
b. I play the flute, and my sister plays the cello.
 A comma is not needed in a very short compound sentence.
Selam left but I stayed.

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Whether or not you use a comma in this context will depend on the length of the
sentence in question and the amount of separation, and the kind of meaning you would
like to communicate. Therefore, if your sentence is long you might put in a comma,
introducing a pause so that the reader can absorb what he or she has read so far.
C. Introductory Elements
 Use a comma to separate an introductory word, phrase, or clause from
the rest of the sentence.
Words:
a. Yes, I will go.
b. Finally, may I offer my congratulations on your success this year?
(Similar words include now, oh, well, why, yes, and so on)
Prepositional phrase: After the earthquake in town, we all helped each other.
(A comma comes after two or more prepositional phrases or a single phrase of
four or more words)
Participial phrase: this could be the past participle or the ing-form of a
verb used at the beginning of a sentence)
a. Annoyed by what he said, she left the room without saying anything.
b. Hearing the noise outside, we all went under bed.
Others: In Room 47, 35 students were studying.
Is it possible to say: In Room 4735 students were studying?
D. Commas with Interrupters/Commas that Enclose
Some expressions interrupt the flow of a sentence. These expressions generally add
information that is not needed to understand the main idea of the sentence. They may
well be omitted without affecting the meaning of the sentence in question.
 Use commas to set off words or groups of words that interrupt the flow
of though in a sentence.
a. The movie, to tell the truth, was rather boring.
b. This is not, I am sure, what the Board had in mind.
c. The report, moreover, is altogether wrong.

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 When these interrupters are used at the beginning of a sentence, only
one comma is used.
To tell the truth, the movie was rather boring.
E. Commas with Appositives
 Use commas to set off most appositives. An appositive is a word or a
group of words used directly after another word to explain it.
a. The speaker, a famous explorer, talked about New Guinea.
b. The leader, the person on horseback, moved away.
 When the appositive is a short name or noun, it is not set off by
commas.
This is my sister Tizita.
F. Direct Address
 Names, titles, or words that are used to address someone are set off by
commas.
a. Sarah, you are a high scorer.
b. Your essay, Mimi, was excellent.
c. Have you had your lunch, Kena?
G. Dates and Addresses
 In dates, use a comma between the day of the month and the year.
I was born on June 18, 1980.
 In a sentence a comma follows the year.
The postmark read July 5, 2009, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
 Use a comma between the name of a city or town and the name of its
state or country.
a. Yeka Sub-city, Addis Ababa
b. Jigjiga, Somali Regional State
c. Munich, Germany
 In writing an address as part of a sentence, use a comma after each
independent part.

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 a. I live at Haile Gebresislasie Street, Yeka Sub-city, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
b. Forward our letter to 651 Sentinel Drive, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53203,
where we will be moving next month.
 Note that you do not place a comma between the state and the ZIP
code.
Wrong: Wisconsin, 53203
H. Commas with Quotations
 Use commas to set off the explaining words of a direct quotation.
The explaining words used in giving a direct quotation are such
brief statements as Ashenafi said, Ashenafi answered, or Netsanet asked.
The pilot said, “We will land in a few minutes.”
In this sentence, the explaining words come before the quotation. A comma is
then placed after the last explaining word.
Now look at this quotation:
“We will land in a few minutes,’’ the pilot said.
 If the explaining words come after the quotation, as in the example
above, place a comma within the quotation marks after the last
word of the quotation. Sometimes a quotation is separated into two
parts by the explaining words. This is often done to add variety to
the sentence construction.
Here is an example:
“We will land,” the pilot said, “in a few minutes.”
 Do not confuse direct and indirect quotations. Indirect quotations
are not set off from the rest of the sentence by commas.
The pilot said that the plane would land in a few minutes.
I. Commas in Letter Parts
 Use a comma often after the salutation of a friendly letter and after
the complimentary close of a friendly or business letter.

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 a. Dear Dagim,
b. Yours sincerely,
J. Commas to Prevent Misreading
 When no specific rule applies, but there is a danger of misreading,
use a comma.
a. Who she is, is a mystery.
b. Inside, it was warm and cozy.
EXERCISE 1: Commas
Punctuate the following sentences using commas where necessary.
1. My sister was born in Tokyo Japan on January 1 1965 and I was born in
Frankfurt Germany on January 1 1968.
2. Whatever it is it is a strange-looking creature.
3. Because my parents work for the government I have lived in Bole Sub-city Addis
Ababa for over ten years.
4. At the movies I like fresh buttery popcorn.
5. My sister can play the guitar the ‘kirar’ and the mandolin.
6. The exam however will be given as scheduled.
7. After circling the airport for an hour, we finally landed.
8. W/ro Almaz to be frank was not behaving as usual.
9. I will be right back Abebe.
10. No the garage sale isn’t until next week.
11. The man in blue said “Let’s stand together on this one.”
12. “It is up to you to make that decision” Belete emphasized.
13. Although Mesele needed help he said nothing.
14. My hobby playing tennis has taught me endurance.
15. Sisay finally arrived but it was too late to go anywhere.
16. The team captain the player in the blue jersey is a good student.
17. Dear John
Would you please send me Ann’s new address? I’d appreciate it.
Your friend

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 Alex
18. She is a very good journalist and I am a very good anthropologist.
19. Fishing playing tennis swimming and playing football are my leisure time
activities.
20. They drove away in a shiny expensive car.
2.2. Semicolon (;)
Here are some basic rules governing how semicolons are used in writing:
 Use a semicolon to join the parts of a compound sentence when no
coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so, yet, nor, for) is used.
Sisay has finished his homework; Dagim has not begun his.
 Use a semicolon to emphasize a statement. In this sense, the
statement after the semicolon looks punchy and emphatic.
We must improve our productivity; we face bankruptcy if we do not.
 Use a semicolon to balance contrasting statements, as in
We offer a home delivery service; other firms do not.
The main purpose of the semicolon here is to highlight the contrast between
your service and that of other firms.
 Use semicolons to separate longer items in a list
We saw under commas that they are also used to separate items in a list. There is
no absolute rule to say when you should use commas and when you should use
semicolons, but a good rule of thumb is that semicolons should be used when the
items in the list are clauses and when the items themselves contain commas. Let us
look at some examples:
a. I recommend the following: that we increase our sales staff by five; that
we double our advertising budget; and that we introduce more stringent
quality control measures.
b. We have three main requirements: high quality, durable materials;
reasonable prices; and fast, reliable delivery.
In the first example, the items in the list are clauses; to separate them only
with commas would make them appear to run into each other. In the second,

22
 there are commas in two of the items in the list. If the lists themselves were
separated by commas, it would be confusing to read. Unlike commas, when
you are using semicolons to separate items in a list, you do have a semicolon
before the final ‘and’ or ‘or’.
 Use a semicolon before a word that joins the main clauses of a
compound sentence. Such joining words are therefore, however, hence,
so, then, moreover, besides, nevertheless, yet and consequently.
It was a sunny day; however, it was quite cool.

EXERCISE 2: Semicolons
Punctuate the following sentences using semicolons where appropriate.
1. It was a clear day moreover it was perfect for swimming.
2. Genet prepared dinner Birhanu set the table.
3. Addis Ababa, Jimma and Dire Dawa Awassa, Wonji and Mekele Ambo, Arba
Minch and Mugar have football clubs.
4. Treza was reading a mystery Salia was talking on the phone.
5. Our school offers better quality education theirs doesn’t.
6. Kebede crossed the finish line ten feet ahead of the others however he was
completely out of control when the judges told him that he was disqualified.
7. Akalu, clean the room Shemsu, serve the tea Senait, take the dog for a walk.
8. I know that there is not much time nevertheless the work must be finished by 5:
30 P.M.
9. The Pep Club will handle ticket sales the cheerleaders will help the ushering.
10. Jamal studied hard for the test yet he thought it was one of the hardest ones
he’d ever taken.
2.3. Colon (:)
Here are some basic rules on how colons are used in writing:
 Use a colon to introduce a list of items.
If you are trying out for the team, bring the following things: a pair of gym
shoes, your uniform, and your consent form.

23
  Do not use a colon if the list immediately follows a verb or a
preposition.
If you are trying out for the team, bring a pair of gym shoes, your uniform, and
your consent form.
 Use a colon to indicate the two sides of the same theme; the first part
of the sentence makes a statement, and the second part explains it.
a. The solution is simple: train more operators.
b. The reasons are the same in both cases: we are undervaluing our key staff.
 Use a colon (like a comma) to introduce direct speech or quotation.
She said: “Let us stand straight.”
 Use a colon between numbers including hours and minutes.
a. 10:00 P.M.
b. 6:45 A.M.
 Use a colon to separate Biblical chapters and verses.
John 3: 16 (Chapter three verse 16)
 Use a colon after salutations in business letters.
Dear Sir:
EXERCISE 3: Colons
Punctuate the following sentences using colons where appropriate.
1. All volunteers will need the following a notebook, a pen, and a comfortable pair
of walking shoes.
2. There are four methods of catching fish hooking, netting, spearing and trapping.
3. These are my favorite subject math, science and woodworking.
4. Mother’s plane arrives at 655 P.M. Dad’s will land at 715 P.M.
5. Bring three things to class tomorrow your text, paper, and a blue or black pen.
6. Cargo planes carry almost anything white mice, toupees and even small private
planes.
7. The idea is straightforward don’t tease the dog if you want to go in peace.
8. Abate remarked “It is our responsibility to look after these children.”
9. For more on that you should refer to Genesis 4 12.
24
 10. Dear Madam
This letter will confirm your reservation.
2.4. Hyphen (-)
The hyphen is a very useful device, particularly in avoiding confusing or awkward
constructions. It is used in the following ways:
 Use a hyphen to divide a word at the end of a line; that is, if a syllable
of a word must be carried over from one line to the next.
Many of the business enterprises, real-estate agencies and construct-
ion companies are hit hard by the current recession.
Only words of two or more syllables can be divided at the end of a line. Never divide
words of one syllable, such as worse. A single letter must not be left at the end of a
line. For example, this division would be wrong: a-waken. A single letter must not
appear at the beginning of a line, either. It would be wrong to divide dictionary like
this: dictionar-y.
 Use a hyphen in compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-
nine.
a. Twenty-three cents
b. Forty-two students
 Use a hyphen with fractions when fractions are used as adverbs or
adjectives
a. We won a two-thirds majority. (Two-thirds is a an adjective modifying
majority)
b. Three-fourths empty (three—fourths is an adverb modifying empty)
c. Two thirds of the voters (two thirds is not being used as an adjective here
because thirds is a noun being modified by two)
 Use a hyphen to connect two or more words to form a compound word,
especially a compound adjective, as in
a. A ground-floor office
b. A like-minded colleague
c. A sales-generating strategy

25
 However, you should not use a hyphen to make a compound adjective when the
first word is an adverb ending in – ly. So you should write ‘a well-designed product’,
but ‘a beautifully designed product’.
 Use a hyphen or hyphens in such compound nouns as great-aunt and
commander-in-chief
a. A Portuguese man-of-war stung the swimmer.
b. He is my brother-in-law.
 Use a hyphen with prefixes ex-, self- and all-; with the suffix –elect and
with all prefixes before a proper noun or proper adjective.
a. All-star
b. Ex-wife
c. Pro-American
d. Anti-Semitic
e. Non-European
f. Self-controls
g. Self-image
 Use a hyphen to differentiate between words beginning with re- which
are spelt the same but have different meanings.
a. Reform-improve
b. Re-form- form again
c. Recount-tell
d. Re-count-count again
 Use a hyphen to connect a letter to a noun to form a compound, as in
‘T-junction’ or ‘U-turn’.
 Use a hyphen to avoid an awkward repletion of a letter, as in ‘co-
operate’, ‘anti-inflation’
EXERCISE 4: Hyphens
Punctuate the following sentences using hyphens where necessary.
1. The Prime Minister of Ethiopia is the Commander in Chief of the armed Forces.
2. In ten years I be will twenty six years old.

26
 3. We received the store’s new, up to date catalogue.
4. The woman had a well to do look.
5. You have to rewrite your sentences to make them more meaningful and
grammatical.
6. He is a self made millionaire.
7. This is a well organized essay.
8. My ex girlfriend is not a good person.
9. I am standing near the car park.
10. The postage for this package is sixty two cents.
2.5. Apostrophe (‘)
Here are some basic rules on how apostrophes are used in writing:
 Use an apostrophe to show that a letter or letters have been left out of
a word.
a. Don’t for do not
b. We’ll for we will
c. Let’s for let us
 Use an apostrophe and ‘s’ to form the plurals of letters, figures and
words used as words.
a. two m’s
b. four 6’s
c. and’s and but’s
 Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of a singular noun.
a. girl’s
b. Ross’s
 Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of a plural that does not end
in ‘s’.
a. men’s
b. children’s
 Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of nouns that end in ‘s’ .

27
 a. drivers’
b. pilots’
 Use an apostrophe and ‘s’ to form the possessive of indefinite
pronouns.
a. someone’s
b. anybody’s
 Never use an apostrophe in a personal pronoun.
Ours, yours, its, hers, theirs
 Use an apostrophe to show the omission of numbers in a date.
The class of '89(the class of 1989)
EXERCISE 5: Apostrophes
Punctuate the following sentences using apostrophes where they are
needed.
1. All of the teachers meetings are held in a library.
2. Her writing and illustrations a well known childrens literature.
3. Hannas father drove us to their familys cottage in Indibir.
4. Wasnt that Charless original plan?
5. Weve heard that there wont be an assembly until next week.
6. Although she was the first woman to go into space, Valentina Tereshkovas name
is not well known.
7. I plan to get four As and two Bs this semester.
8. How many ss are there in Mississippi?
9. Marthas sister and Kalkidans brother are both interns at St. Pauls Hospital.
10. The graduating classes of 87 and 88 are buying a new digital scoreboard for the
school.
2.6. Quotation Marks (" ")
Here are some basic rules on how quotation marks are used in writing:
 Use quotation marks at the beginning and at the end of a direct
quotation.
Sarah said, “My feelings were hurt."

28
  Quotation marks are not used with indirect quotations:
Sarah said that her feelings were hurt.
 A quotation that begins the sentence is followed by a comma inside the
quotation marks. A period follows the explaining words at the end of a
sentence.
“There is someone to see you,” my sister announced.
Divided quotations
 Sometimes the explaining words break into the middle of a direct
quotation. In this case, each part of the quotation is enclosed in
quotation marks.
"Do you think," Girma asked, "that you will like the team in blue?"
Also, note the placement of commas.
 Use quotation marks when quoting the exact words of a person,
document, book or article, as in
Johnson wrote of a "potentially damaging recession" looming.
 Use quotation marks to show irony.
What do you think of Green & Co’s "new" corporate image?
(The implication is that you do not believe that Green & Co’s corporate image is
actually very new).
 Use quotation marks to show that you do not want something/some
idea to be part of your argument.
Smiths have developed a new "quick-dry" paint.
This means that Smiths are claiming it is quick to dry. You are not necessarily denying
the claim, but nor are you confirming it. You may not have enough information to form
a judgment. Whether you use single (' ') or double quotation marks (" ") is a matter of
personal preference, but if there is an item within a larger quotation that should be in
quotation marks, use the double quotation marks for the bigger item and the single
quotation marks for the smaller item.

29
Example
My boss said, “I hate the idea of introducing ‘Dry and Cut Management’ in this
company.”

EXERCISE 6: Quotation Marks

Write each of the following sentences three ways as a direct quotation.
Example: Be sure that you are on time.
a. "Be sure that you are on time," he said.
b. He said, "Be sure that you are on time."
c. "Be sure," he said, “that you are on time."
1. Watch out for broken glasses.
2. I am sure that I am right.
3. On Monday summer vacation begins.
4. Did you know that I was her boyfriend?
 Place question marks and exclamation points inside quotation marks if
they belong to the quotation itself.
a. Dad asked, "Is Mersha working in the garage?"
b. "Look out!" Dagim shouted.
 Place question marks and exclamation points outside quotation marks
if they do not belong to the quotation.
a. Did she say, "I will be home at midnight"?
b. The man said, "You have never won the contest"!
EXERCISE 7: Quotation Marks
Punctuate the following sentences. If a sentence is correct, write ‘correct’.
1. Did the teacher say We’ll meet in the gym
2. The receptionist asked us what we wanted.
3. The speaker said, Inflation must be stopped.
4. Have the committee members arrived yet asked Tizita.
5. The best part she added is the ending.

30
Quotation marks for titles
 Use quotation marks to enclose the titles of magazines articles,
chapters, titles of short stories, essays, or single poems, songs and
short pieces of music.
a. Chapter: Chapter 3, "Americans in London"
b. Magazine article: "Images of Youth Past"
c. Short Story: "The Lottery"
d. Essay: "My First Article"
e. Poem: "The Raven"
f. Song: "Dangerous"
 Underline the titles of books, newspapers, magazines, plays, television
programs, movies, works of art, and long musical compositions. In
writing or typewriting, these titles are underlined, like this:
A Long Walk to Freedom is my favorite book.
 In print, these titles appear in italics instead of being underlined.
a. Book: Native Son
b. Newspaper: The Daily Monitor
c. Magazine: The Economist
d. Play: Hamlet
e. Television program: African Voices
f. Movie: Titanic
g. Work of art: Monalisa
EXERCISE 8: Quotation Marks
Punctuate the following sentences using quotation marks where necessary.
1. The television program Shai Buna raises and discusses a number of social and
economic issues.
2. Two of James Thurber’s stories are The Very Proper Gander and The Shrike and
Chipmunks.
3. Read the first chapter, Discovery in the New World.
4. I liked the story The Monkey’s Paw.

31
 5. For my poetry assignment, I read Ex-Basketball Player.
6. The band played music from Camelot and the theme from Chariots of Fire.
7. Charlie Chaplin’s The Gold Rush and Harold Lloyd’s Safety Last are two well-
known silent films.
8. Did you see the movie Gandhi?
9. Read chapter 2, How We Came to the River.
10. This is Judy Bass’s painting Jump out of Darkness.
2.7. End Marks
End marks are punctuation marks used at the end of sentences.
2.7.1. Period/Full Stop (.)
 Use a period at the end of a declarative sentence.
A declarative sentence is a sentence that makes a statement. It is a kind of
sentence you use when you want to tell something.
My brother plays the guitar.
 Use a period at the end of an imperative sentence.
An imperative sentence is a sentence that requests or orders someone to do
something.
Please bring me that book.
 If the imperative sentence also expresses excitement or emotion, an
exclamation point is used after it.
Watch out!
 Use a period at the end of an indirect question.
An indirect question tells what someone asked. However, it does not give the
exact words of the person who asked the question.
She asked us whether we liked strawberries.
 Use a period after an abbreviation or after an initial.
An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word. An initial is a single letter that
stands for a word.
a. Dr. Marla E.Corona
b. Rev. John L.Haeger,Jr.
32
 c. 2:30 P.M.
 Periods are omitted in some abbreviations or acronyms. If you are not
sure whether or not to use periods, look up the abbreviation in your
dictionary.
a. FM (frequency modulation)
b. UN (United Nations)
c. FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation)
 Use a period after each number or letter that shows a division of an
outline or that preceded an item in a list.
A. America
B. Africa
1. Eggs
2. Milk
3. Butter

2.7.2. Question Mark (?)

Here are basic rules on how the question mark is used in writing:
 Use a question mark at the end of an interrogative sentence.
An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question.
Is Alex here?
The above sentence gives the exact words of the person who asked the
question. It is a called a direct question. A question mark is used only with a
direct question.
 Do not use a question mark with an indirect question. Instead use a
period.
Sisay asked whether Alex was here.
 Use a question mark in memos or informal letters to ask for
confirmation.
We will meet on (Friday?) to discuss the arrangements.
Here the writer is asking the other person if Friday is convenient.
33
 2.7.3. Exclamation Point (!)
Here are basic rules on how the exclamation point is used in writing:
 Use an exclamation point at the end of an exclamatory sentence.
How great that looks!
 Use an exclamation point after an interjection or after any other
exclamatory expression.
An interjection is a word or group of words used to express a strong feeling. It
may be a real word or simply a group of letters used to express a sound. It is one of
the eight parts of speech.
a. Hurrah!
b. Wow!
c. Ugh!
EXERCISE 9: End Marks
Punctuate the following sentences using appropriate end marks.
a. I was supposed to meet Tizita at 10:30 AM
b. Dr James Coogan, Jr is going to talk about lifesaving
c. What is Dr hailu’s phone number
d. Help I can’t get this door open
e. One mile is equal to 16 kilometers
f. Where did I put my new sweater
g. Wow That was quite a football game
h. Mary, Look out
i. Our art supplies will cost less than ten birr, but they’ll be more that 825 birr.
j. My appointment with Dr Gamachu is at 10:20 AM

34
POST-TEST
You have looked at the various punctuation marks and their actual functions.
Are there any changes you would like to make to the paragraph you have
punctuated at the beginning of this chapter?
Dannys hobby is collecting old blues records His collection began accidentally When his
sister Laura moved away she gave him hers She said Take care of these Danny Theyre
an important part of the past He thanked her politely but it took him a while to
appreciate the records After listening to them he became an ardent blues fan He liked
the stories in the songs the emotion in the singers voices and the heavy rhythmical beat
of the music Danny started adding to the collection He browsed at record stores second
hand shops and garage sales His interest in the blues gave him a new awareness of
music For Lauras birthday Danny taped some hits from the 80s that showed the
influence of the blues He wanted her to know the past was an important part of the
present

35
Chapter 3: Types of Sentences
Understanding the different sentence types and knowing how they are used will help
improve your writing skills. It will help you especially while joining and revising
sentences, which are the focus of subsequent chapters.
3.1. Types of Sentences Based on Structure
A sentence may be classified according to its structure. Thus, based on structure,
sentences are classified as simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.

A) Simple sentence

A simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate. A simple sentence is an
independent clause. It expresses one complete idea, and it stands alone. Simple
sentences can have more than one subject and more than one verb.

a. One subject and verb: Dogs bark.

b. Two subjects: Teachers and students work together.
c. Two verbs: Dogs bark and bite strangers.
d. Two subjects and two verbs: Birds and bats fly and eat insects.

B) Compound sentence

A compound sentence has two or more simple sentences connected by a

coordinating conjunction, conjunctive adverbs or separated by a semi-colon.

Examples

a. Jimma is a land of fascinating beauty; in addition, its people are so friendly.

b. I steamed the carrots, then I baked the potatoes.
c. I ate everything on the tray; I was really hungry.
d. I bought coca cola, and I drank it at once, for I was very thirsty.
e. The jet lost altitude, but no one was hurt.

36
A passage filled with simple and short sentences can sound choppy. When you vary the
lengths of your sentences, the same passage becomes easier to read and flows more
smoothly. For example, read the following two paragraphs about cultural icon. In the
first paragraph, most of the sentences are short and the style is repetitive and boring.
In the second paragraph, there is a mixture of simple, compound and complex
sentences. Notice the following examples.

Simple sentence structure

We know the story. A woman left work. She boarded a bus for home. She was tired.
Her feet ached. The bus became crowded. The driver yelled at the black woman to give
her seat to a white passenger. She remained seated. Her decision was important. It led
to the changes in the south. It ushered in a new era.

Simple, compound and complex sentence structure

We know the story. One December evening, a woman left work and boarded a bus for
home. She was tired; her feet ached. As the bus became crowded, the woman, a black
woman, was ordered to give up her seat to a white passenger. When she remained
seated, that simple decision eventually led to the disintegration of institutionalized
segregation in the south, ushering in a new era of the civil rights movement.

C) Complex sentence

A complex sentence is a sentence which consists of one main clause and one or
more subordinate clauses.

Examples

a. He met a student who left school last year.

b. After I took a nap, I felt better.

c. If you come late, you will miss the bus.

d. I know that she will come.(noun clause)

37
 D) Compound-complex sentences
A compound-complex sentence contains two or more main clauses and one or more
subordinate clauses. That is, we can combine compound and complex sentences, using
at least two or more main clauses and one subordinate clause.

Examples

a. Although I have never played tennis, I planned to start taking lessons next
year; I really need the aerobic exercise that tennis provides.

b. Although I have never played tennis, I really need the exercise, so I planned
to start taking lessons next year.

c. I bought coca cola, and I drank it at once because I was very thirsty.

EXERCISE 1: Identifying Sentence Type

Indicate whether the following sentences are simple, compound, complex
or compound-complex.
1. There are many ways to alter your appearance.
2. A guest is unwelcome when he stays too long.
3. Whatever you do, do well.
4. Man is guided by reason and beasts by instinct.
5. My heart leaps up when I behold a rainbow in the sky.
6. As the boxers advanced into the ring, the people said they would not allow
them to fight.
7. Night came on and rain fell heavily and we all got very wet.
8. The report that he was killed is untrue.
9. Whenever he heard the question, the old man who lived in that house,
answered that the earth is flat.
10. Spectator sports evolved when societies had more leisure time.

38
 3.2. Types of Sentences Based on Function
A sentence may be classified according to its function. The four classification of
sentences according to function are declarative, interrogative, imperative and
exclamatory.

Examples

a. Why is she crying?

b. Sit here.
c. I managed the difficulties successfully.
d. What an outstanding students she is!
The four varieties of sentences according to function are:

A) Declarative sentences
A declarative sentence makes a statement. It ends with a period. As you can see below,
these sentences make statements, whether of fact or opinion. Declarative sentences
can be simple, as in the first example, or compound, as in the second example. They
can be complex, as in the last sentence. Declarative sentences can also be in any tense,
as long as they do their basic job of presenting information. This makes them the most
common sentence type.
Examples
a. Linda is a successful businesswoman.
b. He wants to eat cookies, but he does not know how to make them.
c. The managers met to discuss urgent business issues.
d. I ordered a latte when I got to the coffee shop.
B) Interrogative sentences
Interrogative sentences asks questions. These are direct questions, and they are
punctuated with a question mark at the end.
Examples
a. Why are you crying?
b. How old is he?

39
 Compound sentences can be interrogative:
a. Who are you and why are you here?
b. How much does it cost and why do you need it?
Some examples of complex interrogative sentences are:
a. When Mom gets in, can you give him this message?
b. Can you call me when it's time to go?
C) Imperative sentence
Imperative sentences tell someone to do something. These can be in the form of
friendly advice, basic instructions or more forceful commands. Many imperative
sentences end in periods, but some of the more forceful demands may end in an
exclamation point to highlight the emotion.
Examples
a. Leave the parcel here.
b. Please, leave the parcel here.
c. Stop bothering me!
D) Exclamatory sentence
An exclamatory sentence expresses a strong feeling and it ends with an exclamation
point. They are similar to declarative sentences in that they provide information, but
they end in an exclamation point instead of a period.
Examples
a. Wow! They have scored the highest grade.
b. What an incredible experience it has been!
c. How well he sings!
EXERCISE 2: Identifying sentence Type
Identify if each sentence below is declarative, interrogative, imperative or
exclamatory.
1. Who do you think should rule this country?
2. Addis Ababa is the capital of Ethiopia.
3. What an achievement!
4. Leave the door open.
40
5. I would like to know if she is here to meet him.
6. I am not concerned about what will happen afterwards.
7. Is it raining now?
8. Tell him to feed the horses.
9. How beautiful she is!
10. Take the receipts to the cashier.

41
Chapter 4: Revising/Improving Faulty Sentences
A faulty sentence is a sentence that is deficient in one way or another. When we read
it, something sounds incomplete or wrong. We may have difficulty understanding
exactly what the writer is trying to say. For this reason, it is really important for writers
to use sentences that are both clear and grammatically correct. Writing is for
communication, and if the sentences are not communicating what the writer intends,
there is a problem that needs to be fixed.
4.1. Subject-verb agreement
One of the problems in sentence structure relates to subject-verb agreement. For
example, students often say "He have..." instead of "He has..." In speech, it may be
difficult for people to avoid such errors. However, in writing, these errors tend to be
easier to correct or avoid since the writer has the time and opportunity to revise his/her
writing before presenting it to others. Observe the following rules on subject-verb
agreement.
 Subject-verb agreement in number: a singular verb is used with a singular
subject; a plural verb is used with a plural subject.
Example
a. The man sings very well. (Singular)
b. The men sing very well. (Plural)
 Words between subject and verb: the verb agrees only with its subject.
Sometimes, a word with a different number than the subject occurs between the
subject and the verb, so this word usually has no effect on the number of the
verb. Such (a) word(s) should be avoided for the purpose of agreement.
Examples
a. One of his classmates is a guide at the United Nations. (One is the subject)
b. The Congress of the United States is in session. (Congress is the subject)
c. The pears on that old tree are not edible. (Pears is the subject)

42
The words with, together with, along with, as well as, in addition to, etc. are
prepositions and their presence in the sentence has no effect on the number of the
verb.
Examples
a. Tizita, as well as her three kids, calls me every day. (Tizita…calls me every
day).
b. My two aunts, along with their dogs, visit me every Sunday.(My two aunts…
visit me every day)
 Indefinite pronouns: some indefinite pronouns are always singular. Others are
always plural. Some may be either singular or plural.
Examples
a. Each of my classmates has come to the meeting. (Singular)
b. Neither of the glasses was broken. (Singular)
c. Everybody in the fields was running. (Singular)
d. Several in this room are hard workers. (Plural)
e. Few in the student council have been re-elected. (Plural)
f. Both of the defenders were injured.
Singular or plural
Some, all, most, none and any
Some, all, most, none, and any are singular when they refer to a portion or a
quantity.
They are plural when they refer to many individual items.
Examples
a. Some of the cream was sour. (A quantity of cream/uncountable-singular)
b. Some of the books are old. (Countable-plural)
c. Most of the forest was saved from fire. (A portion of the forest-singular)
d. Most of my classmates are negligent. (A number of friends-plural)
e. All of the cotton has dried. (Uncountable-singular)
f. All of the classes are taking the test. (A number of classes-plural)
Compound Subjects: compound subjects are subjects joined by and. They are plural.

43
Example
My father and my teacher are very good people.
Two subjects joined by or, nor, either…or, neither…nor form a compound subject, and
they are singular.
Examples
a. Neither your grammar nor your punctuation is perfect.
b. My aunt or my uncle is likely to be here.
c. Either the manager or the workers are wrong.
 Subject following verb: words here and there are introduction words (they
are never subjects of a sentence). Find true subjects in the sentence to decide
which verb to use.
Examples
a. There is a crow on that tree limb. (Subject: crow)
b. There are 103 known chemical elem6ents. (Subject: elements elements)
c. Here is my book. (Subject: book)
d. Here are my books. (Subject: books)
 Collective nouns: a collective noun (a word that refers to a group or collection
of things or people) is singular when it is perceived as a unit and plural when the
individual elements in the group are being considered.
Examples
a. The jury has been out for 12 hours. (One unit-singular)
b. The jury are discussing the case among themselves. (Separately considered
plural)
c. The crowd was large and disorderly.
d. The crowd were fighting among themselves.
 Words of amount and time: words or phrases that express periods of time,
fractions, weights, measurements, and amounts of money are usually regarded
as singular.
Examples
a. Ten dollars is too much to pay.

44
 b. Two-thirds of the money has been raised.
c. Five hours seems a long time for that trip.
d. One hundred pounds of bird seed is ridiculous.
e. Ten yards of curtain material was not enough.
When a fraction or percentage is used as a subject, the term following OF determines
whether the verb is singular or plural.
Examples
a. wo-fifths of our profits go to the government. (Profits-plural)
b. Three-fourths of the house is now ready. (House-singular)
 Titles and groups of words: titles of books, articles, plays, films, musical
composition and names of companies, countries and organizations take singular
predicates even if their titles appear to be plural.
Examples
a. “War of the Worlds” was written by H.G. Wells.
b. The Netherlands is located in Western Europe.
c. The United Nations is a dysfunctional organization.
EXERCISE 1: Subject-verb Agreement
Choose the most appropriate form from the two forms given in parentheses
to complete each of the following sentences.
1. The chairperson of our club, together with his assistant, (has, have) come on
time.
2. Is it true that one of the passengers (is, are) missing?
3. Either of the dogs (have, has) barked.
4. (Has, have) either of the children come here?
5. Everyone in the pictures (is, are) smiling.
6. Neither the girl nor the women (is, are) responsible for the accident.
7. Either Kemal or his friends (is, are) willing to take part in the meeting.
8. It seems that there (was, were) two men named Samuel.
9. (What is, What are) the weather predictions for this week?
10. Ethics (is, are) important in the study of religion.

45
 11. Politics (is, are) a fascinating game.
12. Five kilograms of apples (is, are) plenty.
13. Five of the bikes (is, are) missing.
14. Two thousand dollars (is, are) a lot to pay for a used car.
15. Much of what you say (make, makes) sense.
16. The quality of the photographs (was, were) exceptionally good.
17. This is the only one of the race cars that (run, runs) so quietly.
18. With its new players, the team (was, were) winning.
19. The Three Musketeers (is, are) an exciting novel by Alexander Duma.
20. One of the life boats (has, have) sunk.

4.2. Sentence Fragments and Run-on Sentences

4.2.1. Sentence fragments
A group of words that is only part of a sentence is called a sentence fragment. A
sentence fragment does not express a complete thought. A fragment is often confusing
because something is missing from the sentence. Sometimes, the subject is left out,
and the reader wonders who or what the sentence is about. At other times, the verb
is omitted. Then, the reader wonders: “What happened? Or “What about it?” Look at
these examples:
a. shifted into a lower gear(who shifted?)
b. The big brown jackal over there (what happened?)
c. In the middle of the lake (who or what is in the middle of the lake; what is
happening there?)
Fragments due to incomplete thoughts
Here is an example of a series of fragments:
Went to British Columbia. Canada’s Pacific Province. Spectacular mountains! The
ocean, too! Hiking and fishing the best.
Can you re-write this to make it complete?
Fragments due to incorrect punctuation
a. Cars with brake problems. Were recalled by the manufacturer.

46
 b. Are you going? To the State Fair?
c. A diver freed a baby whale. From a fishing net.
Can you re-write these?
Tips for Revision
 Make sure that a sentence has a subject and a predicate.
 Use punctuation marks correctly.
Examples
FRAGMENT: Cars with brake problems. Were recalled by the manufacturer.
CORRECT: Cars with brake problems were recalled by the manufacturer.
FRAGMENT: shifted into a lower gear.
CORRECT: The driver shifted into a lower gear.
FRAGMENT: In the middle of the lake
CORRECT: I saw a big fish in the middle of the lake.

EXERCISE 2: Sentence Fragments

Re-write the following paragraph, changing all fragments to sentences.
We usually think of mazes as no more than amusing puzzles. Found in magazines or
amusement parks. In the past, however, mazes were considered an art form. Also a
means of protection or imprisonment. Palaces in Greece and Egypt were designed as
mazes. Protected the royal families. In Greek legend, a maze was built to house a
horrible monster. The Minotaur. This maze was called the Labyrinth. In the 1770’s,
formal gardens were designed to include hedge mazes. Very intricate. The walls of
these mazes are tall. Thick bushes. A person who wandered in could become lost for
hours. With no idea how to get out.
4.2.2. Run-on sentences
A run-on sentence is two or more sentences written incorrectly as one. This type of
sentence confuses the reader because it does not show where the first idea ends and
the second one begins. The reader, therefore, needs a period or other punctuation
marks to signal the end of each complete thought.
Tips for Revision

47
  Write them as two independent sentences separated by a period/full stop.
 Use a comma and a coordinating conjunctions between the sentences (for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, so)
 Use a semi-colon alone.
Here are some examples:
RUN_ON: A motorcycle turned into the alley it skidded on the gravel.
CORRECT: A motorcycle turned into the alley. It skidded on the gravel.
Sometimes writers make the mistake of using a comma without a coordinating
conjunction. This is called a comma splice.
RUN_ON: The floats were ready, the parade could begin.
CORRECT: The floats were ready, and the parade could begin.
CORRECT: A motorcycle turned into the alley; it skidded on the gravel.
RUN_ON: Tom likes country and western music does Carla like new wave?
CORRECT: Tom likes country and western music. Does Carla like new wave?
EXERCISE 3: Run-on Sentences
Re-write the following paragraph, correcting run-on sentences.
Glass is a common, inexpensive material that we take for granted. Yet long, ago it was
so rare and costly that it was used with gold and semi-precious stones in jewelry only
wealthy women of ancient Egypt stored cosmetics and ointments in glass bottles. For
centuries, glass was used chiefly for ornaments, vases, mosaics, and tableware some
glass was used to make stained-glass church windows and to let light into houses.
Glass was used for these relatively few purposes until the 12th or 13 th century. Even
then, glass was for the wealthy. When people moved, they took their valuable glass
windows with them, they even handed them down to their children as heirlooms. In
England, a special luxury tax was imposed on owners of houses with more than ten
windows.
4.3. Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
4.3.1. Misplaced Modifiers

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When modifiers are not placed at appropriate position in a sentence, they modify a
wrong word, and hence are called misplaced modifiers. Look carefully at the following
sentences which all contain misplaced modifiers.

Tips for Revision

 Place modifiers before the word they modify.
 Place modifiers after the words they modify.
 Re-write your sentences making sure that the modifier and the word being
modified are connected.
FAULTY: Our neighbors sold dress to my sister without buttons. (Without buttons
modifies my sister which really becomes an odd modification. The correct place for it
would be right after dresses. Hence:
CORRECT: Our neighbors sold dresses without buttons to my sister.
MISPLACED: At the age of 5, the doctor administered a small pox vaccine to me (At
the age of 5 describes a doctor. However, it is very unrealistic to talk about a 5-year-
old doctor. It should modify I or me:
CORRECT: When I was five years old, the doctor administered a small pox vaccine to
me.
EXERCISE 4: Misplaced Modifiers
Now try to improve the following sentences that contain misplaced
modifiers.
1. An old car was pulled down the street that had a flat tire.
2. In dribbling for the basket, the ball should be bounced no higher than one’s
waist.
3. After undressing completely, the doctor examined me.
4. When two years old, my father swam across the Give River.
5. We saw a giraffe in the awash National Park that had a long neck
6. Charles took a picture of a squirrel running across the telephone wire with his
new camera.
7. Baskets were given to all the children filled with Easter eggs.

49
 8. AIDS has consumed the lives of many people, which is a killer disease.
9. Little white boxes of wedding cake were given to all the guests tied with white
satin ribbon.
10. My little brother is now in America who studied Engineering.
4.3.2. Dangling Modifiers
Sometimes verbal phrases and other expressions that should be acting as modifiers
have nothing to describe. These are called dangling modifiers.
Tips for Revision
 Assign a subject to the dangling modifier
 Assign a subject to the other part of the sentence, or
 Turn passive sentences into active ones
 Use other linking words to join the parts of the given sentences
DANGLING: To enter the contest, a formed must be signed. (“To enter the contest”
doesn’t modify any noun or expression. It therefore dangles.)
CORRECT: To enter the contest, you must sign a form. (Now, “To enter the contest,”
modifies ‘you’. Thus, one way of improving sentences that contain dangling modifiers is
by assigning a subject(s) to the modifier that dangles.
DANGLING: After milking the cow, I fed the horse.
CORRECT: After I milked the cow, I fed the horse.
DANGLING: While driving by the church, the organist was giving a concert. (Who
drives by the church?)
CORRECT: While I was driving by the church, I saw the organist give a concert.
CORRECT: While I was driving by the church, the organist was giving a concert.
DANGLING: After glancing at the clock, the book was closed by Jamal. (Who glanced
at the clock? No one)
CORRECT: After glancing at the clock, Jamal closed the book.
CORRECT: After he glanced at the clock, Jamal closed the book.
EXERCISE 5: Dangling Modifiers
Revise the following sentences for dangling modifiers.
1. Turning the pages, my eye noticed the record sale.
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 2. To prepare for an exam, solitude and concentration are needed.
3. Dancing and drinking every night, her reputation in the village suffered.
4. Driving through town, many traffic lights delayed us.
5. While napping, the door awakened me.
6. Finding no one at home, the next move was up to us.
7. When studying at night, a good lamp should be available.
8. To have successful party, good conversation and food are always useful.
9. Climbing the hill, there was another hotel.
10. While looking for a birthday present, a bracelet caught my eyes.

4.4. Overloaded Sentences and Unsupported Statements

4.4.1. Overloaded Sentences
Overloaded or rambling sentences are long sentences containing a number of ideas,
usually connected by and’s. As a result of this, they tend be confusing and ineffective.
Such sentences violate the principle that a sentence usually contains one central
thought.
Tips for Revision
 Reduce the original sentence into two or three shorter sentences.
 Reduce the number of and’s.
 Join very closely related ideas or sentences still using and or other linking words.
 Replace repeated words with pronouns
Examples:
OVERLOADED: I went into the building, and I waited for the elevator in the lobby, and
when it did not come I had to walk up eight flight of stairs.
CORRECT: I went to the lobby of the building and waited for the elevator. When it did
not come, I had to walk up eight flight of stairs.
OVERLOADED: The Olympic Games are patterned after an ancient Greek festival, and
the first modern games were held in 1896, and since then the number of sports and
participates has greatly increased.

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CORRECT: The Olympic Games are patterned after an ancient Greek festival and the
first modern games were held in 1896. Since then…

EXERCISE 6: Overloaded Sentences

Revise the following sentences in the same way.
1. Some children learn to read at age three or four, and others learn in school, and
experts disagree about the value of very early training in reading.
2. Hurricanes ate tropical cyclones, and they start over oceans, especially near the
equator, and the winds can reach 150 miles per hour, and the most destructive
hurricane occurred in 1972.
3. The art department offers classes in ceramics and photography, and this year
there will be a print making class, and many students are eager to learn about
etching and lithography.
4. One tree in our town is sixty-five years old, and it has a hole in the trunk, and
twenty people can stand inside it, and our elders used the tree long ago as a
meeting place.
5. Horrible faces glared at me from the shelves in the costume shop, and all of
them were contorted, and most of them were scarred, and they were deathly
gray with a greenish cast.
6. After we practice, we can get a pizza, and then before it gets dark, we can get in
a game of tennis, and then maybe we will agree on which movie to see.
7. I searched everywhere for my missing wallet and I looked in the house, outside,
and in the car and then I retraced my steps and finally found the missing wallet
in a drawer of my desk at work.
8. Tetanus is a dangerous illness, and it is called lockjaw, and it causes severe
muscle spasm, and is caused by toxin produced by bacteria and the bacteria
enter the body usually through deep wounds and tetanus can be prevented by
immunization.

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 9. Some people think that the federal government should deregulate oil prices and
that would probably cause gas and oil prices to rise, but if gas and oil prices rise,
then people will buy less, and the country will have to import less, and maybe
that will help control inflation.
10. Tall children have learning problems and this is because people expect them to
act like older children because of their size and when adults expect a child to do
more than the child can this creates problems.
4.4.2. Unsupported Statements
These are statements that are not supported by reasons, facts, or examples. The
question ‘why?” is left in the reader’s mind. Such sentences contain unsupported claims
or opinions.
Tip for Revision
 Support your opinions with evidence: facts, figures, reasons, etc.
Examples:
UNSUPPORTED: Some people are talking about making the school year longer. This
would be a mistake. I think that the school year is long enough as it is.
The underlined statements are just opinions. Thus, they need to be supported by
reasons, or pieces of evidence.
CORRECT: some people are talking about making the school year longer. I think this
would be mistake as it makes it very boring.
UNSUPPORTED: I want to get a part-time job this year. I could work at least two
hours after school each day. My parents do not approve of the idea. (The underlined
statements need to be supported by reasons.)
CORRECT: I want to get part-time job this year. It would help me to cover my tuition
fee, so I could work at least two hours a day after school each day. But my parents do
not approve of the idea as it may consume my study time.
UNSUPPORTED: Chess is becoming popular with people of all ages. Even young
children play it. I think it would be good for everyone to learn the game.

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CORRECT: Chess is becoming popular with people of all ages. Even young children
play it I think it would be good for everyone to learn the game as it is a pass –time
game, or a puzzling game…
EXERCISE 7: Unsupported Statements
1. Parents and teachers often complain about how much time young people spend
watching TV. However, many TV shows are good for us to watch.
2. According to the state law, you have to be eighteen before you can get a decent
job. I think this is very bad. I think the law should be changed.
3. I think the idea of introducing peer evaluation is good.
4. Detroit is making a lot of small cars now. I think that is very good. I like these
small cars and hope to save enough money to own one in a few years.
5. Our boss is not a good person.
6. Taking too much alcohol is very dangerous.
7. Going to movies is very beneficial.
8. Many people like to watch football games every Sunday.
9. We need to develop the culture of working in groups.
10. I do not want to work with them.
4.5. Faulty Parallelism and Comparison
4.5.1. Faulty Parallelism
Faulty parallelism occurs when two or more expressions which belong to different
speech parts, or word classes, or structures are used in the same sentence.
Tips for Revision
 Identify items before and after punctuation marks, especially commas.
 Identify items before and after linking words such as and, or, but, etc.
 Use same or parallel grammar or parts of speech to write the items you have
identified.
Examples:
FAULTY: Last summer I learned tennis, to swim and riding a horse. (In a series of
three, one is a noun, the second is infinitive, and the third is –ing, thus spoiling the
parallelism, so we can make all of them infinitives or –ing form.

54
CORRECT:
a. Last summer I learned to play tennis, to swim, and to ride a horse.
b. Last summer I learned playing tennis, swimming, and riding a horse.
FAULTY: Sunday is a good day for sleeping late, eating a big breakfast, and to
spend hours reading fiction. (The third item in the series is an infinitive. It is therefore
possible to change it to the –ing form, or change the other two into infinitive.
IMPROVED: Sunday is good day to sleep late, to eat big breakfast, and to spend hours
reading fiction.
FAULTY: A man with a large package and armed with a shotgun ran up the street.
(The first underlined part is a prepositional phrase, and the second one is a participial
phrase).
CORRECT: A man with a large package and armed with a shotgun ran up the street.
FAULTY: My grandfather was a Baptist, a republican and loved to argue.
Noun Noun Verb
CORRECT: My grandfather was a Baptist, a Republican and an arguer.
Noun Noun Noun
FAULTY: I found him both cooperative and that he knew the work.
Adj. Dependent clause
CORRECT: I found him both cooperative and knowledgeable.
Adj. Adj.
EXERCISE 8: Faulty Parallelism
Now try to improve the following sentences in the same way.
1. A good scholar must be precise and possess originality.
2. Consider the origins of man and how he has developed.
3. This morning I went to the hairdresser, shopping at Merkato, and lunching at
Bole.
4. He was praised by the priests, flattered by the pops but the people hated him.
5. The pilot received orders to bomb the target and that he would then return
home.
6. He hoped for an increase in salary and to get a longer holiday.

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 7. Belay plans to study electronics and then working in his uncle’s plant in Jimma.
8. To develop the reading habit, get yourself some interesting books and
magazines, and a little reading should be done each day.
9. The ancient Egyptians had broad shoulders, narrow hips, and with finely molded
hands and feet.
10. The atmosphere of the earth bends the moon’s rays and giving a false
impression of its position in the sky.
4.5.2. Faulty Comparison
Faulty comparison occurs when wrong items are compared.
Tips for Revision
 Repeat the point of comparison.
FAULTY: Learning English in Ethiopia is different from England.
CORRECT: Learning English in Ethiopia is different from learning
English/it in England.
 Use the apostrophe and “s” where appropriate.
FAULTY: Your brain is different from a dinosaur.
CORRECT: Your brain is different from a dinosaur’s.
 Use possessive pronouns where appropriate (yours, mine, hers, his,
theirs, ours, etc.).
FAULTY: My reading style is different from him.
CORRECT: My reading style is different from his.
 Use do, does or did where appropriate.
FAULTY: I cleaned my room like her.
CORRECT: I cleaned my room like she did.
 Use compound subjects (subjects joined by “and)
FAULTY: I cleaned my room like you.
CORRECT. You and I cleaned our rooms.
Additional examples:
a. Learning English in Ethiopia is different from England. (The comparison here
is made between learning English in Ethiopia, on one hand, and England on
56
 the other. It should have been between learning English in Ethiopia, and
learning English in England.
Therefore, the sentence can be revised as:
Learning English in Ethiopia is different from learning it in England.
b. The reception on my radio is better than you. (Reception on my radio and
you are compared.) The revised version could be.
c. The reception on my radio is better than yours. Or,
d. The reception on my radio is better than the reception on your radio.
EXERCISE 9: Faulty Comparison
Revise the following in the same way.
1. TV commercials do not bother me as much as radio.
2. Life in Ethiopia is different from England.
3. My reading habits are better than them.
4. My experience in this job is similar to my brother.
5. I like orange like you.
6. Most of my enemies are very brutal like you.
7. Many colleges and universities in Ethiopia are similar to Uganda.
8. The operation of a computer is different from a typewriter.
9. Both my sister’s dogs are very friendly like you.
10. Yabsera distastes bragging about her achievements like them.
4.6. Empty Expressions and Redundancies
4.6.1. Empty Expressions
These are unnecessary words or phrases that add almost nothing to the meaning of a
sentence. They just make it wordy. Sentences that contain such expressions are
therefore called padded sentences.
Examples
PADDED: What I really want is to be an engineer.
CORRECT: I want to be an engineer.
(What I really… is unnecessary.)
PADDED: We did not go to school because of the fact that there was a heavy traffic.

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CORRECT: We did not go to school because there was a heavy traffic. ( Of the fact that
is unnecessary)
PADDED: The point is that travel to Mars has become a reality.
CORRECT: Travel to Mars has become a reality (The point is that is unnecessary).
The following expressions are some examples of empty expressions.
‘Fact’ Expressions ‘What’ Expressions
 due to the fact that  what I mean is
 because of the fact that  what I believe is
 owing to the fact that  what I want is
 on account of the fact that  what I want to say is that
 the fact is that  what I would like to
 the issue is that stress/emphasize/underline
 the thing is that is that
 the matter is that  what I need is that
 the fact of the matter is that,  what I want to bring to your
etc. attention is that, etc.

Tips for Revision

 The first group of expressions (and many other similar expressions) which
contain or may not contain the word “fact” are called fact expressions. In
the above list, the first four expressions should be replaced by single
words in sentences (single words such as since, because, for,
therefore, etc.) because they express cause-effect relationships.
 The expressions in the second column are called “what” expressions
because they all begin with “what”. There can be removed from our
sentences altogether or part of them can be kept if they express the
writer’s point of view or opinion.
PADDED: What I want to say is that living in Addis Ababa is very challenging.
CORRECT: Living in Addis Ababa is very challenging. (Elimination of “what”
expression).

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PADDED: What I believe is that corruption is crippling the country’s economy.
CORRECT: I believe that corruption is crippling the country’s economy. (Reduction of
part of ”what” expression).

EXERCISE 10: Empty Expressions

Now revise the following sentences eliminating empty expressions.
1. The reason that I called was to tell you that the meeting was cancelled.
2. Whenever it happens to rain hard, our cellar fills up with water and becomes a
lake.
3. I lied to you about the fact that I was a lawyer.
4. Due to the fact that the weather was bad, I stayed indoors and studied.
5. What I really believe is that planning lies at the heart of success.
6. The thing that nobody could understand was Almaz’s fear.
7. These days, many people are dying on account of the fact that they are infected
by HIV Virus.
8. You must admit that even if you don’t admire him that he plays well.
9. I know that if I study hard that I can get a scholarship.
10. What I mean is that his ideas of summer camp are not realistic.
4.6.2. Redundancies
Redundancy means repetition. This refers to the unnecessary repetition of an idea. The
repeated idea can be at word, phrase or sentence level.
Tip for Revision
 The best way to revise such sentences is to remove the unnecessary repetition,
making sure that the grammar of your sentences is not affected.
Examples
REDUNDANT: The hungry wolf ate ravenously.
CORRECT: The wolf ate ravenously. (‘Ravenously’ shows that the wolf was hungry.
Thus ‘hungry’ is unnecessary.
REDUNDANT: He had no friends, and so he was always alone.
CORRECT: He had no friends. (The second part simply repeats the first idea)

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REDUNDANT: do you have a spare pencil that you are not using?
CORRECT: Do you have spare pencil? Or,
Do you have a pencil that you are not using? (Spare and that you are not using mean
the same. Thus, only one of them should be maintained)
REDUNDANT: The hot. Steamy asphalt shimmered.
CORRECT: The steamy asphalt shimmered. (Steamy includes hot.)

EXERCISE 11: Redundancies

Now revise the following sentences eliminating unnecessary repetitions.
1. Friday is the final deadline for the report.
2. The descending waterfall was graceful.
3. Everyone laughed throughout the entire movie.
4. I have a minor crisis in my life, and to me it presents a problem
5. Many people do not like going into tall skyscrapers.
6. The movie was dull, and I found it very boring.
7. Can you keep this secret confidential?
8. The observatories are open to the public and everyone is invited to see them.
9. Pieces of advice are constantly needed all of the time.
10. If you have ever been to the zoo, you know what a great time you, can have
there. The zoo is a place to visit again and again. At the zoo there is always
something new, wonderful and educational.
4.7. Varying Sentence Beginnings
You want people to enjoy reading what you have to say. You should, therefore, make
your writing lively and effective. One way to achieve this is to vary the beginnings of
your sentences, to give them a new look by inverting the order of their parts. The most
natural way to begin a sentence is with the subject, but there are other alternative
ways to begin your sentences and add variety to it.
SUBJECT: The boy was caught in the pool.
ADVERB: Reluctantly, the boy fastened the collar on the bear cub.
The boy (reluctantly) fastened the collar on the bear cub.

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PHRASE: a) For days he watched them. [Prepositional phrase]
He watched them for days.
b) Driving with one hand, he headed for home. [Participial phrase]
He headed for home driving with one hand.
CLAUSE: If he rode the horse with its rhythm he could ride every horse in the herd.
[Adverb Clause]
He could ride every horse in the heard if he rode the horse with its rhythm.
EXERCISE 12: Varying Sentence Beginnings
Examples
a. We can see bout 3,000 stars on a clear night.
On a clear night, we can see about 3,000 stars
b. Only the nearest and brightest stars are visible in the vast sea of stars.
In the vast sea of stars, only the nearest and brightest stars are visible.
1. Fainter and invisible stars stretch endlessly beyond the reaches of our
imagination. (Adverb)
2. There are 100 billion stars in just our own galaxy, the Milky Way. (Prepositional
Phrase)
3. The Milky Way would look like a giant fried egg if we could look down on it.
(Adverb clause)
4. Our sun is actually just one star in the galaxy. (Adverb)
5. The Milky Way, bulging in the middle, spans 10,000 light-years at the center.
(Participial Phrase-ing form)
6. Our solar system travels 250 miles per second; although we do not feel the
motion.(Adverb clause)
7. One complete orbit around the galaxy nevertheless takes 250 million years.
(Adverb)
8. Orbiting stars form graceful spiral arms in the outer part of the galaxy.
(Prepositional phrase)
9. One spiral arm, extending through the constellations pursues and Cassiopeia,
reaches our 7,000 light-years from the sun. (Participial phrase- ing form)

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 10. She left the room after eating her lunch. (Adverb of time)

Chapter 5: Joining Sentences

When we join sentences, we have a definite purpose to achieve. We do not join
sentences for the sake of joining them. There are two major purposes for which we do
so: first, we want to achieve coherence, or the logical flow of ideas; second, we want to
achieve brevity; that is, by bringing ideas together and avoiding repetitions, we try to
come up with short and/or precise sentences. Look at the following examples which
illustrate these two major purposes:
a. She took a shower.
b. She went to the airport.
 She took a shower and went to the airport.
The combined sentence shows a sequence of ideas one after the other, thus creating
coherence.
a. She bought three hand bags.
b. She also bought four leather jackets.
 She bought three hand bags and four leather jackets.
Apart from showing a clear sequence of ideas, the combined sentence is also brief
because the repetition of words such as she bought is avoided.

There are several ways of joining sentences:

5.1. Coordination
5.2. Subordination
5.3. Reduction
5.4. Appositive
5.5. Adjectives

5.1. Coordination

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In coordination, two sentences of equal importance are joined by ''and, ''but, ''or, or
''so, ''yet'', ''nor'' and ''for''. Independent sentences which are joined by these
coordinators are called compound sentences. A comma should be used before the
coordinators.
Linking Ideas: Addition, contrast, choice, and result.
Two sentences that state related ideas of equal importance can usually be combined
into a single statement by a comma and the word ''and''
Example
a. The storm will pass tonight.
b. Tomorrow will be fair.
 The storm will pass tonight, and tomorrow will be fair.
The sentence could also be joined by a semicolon.
 The storm will pass tonight; tomorrow will be fair.
Two sentences that express negative addition can be joined by ''nor''.
Examples
a. I did not open the door.
b. My sister did not open the door.
 I did not open the door, nor did my sister. (Note the changes in grammar
and word order)
Two sentences that show weaker contrasting ideas of equal importance can usually be
joined by a comma and the word ''but''.
a. Tomorrow will be fair.
b. Another storm is on its way.
 Tomorrow will be fair, but another storm is on its way.
Two sentences that express stronger contrasting ideas can be joined by ''yet''. Or, when
the second idea or sentence expresses surprising information, the same linking word
can be used.
Example
a. I always carry a book with me.
b. I never read a single page.
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  I always carry a book with me, yet I never read a single page.

Two sentences that express cause effect relationships can be joined by ''for''
Example
a. Sena went to the beach.
b. Sena wanted to watch the ducks on the lake.
 Sena went to the beach for she wanted to watch the ducks on the lake.
Two sentences that express a choice between ideas of equal importance usually can be
joined by a comma and the word ''or''.
Example
a. Will the weekend be sunny?
b. Is another storm coming?
 Will the weekend be sunny, or is another storm coming?
Two sentences that express result are usually joined by a comma and the word ''so’.
Example
a. You can see through glass.
b. Glass is used for windows.
 You can see through glass, so it is used for windows.

EXERCISE 1: Coordination
Join each pair of sentences using and, but, or, so, for, nor, yet.
1. Many people believe in UFO’s. Few have ever seen one.
2. Do I have to wear glasses? Can I wear contact Lenses?
3. My friend failed his first flying test. He became one of the most famous pilots of
his time.
4. The team’s record must improve. The coach might be fired.
5. The force of the storm increased. The city way paralyzed.
6. He worked hard. He was promoted to the next level.
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 7. She denied taking the money. I am sure she was the one who was responsible
for that.
8. I play the flute. She plays the 'kirar’.
9. My dog had twelve puppies. All of them died.
10. You can take his advice which is not very good. You can try to figure out your
own solution.
11. He is a size 16. He still likes to eat much.
12. Senay is not a reliable person, ______ is Abera.
13. The teachers arrived late for the examination. The teachers missed the first train
to the school.
Coordination: Joining Sentence Parts
Two sentences may express ideas that are so closely related that words are repeated in
the sentences. It is usually best to combine such sentences and eliminate the repeated.
Sentence parts with similar parts of equal importance can often be joined by ''and''
(underlined words are eliminated)
Examples
a. Daniel stepped onstage.
b. Daniel walked to the podium.
 Daniel stepped onstage and walked to the podium.
a. The newspapers ignored the election.
b. TV stations ignored it, too.
 The newspapers and TV stations ignored the election.
Sentence parts that express contrasting ideas usually can be joined by “but”.
Example
a. I arrived latte.
b. I worked harder than anyone else.
 I arrived latte butt worked harder than anyone else.
Sentence parts that express a choice between ideas usually can be joined by “or”.
Example
a. Is the shuttle launch scheduled for Thursday?

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 b. Is the shuttle launch scheduled for Friday?
 Is the shuttle launch scheduled for Thursday or Friday?

EXERCISE 2: Joining Sentence Parts

Join the related parts in each pair of sentences by following the directions in
parenthesis. Eliminate the underlined words.
1. Leila called. Kedir called. (Join related parts with and)
2. The software for this system is excellent. It is expensive, though. (Join related
pats with but.)
3. Most of the popular musical groups are from Addis Ababa. Many are from Dire
Dawa. (Join related parts with or)
4. Computers fascinate some people. Computers terrify others. (Join parts with but
and replace the underlined with a pronoun).
5. Jabessa took a quick toward first base. Then Jabessa went into his windup. (Join
related parts with and).
Coordination: Adding Groups of Words
Instead of using coordinating conjunctions, sometimes you can add a group of words
without changing it. When the words give more information about someone or
something, add them near the name of the person or thing.
Example:
a. Dina saw the cartons.
b. They are in the basement.
 Dina saw the cartons in the basement.
If you have to use a coordinating conjunction, your combined sentence looks like:
 Dina saw the cartons, and they are in the basement
Examples:
a. The clouds were alarming.
b. The clouds were on the horizon.
 The clouds on the horizon were alarming.

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 a. Gebre was waiting.
b. He was at the corner.
 Gebre was waiting at the corner.

EXERCISE 3: Adding Groups of Words

Join the following sentences by adding groups of words from the second
sentence to the first one.
1. The gray door leads to the main office. The door is at the end of this hall.
2. The call was from Nebiu Isayas. He is a newspaper reporter.(Use a
comma )
3. The flight is from Gore. The flight is arriving at Gate 16.
4. Brass was first produced in ancient Rome. Brass is an alloy of copper and
zinc.
5. The historic park contains houses and shops. The houses and shops date
back to the 18th century. (Use the-ing form of date)
5.2. Subordination
In subordination, one or more of the independent sentences are reduced to a
dependent or subordinate clause. One way to do this is using relative clauses in which
relative pronouns such as which, that, who, whom, whose, etc. are used.
Using Relative Pronouns
Study these facts about James Watt.
a. He was an engineer.
b. This engineer invented a steam engine.
c. His engine had a special part.
d. The part changed steam back into water.
e. Watt was born in Scotland.
f. He made his first experiments in Scotland
Look at sentences (a) and (b). The word engineer is in both sentences. You can join
them like this.
 Watt was an engineer who invented a steam engine.

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The underlined part is a relative clause. In the relative clause, you replace ‘‘This
engineer’ by who.
Who is used for a person or people.
Look at how you join sentences (c) and (d).
 His engine had a special part which changed steam into water.
Which is used for things.
Look at how you join sentences (e) and (f).
 Watt was born in Scotland, where he made his first experiments.
Where is used for places if the place has a preposition (e.g. in, on, at, to) before it in
the second sentence. If there is no preposition, you use which.
 Watt was born in Scotland. Scotland is part of Britain.
 Watt was born in Scotland, which is part of Britain.
Make sure the relative clause comes immediately after the noun it describes. What is
wrong with this sentence?
 The Nile flows from Lake Victoria, which is the longest river in Africa.
EXERCISE 4: Relative Clauses
Join the facts about the following personalities using relative clauses. Refer to the
example given above.
1. Gandhi
a. Gandhi was a politician.
b. He studied in London.
c. He became a lawyer in London.
d. He went to South Africa.
e. He became a leader of the Indians in South Africa.
f. He led the independence movement in India.
g. This movement won freedom from Britain in 1974.
2. Columbus
a. Columbus was an explorer.
b. He crossed the Atlantic in 1492.
c. He wanted to find a sea-route to Asia.
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 d. Many valuable things were made in Asia.
e. He discovered a new country.
f. He discovered the country was a part of Asia.
g. He called the people Indians.
h. The people lived in the Americas.
3. Shakespeare
a. Shakespeare was a writer.
b. He was born in Stratford in 1564.
c. Stratford is a small town.
d. It is in the West of England.
e. Shakespeare wrote many plays.
f. They are still performed today.
g. He spent much of his life in London.
h. He worked in a theatre in London as a writer and actor.
Note: Another way of subordination is using the following subordinating
conjunctions:
 because
 since
 when
 although/though/even though
 if/provided that
 unless
 even if
 as soon as
 as long as
 till/until
 before
 after
 wherever

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  whenever, etc.

EXERCISE 5: Subordination
Combine the following sentences using appropriate subordinating
conjunctions.
Example
a. The meeting will start as planned.
b. The attendants arrive in time.
 The meeting will start as planned if the attendants arrive in time. (The
underlined item is a dependent/subordinate clause because of the
subordinating conjunction “if”.
1. Mimi came in the room. Everyone fell silent.
2. His wife had left him. His children were grown. His business was falling. He
wanted to leave for Europe.
3. I will promote him to the next level. He does his job properly.
4. There is plenty to eat. Many people are starving to death.
5. Don’t forget to call me. You see my little sister.
6. It began to rain. Mary came in the house.
7. Many people are migrating to big cities. Many people think that life is easy in big
cities.
8. You must work hard. You want to succeed in your life.
9. There is no hard evidence for that. Many people believe that there is life after
death.
10. We will try to settle the issue once and for all. You have ample free time.
5.3. Reduction

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As its name suggests, in reduction one of the independent clauses or sentences is
reduced to a phrase: past participle, present participle, or infinitive phrase. Look at the
examples below.
Examples
a. She was annoyed by what he said.
b. She closed the door behind herself and left the room murmuring.
 Annoyed by what he said, she closed the door behind herself and left
the room murmuring. (Annoyed is the past participle or verb 3 form of
the verb 'annoy’)
a. We heard a loud noise outside.
b. We all went under bed.
 Hearing a loud noise outside, we all went under bed. (Hearing is the
present participle or – ing form of the verb ‘hear’)
a. I went to a restaurant.
b. I saw the movie star.
 I went to a restaurant to see the movie star.
‘to see the movie star’ is an infinitive phrase because it is introduced by
the infinitive form of saw with to. When you want to express purpose in this
way, you can join your ideas with the infinitive phrase.
Note: This technique does not require using linking words.
EXERCISE 6: Reduction
Join the following sentences in the same way.
1. She was disturbed by the death of her colleague. She did not come to work for
two weeks.
2. We studied for the exams very well. We felt very confident.
3. I usually had balanced diet. I did not feel sick at all.
4. I was surprised by what she said. I laughed to death.
5. I drove to town for three hours. I met my long-lost friend.
5.4. Appositive

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An appositive is a word, phrase or an expression that refers back to the word before
it. It is used to give more information about a certain topic of discussion, usually at
subject position.
Example
a. My hobby is playing tennis.
b. It has taught me endurance.
 My hobby playing tennis has taught me endurance.
The phrase playing tennis refers back to my hobby and is therefore called an
appositive. If the appositive is a short expression such as this one, no commas are
used but longer appositive are usually enclosed within commas.
Example
a. Getnet is a well-known human rights activist.
b. Getnet was born in Nekemte.
 Getnet, a well-known human rights activist, was born in Nekemte.
EXERCISE 7: Appositives
Join the following sentences in the same way.
1. Ronaldo is a world-class football player. Ronaldo was born in Portugal.
2. 'Injera’ is a common dish in Ethiopia. 'Injera’ is said to have some iron content.
3. My new girlfriend is a very greedy person. My new girlfriend lives with me.
4. Human beings are the most complicated living beings on this planet. Human
beings are victims of their own creations.
5. Our history instructor is a very polite person. He enjoys making fun of his friends
and students alike.
5.5. Adjectives
Adjectives are words that modify or add clarity to other words. They can be used
before and after nouns to bring ideas together.
Examples
a. The horse drooped patiently in its traces.
b. The horse was old.
c. The horse was weary.

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The adjectives ‘old’ and ‘weary’ refer to ‘the horse’, so they can be placed before or
after it.
 The horse, weary and old, drooped patiently in its traces.
 The weary, old horse drooped patiently in its traces.

EXERCISE 8: Adjectives
Now try to join the following in the same way.
1. The waitress perched on the counter. The waitress was young. The waitress was
sexy.
2. The puppy was lonely. The puppy was bedraggled. The puppy crouched at the
feet of the man. The man was old. The man kicked it away.
3. The man gathered the boy into his arms. The man was old. The man was grief-
stricken.
4. Police officials returned from a tour. The police officials were American. The tour
was of Japan.
5. The woman took the boy to a hospital. The woman was polite. The woman was
kindhearted.

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Chapter 6: The Process of Writing
Effective paragraph or essay writing is conceived as a process, which means that there
are certain steps you should follow to produce an effective paragraph or essay.
However, note that even after you have written your paragraph or composition, the
writing does not end there. You will still be concerned with revising your paragraph or
essay for better output. It is, therefore, to this end that this and subsequent sections of
the chapter are devoted. The discussion in this chapter relates to paragraph writing.
Essay writing will be dealt with in the last chapter of the book.

The process of writing consists of three stages:

f.1. Pre-writing
f.2. Drafting/Writing the First Draft, and
f.3. Revising
6.1. Pre-writing
Pre-writing involves the things you should do BEFORE you begin writing your
paragraph. It is a stage at which you PLAN or OUTLINE your paragraph. There are
various activities you should do under pre-writing:

A. Choosing and Limiting/Narrowing Your Topic

B. Deciding on Your Purpose
C. Deciding on Your Audience
D. Gathering Your Supporting Information or Ideas

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 E. Evaluating and Organizing Your Supporting Information or Ideas

A. Choosing and Limiting/Narrowing Your Topic

Choosing a topic is probably the simplest thing you can do. While choosing a topic, you
can use such criteria as familiarity or interest. People often choose a topic they are
already familiar with. They also choose an interesting topic: interesting to them as well
as to the people (audience) who will read their paragraph or essay. Once you have
chosen your topic, the next thing you should do is to LIMIT or NARROW it so that the
paragraph or essay you are going to write has a FOCUS AREA. IF YOU DO NOT
LIMIT/NARROW YOUR TOPIC, THE WHOLE WRITING PROCESS WILL BE AFFECTED
since your paragraph will not have a focus area. Hence, make sure that your topic is
limited to an aspect that can be discussed adequately in a single paragraph or in an
essay. Think of the following topics. Can they be used to write a paragraph of 150
words?
CULTURE FOOTBALL TERRORISM ETHNICITY

The answer should be NO because these are TOO BROAD to be discussed in a single
paragraph or even in an essay of five paragraphs. This is because they do not have
focus areas. In principle, one paragraph or essay focuses on ONLY ONE MAIN IDEA.
Thus, your topic should be narrowed to one aspect. This is called the PRINCIPLE OF
UNITY. For example, TERRORISM can be narrowed to THE CONCEPT OF
TERRORISM. Here, my focus is going to be on the MEANING OF TERRORISM,
NOTHING MORE NOTHING LESS. If I limit the same topic to THE FORMS OF
TERRORISM, my focus is going to be on the TYPES/FORMS OF TERRORISM,
NOTHING MORE NOTHING LESS. There are several METHODS you can use to
LIMIT/NARROW your topic. You can use the following language items to narrow or
limit your topics corresponding to the method you would like to use:

1. Meaning
 The concept of ___________
 What is_________________?

75
  __________Defined
2. Classification
 Types of________________
 Forms of________________
 Levels of________________
3. Causes/Reasons
 Factors causing/necessitating____________
 Why____________________
4. Effects
 Effects of _________________
 Effects/Side-effects of _________on _________
 Problems of ______________
 Disadvantages of_________________
5. Benefits/Advantages/Importance
 Benefits of_____________
 Advantages of ___________
 Importance of ___________
6. Method
 How to_______________
 Ways of______________
 Methods of___________
7. Comparison
 Similarities between_________and ________
 How __________and _________are similar
8. Contrast
 Differences between_________and ________
 How __________and _________are different
9. Qualities/Characteristics

 Qualities of ____________

 Characteristics/Features of ________________

B. Deciding on Your Purpose

This is also another way of giving a focus to your topic/paragraph/essay. What are
going to do with your LIMITED TOPIC? Are you going to tell a story, provide descriptive
details, explain it or use arguments to advance a certain point of view? In one
paragraph or essay, we achieve ONLY ONE PUPRPOSE. THIS COINCIDES WITH

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THE LIMITED TOPIC WHICH IS INTENDED TO ADDRESS ONLY ONE ASPECT.
This is called UNITY OF PURPOSE (a paragraph or an essay is written to achieve only
one purpose. There are four general PURPOSES in writing:
TO NARRATE: to tell a story from the past using organized events

TO DESCRIBE: to create a mental image using descriptive details

TO EXPLAIN: inform people using facts, examples, figures, reasons, etc.

TO PERSUADE: to convince people about certain point of view using

tangible evidence or reasons

Consider the following limited topics, and what purpose can be achieved in each of
them? By the way, it is very easy to tell the purpose of a paragraph or an essay if the
topic is properly limited or narrowed:

 The Concept of Corruption

 Legalizing Abortion
 Our Trip to Hawassa
 My Mother
The purpose in the first topic is to explain the concept of corruption; the purpose in the
second topic is to persuade or convince the audience; the purpose in the third topic is
to narrate or tell a story, and the purpose in the last topic is to describe. Based on the
purposes (discussed above) you want to achieve in different forms of writing, there are
FOUR types of paragraph/essay:

 NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH/ESSAY
 DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH/ESSAY
 EXPLANATORY OR EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH/ESSAY
 PERSUASIVE/ARGUMENTATIVE PARAGRAPH/ESSAY
These are discussed in the next chapter.

C. Deciding on Your Audience

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 “Audience” refers to the people who are going to read your paragraph or essay.
Staring from choosing your topic to producing the final draft of your
paragraph/essay, you should think about your audience. In business, products are
sold to consumers. In the same way, your products (paragraph or essays) will be
read by someone (it could be your friends, teachers, employers, etc). Thus, you
should always think about writing to satisfy yourself as well as your audience. In
doing so, consider the following points:

 Are the audience familiar with the topic I am writing about?

 Is the topic interesting to them?
 Am I using ideas/information that they can understand?
 Am I using language they can easily understand?
 Am I offending them as a result of discussing what they consider culturally
appropriate?
 Am I wasting their time by discussing something irrelevant?
For example, the topic “Our Trip to Hawassa” is more appropriate for friends, family or
classmates. In the same way, the topic “Legalizing Abortion” is appropriate for the
general public because this is the concern of almost all individuals in a certain
community or country.

D. Gathering Your Supporting Information/Ideas

After deciding on the topic, purpose and audience, the next thing you should do is
GATHER SUPPORTING INFORMATION OR IDEAS. Without these ideas, there is no
paragraph or essay. Depending on the topic you have limited, you can use PRIMARY or
SECONDARY SOURCES to gather your supporting ideas or information. Primary sources
include interviews, observation and questionnaire. For example, if you want to write a
paragraph on “MY Classmate’s Biography”, you should interview him or her. This is a
primary source. If you want to write a paragraph on “The Effects of Terrorism”, you can
browse the internet, interview people affected by terrorism, etc. Here, you are
combining secondary and primary sources. Whichever source you use, make sure that

78
you gather AS MANY IDEAS AS YOU CAN. If you think that you have more ideas than
the requirement, you can take care of them in the next step.

For example, on the topic “My Classmate’s Biography”, you can gather supporting
information from him/her with regard to his/her name, place of birth, year of birth,
schools attended, family, hobbies, challenges faced in life, role models, future plans ,
etc.

E. Evaluating and Organizing Your Supporting Ideas/Information

This is the last step in the pre-writing stage. Here, you look at the supporting ideas you
have gathered and make decisions regarding the following aspects:

 Are all the supporting ideas related to the limited topic? If so, you can
keep them; if not, you can remove or re-write them so that they are
directly related to the limited topic.
 Are there similar supporting ideas that can be merged?
 Do I need to include more supporting ideas maybe because the
supporting ideas I have gathered are not enough?
 These are all aspects of EVALUATION. Once you finish the evaluation,
the next thing you should do is ORGANIZE the ideas in LOGICAL
ORDER. This is called COHERENCE in paragraph or essay writing; that
is, which idea should come first, second, third, fourth, etc.
Look at the following example:

TOPIC: THE SIDE-EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLISM

 Financial effects (much money is spend every day to meet the alcoholic’s needs;
if the alcoholic is a married person, the family’s expenses will go to meeting
his/her needs)

79
  Social effects (relationships with neighbors, colleagues, etc. will be strained; the
person will be considered socially unfit to shoulder responsibilities in the
community, etc.)
 Health effects (loss of appetite for food; reduced immunity to diseases; in
extreme cases, exposure to serious health problems such as lung or liver-related
illnesses)
 Psychological effects (being unstable/restless; lack of focus which affects work
and family lives)
 Physical effects (change of looks to pale; being unable to do simple physical
activities)
 In evaluating the above supporting ideas, the writer might merge physical effects
with health effects because one of the health-related problems of alcoholism is
weak physical appearance and reduced energy level. Following this evaluation,
the remaining four ideas should be re-arranged to create flow in the paragraph.
They might be arranged as follows:
Health effects, psychological effects, economic effects and social effects

They are arranged according to their importance, from the MOST IMPORTANT
EFFECT to THE LEAST IMPORTANT EFFECT.

The following exercises are based on the specific steps under PRE-WRITING.

EXERCISE 1: Limiting Broad Topics

Instruction: Limit each topic below three times, using any of the language
items/methods given above under “Choosing and Limiting/Narrowing Your
Topic”.
Example: Global Warming

a. The Concept of Global Warming(Meaning)

b. Factors Causing Global Warming( Causes/reasons)
c. Effects of Global Warming on the Economy of Developing Nations(Effects)

1. Food

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 2. Marriage
3. Terrorism
4. University life
5. Managers

EXERCISE 2: Deciding on Purpose and audience

Instruction a: for each of the following limited topics, decide an appropriate

purpose (a) to narrate (b) to describe (c) to explain or (d) to persuade

Instruction B: for each of the following limited topics, decide an appropriate

audience.

Example: The Effects of Corruption on Ethiopia’s Economy

Purpose: To persuade

Audience: The general public as this is a national issue

1. My mother
2. Our Trip to the Lakes Region
3. Legalizing Abortion in Ethiopia
4. Punishing children as part of their upbringing
5. The concept of life after death
6. Who should a country be ruled by?
7. How to prepare for final examinations
8. My 25th birthday
9. Unity University: Gerji Campus
10. Factors necessitating divorce

EXERCISE 3: Gathering supporting information/ideas

Instruction: For each of the following limited topics, list five supporting
ideas (give one or two examples for each supporting idea).

1. How to prepare for examinations

2. Why couples end up in divorce

Example: The Practical benefits of the internet

a. Educational benefits(e.g. online learning)

b. Business benefits(online shopping; advertisements)

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 c. Entertainment-related benefits(music, videos, , movies)
d. Communication-related benefits(yahoo, g-mail)
e. News-related benefits(political, economic, sports, etc. news/information)

EXERCISE 4: Evaluating and organizing your supporting ideas.

Instruction A: Look at the ideas you listed in Exercise 3 and decide if each
idea is directly related to the given topic. If not, remove it.

Instruction B: Arrange these ideas in logical order.

Example: The practical benefits of the internet

a. Educational benefits(e.g. online learning)

b. Business benefits(online shopping; advertisements)
c. Entertainment-related benefits(music, videos, , movies)
d. Communication-related benefits(yahoo, g-mail)
e. News-related benefits(political, economic, sports, etc. news/information)

Evaluation: all of the five ideas listed under this topic in Exercise 3 are directly related
to the topic.

Order: a, d, b, e, c (Most to least important)

6.2. Writing the First or Rough Draft/Drafting

This is the second stage where the writer uses his/her pre-writing plan to write the first
or rough draft of a paragraph or an essay. If your intention is to write a single
paragraph, it should have the following components:

 Limited topic: The title/heading of the paragraph

 Topic sentence: The first sentence of your paragraph which states its
MAIN IDEA.
 Supporting sentences/Details/Developers: these are the supporting
ideas you have gathered, evaluated and organized.
 Concluding sentence: the last sentence of the paragraph that
summarizes the overall discussion or concludes the paragraph in general
terms.
Look at how the above outline is used to write the first draft of a paragraph

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 The Side-effects of Alcoholism

There are several side-effects of alcoholism. Primarily, the health-related effects of alcoholism
are enormous. One of the simplest manifestations of being an alcoholic is loss of appetite for
food. Alcoholics tend to consume less food. This incapacitates their immune system and
exposes them to various diseases, some of them very life-threatening. For example, research
data show that many alcoholics are more likely to die of lung or liver cancer or both combined.
The second and related effect of alcoholism is psychological. People who consume much alcohol
tend to be restless especially when they have not taken enough drink to address that
restlessness. Also, they lack focus in life in general and workplaces in particular. This
tremendously reduces their productivity, thereby straining their relationships with their
colleagues and bosses. Economically, alcoholics tend to experience shortage of expenses to
meet their daily consumption. The bulk of their income goes to meeting their daily alcohol
needs. If they have a family, their family’s expenses will be reduced tremendously. This might
lead to arguments among members of the family, and in extreme cases to divorce. The other
detrimental effect of alcoholism is related to social ties/relationships. Since alcoholics spend
much of their time in bars or liquor houses, their interactions are limited to the people they
meet there. The relationships they have with their colleagues, family members, neighbors and
the community at large are limited. Besides, people tend to develop negative attitudes towards
the alcoholics, and regard them as unproductive segments of the society. In summary,
alcoholism has the potential to destroy the alcoholics and those around them!

This sample draft paragraph has a topic/title: The Side-effects of Alcoholism

Topic sentence: There are several side-effects of alcoholism.

Supporting sentences: All the sentences excluding the topic sentence and concluding
sentence

Concluding sentence: In summary, alcoholism has the potential to destroy the

alcoholics and those around them!

6.3. Revising
This is the last stage in the process of writing where the writer improves, corrects, re-
writes, modifies, etc. his/her draft paragraph. In revising or improving your draft
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paragraph, you should consider the following important questions. They help you to
make sure that your paragraph fulfils the most important QUALITIES or
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPH.

 Did I stick to my topic? (This is whether the paragraph has only one focus
area. The above sample paragraph focuses only on the side-effects of
alcoholism).
 Did I include everything I wanted? (This is whether crucial ideas relating to the
given topic are incorporated in the discussion/paragraph. In the above
paragraph, if the supporting idea relating to “health effects” is not included, it is
not fair to say that your paragraph has included everything it wanted).
 Does my paragraph have a clear structure? (Topic, topic sentence, supporting
sentences and concluding sentence: we have already seen that the above
paragraph fulfils this requirement).
 Does my paragraph have DEVELOPMENT? (Development refers to both
quantity and quality. “Quantity” refers to the number of supporting ideas used in
paragraph. In writing single paragraphs, 3-5 supporting areas are recommended.
The above paragraph uses 4 supporting ideas. These are called major details.
“Quality” refers to how well each supporting idea is explained. For example, the
writer uses various examples to explain the health effects of alcoholism: loss of
appetite; reduced immune system; exposure to various diseases. The same thing
is true for the remaining effects. If you say that alcoholism brings about health
problems and go to the next effect without explaining the health effects, your
paragraph surely lacks development. Make sure that every supporting idea in
your paragraph is explained using two or three specific examples. The specific
examples that you use to explain the major details are called minor details).
 Does my paragraph have COHERENCE? Coherence refers to the logical flow of
ideas or how the ideas in your paragraph are arranged to create a unified whole.
Very often, we use the weight given to the supporting ideas or linking devices to
achieve coherence. In the above example, the ideas are arranged from THE

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 MOST IMPORTANT EFFECT TO THE LEAST IMPORTANT EFFECT. Health is
the most important, while “social ties” is the least important effect. The writer
has also used important linking words/devices to show the importance of the
effects: primarily, one of, the second, also, for example, since, besides, in
summary etc.
 Is my paragraph of reasonable length? (Although length is not always a good
criterion, a well-written paragraph should be between 150-200 words. Length
should be seen together with other characteristics. For example, within this limit,
the writer should be able to achieve DEVELOPMENT. Some people may write a
paragraph of 200 words, but if the supporting ideas are not well-developed and
organized, only the length does not guarantee effectiveness).
 Did I use correct and appropriate language? (Check your spelling, capitalization,
word choice, formality, grammar, etc.).
 Did I use the correct format/layout? (There are two possible formats: the
indented style and the block style, which will be discussed in detail in the next
chapter. The indented style is often recommended for handwritten paragraphs.
 Did I achieve my purpose? (If you are able to fulfil the above criteria, it is not
difficult to achieve your purpose. We have discussed that in writing a single
paragraph or essay, we achieve only ONE PURPOSE. In the above sample
paragraph, the writer is explaining the effects of alcoholism. Hence, the writer’s
purpose is TO EXPLAIN and the paragraph is EXPLANATORY.
 Although there are certain improvements that can be made to the above
paragraph, more or less, it is a well-written draft paragraph.
EXERCISE 5: Drafting a Paragraph
Use the following limited topic to write the first draft of a paragraph. First
complete the blank outline provided.

Topic: The Practical Benefits of Computers

Topic sentence: ______________________________________________________
Supporting sentence/Major Detail 1:___________________________________

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Examples/Minor Details a) _____________________
b) _____________________
Supporting sentence/Major Detail 2:__________________________________
Examples/ Minor Details a) ___________________
b) ___________________
Supporting sentence/Major Detail 3: _________________________________
Examples/ Minor Details a) _________________
b) __________________

Supporting sentence/Major Detail 4:_________________________________

Examples/Minor Details a) ____________
b) ____________
Concluding sentence: __________________________________________________
EXERCISE 6: Revising a Draft Paragraph
Revise the paragraph you have written using the criteria under “Revising”.

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Chapter 7: Essentials of a Paragraph (Paragraph Writing)
This chapter deals with the characteristics of an effective paragraph. By now, you have
recognized that a paragraph is a group of related sentences that raises and discusses
only one main idea. We have seen in the previous chapter, especially in revising that
there are several characteristics that an effective paragraph should have.
 Structure: in terms of structure, a well-written paragraph should have a
topic/title, topic sentence, supporting sentences and concluding sentence.
 Unity: A single paragraph raises and discusses ONLY ONE MAIN IDEA; THAT
IS WHY, WE NARROW OR LIMIT OUR TOPIC FROM THE VERY
BEGINNING.
 Development/Completeness: this refers to the quantity and quality of your
supporting ideas that explain the topic sentence. You must have enough
supporting ideas to develop your main idea into a paragraph, usually 3-5 ideas.
Each supporting idea should be explained further with the help of at least two or
three specific examples or details. That is known as quality.
 Coherence: this refers to the logical flow of ideas in your paragraph. It is also
called organization. In simple terms, let us assume that your paragraph has
ten sentences, and which sentence should come first, second, third, fourth, fifth,
etc. Writers often use linking words to show the organization of the ideas in their
paragraph. Depending on the type of paragraph or the nature of your supporting
ideas, you can use the following methods to arrange your ideas in a paragraph:

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 chronological order, spatial order, order of importance, comparison and
contrast, etc. which will be discussed in detail in subsequent sections of this
chapter.
 Purpose: a paragraph is written to achieve ONLY one purpose: to narrate, to
describe, to explain or to persuade.
 Length: a typical paragraph usually contains 100/150-200 words.
 Format: indented style and block style
While writing your paragraph, you should make sure that your paragraph meets these
requirements. After you have written your paragraph, you should revise/improve it
using these characteristics.

EXERCISE 1: Evaluating Paragraphs

Evaluate the following paragraphs. Do they fulfil the above characteristics of

an effective paragraph? Why? Why not?

Good students and poor students

1. The variation in mental capabilities is the reason credited by many students for the
difference between a good student and a poor one. However, this is the case in only a
few instances. The main difference is in the application of these mental abilities. First,
the good student is consistent in class attendance. Also, once he or she gets to class,
the good student is attentive and active, listening to the instructor, asking questions,
and contributing to class discussions. In addition, the good student has excellent study
habits. He or she does research in the library when necessary, reads each day’s
assignments carefully, and starts preparing for exams long before they are given. The
result of this student’s efforts is most often an A or a B. On the other hand, the poor
student has a very poor and erratic attendance record; many times he or she is dropped
from the course because of excessive cuts. When this person does honor everyone by
attending class, he or she seldom pays much attention and never contributes to class
discussion. If the poor student does talk, it is usually with an equally poor student. They
will probably carry on a highly intellectual conversation about the rapist’s latest
fingernail polish. The poor student’s study habits are nil, but he or she will sometimes

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 find the urge to study for an exam, most often by staying up until three or four in the
morning before the quiz is to be given. When he or she does get to class and does take
the test, this student is too exhausted to remember anything. The poor student’s lack of
effort usually results in an F. Thus, the good student learns to apply himself well and the
poor student says, ‘’ I will do it tomorrow.’’
2. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to
medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of
education. Students are taught by well‐trained teachers and are encouraged to
continue studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently
managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live.

The following sections mainly contain brief explanations and exercises on the
characteristics of an effective paragraph discussed above. Read the explanations and do
the exercises to gain a better understanding of what an effective paragraph is like.
7.1. Paragraph Structure
We have described above that paragraph structure includes topic/title, topic
sentence, supporting sentences/developers and concluding sentence.

The Topic sentence

This section helps you practice how to write the topic sentence, one of the most
important components of a well-written paragraph. The following are characteristics of
a well-written topic sentence:

 It states the main idea of a paragraph.

 It is usually the first sentence of a paragraph.
 It is more general than supporting sentences since it states the main idea of a
paragraph.
 It can be written as a statement or a direct question:
Example:

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 Statement: There are several reasons why I have decided to study
accounting and finance.

Question: What are the major reasons why I have decided to study
accounting and finance?

The statement can be direct/explicit/specific (where you include the

ideas you want to discuss) or indirect/implicit/general (where you do not
include the ideas you want to discuss).

Direct statement: Interest, the availability of employment opportunities

and parental advice are the major reasons why I have decided to study
accounting and finance.

Indirect statement: There are several reasons why I have decided to study
accounting and finance.

Language Items for Writing Topic Sentences (depending on methods for

limiting topics)

A. Indirect/Implicit/General Topic Sentences

 There are many/certain benefits/advantages associated with___________
 __________is beneficial/advantageous/important in many ways.
 There are many problems associated with__________
 _______has several problems/side-effects/disadvantages.
 There are several ways/methods/techniques of/for______________
 __________can be prevented/reduced/alleviated/solved if the following
methods/techniques are properly used.
 There are many types of_____________.
 ________can be classified into ______depending on_____________.
 ______has several unique qualities/characteristics/attributes/features.
 There are several reasons why_________
 _______is _________for a variety of reasons.

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 There are a number of factors causing/necessitating/responsible
for_______________
 _______and _______are similar in many possible ways.
 There are many/certain/some similarities between _______and ______
 _______and _______are different in many possible ways.
 There are many/certain/some differences between _______and ______
 There are certain steps we should follow to_________
 These are the steps we should follow to___________
 _________is easy/simple if we follow the steps described below.
B. Direct/Explicit/Specific Topic sentences
 ________, __________, and _________are the major
benefits/advantages of________
 The major/practical benefits/advantages of_________are
/include________, _________, and _________.
 ________, __________, and _________are the major
problems/disadvantages/side-effects of________
 The major problems/disadvantages/side-effects of_________are
/include________, _________, and _________.
 __________,__________, ________,and _________are the major
ways/methods/techniques of___________
 The major methods/ways/techniques of_______include _______,
________, ________, and _______.
 ________,________,________, and ________are the major types/forms
of__________.
 The major types/forms of ________are ________, _______, _______,
and ______.
 ______,_______,_____, and ______are the major
qualities/characteristics/features/attributes of___________

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 The major qualities/characteristics/features/attributes
of___________are/include ______, _______, _______, and _______.
 ______,_______,_______,and______are the major reasons
why__________
 The major reasons/factors responsible/causing/necessitating
_______are/include________,________,____,and ____.
 ______, ______, _______, and _____are the major similarities between
_____and _____.
 The major similarities between ______and _____are
/include_______,________,_______,and _______.
 ______, ______, _______, and _____are the major differences between
___and __.
 The major differences between ______and _____are
/include_______,________,_______,and _______.
C. Questions
 What are the major advantages/benefits of _________?
 What are the major disadvantages/problems/side-effects of_________?
 What are the major qualities/characteristics/qualities/features/attributes
of______?
 Who is _______like?
 What are the ways/methods through which _________can be
solved/addressed/tackled?
 What are the steps we /one should follow to________?
 What are the similarities between _______and _______?
 How are _____and ______ similar?
 What are the differences between _______and _______?
 How are _____and _____different?
 What are the major reasons why_______?
 What are the reasons/factors responsible for/necessitating_______?

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  What are the major forms/types of________?

EXERCISE 2: Identifying Suitable Topic Sentences

Directions: Read each of the following paragraphs, and select the most suitable topic
sentence from the three choices following it. Then, try to explain why each of the other
two items is not appropriate.
It is too general.
It is too specific
It is not a complete grammatical sentence.
It does not relate to the supporting sentences.

Example
1. There are some minor differences between American and British spelling. Where
Britons end certain words with –se, Americans usually end the same words with -
ce (British practice versus American practice); the reverse is sometimes true, too
(British preference for final –re over the American –er (metre versus meter).
Finally, most Americans consider neighbor a correct spelling, but a Briton
characteristically adds a u and spells the word neighbor.

Choose a Topic Sentence

A. British and American English are not the same.
B. There are some minor differences between American and British spelling
C. The endings of British and American words are not the same.
2. __________________________________________. The operation of both devices
can be thought of as being divided into three phases: input, processing, and
output. In the case of the computer, the information which is fed into the
machine__ the data is the input; the internal operations of the machine constitute
the processing; and the result__ usually a printout__ is called the output. The
telephone, too, acts on information presented to it and produces a result. The
input is the actual dialing of the number. The switching system which locates the
number can be considered the processing phase. Finally, the telephone rings on

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 the other end of the line, indicating that the call has been completed; this
constitutes the output.

Choose a Topic Sentence

A. Both the computer and the telephone are helpful inventions.
B. Computer terminology, such as input and output, is frequently used in
other contexts.
C. Despite apparent differences, the operation of the computer and the
telephone has much in common.
3. ___________________________________. The jack is a portable device for rising
the car. It operates by means of fore applied to a level on which the car is
balanced. The lug wrench is a tool with a fixed “jaw” for gripping the lug (the type
of screw used to hold a tire in place). It has a long handle so that it is effective in
turning the lug, either to tighten of to loosen it. These two tools, which are
necessary to change a tire, are usually found in the trunk of the car and are kept
there at all times so that the motorist can use them in case of a flat tire.

Choose a Topic Sentence

A. Flat tires constitute a serious problem for the motorist.
B. How to change a flat tire.
C. The two tools necessary to change a tire are considered standard
equipment on new U.S. automobiles.
4. ________________________________________________. The first one is the
small pocket dictionary. Dictionaries of this type are usually only abridgments of
earlier, more comprehensive dictionaries. The definitions found in a pocket
dictionary are usually rather sketchy, and few or no example sentences are given
to help the international student understand how the word is actually used in a
sentence. Equally inadequate is the bilingual dictionary (Thai-English, Spanish-
English, Russian- English, and so forth). This type of dictionary is often based on
the idea of making word-for-word translations, a notion which shows no
understanding of the idiomatic nature of all languages. Moreover, bilingual

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 dictionaries are often hastily and sloppily compiled, as well as hopelessly out of
date even before they are published.

Choose a Topic Sentence

A. A number of dictionaries are inappropriate for international students.
B. Some dictionaries are not comprehensive enough.
C. The worst kind of dictionaries.
5. _________________________. In 1980, there were approximately 25 million
Americans who were sixty-five or older. By the late 1980s, the number of these
senior citizens had risen to over 30 million. This trend toward an increasingly older
population, attributed largely to better health care, is expected to continue. In
fact, the U.S. Census Bureau projects that the number of elderly Americans in the
year 2020 will reach over 50 million, double the 1980 figure.

Choose a Topic Sentence

A. The population of older people in the United States has and will probably
continue to increase rapidly.
B. The increasing population of senior citizens.
C. Health care in the United States is getting better for older people.
6. _________________________. Infants usually satisfy this very basic need in the
course of an ordinary day spent with their parents (feeding, kissing, bathing, and
so forth). However, if a baby is neglected or even mistreated by being deprived of
touch, his or her development will suffer on all levels physically, intellectually, and
emotionally. Some children have even been known to die from this lack of tactile
stimulation; many doctors think that many unexplained “crib deaths” are directly
related to lack of touch and its various consequences. Children given up for
adoption at a tender age and placed in poorly run orphanages, children brought up
by unaffectionate parents, and children whose parents touch then only to beat
them-__ all these types of children run the risk of never reaching their potential as
fully developed adults.

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Choose a Topic Sentence
A. Babies interacting daily with their parents.
B. Physical contact is an important factor in an infant’s overall development.
C. Many children are not properly taken care of by their parents.

EXERCISE 3: Supplying Appropriate Topic Sentences

Directions: The topic sentences of each of the following paragraphs have been
omitted. After a careful reading, write an appropriate topic sentence for each.
1. ___________________________________________.When you have removed
the hub cup from the wheel which has the flat, correctly place the jack to lift the
car off the ground. Now, you are ready to jack up the car high enough for the
tire to clear the ground. After you have done that, carefully loosen the nuts that
hold the tire and rim in place; the tool you use to do that is called a lug wrench.
Remove the tire in place. Now, you are ready to put the nuts back on the wheel
and tighten them as firmly as you can with the lug wrench. All that remains is to
replace the hubcap, lower the cat to the ground, give the nuts a final tightening
and remove the jack.
2. _______________________________________________________.The one
most people are familiar with is the “desk dictionary,” sometimes referred to as a
general-purpose dictionary. Another kind is the pronouncing dictionary, which is
concerned with a word’s pronunciation more than with its meaning. A third type
is the bilingual dictionary, which lists the words in one language and attempts to
give equivalent meanings in another language. Other types include technical
dictionaries, special purpose dictionaries, and scholarly dictionaries.
3. _______________________________________________________________.
Under this system, the customer’s monthly telephone bill includes specific
information for each long-distance call: the date and time of each call, the rate
charged per minute (based on the company’s discount system), the length of
time the call was direct-dialed or operator-assisted, and the amount charged for
the call. As each call is placed, all of this information is fed into a computer and

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 programmed onto each customer’s billing card, thus simplifying and clarifying the
entire billing process. The telephone company hopes that its billing procedure
will reduce the number of inquiries and free its employees to do work which
computers are not yet able to perform.
4. ____________________________________________________________.
Surveys indicate that Social Security benefits constitute the main source of
income (about 37 percent) for retired Americans who are over sixty-five years of
age. The Social Security system, which is a fund financed jointly by workers,
employers, and the federal government, provides monthly payments to retired
persons and pays for some of their medical bills. Earnings from part-time jobs
account for approximately 25 percent of the income of retired Americans. Almost
half of the retired population works on a part-time basis, and most do so at a
lower salary than they earned before retirement. Assets, including property,
stocks, and money saved during working years provide another 23 percent of
retirement income. Surprisingly, money from pensions (retirement plans)
supplies only 13 percent of retirees’ total fiscal support. The remaining 2 percent
is attributed to other unspecified sources.
5. ____________________________________________________________. It will
teach you how to pronounce new words correctly. It will also show you the
correct spellings of these words. Most dictionaries will then give you certain
important grammatical information about each word__ whether it is a noun or an
adjective, for example, or how the past tense of a verb is spelled. Many
dictionaries will also give the etymology the word came from. But perhaps most
importantly, a dictionary tells you what a word means. Most words have several
meanings, and a good dictionary helps you to understand the word in all its
different meanings by giving you clear definitions and useful examples.
6. ______________________________________________________. In some
cultures, the act of touching another person is considered very intimate and is
therefore reserved for people who know each other very well. In the United
States, for example, young children are taught that it is rude to stand too close

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 to people. By the time they are adults, Americans have learned to feel most
comfortable when standing at about arm’s length away from people to whom
they are talking. And many Americans do not touch each other with great
frequency while talking (this is particularly true of men). In contrast, other
cultures have more relaxed rule regarding touching. For example, it is usual for
friends-both men and women -to embrace each other when they meet. When
they talk, they touch each other more often. They are as mush at ease doing this
as Americans are with more space between them, and they feel just as
uncomfortable with Americans’ “touching rules” as Americans feel with theirs.
7. ________________________________________________________. First, with
a word processor, it is possible to type over a word or words that you want to
change, while with a standard typewriter, it is necessary either to erase or use
correction fluid or tape and then type in the corrections. The second advantage
is that you can add words or sentences in the middle of a paragraph and then
command the computer to put your text back in proper paragraph form. When
using a standard typewriter, the only way to add new information is to retype
the entire paragraph. A third benefit of using a computer to write is that you can
move entire paragraphs within longer papers simply by pushing a key. With a
typed text, this can be accomplished only with scissors and paste, which
produces sloppy-looking work.
8. ___________________________________________________________.To
begin with, this sense seems so essential to us that we have at least four
common verbs in English to describe various ways of using our eyes. We can
look, we can glance (look quickly and then look away), we can stare (look for a
long time, perhaps rudely), and we can glare (stare angrily). We sometimes
equate this sense with intellectual understanding. When we understand what
someone is saying, we might say, “I see what you mean.” We also use the sense
of sight in the opposite way, that is, to suggest lack of understanding. When we
do not understand something, we say that we are “in the dark”; and in a
situation which we cannot (and perhaps even stubbornly refuse to) understand,

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 our friends might accuse us of being “blind to the truth.” Lack or light (and
therefore of sight as well) is sometimes even associated with unpleasant
character traits: a gloomy person is too serious, and a particularly unpleasant
person is said to have a “dark side” to his or her personality. The presence of
light, however __whether applied to a person’s character or to life in general
__suggests hope and optimism. When we are feeling pessimistic about things,
our friends remind us to “look on the bright side,” or they comfort us with
assurances that “every cloud has a silver lining.”

EXERCISE 4: Composing Topic Sentences

Use the following limited topics to write three versions of a topic sentence:
statement: direct and indirect, and question.

1. My Mother
2. Why I Like the Girl Next door
3. Qualities of successful managers
4. Forms of corruption in the public sector in Ethiopia
5. How to Succeed as a university student
6. Our trip to Langano
7. Legalizing same-sex marriage
7.2. Paragraph unity

A paragraph is said to have unity when all its sentences RAISE AND DISCUSS ONLY
ONE MAIN IDEA. Any sentence that violates this principle is called a stray or an
irrelevant sentence and it should be removed from your paragraph. The best method to
decide if a paragraph has unity is to check if all the other sentences are DIRECTLY
RELATED TO THE TOPIC SENTENCE SINCE IT IS THE MAIN IDEA OF THE
WHOLE PARAGRAPH.
Example

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Look at how the underlined sentences in the following paragraph deviate from the topic
sentence. These do not contribute to the development of the main idea. They are stray
or irrelevant sentences.

The status of women

During World War II, the status of women changed profoundly. The military industry
needed ‘’manpower’’ to fight the war, but it also needed womanpower. From 1940 to
1944, about 17million women joined the work force. They filled jobs in defense
industries, steel miles, shipyards, and aircraft factories. By the end of the war, women
had proved that they could be invaluable workers. Today, many women work in these
industries and it isn’t considered unusual. In fact, according to Brigid O’ Farrell, women
represent over 17 percent of all blue-collar workers in the United States. Now women
earn the same salary as men in most jobs. When men returned home in 1945, most
women left the factories; however, women developed confidence and earning power,
and North America’s workplace changed forever.

EXERCISE 5: Identifying Irrelevant Sentences (Paragraph Unity)

Directions: The following paragraphs contain sentences which are not directly related
to the main ideas of those paragraphs. Underline the irrelevant sentences (s) of each
paragraph.
1. Different people spend their weekends in different ways. Some enjoy going to
the mountains to hike, ski, or just relax. Water skiing is much more difficult than
snow skiing. Others prefer going to the beach to enjoy the seashore activities
and to get a suntan. Some of these people work very hard during the week;
others have rather relaxing jobs. Still others like to relax by staying home and
reading a good book.
2. Ever since the time of the Greeks, drama has played an important role in
people’s lives. The Greek tragedies and comedies were a central part of the life
of the citizens of ancient Greece. During the Middle Ages, Bible stories were
acted out in churches, and wandering companies of players performed in the

100
 streets. William Shakespeare lived during the Elizabethan period. The English
language has changed somewhat since Shakespeare’s time. In modern times,
drama is brought directly into people’s homes through the magic of television.
Television also offers people such things as quiz and variety shows.
3. The general population often resists innovations, whether practical or aesthetic.
When the early experimenters in the field of aviation began their work, there
were many who said, “If God had wanted man to fly, He would have given him
wings.” The Wright brothers made the first powdered flights in a heavier-than-air
craft in 1903 at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Even today there are many who
strongly object to modern art and music as being nothing more than “splashes of
paint and honking horns.” The painter Picasso’s well known masterpiece “The
Three Musicians: is dome primarily in blues and browns.
4. Zoos are popular with all children. They are able to see examples of wildlife from
all continents. In wildlife preserves in Africa, the animals wander about freely
without fear of being captured. Perhaps the favorite spot in a zoo is the elephant
cage. There the elephants entertain the children by spraying themselves with
their trunks and doing various tricks. The children are especially delighted when
an elephant takes peanuts from them with its trunk.
5. Editorials differ from other kinds of news stories. In most regular news stories, it
is assumed that no personal opinions are being represented. Newspaper writers
are supposed to present the facts of each story in a straight- forward, unbiased
fashion. Statistics reveals that over million newspapers are sold every day in this
county. The purpose of the editorial page, of course, is to allow the editors to
give their personal opinions. Here is where they tell readers what they think
about an issue—who is at fault, who has done a good job, or how a situation
could be improved. It is no wonder, then, that Thomas Jefferson once remarked
that he could more easily accept newspapers without government than
government without newspapers.
6. In order to find a suitable apartment, you must follow a very systematic
approach. First, you must decide which neighborhood would be most convenient

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 for you. Then you must determine how much rent your budget will allow. Utility
bills for houses average between $100 and $150 per month. Your next step is to
check the classified ads in the newspapers. If you do not plan to buy furniture,
you should check under “Apartments for rent—furnished.” Otherwise, check
under “Apartments for rent—unfurnished.” In either case, however, be sure to
check these ads regularly, since new listings appear each day. After you have
telephoned the apartments, which seem likely choices, you must begin your long
journey to inspect each one of them.

7.3. Purpose

In our discussion of the characteristics of an effective paragraph, we have highlighted

that we achieve only ONE PURPOSE in one paragraph or essay. This is called UNITY
OF PUPROSE. It coincides with paragraph unity because a paragraph that has unity
raises and discusses only one main idea, which will further help has to achieve only one
purpose. There are four purposes in writing a paragraph or essay, but only one should
be achieved at a time:

 To narrate: to tell a true or imaginary story from the past

 To describe: to use vivid language to create a mental image about a person, an

object, a scene, a sensation, etc.

 To explain: to provide information (mainly factual in nature) to the audience; to

make something clear to the audience, etc.

 To persuade: to use evidence/ a set of reasons to convince the audience to

accept our point of view regarding a debatable issue.

NOTE: Remember that one purpose can be used to achieve the other. For example, if
you want to persuade your audience about any topic, you might be required to explain,

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tell a story about or describe the issue, but still the focus is on persuading your
audience.

EXERCISE 6: Deciding on Purpose

Read the following paragraphs and decide the purpose of each paragraph;
that is, to narrate, to describe, to explain or to persuade.

1. Sunset is the time of day when our sky meets the outer space solar winds. There
are blue, pink, and purple swirls, spinning and twisting, like clouds of balloons
caught in a whirlwind. The sun moves slowly to hide behind the line of horizon,
while the moon races to take its place in prominence atop the night sky. People
slow to a crawl, entranced, fully forgetting the deeds that must still be done. There
is a coolness, a calmness, when the sun does set.

2. On July 16, 1969, the Apollo 11 spacecraft launched from the Kennedy Space
Center in Florida. Its mission was to go where no human being had gone before—
the moon! The crew consisted of Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin.
The spacecraft landed on the moon in the Sea of Tranquility, a basaltic flood plain,
on July 20, 1969. The moonwalk took place the following day. On July 21, 1969, at
precisely 10:56 EDT, Commander Neil Armstrong emerged from the Lunar Module
and took his famous first step onto the moon’s surface. He declared, “That’s one
small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” It was a monumental moment in
human history!

3. It was July 21, 1969, and Neil Armstrong awoke with a start. It was the day he
would become the first human being to ever walk on the moon. The journey had
begun several days earlier, when on July 16th, the Apollo 11 launched from Earth
headed into outer space. On board with Neil Armstrong were Michael Collins and
Buzz Aldrin. The crew landed on the moon in the Sea of Tranquility a day before
the actual walk. Upon Neil’s first step onto the moon’s surface, he declared, “That’s
one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” It sure was!

4. The school fair is right around the corner, and tickets have just gone on sale. We
are selling a limited number of tickets at a discount, so move fast and get yours

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 while they are still available. This is going to be an event you will not want to miss!
First off, the school fair is a great value when compared with other forms of
entertainment. Also, your ticket purchase will help our school, and when you help
the school, it helps the entire community. But that’s not all! Every ticket you
purchase enters you in a drawing to win fabulous prizes. And don’t forget, you will
have mountains of fun because there are acres and acres of great rides, fun games,
and entertaining attractions! Spend time with your family and friends at our school
fair. Buy your tickets now!

7.4. Paragraph Development/Completeness

Every paragraph should be complete; that is, the controlling idea has to be discussed
thoroughly by using developer statements. A paragraph is said to be complete when it
is fully developed; that is, the ideas of the paragraph should be brought to a
satisfactory close. Development is the characteristic of supporting sentences or
developers because it is using these sentences that the controlling idea in the topic
sentence is developed into a complete paragraph. There are many methods of
paragraph development, and the following sections are devoted to the discussion of
these methods.

7.4.1. Comparison-contrast
Comparison-contrast is a method of development that will essentially compare (show
likeness) and contrast (show difference). The purpose of comparison is to show how
persons, places and things that are usually considered very different are alike in some
ways. The opposite is contrast in which the paragraph is written to show how persons,
places and things that are often considered very much alike are different in some ways.

Note: Comparisons and Contrast approach can be used to organize facts, examples
and incidents. This method helps to highlight the similarities or differences
between two or more things.

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Comparison-contrast could be seen from two different angles: development by
comparison and development by contrast. Let us see them separately.

A. Development by comparison
Unlike contrast, comparison stresses the likenesses-the similarities between two or
more people, places, things or abstraction. The comparison may be developed by the
same methods of organization as the contrast-point-by-point and block organization

B. Development by contrast
Developing an idea by contrast focuses the differences between two or more people,
things, places or abstractions. In such methods, a paragraph could be developed either
by describing the contrasting points one by one (point by point) or presenting one
complete set of points and present the other set of contrasting points(block
organization).

Sample paragraph:

Unlike the United States farmer who harvests rice by using machines, Ethiopian
farmers use human power. Generally, American farmers use ploughs, combines
and harvests to get their grain from field to market. Men drive the expensive
machines which pick, separate and bind the grain. These men are paid good
salaries for their work. In contrast, most Ethiopian harvesters employ manual
equipment such as ploughs. Oxen are used in the productive process. Their
income depends on the stiff struggle they make.

It is possible to use either of the two common organizational methods to develop a

paragraph. Notice the following sample paragraphs.

Sample paragraph:

Point-by-point presentation

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 Hamelmal’s dress has short sleeves as does Genet’s dress. Both dresses have
round necklines, both dresses are high-waisted. Each dress has pleats in the
skirt and each hemline falls just below the knees of the wearer.

Sample paragraph:

Block presentation

Hamelmal’s dress has short sleeves, a round neckline, a high-waisted bodice

and a skirt that reaches her knees. Genet’s dress also has short sleeves, a
round neckline, a high-waisted bodice, and a skirt that reaches her knees.

Sample paragraph:

Raising houseplants involves nearly as much care and knowledge as raising

children. Both plants and children are sensitive to their environment. For
example, a plant will grow faster and be much healthier if it is raised in an
environment of tender, loving care. The same is true for a child who will be
happier and healthier if his parents love and nurture him. Similarly, proper
care of house plants requires a basic knowledge of plants on the part of the
owner. He must know, for example, which of his plants need direct sunlight
and which need to be kept in shady places and how much water each plant
requires for the best growth and appearance. Parents, too, must have a basic
knowledge of their children’s needs in order to provide what is necessary for
the best physical and mental development. Finally, the owner of house plants
must be willing to provide the best possible care for his plants. A child needs
time and energy from his parents too to play with him, to talk to him, and to
care for him. Generally speaking, happy, healthy, plants and children are the
results if extra time, knowledge and energy.

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 7.4.2. Cause and Effect
Cause and effect paragraph development explains why an event happened or what the
consequences of such an event were. A cause and effect paragraph can focus on
causes, effects, or both.

When you write a cause and effect paragraph, focus on two main points.

1. Indicate whether you are focusing on causes, effects, or both. This is because
a paragraph is not very long, it is often easier to focus on either causes or
effects. If you do decide to focus on both causes and effects, make sure that
your topic sentence announces your purpose to the reader.
2. Make sure that your causes and effects are valid. Determine real causes and
effects and do not simply list things that happened before or after the event;
it is better to verify that your assumptions are logical.
Sample paragraph:

Consider the following example where cause and effect are at work.

Michael

Michael frequently expresses his dislike of school and reading. He continues to read at a
second-grade level and is behind his classmates in the acquisition of knowledge
expected from fourth-grade students. In interviews with the child, he has stated that he
never reads at home and spends most of his time watching television. Because he is so
far behind his peers in the classroom, he is embarrassed to show his lack of reading
skills for fear of ridicule. It is easier for him to ‘’ act out’’, thus distracting others from
his deficiency in reading. He displays a low level of self- confidence and appears to have
given up trying.

7.4.3. Statistics
If the developer sentences need numerical data to support the controlling idea of the
sentence, the paragraph will be developed by statistics. Notice the example below:

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Note: In using this method, employ numerical data to support the controlling idea of
the topic sentence. The amount of statistics data used and the length of the
paragraph depend on the complexity of the topic.

Conventions
Although the specific use of numbers will vary with individual and specific situations,
below are some general conventions to keep in mind.

1. Any number that can be written in two words or less should be spelled out.
2. Conversely, use Arabic figures for any number that requires more than two
words.
3. In using numbers with percentage, dollars, degrees and so forth, one can use
either figures or write the number if it is two words or less; however, be
consistent.
4. Use figures for expressing dates, times and addresses(March 3,2010)
5. Use numbers to express fractions in general business()
6. Use spelt out words for expressing numbers that come at the beginning of
sentences
Divorce-statistically speaking

A magazine of July 1981, tells us that a record 1-18 million marriages broke up in 1979,
nearly three times the number of divorces occurring twenty years ago. The magazine’s
figures were taken from the National Center for Health Statistics. The 1979 divorce
figures are about three times as high as the 395,000 divorces granted in 1959, the
center reports. These statistics indicate that approximately 5.4divorecs were granted for
every 1,000 couples. The figure is a slight increase over the 113 million divorces
granted in 1978, national figure show. The annual rise in the divorce rate is by now a
familiar statistic.

7.4.4. Definition
Definition is a method of making clear or identifying the meaning of a word or phrase.
When you define, you explain the meaning of a word. There are different ways of

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defining a term, the following are some: definition by synonym, definition by category
and definition by negation, definition example, definition by smile, definition by
function, definition by enumeration, definition by etymology, specific definition and
extended definition. Of all the different types of definition, let us see the first three
ways of defining a term.

a) Definition by synonym
The easiest way to define a term is to supply a synonym (a word that has a similar
meaning). This type of definition is useful if the original term is difficult to understand
and the synonym is a more familiar word. Consider the example below in which the
synonym is underlined:

 I am a procrastinator which means I tend to put things off.

b) Definition by category

When you define by category, you determine the largest group to which the term
belongs; then you determine what unique characteristics set the term apart from others
in that category. Consider the example below in which the category is underlined:

 A king fisher is a type of bird that is small and brightly colored.

c) Definition by negation
When you define by negation, you explain what a term doesn’t mean; you can then
include a sentence explaining what it does mean. Consider the example below

 Alcoholism is not an invented disease; it is a serious physical dependency.

What it is not what it is?

Read the paragraph below and answer the questions:

An optimist is a person who always looks on the bright side of life. Optimists see
positive ways out of negative situations. They see bad events as temporary and
controllable. For example, my mother is an optimist. She divorced my father. She saw

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the divorce as new beginning. Now she is very happy. My father, on the contrary, is not
an optimist. He saw the divorce as a terrible ending. He stayed depressed. According to
an August 2002 study in the Mayo Clinic Proceedings, optimists have a lower risk of
premature death. They live longer. People may have a genetic predisposition to
optimism. It often runs in families. For example, my grandmother, my mother and I are
all optimists.

1. Underline the topic sentence

2. What type of definition does the topic sentence contains?

Sample paragraph:

Placebo

In medicine, a placebo is a substance that contains no preventive or curative abilities

for a specific ailment. The effects on the patient are purely psychological. The origin of
the term placebo goes back to the Latin ‘placere’ which meant ‘’to please’’ The present
spelling came from the Roman Catholic Church’s office of Vespers for the dead. The
church’s Medieval Latin liturgy began with Placebo Domino in regione volume (I shall
please the Lord in the Land of living). As time passed, the medical profession adopted
the term to apply medication given merely to humor or ‘’to please’’ the patient.
Obviously, the patient must not know that the medication has no abilities to help the
specific problem.

7.4.5. Exemplification

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A paragraph could be developed using example statements. Example sentences may
range from a few words to several hundred, the length depending on the complexity of
the cons trolling idea.

Sample paragraph:

Enterprising inventors have made American life richer, safer and more comfortable. Gail
Borden invented condensed milk, a healthy safe product, in time (1859) when fresh
milk was often dangerous. In 1902 Willis Carrier invented something he called ‘’air
conditioning.’’ Clarence Birdseye developed frozen foods, and Aaron Montgomery Ward
brought the department store to the most isolated farm through the distribution of a
mail order catalog.

Sample paragraph:

Desalegn who was a badly spoiled child was an orphan reared alone by doting
grandparents. As a little fellow, he was never able to play happily with visiting children,
for his selfishness prevented him from making the adjustments necessary in a group.
When he became a school boy, this kind of experience was repeated; he was admired
by his fellows for his good looks, his fine clothes and his steady supply of spending
money but he was never able to make close friends because of his inordinate demands
upon any others with whom he associated. In college, the results of his upbringing
were even more serious, never having known the discipline of others, he was
continually in trouble with the dean over infractions of campus rules and never having
been trained to discipline himself, he failed to utterly in the business of setting down to
regular study that in spite of his fine mind, he was finally dropped. The present failure
of his marriage to a fine girl in his home town is only one more evidence of the folly of
spared rod.

7.4.6. Classification
Classification is the process of putting a large number of items or behaviors into
smaller, well-defined groups. Each group’s members or items share similar traits or

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characteristics that are unique; no other group has the same traits. The writer should
put similar looking or acting items or behaviors into the same group and describe one
group’s unique traits, behaviors, attitudes, or other characteristics.

Many classification systems are already in place; for example, movies are classified by
genre: Western, Romance, Science Fiction, and Thriller; subjects in school are
classified by discipline: Science, Mathematics, English, and Home Economics. Since
this categories, already exist, they do not present much challenge to the reader. In
English classes, it is more fun and creative to come up with your own topic and
classification system. For example, if a hotel prepares various foods, you might group
them by type of food: vegetables, fruits, meat, cookies, cheese and so forth. You might
group drinks into beverages, alcohol, and soft drinks. Or you might put the original
groups such as those prepared in home, and in factories. Or each can be classified, for
example, soft drinks, can be further classified as: Coca Cola, Sprite, Pepsi, Fanta,
Mirinda, Seven-Up, Mineral Water and so on.

Sample paragraph 1:

Homework assignments can be categorized according to the various emotional traits

they produce. For example, “The I- Will-Do-It-Later-Tonight” assignment is a relatively
easy assignment which takes no more than five or ten minutes and causes the student
little inconvenience or worry. Related to this type is “The- I- Thought-I-Could-Do-It-
Later-Tonight” assignment, which seems simple but is in reality much more than the
student bargained for. This type often causes a sleepless night for the panicking
student. “The-Impossible-Dream” assignment also causes the student a certain amount
of panic. These assignments also is known as semester projects , are designed to take
the majority of the semester to complete , and they seem to hang over the students
head like a dark cloud of doom, much like this assignment , but perhaps ever more
traumatic ,is “ The -I‘m- Going To- Fail –This- Course” assignment. It is the process of

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putting a large number of items or behaviors into smaller, well-defined groups. Each
group’s members or items share similar traits or characteristics that are unique.
Sample paragraph 2:

Television programs can be classified into three main categories: entertainers, cultural
enhancers, and eye Openers. The entertainers are created simply for entertainment-
nothing more. They make us laugh or cry, for a moment. Sitcoms are prime examples
as we laugh at or with the characters as they struggle through life, and might even
identify with the characters. For momentary pleasures, watch the entertainers. Cultural
enhancers involve some kind of “culture “or highbrow activity, such as opera, theater,
dance, or song. Also included here are the movies made from the classics or literary
fiction, such as Moby Dick or any of Shakespeare’s plays. These programs are often
concerned with universal themes or issues: love, evil, power. They can be found on
“arts” cable stations such as A&E and Bravo, as well as the public Broadcasting system.
For a taste of culture, watch Cultural Enhancers. A third category, eye opener
programs, includes topics about science and nature, history, true crime, and other
information. They are often found on cable channels: the Discovery Channel, the
Learning Channel, and the History Channel. The Public Broadcasting System, on the
network side, also provides these programs. A viewer might learn about tornadoes, or
the legend of Robin Hood, or the African crested crane. Often this information, such as
programs about strong storm systems, is interesting because it is relevant to viewers’
lives. Television has much to offer viewers, and it is our choice what we watch.

EXERCISE 7: Paragraph Writing

Complete table below and write two short paragraphs comparing and
contrasting living alone and living with others.

Similarities between living Differences between living alone

alone and Living with others and living with others

Similarity 1:__________________ Difference 1:__________________

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Examples____________________ Examples____________________

Similarity 1:__________________ Difference 1:__________________

Examples____________________ Examples____________________

Similarity 1:__________________ Difference 1:__________________

Examples____________________ Examples____________________

Similarity 1:__________________ Difference 1:__________________

Examples____________________ Examples____________________

Similarity 1:__________________ Difference 1:__________________

Examples____________________ Examples____________________

EXERCISE 8: Paragraph Writing

Write TWO SEPARATE paragraphs on the possible causes and effects of

smoke-free work zone. Use the outlines below and provide specific examples
for each supporting idea. You can include more causes and effects.

Causes Effects

Workers complain about smoke Employees smoke in entrances

New legislation Cigarette litter outside building

Lobby groups ask for smoke-free zones Smokers influence non-smokers

Lack of ventilation in offices Smokers take long breaks

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EXERCISE 9: Paragraph Writing

Use the outline and the topic sentence below to write a paragraph using
statistics as a method of development.

Topic sentence: If you have ever struggled to learn a second language, you may
have wondered why they do not and wished that all people did speak the same
language. But have you ever considered just how many languages there are?

 And once that large number of languages is considered, approximately how

many people speak each of those languages?
 According to the World Almanac (1984), 163 languages are spoken by at
least one million people excluding the thousands of dialects
 Five languages, Mandarin Chinese (740million), English (403million), Russian
(277million), Spanish (266million), and Hindi (264million) are spoken by 43.
12 percent of a total of 4,522,000,000 speakers.
 Thirteen languages are spoken by one million people.
 The above figure represents only 0.29 percent of all speakers.
 Excluding the five languages mentioned above, 145 languages make up those
languages which are spoken by more than two million speakers per
languages,
 This percentage represents approximately 2, 553, 000,000 speakers of these
other 145 languages. These include Chuvash, spoken in parts of USSA, and
Slovene, spoken in Yugoslavai.
 For popular academic languages German 1,180,000,000 speakers and French,
1, 090,000,000 speakers.
EXERCISE 10: Paragraph Writing

Use the outline and develop it using definition.

 A friend - person - true, honest, and most of all sincere.

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  Person - true, he or she - a friend.
 True friend- never talk about you behind -make false judgments about you.
 True and loyal -as the first point to consider in a valuable relationship.
 Honesty - important objective in a lasting friendship.
 Lies and deceit - broken relationship and hurt feelings.
 Sincerity - significant characteristics to consider.
 Kindness and understanding -sum up sincerity.
 These three characteristics - consider very closely before choosing your
friends.
EXERCISE 11: Identifying Type of Paragraph Development

Identify the paragraph which is developed by example.

A. Dagim and Sisay lived in the same room in the school hostel. They were great
friends. One evening, they agreed to play a trick on a fellow student, called
Tadele, who had played a trick on them. They knew he would not be in his
room at that time, and so they crept quietly to his door with the intention of
upsetting all his things. But when they opened the door, they met Tadele.
B. Life was hard for man. No matter how developed his sense of touch became,
there were some things he could never understand through touch. He could
never touch the sun, or the horizon. He could never touch a mountain. Some
things were too fragile, like snowflakes and live butterflies. It would be too
dangerous to try to understand burning or boiling through touch. No matter
how developed his ability to measure ‘’ sound shadows’’ became, he would
only be able to measure the width and bulk of a large building, not its height.
He could learn that the sky is blue and the grass green, but he would never
see blue or green. He could not watch television.
7.5. Paragraph Coherence (Ways of Organizing Ideas in a
Paragraph)
Once you have gathered information and ideas for your paragraph, it is important to
decide on a good order for presenting them. An orderly and logical presentation is

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helpful to your readers. In other words, you should be able to create coherence (the
logical flow of ideas one after the other) by arranging the specific details in a sensible
order. This will help your readers to understand how your ideas are related to each
other. To do so, there are many methods.
7.5.1. Chronological Order/Time order
This is the usual way of organizing ideas in narration and explanation. The ideas are
organized according to what happened first, then second, then third, etc. until
the final outcome. Look at the following paragraph which is organized
chronologically.
For 13 year old Karen Edwards, July 17, 1972, became a day to remember. She was
resting on the side of a motel pool in Duncansville, Pennsylvania, when she saw a
young boy struggling in the deep end. Then, she saw the boy’s father dive in after him
and not come up. While others stood by, Karen jumped in and towed the drowning boy
to the side. Tired but not waiting to rest, she went back for the father, who was floating
face down. As she dragged him to the side, he began struggling, his waving arms
splashing water in Karen’s eyes. Her chest heaving, she finally made it to the side of the
pool, and in a few minutes, father, son, and Karen were all well. Karen’s quick thinking
and heroic effort had saved two lives.

EXERCISE 12: Unscrambling a Chronological Paragraph

Directions: Place the following crumbled sentences in their correct order; use
the time lines on your work space.
1. First, I had to return some overdue books to the library.
2. After my early class, I had a quick cup of coffee with some friends in the
cafeteria.
3. I got up at 6:30 A.M. as usual.
4. I went to my accounting class.
5. The subway train was a little late, so I arrived just in time for my 8:30 class.
6. I left my apartment at 7:45.
7. Before my next class, I had several things to do.

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 8. I also had to see my advisor in his office at 10:45 to review my schedule for next
semester.
9. Yesterday morning was typical of my busy life s a student.
10. After having planned my schedule, I had just enough time to review my notes
before my 11; 30 accounting class.
11. By 1:00 I was ready for a big lunch to help get me through the rest of my day.

ANALYSIS (Time line)

Topic Sentence:

(6:00 A.M.) ….
(7:00 A.M.) ….
(8:00 A.M.) ….
(9:00 A.M.) ….
(10:00 A.M.) ….
(11:00 A.M.) ….
(12:00 P.M.) ….
(1:00 P.M.) ….
EXERCISE 13: Unscrambling a Chronological Paragraph
Directions: Re-arrange the sentences below to create a coherent narrative paragraph.
1. In my rearview mirror, I then noticed a car coming behind me that did not
slow down or stop.
2. I was on my way home from work when terrible car accident took place.
3. My car was so damaged that it had to be towed away.
4. I had horrible, helpless feeling as I realized the car would hit me.
5. As I drove my car around the curve of the expressway exit, I saw a number
of cars ahead of me, backed up because of a red light at the main road.
6. Today, eight years after the accident, I still remember that bad experience.
7. I knew there was nothing I could do to signal the driver in time or no way to
escape.
8. The police arrived quickly along with an ambulance for the driver of the car
that hit me.

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 9. Minutes after the collision, I picked up my glasses which were on the seat
beside me.
10. My lip was bleeding and I got out tissue to wipe it.

7.5.2. Spatial Order

In spatial order, details are presented according to their location. Such an organization
might proceed from side to side, from top to bottom (or the reverse), or from near to
far (or the reverse). Look at the paragraph bellow which is organized spatially.

The sun was setting behind me as I came over the hill. From the top off the hill, I could
see a village lying bellow me half in and half out of the slanting sunlight. Stone cottages
were lining a small stream in the middle. On the other side, at the end of a row off
houses, was a towered church with a cross shining gold in the evening light. Behind the
church, high up, a straw binding machine was still working noisily in a square off wheat
like old loom.

Transitions such as from the top of the hill, lying bellow, in the middle, on the other
side, at the end… behind the church, etc. show the view/ location of the village
described. They therefore mark spatial order. Other transitions used in spatial order
include at the top/bottom, in front of, near, beside, by west, east, north, south, right,
left, close to, opposite, adjacent, under, over, above, between, across, farther , etc. This
method is mainly used in descriptive paragraphs and essays to organize descriptive
details-the supporting ideas used in descriptive paragraphs and essays.
EXERCISE 14: Unscrambling a Spatially Organized Paragraph
Re-arrange the following sentences to create a coherent descriptive
paragraph.
1. Her teeth are as white as snow and evenly arranged.
2. The girl next door has a majestic look and a praiseworthy character.
3. Overall, she is moderately skinny.
4. She has long wavy hair shinning from afar.

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 5. Who would not want to be her friend?
6. She has a round smiling face.
7. Her bulging big eyes seem that they want to say something to you.
8. She has a very straight nose.
9. Although her lips are very tight, they are still kissable.
10. Personally, she has an outgoing personality and mixes well with people.
11. Her eye brows are so well-trimmed that you cannot stop looking at them.

7.5.3. Order of Importance

In this method details are arranged in three possible orders: ascending order,
descending order and order of equal importance.
A. Descending order
In descending order, the writer lists the most important point first, and then goes on to
speak of the other points. The writer usually thinks that the other points are important,
too, but simply wishes to mention the most important one first. Some writers like to
imagine descending order in the shape of a triangle with its base at the top. This kind
of triangle is bigger (more important) at the top and gets smaller (less important) as
you move to the bottom.

MORE IMPORTANT

Less Important

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In the following example, the writer begins with the most important reason regarding
his decision to join Bingston University. He finishes the paragraph with the least
important reason:

There were several reasons why I decided to attend Bingston University. My chief
reason for choosing that university was its wonderful work/study program in
agriculture, my chosen field. The university requires all its agriculture students to gain
practical experience by working on local farms while they are still going to school; I
knew that this would provide invaluable experience and prepare me to better use the
skills I had learned in the classroom. Second, Bingstom hires only the finest teachers to
teach in its graduate program. Then, too, there was Bingston’s deferred payment plan;
this represented a great convenience to my parents. A final reason was the reasonable
tuition.
B. Ascending Order
Ascending order is exactly the opposite of descending order. In ascending order, we list
the minor points first, saving the most important for last. This keeps the reader
interested, since the paragraph has a kind of dramatic structure to it: it builds up to or
ascends to a climax. Just as a triangle was used to illustrate descending order, we can
use a triangle to show how ascending order works. However, this time the base of the
triangle is on the bottom.

Less Important

MORE IMPORTANT

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Example
The same paragraph can be used to illustrate this method, but note that the writer
arranges his reasons for his choice in ascending order.

There were several reasons why I decided to attend Bingston University. First of all, the
tuition was reasonable. Second, the university had a deferred payment plan; this
represented a great convenience to my parents. Another reason was the fact that
Bingston hires only the finest of teachers to teach in its graduate program. My chief
reason, however, was Bingston’s mandatory work/study program in agriculture, my
chosen field: the university requires all agriculture students to gain practical experience
by working on local farms while they are still going to school; I knew that this would
provide invaluable experience and prepare me to better use the skills I had learned in
the classroom.

EXERCISE 15: Identifying Type of Paragraph Coherence

Directions: After studying the diagrams below, read each of the following paragraphs
carefully, and determine which order it illustrates (equal, ascending, or descending).
Then, indicate all enumerators and listing signals which the author has used to
structure the paragraph. Finally, construct a simple list which represents the structure
of the paragraph. The first has been done as an example.

Topic sentence

Topic sentence Topic sentence

(The writer feels all the items are EQUALLY IMPORTANT)

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Example
1. Of the ten largest cities in the United States in the late 1988s, three are located
in the state of Texas. Of these, Houston, which ranks fourth in the country, has
the biggest population with 1,705,697 residents. Next is Dallas, which has
975,243 people and is the seventh largest city in the U.S. The smallest Texas
City on the top-ten list is San Antonio, ranking tenth among U.S. cities and
having a population of 842,779.

Type of order used: descending order__________________________

Enumerator(s): city/population_______________________________
Listing signals: Next, the smallest (the superlative adjective often acts as a
listing signal)

Paragraph Structure (Simple List Form)

TEXAS CITIES WHICH FIGURE IN THE TOP-TEN LISTS
1. Houston______________________________________________________
2. Dallas________________________________________________________
3. San Antonio___________________________________________________
2. Astronomers use three basic types of telescopes to explore the vastness of
space. The refractor telescope uses two lenses-one to collect light from a distant
object and bring it into focus, and another in the eyepiece to magnify the image.
Second, there is the reflector telescope, which makes use of a concave mirror
instead of a lens to reflect light rays to the upper end of the telescope. Last, and
perhaps most important in terms of studying phenomena outside the earth’s

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 atmosphere, is the radio telescope, which gathers waves with a wire antenna
serving as a parabolic reflecting surface. The discovery of mysterious quasars
and pulsars was made possible by this kind of telescope.
Type or order used: ________________________________________
Enumerator(s):_____________________________________________
Listing signals: _____________________________________________
Paragraph Structure (Simple List Form)
3. Air travel, as determined by the number of passengers served in the United
States’ busiest airports, has been steadily increasing during the latter part of the
twentieth century. In 1977, 13.2 million passengers boarded, deplaned, or
transferred through Washington, D.C.’s National Airport, while in 1987 that figure
rose to over 14.3 million. Next in volume of passengers was San Francisco’s
international Airport, which served 20.2 million people in 1977 and 28.5 million in
1987, tallied an increase in air travelers from 44 million to well over 53 million.
Type of order used: ______________________________________________
Enumerator (s):_________________________________________________
Listing signals: __________________________________________________
Paragraph Structure (Simple List Form):
4. Because the earth turns on its axis at the same time, as it is moving around the
sun, there are two ways to determine the period of time which constitutes a day.
It is possible to define a day as the interval of time between the highest points of
the sun in the sky on two successive days. This determination, mean solar time,
produces the twenty-four hour day when it is averaged out over the year. It is
equally possible, however, to define a day as that period of time between the
points when the vernal equinox is directly overhead. This method of measuring is
called sidereal time and is almost four minutes shorter per day than solar mean
time.
Type of order used: __________________________________________
Enumerator(s): ______________________________________________
Listing signals: ______________________________________________

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 Paragraph Structure (Simple List Form):
5. Educational researchers have identified four distinctive learning styles which
students use when attempting to master new information and concepts. First,
some students prefer auditory learning. They learn best from lectures, tape
recordings, and class discussions. The second of these styles is tactile learning.
This is learning–by-doing approach, which involves such things as dissecting
animals to handle their internal organs rather than reading about them. Still
other students are best suited to experiential learning. Experiential learning
involves making use of all their senses such as a field trip to a forest when
studying botany is the best way for these learners to understand new material
fully. The last of these styles is visual learning. The student who favors this style
relies heavily on what can be seen—books and charts, for instance __ to acquire
knowledge. Of these four learning styles, none is considered best, but rather
they are descriptive of techniques individuals use to learn effectively.
Type of order used: _______________________________________________
Enumerator (s): __________________________________________________
Listing signals: ___________________________________________________

7.5.4. Comparison or Contrast

You may also support your topic sentences by arranging the supporting sentences
according to either the similarities or the differences between two things, or between
two aspects of one thing.
COMPARISON: pointing out likenesses/similarities
CONTRAST: pointing out differences
In this section, we will examine several of the ways in which comparative and
contrastive paragraphs can be organized. We will first take a look at comparison.
A. Comparison
In the model paragraph which follows, notice that only similarities, or parallels, between
the life and death of Kennedy and Lincoln are mentioned. There are obviously many
differences between these two men, but the purpose of the paragraph, as it is stated in

125
the topic sentence, is to show the likenesses or similarities between them. In a
paragraph of comparison, the differences are often mentioned only briefly or are even
omitted entirely.
Model paragraph
Are you aware of the striking similarities between two of the most popular U.S
presidents, Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy? A minor point is that the names
Lincoln and Kennedy both have seven letters. Both men had their elections legally
challenged. Lincoln and Kennedy are both remembered for their sense of humor as well
as for their interest in civil rights. Lincoln became president in 1860; Kennedy, in 1960.
6Lincoln’s secretary was Mrs. Kennedy; Kennedy’s secretary was Mrs. Lincoln. Neither
man took the advice of his secretary not to make a public appearance on the day on
which he was assassinated. Lincoln and Kennedy were both killed on a Friday in the
presence of their wives. Both assassins, John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey Oswald,
have fifteen letters in their names and both were murdered before they could be
brought to trial. Just as Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named
Johnson, so was Kennedy. Andrew Johnson (Lincoln’s successor) was born in 1808;
Lyndon Johnson (Kennedy’s successor) was born in 1908. And finally, the same caisson
carried the bodies of both men in their funeral processions.
Now Ask Yourself
1. Why are no differences mentioned in the paragraph?
2. What is the one key word in the topic sentence, which controls the development
of the paragraph?
3. What two words are repeated continually?
4. Do you find any examples of pronoun reference? Underline all pronouns and
draw arrows to the words they represent.
5. What enumerators and listing signals have been used?
EXERCISE 16: Guided paragraph writing
Comparative Information Transfer: use the information below to complete
the paragraph.

Humans and Chimpanzees (Bases of Comparison) 126

1. Biological Classification
Both are classified as primates
2. Skeleton
Although humans and chimpanzees do not seem very much alike at first glance, they
are both classified as primates and thus share a number of remarkably similar
characteristics. First of all, the skeletons of humans and chimpanzees are quite
___________; ____________ species possess five fingers on each hand, (include)
________a movable thumb which makes them capable of (grasp)________ objects.
Although chimpanzees (prefer, travel) ________on all fours, they (be able, walk)
__________ upright ________ humans. Female chimpanzees have fewer young
________ other mammals, and humans do, _______. The young of the ________
species are born after a gestation period of about __________ months and then stay
with their mothers for several years, a period which (permit, them learn) ________
what they need to know in order (survive) _________. But of all the________ between
the two species, perhaps the most notable is their intelligence. Just as humans enjoy

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(discover) ______ new things, ________ chimpanzees are quite curious about what
they (know, not) ______. Even more important here is the question of language ability.
Although the sounds which (make) _______ by chimpanzees (resemble, not, really)
_________ those made by humans, many experts (believe) ______that chimpanzees
(can, teach) ________ to communicate by means of signs, another variety of abstract
symbols. Moreover, chimps (seem, possess) _________ the _______to learn a rather
large vocabulary of signs and then to put these signs together in entirely new
combinations-and ability which closely (resemble) ________ what humans do with
words. In other words, humans can be creative in the way they communicate, and so
________ chimpanzees.
B. Contrast
Notice that in the following model paragraph, the author concentrates on the
differences between extreme extroversion and extreme introversion. He has not denied,
however, that most people are a combination of both of these; on the contrary, the
expression a scale suggests precisely such a combination.

Sample paragraph
According to the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, every person’s personality can be
placed somewhere on a scale running from extreme extroversion (an outgoing
personality) to extreme introversion (a withdrawn personality). The typical extrovert is
particularly fond of people and people-oriented activities: he or she is sociable, likes
parties, has many friends, needs to have people to talk to, and does not like reading or
studying alone. The typical introvert, on the other hand, is a quiet, retiring sort of
person, introspective, fond of books rather than people. Unlike the extrovert, who
craves excitement, takes chances, and is generally impulsive, the introvert shuns
excitement, takes matters of everyday life with proper seriousness, and likes a well-
ordered mode of life. Whereas the extrovert tends to aggressive and loses his or her
temper easily, the introvert tends to keep his or her feelings under close control,
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seldom behaves in an aggressive manner, and does not lose his or her temper easily.
The introvert is more reliable and less optimistic than the extrovert. The extrovert may
often be subject to criminal or psychopathic behavior, in contrast to the introvert, who
may exhibit neurotic tendencies. A further difference between the two involves the
ability to remember: studies have tended to show that the extrovert learns faster than
the introvert but, in the end, remembers less.
Answer the following questions.
1. Why are no similarities mentioned in the model paragraph?
2. What part of the topic sentence prepares the reader to expect a paragraph of
contrast development?
3. What tow words are repeated continually? Do you find any examples of
pronoun reference? Underline all pronouns and draw arrows to the words
they represent.
4. Are any listing signals and enumerators used?
EXERCISE 17: Analyzing a Paragraph of Contrast
Directions: Re-read the sample paragraph carefully. Then, in the following chart,
indicate which contrast words have been used for each area of contrast. Also, note
briefly the differences themselves.
CONTRASTIVE
BASES OF CONTRAST
SENTENCE STRUCTURES
Extrovert Introvert
(Sociability)
Fond of people: Prefers books to people, On the other hand
2,3 Sociable, likes Parties, is shy and retiring
etc.
(Risk-taking)
4

(Expression of feelings, aggression)

5

(Reliability, Optimism)
6

7 ( )

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 ( )
8

The following transitions are often used to show similarities and differences.
Comparison Contrast
 the same as  in contrast
 like  however
 alike  conversely
 similar to  at the other end of the
 as…....as spectrum
 resemble  but
 both…..and  while/whereas
 similarly,  on the other hand
 in the same way.  nevertheless
 in like manner.  all the same
 likewise.
 though/although/even though
 by the same token, etc.
 despite/in spite of, etc.
.

7.6. Paragraph Format

One of the distinctive characteristics of an effective paragraph is the format with which
it is written. Good readers primarily recognize whether a piece of writing is a paragraph
or essay by looking at its format. Generally, there are two formats or layouts to write a
paragraph or an essay: the indented style and the block style.

In the indented style, the writer leaves a recognizable margin from the left side of
the paper to show that it is a new paragraph. If you are typing your paragraph, you can
use the Tab Key to indent the first line of each paragraph of text 0.5 in. from the left
margin. If your paragraph is handwritten, you can use a ruler or your judgment to
indent it. If you are using this format for essay writing, make sure that each paragraph

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is indented to show how many paragraphs you essay has and identify the number of
supporting ideas you have used to develop the main idea of your essay.

Sample Indented Paragraph (Correct Layout)

Are you aware of the striking similarities between two of the most popular U.S
presidents, Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy? A minor point is that the names
Lincoln and Kennedy both have seven letters. Both men had their elections legally
challenged. Lincoln and Kennedy are both remembered for their sense of humor as well
as for their interest in civil rights. Lincoln became president in 1860; Kennedy, in 1960.
Lincoln’s secretary was Mrs. Kennedy; Kennedy’s secretary was Mrs. Lincoln. Neither
man took the advice of his secretary not to make a public appearance on the day on
which he was assassinated. Lincoln and Kennedy were both killed on a Friday in the
presence of their wives. Both assassins, John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey Oswald,
have fifteen letters in their names and both were murdered before they could be
brought to trial. Just as Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named
Johnson, so was Kennedy. Andrew Johnson (Lincoln’s successor) was born in 1808;
Lyndon Johnson (Kennedy’s successor) was born in 1908. And finally, the same caisson
carried the bodies of both men in their funeral processions.

Note that a single paragraph is indented only ONCE. Some writers wrongly indent a
single paragraph more than once. Very often, there is a tendency to separate the
concluding sentence from the rest of the paragraph.
Sample Indented Paragraph (Incorrect Layout)
Are you aware of the striking similarities between two of the most popular U.S
presidents, Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy? A minor point is that the names
Lincoln and Kennedy both have seven letters. Both men had their elections legally
challenged. Lincoln and Kennedy are both remembered for their sense of humor as well
as for their interest in civil rights. Lincoln became president in 1860; Kennedy, in 1960.
6Lincoln’s secretary was Mrs. Kennedy; Kennedy’s secretary was Mrs. Lincoln. Neither

131
man took the advice of his secretary not to make a public appearance on the day on
which he was assassinated.
Lincoln and Kennedy were both killed on a Friday in the presence of their wives.
Both assassins, John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey Oswald, have fifteen letters in their
names and both were murdered before they could be brought to trial. Just as Lincoln
was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named Johnson, so was Kennedy. Andrew
Johnson (Lincoln’s successor) was born in 1808; Lyndon Johnson (Kennedy’s successor)
was born in 1908. And finally, the same caisson carried the bodies of both men in their
funeral processions.

This paragraph looks like an essay; however, it does not meet the qualities of an essay.
Thus, you should not indent a single paragraph more than once.

In the block layout/format, all components or elements of a paragraph are

aligned to the left margin of the page. It has a neat and simple appearance. In using
this format for essay writing, based on the requirement, there should be a recognizable
space or a double space between the paragraphs in the essay.

Sample Block Paragraph (Correct Layout)

Are you aware of the striking similarities between two of the most popular U.S
presidents, Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy? A minor point is that the names
Lincoln and Kennedy both have seven letters. Both men had their elections legally
challenged. Lincoln and Kennedy are both remembered for their sense of humor as well
as for their interest in civil rights. Lincoln became president in 1860; Kennedy, in 1960.
Lincoln’s secretary was Mrs. Kennedy; Kennedy’s secretary was Mrs. Lincoln. Neither
man took the advice of his secretary not to make a public appearance on the day on
which he was assassinated. Lincoln and Kennedy were both killed on a Friday in the
presence of their wives. Both assassins, John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey Oswald,
have fifteen letters in their names and both were murdered before they could be
132
brought to trial. Just as Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named
Johnson, so was Kennedy. Andrew Johnson (Lincoln’s successor) was born in 1808;
Lyndon Johnson (Kennedy’s successor) was born in 1908. And finally, the same caisson
carried the bodies of both men in their funeral processions.

Note: Consistency is an important skill that you should develop in using

formats/layouts for your paragraph or essay. It is especially important if you are writing
an essay, which is made up of three or more paragraphs. Look at the following sample
essays and determine which one follows the correct layout.
Sample Essay 1

Enjoying Your Camping Trip

Each year, thousands of people throughout the United States choose to spend their vacations
camping in the great outdoors. Depending on an individual's sense of adventure, there are
various types of camping to choose from, including log cabin camping, recreational vehicle
camping, and tent camping. Of these, tent camping involves "roughing it" the most, and with
proper planning the experience can be gratifying. Even with the best planning, however, tent
camping can be an extremely frustrating experience due to uncontrolled factors such as bad
weather, wildlife encounters, and equipment failures.

Nothing can dampen the excited anticipation of camping more than a dark, rainy day.
Even the most adventurous campers can lose some of their enthusiasm on the drive to the
campsite if the skies are dreary and damp. After reaching their destination, campers must then
"set up camp" in the downpour. This includes keeping the inside of the tent dry and free from
mud, getting the sleeping bags situated dryly, and protecting food from the downpour. If the
sleeping bags happen to get wet, the cold also becomes a major factor. A sleeping bag usually
provides warmth on a camping trip; a wet sleeping bag provides none. Combining wind with
rain can cause frigid temperatures, causing any outside activities to be delayed. Even inside the
tent problems may arise due to heavy winds. More than a few campers have had their tents
blown down because of the wind, which once again begins the frustrating task of "setting up
camp" in the downpour. It is wise to check the weather forecast before embarking on camping

133
trips; however, Mother Nature is often unpredictable and there is no guarantee bad weather will
be eluded.

Another problem likely to be faced during a camping trip is run-ins with wildlife, which can
range from mildly annoying to dangerous. Minor inconveniences include mosquitoes and ants.
The swarming of mosquitoes can literally drive annoyed campers indoors. If an effective
repellant is not used, the camper can spend an interminable night scratching, which will only
worsen the itch. Ants do not usually attack campers, but keeping them out of the food can be
quite an inconvenience. Extreme care must be taken not to leave food out before or after
meals. If food is stored inside the tent, the tent must never be left open. In addition to
swarming the food, ants inside a tent can crawl into sleeping bags and clothing. Although these
insects cause minor discomfort, some wildlife encounters are potentially dangerous. There are
many poisonous snakes in the United States, such as the water moccasin and the diamond-back
rattlesnake. When hiking in the woods, the camper must be careful where he steps. Also, the
tent must never be left open. Snakes, searching for either shade from the sun or shelter from
the rain, can enter a tent. An encounter between an unwary camper and a surprised snake can
prove to be fatal. Run-ins can range from unpleasant to dangerous, but the camper must
realize that they are sometimes inevitable.

Perhaps the least serious camping troubles are equipment failures; these troubles often
plague families camping for the first time. They arrive at the campsite at night and haphazardly
set up their nine-person tent. They then settle down for a peaceful night's rest. Sometime
during the night the family is awakened by a huge crash. The tent has fallen down. Sleepily,
they awake and proceed to set up the tent in the rain. In the morning, everyone emerges from
the tent, except for two. Their sleeping bag zippers have gotten caught. Finally, after fifteen
minutes of struggling, they free themselves, only to realize another problem. Each family
member's sleeping bag has been touching the sides of the tent. A tent is only waterproof if the
sides are not touched. The sleeping bags and clothing are all drenched. Totally disillusioned
with the "vacation," the frustrated family packs up immediately and drives home. Equipment
failures may not seem very serious, but after campers encounter bad weather and annoying
pests or wild animals, these failures can end any remaining hope for a peaceful vacation.

134
These three types of camping troubles can strike campers almost anywhere. Until some brilliant
scientist invents a weather machine to control bad weather or a kind of wildlife repellant,
unlucky campers will continue to shake their fists in frustration. More than likely, equipment will
continue to malfunction. Even so, camping continues to be a favorite pastime of people all
across the United States. If you want camping to be a happy experience for you, learn to laugh
at leaky tents, bad weather, and bugs, or you will find yourself frustrated and unhappy.

Sample essay 2

Enjoying Your Camping Trip

Each year, thousands of people throughout the United States choose to spend their
vacations camping in the great outdoors. Depending on an individual's sense of adventure,
there are various types of camping to choose from, including log cabin camping,
recreational vehicle camping, and tent camping. Of these, tent camping involves "roughing
it" the most, and with proper planning the experience can be gratifying. Even with the best
planning, however, tent camping can be an extremely frustrating experience due to
uncontrolled factors such as bad weather, wildlife encounters, and equipment failures.

Nothing can dampen the excited anticipation of camping more than a dark, rainy day. Even
the most adventurous campers can lose some of their enthusiasm on the drive to the
campsite if the skies are dreary and damp. After reaching their destination, campers must
then "set up camp" in the downpour. This includes keeping the inside of the tent dry and
free from mud, getting the sleeping bags situated dryly, and protecting food from the
downpour. If the sleeping bags happen to get wet, the cold also becomes a major factor. A
sleeping bag usually provides warmth on a camping trip; a wet sleeping bag provides none.
Combining wind with rain can cause frigid temperatures, causing any outside activities to
be delayed. Even inside the tent problems may arise due to heavy winds. More than a few
campers have had their tents blown down because of the wind, which once again begins
the frustrating task of "setting up camp" in the downpour. It is wise to check the weather

135
forecast before embarking on camping trips; however, Mother Nature is often unpredictable
and there is no guarantee bad weather will be eluded.

Another problem likely to be faced during a camping trip is run-ins with wildlife, which can
range from mildly annoying to dangerous. Minor inconveniences include mosquitoes and
ants. The swarming of mosquitoes can literally drive annoyed campers indoors. If an
effective repellant is not used, the camper can spend an interminable night scratching,
which will only worsen the itch. Ants do not usually attack campers, but keeping them out
of the food can be quite an inconvenience. Extreme care must be taken not to leave food
out before or after meals. If food is stored inside the tent, the tent must never be left open.
In addition to swarming the food, ants inside a tent can crawl into sleeping bags and
clothing. Although these insects cause minor discomfort, some wildlife encounters are
potentially dangerous. There are many poisonous snakes in the United States, such as the
water moccasin and the diamond-back rattlesnake. When hiking in the woods, the camper
must be careful where he steps. Also, the tent must never be left open. Snakes, searching
for either shade from the sun or shelter from the rain, can enter a tent. An encounter
between an unwary camper and a surprised snake can prove to be fatal. Run-ins can range
from unpleasant to dangerous, but the camper must realize that they are sometimes
inevitable.

Perhaps the least serious camping troubles are equipment failures; these troubles often
plague families camping for the first time. They arrive at the campsite at night and
haphazardly set up their nine-person tent. They then settle down for a peaceful night's rest.
Sometime during the night the family is awakened by a huge crash. The tent has fallen
down. Sleepily, they awake and proceed to set up the tent in the rain. In the morning,
everyone emerges from the tent, except for two. Their sleeping bag zippers have gotten
caught. Finally, after fifteen minutes of struggling, they free themselves, only to realize
another problem. Each family member's sleeping bag has been touching the sides of the
tent. A tent is only waterproof if the sides are not touched. The sleeping bags and clothing
are all drenched. Totally disillusioned with the "vacation," the frustrated family packs up
immediately and drives home. Equipment failures may not seem very serious, but after

136
campers encounter bad weather and annoying pests or wild animals, these failures can end
any remaining hope for a peaceful vacation.

These three types of camping troubles can strike campers almost anywhere. Until some
brilliant scientist invents a weather machine to control bad weather or a kind of wildlife
repellant, unlucky campers will continue to shake their fists in frustration. More than likely,
equipment will continue to malfunction. Even so, camping continues to be a favorite
pastime of people all across the United States. If you want camping to be a happy
experience for you, learn to laugh at leaky tents, bad weather, and bugs, or you will find
yourself frustrated and unhappy.

The answer to the above question is Sample Essay 2 because the block style is used
CONSISTENTLY. In Sample Essay 1, the indented and block styles are mixed, so
there is INCONSISTENCY in adhering to a given layout.
7.7. Paragraph Length
Various educators teach rules governing the length of paragraphs. They may say that a
paragraph should be 100 to 200 words long, or be no more than five or six sentences.
But a good paragraph should not be measured in characters, words, or sentences. The
true measure of your paragraphs should be ideas/development. This shows that there is
no universally agreed upon number of words or sentences that a typical paragraph
should contain, contrary to the above limit, other people say a typical paragraph is
made up of 7 to 10 sentences or 100-150 words. Beginners will find it difficult to
develop their main ideas thoroughly using 7-10 sentences although the range 100-200
words sounds reasonable since it is not too big or two small in academic writing.

The true aim of paragraph writing is that your ideas must be well supported to be
explanatory, descriptive, narrative, persuasive or overall effective . The most important
thing to note is that your paragraph should not be too long or too short. For instance, if
you write a paragraph of 300 words, but you are still unable to develop your main idea
thoroughly, you have not succeeded both in terms of the number of words and

137
development, which is one of the most important characteristics of an effective
paragraph.

Sometimes common sense plays an important role in judging whether a paragraph is of

reasonable length or unnecessarily longer. Look at the following paragraphs and
decide which one you think is reasonable and which one unnecessarily
longer.

Sample Paragraph 1
Recent research has provided a wealth of insight about how dogs came to be
domesticated by humans and the roles they played in Native American culture. DNA
studies on archaeological finds suggest that dogs may have been domesticated by
humans as long as 40,000 years ago. When the first humans came to North America
from Eurasia, at least 12,000 years ago, domesticated dogs came with them. They
appear to have been highly prized by early North American hunter-gatherers and were
their only animal companions for centuries, since there were no horses on the continent
until the 16th century.

Sample Paragraph 2
There are many benefits of regular exercise. The first of these benefits, the release of
tension, is immediate. Tension builds in the body because of an over accumulation of
adrenaline produced by stress, anxiety, or fear. Doctors agree that performing
calisthenics or participating in an active sport such as tennis or volleyball for 30 minutes
releases tension. If a person swims, jogs, or rides a bicycle for half that time, he or she
should sleep better at night and have a better temperament the next day. In addition,
after the release of tension, petty irritations and frustrations should be less troubling.
For example, an employee upset by the day’s work and by traffic congestion may rush
home, argue with the family, and eat excessively. Taking about 30 minutes to release
frustration through physical exercise could help the person to avoid this behavior.
138
Planned physical exercise, therefore, can eliminate, or at least control, tension. An
improved appearance is the second benefit of regular exercise. Exercise takes perhaps
a month or longer to show its results in a trimmer, firmer figure. Improvement,
however, will come. A person who is 10 pounds overweight, for instance, may be able
during this time to burn away most excess fat and to tighten muscles, thereby
reshaping the physique. Having improved muscle tone and even posture, he or she will
wear clothes more attractively and comfortably. Combined with a sensible diet, an
exercise program will also improve a person’s skin tone. This improved appearance will
provide confidence and favorably impress others. In addition to the self-confidence
generated by an improved appearance, increased physical strength produces stamina. A
stronger, healthier body is obviously more capable of working harder and, in fact, of
withstanding normal fatigue than a tense, weak one. A worker who exercises should be
able to complete a 40-hour week and still have enough energy for mowing the grass,
painting the garage, or cleaning window. Similarly, the student who goes to school,
keeps house and perhaps works part time should accomplish tasks efficiently. Equally
important, this stamina helps to ward off illnesses such as colds and influenza.
Altogether, improved endurance is one of the most important benefits of a regular
exercise program…

The answer to the question is that the first sample paragraph has reasonable length,
while the second one is very long. With some revisions, the second one can be written
as a well-organized essay.

139
Chapter 8: Types of Paragraph
The most commonly talked about types of paragraph are four: description,
exposition/explanation, narration and persuasion. Before you start writing any
paragraph, do not forget to go through the various steps in the process of writing that
we have already discussed: pre-writing, writing the rough draft and revising .
Below is a simplified way of writing your paragraphs:
 Select a topic
 Write a general statement(topic sentence) about the topic
 Jot down possible details that answer questions about the topic sentence
 Develop the details into supporting sentences

140
  Read the whole paragraph to yourself sentence by sentence, and make whatever
changes you feel will improve your writing.
8.1. Narrative Paragraph
Narration involves the reporting of a series of happenings in the form of actions,
incidents or episodes with a clear beginning, middle and ending. In other words, it is a
story that may be based on fact, on imagination, or a combination of both. An
organized narrative paragraph has
a) Motivation (where a character and a situation or a combination of all these is
introduced)
b) The action taken to solve the conflict
c) The conclusion
Good narratives, like any types of paragraph, have a clear beginning, middle and
ending. The details in narrative paragraphs are arranged in chronological order to
show the time order in which they took place.
Example
My fourteenth summer was the worst one of my life. It began with a family vacation to
a park in the south. My cousin Mesa is not afraid of anything. While the rest of us hiked
the wooden trails, he explored the cliffs and ravines above the river. As I watched, he
scrambled down a steep cliffs. When he reached the bottom, he yell led at me to follow.
I said no, but he kept calling me chicken. So I started down. I slipped and slid on
leaves, and soon I was crashing downhill, out of control. Suddenly, I tripped over a tree
root and fell. That is how I got to spend a month in traction in the hospital and the rest
of the summer in a body cast. What a lousy summer vacation.

The transitions (logical connectors) above-suddenly, soon, when, and so on-all show
a time order or a chronological order of arranging details. Additional linking devices//
transitions that are used in chronological order include.
 immediately
 next

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  afterwards
 when
 before
 throughout the day
 after a while
 on Monday
 during
 firstly
 by evening
 finally
 meanwhile
 in December
 secondly
 until
 last night
 early
 at last
 as soon as
 after, etc.

As narrative writing is about the past, you should make good use of the various
narrative tenses: simple past, past continuous, and past perfect.
EXERCISE 1: Guided Paragraph Writing (Chronological Information Transfer)
Directions: Study the following timeline. Fill in all the blanks. Some blanks will require
only one word; others will require more than one. Pay special attention to verbs in
parentheses ( )–they must be put in the proper form. Before you begin, familiarize
yourself with the meaning of the following terms:
 to culminate
 cum laude
 the Army term
 the Navy

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  the Marine Corps
 an overwhelming majority
 an incumbent
1940: Graduated cum laude from Harvard; published Why England Slept

1945: Awarded Navy and U.S. Marine Corps

(1940)
Medal for heroism in combat
1946: Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts by
an overwhelming majority (two-year term)

1948-51: Served second and third terms as a member of Congress;

won second and third elections by an even greater majority than
(1950)
the first

1952: Defeated incumbent Henry Cabot lodge for a seat in the U.S. Senate

John F. Kennedy’s early career (1. give) him a clear indication of his later political
success, which would culminate in his eventual election to the presidency of the United
States. As an undergraduate at Harvard University, he (2. achieve) _______
considerable academic distinction and (3.graduate) _________ cum laude from (4)
______, the same year that his first book, Why England Slept, (5. publish) _______.
Soon after that, he joined the military and (6. become) ______well known for his
bravery: In (7.)________, ______. A year later, he (8. add) ________politics to his
already impressive list of achievements when he (9. elect) _____ to Congress by an
overwhelming majority or the people of (10) ________, his home State. His popularity
(11. continue, grow)_______, and by the time he was thirty-three, he (12.
won)________a total of three elections to Congress, the last two by an even greater
majority than the first. His tenure in the House of Representatives (13. follow, soon)
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______ by the start of an equally impressive career in the Senate, when he (14. defeat)
_________ incumbent Henry Cabot Lodge in (15) _______ for the position of Senator
from Massachusetts. The final triumph (16. occur) when he narrowly (17. defeat)
_______ Richard Nixon, (18. become) ________the first Roman Catholic president of
the United States.
EXERCISE 2: Paragraph Writing
1. Use the notes below to write a narrative paragraph on “My Scary Dream”. Expand
the notes into a full paragraph. Make sure that your paragraph has a topic
sentence, a group of well-developed supporting sentences and a concluding
sentence. Use appropriate past verb forms.
 I am my friends going to a theater by bus
 A car came directly to the bus
 We all covered our eyes
 The bus and the car collided
 Three people died
 None of us were dead
 Two of my friends were injured
 They were taken to the hospital
 After treatment we all came home
 We then decided not to go together
2. Write narrative paragraphs on the following topics:
A. Your unforgettable dream
B. An accident that happened to you
C. The happiest day in your Life
8.2. Descriptive Paragraph
Description is an attempt to create a good mental picture using words of an object or
subjective phenomenon such as a person, a scene, a sensation or an emotion.
Description uses words that appeal to the five senses.
A. Describing a person

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In describing a person, the writer’s purpose is to capture the essence of a person by
going beyond physical characteristics. The writer of the following description, for
example, has selected words and details that reveal much about the inner reality of the
woman being described.

She was a big, awkward woman, with big bones and hard, rubbery flesh. Her short
arms ended in ham hands, and her neck was a squat roll off fat that protruded behind
her head as a big bump. Her skin was rough and puffy, with plump, mole-like freckles
down her cheeks. Her eyes glowered from under the mountain off her brow and were
circled with expensive naive shadow. They were nervous and quick when she was
flustered and darted about at nothing in particular while she was dressing hair or
talking to people.

With phrases such as “rubbery flesh,” “ham hands” and “squat roll,” the writer creates
an overall impression of ugliness. She notes the woman’s “expensive naïve shadow,”
which hints at vanity. She uses words such as glowered, nervous, quick, and darted to
imply suspicion and insecurity. The writer makes the woman come alive for the reader.
She paints a picture of an interesting, complex human being. Below is a list of words
that can be used to describe the physical appearance, and the inner, or emotional
qualities of a person. (Please refer to the previous chapter for more words).

Words and phrases used to describe people

Face: shape: thin, long, round, oval, heart-shaped, oblong, triangular, baby face,
haggard, folded…

Color: pale, chocolate, yellow, brown, black, white, fair skin, sun burned, grayish…

Height: tall, short, dwarf, medium-height, tallish, shortish, below-average…

Weight: fat, thin, over-weight, under-weight, slim, tiny-biny, well-built…

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Age: young, old, teenager, aged, early 20’s, adult, middle-aged, elderly…

Nose: long, short, flat, straight, pointed, crooked, hooked, thin high bridged, flaring
nostrils, fairly small rounded, up-turned, protruding, pointed wide…

Eyes: shape: slanted upward/downward, slit, big, round, large, small,…

Color: blue, dark, dark-brown, green, grey, bright, eagle eyes…

Type: lively, cold and cruel looking eyes, attractive, bright, generous, blood
shot, sparkle, warm, honest-looking, twinkle, sunk…

Eye brown: bushy, finely plucked, finely arching…

Eye lashes: long, slightly curve…

Facial features: beauty, ta-too marked, dimpled…

Lips: shape: thin, lower lip/upper lip, thick, dry round…

Color: brownish, purple, black, red…

Chin: pointed chin, round chin, double chin, cleft in the chin, long chin,

Jaw: square jaw

Forehead: high, low, flat…

Hair: Nature: curly, kinky, smooth, wavy, short, brown, afro, freeze, thinning, dead,
Blond hair…

Color: shiny, golden, brown, gray, fairly dark, multi-color, dark shiny,
black/dark, brunette…

Style: ponytail, plaits, skinhead, afro, conventional hair style, receding-ginger,

curl, frizz, bunches, braided…

Ear: small, big, large, sticking out, almost lob less, long lobed…

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Mouth: wide, Cupid’s bow mouth…

Teeth: nature: toothless, two front teeth are missing, dentures

Color: white, brown, yellow…

Mustache: goat style, 0’s style…

Tummy: pot belly

Chest: expanding, browed, narrowed…

Shoulder: broad, narrow…

Neck: long, thick, skim and tall…

Leg: bracket legs, crippled leg, elephantiasis leg…

Dress: neat, fashionable, suit, old-fashioned…

Overall: pretty, handsome, beautiful, gorgeous, lanky, compact, squat, large framed,
Frail, plump…

Cloth: skirt, mini-skirt, jacket, trousers, raincoat, shorts, pajamas…

Hobby: watching TV, reading books, going to gym, drinking, playing swimming …

Behavior: reserved, cultured, aloof, stable, reliable, agreeable, generous, sociable,

talkative, selfish, quick-tempered, frank, shy, boastful, stupid, obedient, stubborn,
trustworthy, greedy, cooperative, helpful, kind, humble, disruptive, restless, far-
sighted, all rounded, lonely, offensive, innocent, honest, lovely, shameless,
friendly, self-centered, fairly naïve, childish, jovial, temper, alert, very striking,
shabby, snobbish, rude, polished-looking, untidy-looking, cruel-looking, rough-
looking, accommodative, jealous, etc.

EXERCISE 3: Paragraph Writing

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Think of someone you know very well and describe him/her. Include both his/her
physical appearance and behavior. Use your own words and some of those listed above
and elsewhere in this course book. Fill this table and use the information to write the
descriptive paragraph. As usual, make sure that your paragraph has a clear structure
(topic/title, topic sentence, supporting sentences and a concluding sentence) and meets
all the other requirements.
Height
Physique(heavy; thin; muscular)
Face: shape
Eyes: shape, color, etc.
Nose: shape, size, etc.
General look (pretty; good looking; awkward,
etc.)
Hair style
Dressing style
Behavior

Depending on the descriptive words you have filled in the table, choose one
of the following topic sentences:
 My________has an attractive look and a commendable personality.
 There is nothing special about the look and character of my________.

B. Appealing to Senses

Descriptive paragraphs can appeal to any of the five senses either individually or in
combination. Below is a list of words or expressions that appeal to the senses. Use
them to describe the items under them.
Hearing Touch words Taste Smell
Crash cool oily sweet
Bump cold buttery fragrant

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Boom icy salty aromatic
Smash warm bitter perfumed
Bang steamy bitter sweet flowery
Explode sticky sweet odorous
Roar wet sugary pungent
Shout slippery ripe fishy
Scream oily sour spicy
Yell waxy tasteless acidic
Whistle fleshy sour gaseous
Bark rubbery vinegary rotten
Clap elastic fruity spoiled
Noisy feathery spicy stench
Deafening silky peppery stale, etc.
Earsplitting sandy gingery
Shatter rough hot
EXERCISE 4: Describing a Sensation
1. Write sentences to describe each of the following sensations.
Examples
a. A lemon tastes sour.
b. A crowded bus is suffocated.
3.
1. Burger
2. ’Mitmita’
3. A landing jet
4. A stale garbage can
5. Air freshener

2. Write a descriptive paragraph in which you combine the various senses (for
example, if you go to a cafeteria, you will smell food, hear noises, see people
eating, drinking, and talking and so on..) So think of a similar situation in which

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 almost all the senses can be combined, and write a paragraph of not more than
150 words.
8.3. Explanatory/Expository paragraph
Most of the writing you do in academic stetting is expository. That is why, you are often
required to define concepts, explain processes, or reason out to substantiate your view
point. Exposition is a type of writing which explains an idea, object or phenomenon. Its
purpose is to explain, to give directions, or to inform. The explanation is usually done
by using a combination of all or some of the following methods of developing ideas:
cause and effect, classification, illustration, definition and comparison and contrast.
Sometime, people find difficult the distinction between description and exposition. In
description, our main purpose is to create a mental image through words. In exposition,
however, our purpose is to provide factual information. Therefore, expository writing is
informative. Descriptive writing tries to evoke impression. It therefore aims at appealing
to the emotional side of human beings while exposition appeals to the intellectual side.

As far as the expository/explanatory composition is concerned, you may ask yourself:

 What special knowledge or interests do I have that I could explain to others?
 What opinions do I have about school or home life or about people’s lives in
general?
 What concepts do I define to make them understandable to my audience?
 What steps do I have to use to explain how something works or how something
is done or made?
 What reasons do I have to use to explain why something is or why something
works the way it does?
An attempt to answer any of the questions above will lead you to the generation of
ideas or topics for expository composition. There are many types of explanatory
paragraph. Here are a few of them:
8.3.1. Process paragraphs
8.3.2. Definition paragraphs
8.3.3. Paragraphs that reason out
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 8.3.4. Comparison and contrast paragraphs
8.3.5. Paragraphs that classify

8.3.1. Process Paragraphs

This type of explanatory paragraph is used to tell how something is done or how
something works. Look at the example below:

Even if you do not know how to cook, you will never starve to death if you know how to
prepare scrambled eggs. You begin by melting one tablespoon of butter in a frying pan
over low heat. While the butter is melting, break three eggs into a bowl. Add 1
teaspoon of salt, 1 teaspoon of paprika, and 3 tablespoons of milk to the eggs in the
bowl and mix them for about a minute. Pour the mixture into the frying pan. As the
eggs begin to thicken in the pan, break them into shreds with a fork, or stir them with a
spoon until they become solid. When they are cooked, serve them with lightly buttered
toast.

A paragraph that explains a process, or that gives directions uses a chronological order
to present details. In the above paragraph, the underlined expressions signal
chronological order. If we want to give a more visual representation of process
development, our diagram might look something like this:

Process: Topic sentence

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3
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Step 4
EXERCISE 5: Understanding Process Paragraphs
Read this process paragraph and answer the questions after it.

In his will, Alfred Nobel left specific instructions as to how the winners of the science
awards he endowed are to be selected. First, each year the Swedish Academy of
Sciences (physics and chemistry) and the Caroline Medical Institute (physiology and
medicine) solicit nearly 2,000 recommendations from past laureates, university
professors, and other experts from all over the world. The second step is the review of
recommendations received and the selections of preliminary candidates by special
committees within the two Swedish institutions. The committee members are
specifically instructed that those chosen “shall have conferred the greatest benefit on
mankind,” and that on consideration be given to the candidates’ nationalities. Next,
after lengthy investigation and discussion, the final choices of their awards are sent to
the new Noble laureates about one month prior to the award ceremony.

1. What are the key words in the topic sentences? (Is there anything in the
topic sentence which suggests that the paragraph will be explaining a
process?)
2. Can you find any enumerative listing signals?
3. Have any enumerators been used (that is, words like steps or stages)?
4. Show the organization of the paragraph above by filling in the list that
follows: You do not have to write complete sentences.
How Nobel Science Laureates ____________________________________
A. Two Thousand Requests for ______________________________

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 B. _____________________________________________________

a. ________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
C. The Final Selection

a. ________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________
D. ______________________________________________________

EXERCISE 6: Unscrambling a Process Paragraph

A. Directions: The following two groups of sentences constitute paragraphs on
the processes known as The Scientific Method and Culture Shock. However, the
sentences have been given a disordered sequence; that is, they have been
scrambled. Place them in their correct order.
The Scientific Method
1. Following this method, the researcher first observes some aspens of nature and
then poses a specific question about what has been observed.
2. Experiments based on this hypothesis are designed and conducted to test each
contingency.
3. In order to answer this question, pertinent data are collected,
4. After through experimentation, the researcher validates, modifies, or rejects the
original hypothesis,
5. Originating from the branch of philosophy called epistemology, what we now
knows the scientific method provides guidelines for the systematic acquisition of
knowledge.
6. On the basis of these data, a hypothesis is proposed to explain them.
Culture Shock
1. The visitor has usually learned the language and is thus able to laugh at himself
or herself.

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 2. Having passed through these stages of culture shock, the visitor may even
eventually return home with regret t having lost his or her adopted home.
3. The process of reacting and adjusting to a new society, sometimes-termed
culture shock, has four distinct stages.
4. A hostile attitude is typical of the second stage, which develops at the point
5. When the individual has to cope seriously with the day-to-day problems of
housing, shopping, transportation, and so forth.
6. Final adjustment to a new culture occurs when the visitor is able to function
without anxiety and to accept what he or she finds for what it is-another way of
doing things.
7. During these initial encounters, every aspect of the new society seems
fascinating.
8. The first period, or honeymoon stage, may last as long as several months.
9. The visitor develops a sense of humor about his or her problems on entering the
third stage.
10. The visitor usually begins his or her sty in hotel and meets sympathetic and
gracious nationals.
11. The visitor soon finds that most people in the new society are indifferent to these
problems, and so seeks out fellow countrymen to support him or her in criticism
of the host country.

B. Use the following topics to write process paragraphs.

1. How to Make Friends
2. How to Prepare for Examinations

8.3.2. Definition Paragraphs

Clear definitions help a person to understand new words, things and ideas. A paragraph
of definition begins by offering a one sentence definition of the word being defined.
This definition first putts the words in general class (in which others can also be
included). Then it states the principal feature through which this word can be identified

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from other words belonging to this same group. The remaining sentences (developers)
build on the main idea in the second part of the definition. Look at how the topic
sentence/basic definition is developed into a well-organized paragraph.

Corruption is the practice of getting things done through illegal means.

Although there are several ways in which this could be done, studies carried out here
and there reveal that people tend to involve themselves in bribe i.e. they give money to
others to get things done. In addition, the tendency to favor one’s relative or friend to
get benefits such as job opportunities is an integral part of corrupt practices widespread
in most developing nations. Mention must also be made off sexual offsets or requests
made to have sexual intercourse by people to satisfy their personal benefits off winning
something. In conclusion, it must be stressed that although the meaning of
corruption may go far and beyond these connotations, it actually involves
satisfying one’s needs through ways and means otherwise regarded as
unacceptable.

EXERCISE 7: Writing Definitions

Write similar definitions for these words:
1. University
2. Mother
3. Computer
4. Teacher
5. House

8.3.3. Paragraphs that Reason Out

Whenever you try to explain why something is, or why something should be, you are
composing an explanatory paragraph that gives reasons or reasons out without being
persuasive. You say that something happens because something else occurred first, or
that an action or idea is right because certain facts or reasons logically support it. The
following paragraph explains why the young are induced to doing drugs.

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Here are many factors that encourage the young to do drugs. Too often, drugs
are provided to them cheaply and// or freely. This is usually done by their intimate
friends who may have the financial capability to do so. These young people are told to
have a go for the drugs as fun. Once they start that, they find it difficult to do things
without them. Second, the lack of parental love and affection may force young people
to seek alternative ways off easing their tension or pressure. They therefore resort to
doing things they consider an escape from the current problem they are facing. Part
and parcel off this mechanism could be using drugs. Also, the lack ff recreational places
and facilities may somehow encourage them to look for easily accessible alternatives
such as drugs. Conversely, some recreational facilities are places where drugs are
rampantly used. As the young are keen to trying new things, they may end up victims
off drug abuse. Awareness raising lessons and open discussions should be used
to deal with this issue.

EXERCISE 8: Paragraph Writing

Develop the following topic sentences into paragraphs that reason out.
1. There are four major reasons why people get married.
2. I have three major reasons why I have chosen to study (supply your field of
study

8.3.4. Comparison and Contrast Paragraphs

In comparison, we focus on the similarities between things compared. In contrast, we
focus on the differences between things contrasted.
EXERCISE 9: Paragraph Writing
1. Write a paragraph describing the similarities between the physical appearance
and behavior of two people you know very well. Use the following table to
generate ideas for comparison.
Point of comparison X Y

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 2. Use the information in the following chart to contrast two types of sleep.
Supply the topic sentence and concluding sentence.

TOPIC SENTENCE

Brain waves-shower, less regular

Blood supply
Temperature
ORTHODOX SLEEP Breathing, heart rate
Muscle tension
Body and face movements
Rapid eye movements
Brain waves
Blood supply
Temperature
PARADOXICAL SLEEP Breathing
Muscle tension
Body and face movements
Rapid eye movement

CONCLUSION

3. Write a paragraph contrasting a radio and a television.

 First, draw two columns in which you list the features of each of the items.
 Decide on the number of points you are going to use for the contrast
 Write a topic sentence (Example: There are three basic differences
between…)
 Use the points you have listed to contrast the two items(start with the most
important difference and go to the east important one)

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  Draw your own conclusion
8.3.5. Paragraphs of Classification (Enumeration)
In this type of paragraph development, a writer starts with a general class, and then
proceeds to break it down by listing some or all of its members or parts. If we wanted
to show a diagram of the enumerative process, our diagram might look something like
this:
GENERAL CLASS

Member or Member or Member or Member or Member or

part part part part part

Model Paragraph
There are three basic kinds of materials that can be found in any good library. First,
there are books on all subjects, both in English and in many other languages. These
books are organized according to subject, title, and author in a central file called the
card catalog. Books can generally be checked out of the library and taken home for a
period of two to four weeks. Second, there are references, which include encyclopedias,
dictionaries, bibliographies, atlases, and so forth, and which generally must be used in
the library itself. Third, there are periodicals, magazines, newspapers, pamphlets__
which are filed alphabetically in racks, or which have been microfilmed to conserve
space. Like reference words, periodicals usually cannot be removed from the library.

Now ask yourself:

1. What are the key words in the topic sentence of the model paragraph?
2. What types of supportive information does the author use (examples, details,
anecdotes, facts and statistics)
3. How many kinds or types of library materials are discussed?

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 EXERCISE 10: Paragraph Writing
Write two different paragraphs of classification using these topics. Make sure that
you supply definitions where a word or words need to be defined in the paragraphs.
1. Types of Love
2. Types of Students
8.4. Persuasive Paragraph
It so happens that you will be required to reason out in order to convince your friends,
colleagues, etc. of a certain viewpoint. You, therefore, need to develop the skills of
arguing for or against a certain viewpoint. This section will provide you with a variety
of exercises geared to achieving that end. Essentially, a persuasive paragraph attempts
to use facts, statistics, and examples and so on to convince readers of a certain point of
view. These should be arranged logically, for example, from least two most
important or most to least important, so that the reader is able to see how ideas
are smoothly related. Very often, writers of this type of paragraph use should or
ought to in their topic sentence to show their stand/position about a topic they
would like to argue for or against.

Structure of a Persuasive Paragraph

Structure I
 Topic sentence (opinion)
 Supporting sentences (Facts and Examples)
 Concluding sentence (Final Appeal)
Example
Despite the general shortage of government money, the benefits of the space shuttle
are so great that the program should be expanded. First, each shuttlecraft can be
reused many times to carry satellites into and out of orbit. These satellites can perform
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a wide range of services that help people on Earth. They can predict weather on land
and sea and forecast crop production around the globe. They can also relay power and
communication beams. Second, the shuttle can carry materials for important
construction projects in space, such as a space station. Most important, the shuttle
allows science and industry a convenient laboratory for testing new ideas in technology
and medicine. Although the development costs are high, money on the space shuttle is
well spent.
EXERCISE 11: Paragraph Writing
Write persuasive paragraphs (using Structure I) on these limited topics:
1. Legalizing Abortion
2. Wearing Mini Skirts in Schools
Structure II
 State the opposing point of view.
 State evidence to support it.
 State your own point of view.
 State evidence to support it.
 Draw conclusions.

Example
The paragraph in Structure I can be presented as follows using Structure II.

Some people argue that the benefits of the space shuttle are so great that the program
should be expanded. Firstly, they say that each shuttlecraft can be reused many times
to carry satellites into and out of orbit. These satellites can also perform a wide range
of services that help people on Earth. They can predict weather on land and sea and
forecast crop production around the globe. However, any own view is that the money
used for that purpose should rather be spent on life-saving activities. For example,
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many people are dying of starvation, and mal-nutrition. Also, AIDS, AIDS is haunting
the lives of people in thousands, even in millions. Needless to say, millions are still
dying of malaria, TB and other contagious diseases. Therefore, is it really human to
spend much money on something too remote from us where there are more urgent
things to take care of?

This structure helps you to present the different sides of an argument. By so doing, you
can properly refute what other people say about the topic of discussion. In using this
structure, you should give more emphasis to your own point of view. Otherwise, if you
focus more on what other people say, you will end up saying nothing or little as far as
your view point is concerned.
EXERCISE 12: Paragraph Writing
Write persuasive paragraphs (Using Structure II) on the following topics:
1. The Cost of Wedding Ceremonies in Addis Ababa
2. Who Should Rule a Country?

Chapter 9: Essay writing

An essay is a group of three or more paragraphs dealing with one main idea. Like a
single paragraph, an essay raises and discusses only one main idea. This is called the
principle of unity. A five-paragraph essay is often considered a standard essay. It has
one introductory paragraph, three body paragraphs (to discuss three supporting ideas)
and one concluding paragraph. The sample essays in this chapter and the essays you
have to write as exercises are, therefore, based on the five-paragraph essay.

9.1. Essay Structure and Outlining an Essay

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Structurally, an essay has INTRODUCTION, BODY and CONCLUSION. The first step
to writing an effective essay is to prepare a detailed outline following the structural
elements: introduction, body and conclusion. Look at the following format for an
outline of an essay.

Title: ____________________________

I. Introduction

A. Hook:_______________________________________

B. Connecting Information

a. _____________________
b. _____________________
c. _____________________
d. _____________________
e. _____________________

C. Thesis statement: _______________________________

II. Body

Body paragraph 1

Topic sentence: _____________________________

Supporting sentences

A. ______________________________________
B. ______________________________________
C. ______________________________________
D. ______________________________________
Body Paragraph 2

Topic sentence: ________________________________

Supporting sentences

A. ______________________________________

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 B. ______________________________________
C. ______________________________________
D. ______________________________________
Body Paragraph 3
Topic sentence: ________________________________

Supporting sentences

A. ______________________________________
B. ______________________________________
C. ______________________________________
D. ______________________________________
III. Conclusion

A. Re-statement of main idea: ___________________________

B. Drawing conclusions or showing implications: __________

C. Recommendations: __________________________________

NOTE: INTRODUCTION has three elements or functions.

1. The HOOK is the first sentence of an essay written to catch the reader’s
attention. You use it to make sure that your audiences keep on reading
your essay. It has to make them ask questions such as Why? How? What?
Wow! and so on. Make sure that this sentence is not the same as the main
idea of the essay. There are many techniques to write a good hook.

 Writer’s observation(the example below begins with this

technique)

 Question

 Statistics

 Proverbs or popular quotations

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 2. CONNECTING INFORMATION is used to link the topic and the reader.
This part is often used to give factual or background information about the
topic, definition of terms if there are important words to be used throughout
the essay or example relating to the topic. Make sure that this section does
not state the main idea of the essay. In the example below, the writer uses
factual or background information about Addis Ababa before discussing the
major challenges of living in it.

3. THESIS STATEMENT: This is the last sentence of the introduction which

states the MAIN IDEA OF THE WHOLE ESSAY. It is like the topic sentence
of a single paragraph in terms of function, but it differs from the topic
sentence because it is a general sentence which can used to write many
other topic sentences. In the example below, the writer mentions three
challenges of living in Addis Ababa: housing, transportation and the lack of
good governance. Then, each challenge is used to write a topic sentence for
the three body paragraphs given in the essay. Therefore, in the context of
an essay, the topic sentence is the sub-set of the thesis statement.

NOTE: BODY: This contains a minimum of two paragraphs used to explain or describe
the main idea in the thesis statement. The number of body paragraphs depends on the
number of ideas included in the thesis statement. In our sample, outline below, since
the writer discusses three challenges of Addis Ababa, he has three body paragraphs,
each devoted to one major challenge. Each body paragraph has therefore a topic
sentence and supporting sentences and optionally a concluding sentence since there is
a separate concluding paragraph.

NOTE: CONCLUSION: This is written to accomplish three major functions.

 To summarize the discussion points usually in one sentence

 To draw conclusions or show the implications of the discussion made

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  To give recommendations or suggest solutions. This often applies when the
writer has raised and discussed problems of some kind. Here, practical solutions
should be suggested by the writer.

SAMPLE OUTLINE

Topic/Title: The Challenges of Living in Addis Ababa

I. Introduction

Hook: “Addis Ababa is often called the biggest village in the world by
geographers.”

Connecting information

a. It is the capital of Ethiopia.

b. It was founded about 130 years ago.

c. It is the diplomatic center of Africa.

d. It has a population of more than 5 million people living in 11 sub-cities.

Thesis statement: Although Addis has a fascinating history, living in it is very

challenging for various reasons: the top three of these challenges include housing,
transportation, and lack of good governance.

II. Body

Body paragraph 1

Topic sentence: One of the challenges of living in Addis has to do with housing.

Supporting sentences

a. Rental house is very expensive.

b. The cost of construction and building materials is very expensive.

c. It is really difficult to get plots of land for construction.

d. There is a clear mismatch between the number of people and available houses.

Body paragraph 2

Topic sentence: The other challenge of living in Addis relates to transportation.

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 Supporting sentences

a. There is an acute shortage of public transportation.

b. The ongoing road construction has added to this acute shortage.

c. The irregular supply of fuel brings the traffic to a standstill at times.

d. Artificial shortage of transportation is created by drivers and their assistants.

Body paragraph 3

Topic sentence: The lack of good governance is also among the major challenges
of living in Addis.

Supporting sentences

a. It is really very difficult to get public services without paying bribes.

b. The civil servants working in government offices and ministries are not well
qualified as to render better services.

c. There is a lack of transparency in the public sector.

d. Nepotism and other forms of corruption are very rampant in the public sector.

III. Conclusion

a. Re-statement of main idea: Although Addis is changing in many ways, the

majority of its people are still leading a miserable life.

b. Implications: If these challenges are not addressed properly, the city

dwellers will struggle to meet their basic necessities, and the government will
find it difficult to lead the country as smoothly as possible.

c. Recommendations: The government should build more apartments/condos,

provide better and more public transportation and work towards realizing good
governance. It should also invite private investors in the sectors mentioned
above if genuine solution is ultimately sought.

Note: A well-outlined essay is more than 80% of the essay. It reduces the amount of
time used and effort exerted in writing the actual essay. Thus, the quality of your
essays depends on the quality of your outlines. You should, therefore, pay attention to
outlining as the first step towards writing an effective essay.

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EXAMPLE ESSAYS
Read and study these five example essays. These questions will help you understand
the content and the organization of the essays.
EXERCISE 1: Studying an Example Essay
Essay 1
This essay is about typical household chores and what the writer thinks about them.
1. How much time do you spend cleaning your house or apartment each week?
2. What is your least favorite household chore? Why?

Cinderella and Her Odious Household Chores

Everyone knows how the story of Cinderella ends, but did you ever really think about
how she spent her days before she met the prince? Her daily routine was not
glamorous. She did everything from sweeping the floor to cooking the meals. If
someone had asked Cinderella, “Are there any household chores that you particularly
hate?” she probably would have answered: “Why, none, of course, housework is my
duty! In the real world, however, most people have definite dislikes for certain
household chores: the top three of these tasks include ironing clothes, washing dishes,
and cleaning the bathroom.

One of the most hated chores for many people is ironing clothes because it is not a task
that can be completed quickly or thoughtlessly. Each piece of clothing must be handled
individually. So ironing a basket of laundry can take hours! After ironing a piece of
clothing meticulously, which entails something out the fabric, following the seams, and
getting the creases just right, you need to place it on a hanger as soon as possible. If
you do not follow these directions carefully, it might become wrinkled and you have to
start over. Perhaps that is why ironing is not a favorite chore. It requires extreme
attention to details from beginning to end.

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Another household chore that many people dislike is washing dishes. Of course, some
people claim that this chore is no longer a problem because we have dishwashers now!
However, no one would argue that dishes, silverware, and especially pots and pans
washed in a dishwasher come out as clean as they do when washed by hand. For this
reason, many of us continue to wash our dishes by hand, but we are not necessarily
happy doing it. Washing dishes is a dirty job that requires not only the elbow grease to
scrape food off the dishes but also the patience to rinse and dry them. In addition,
unlike, ironing clothes, washing is a chore that usually must be done every day. I do
not know how Cinderella felt about this particular chore, but I believe that most people
hate it as much as I do.

Though ironing clothes and washing dishes are not the most pleasant household
chores, perhaps the most dreaded is cleaning the bathroom. This involves tackling three
main areas: the bathtub, sink, and toilet. Because the bathroom is full of germs, a quick
wiping off the surfaces is not enough. As a result, you must use strong bathroom
cleansers to clean and disinfect this room. The task of cleaning the bathroom is so
unpleasant that some people wear rubber gloves when they attempt it. The only
positive point about cleaning the bathroom is that it does not have to be done on a
daily basis.

Maintaining a house involves doing a wide variety of unpleasant chores. Cinderella

knew this, and so do we. Many of us do not have the luxury of hiring an outside person
to do housework, so we must carry out our responsibilities. If we can take pride in the
results of our hard work, maybe we can get through the unpleasantness of these typical
household chores.
Odious: very unpleasant
Silverware eating: eating utensils; forks, knives, and spoons
Household: referring to the house elbow grease: physical strength, usually using the
hands
Chore: a specific task or job tacking: undertaking, beginning

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Meticulously: thoroughly and carefully disinfect: purify; eliminate germs
2. According to the author of this essay, what are the three least popular household
chores?
WRITER’S NOTE: The Hook
The opening sentence of any essay is called the hook. In writing, it is used to “catch”
readers and get their interest so that they will want to read the essay. (See subsequent
pages for more information about hooks.)
4. Write the hook in this essay.
5. Do you think this hook is effective? Does it grab your attention? Why, or why
not?
6. How many paragraphs does this essay have? Which paragraph is the
introduction? The conclusion? Which paragraphs the body?
7. In a few words, what is the general topic of this essay?
8. Can you find a sentence in paragraph 1 that tells readers what to expect in
paragraphs 2, 3 and 4?
WRITER’S NOTE: The Thesis Statement
In “Cinderella and Her Odious Household Chores,” the last sentence in paragraph I is
the thesis statement. (The top three of these tasks include ironing clothes washing
dishes, and cleaning the bathroom). It states the main idea of the essay and tells what
the organization of the information will be.
9. What is the topic of paragraph 2? Can you find one sentence that introduces this
topic?
10. Every good paragraph has a topic sentence. The topic sentence tells the reader
the main topic of the paragraph. Sometimes it also gives the reader a hint about
the writer’s purpose.
Write the topic sentences of paragraphs 3 and 4.

WRITER’S NOTE: Supporting Sentences

The supporting sentences in an essay are in the body. (See subsequent pages for
information about the body). Supporting sentences always relate to the topic sentence

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of the paragraph in which they occur. Common supporting sentences give examples,
reasons, facts, or more specific information. Without supporting sentences, an essay
would be nothing more than a general outline.
11. Supporting sentences: In paragraph 2, the writer shows that people do not like
to iron clothes. Write two of the supporting sentences.
12. Supporting sentences: In paragraph 4, the writer suggests that cleaning the
bathroom is not a simple or fast chore. Write the sentence in which the writer
makes this point.
13. Look at the last paragraph. Find the sentence that restates the thesis.
WRITER’S NOTE: The Conclusion
It is important for an essay to have a good conclusion. Notice that the writer mentions
Cinderella again in the last paragraph of “Cinderella and Her Odious Household Chores.”
The introduction and the conclusion often share some ideas and words.
EXERCISE 2: Studying an Example Essay
Essay 2
In this narrative essay, the narrator experiences a humorous language problem in
Japan.
1. What are some words that cause problems for you in English? Why are they
difficult?
2. Describe a situation in which you could not express yourself effectively in
English. What did you do?

How do you say……?

What would happen if you woke up one day and suddenly found yourself in a world
where you could not communicate with anyone? I am a teacher of English as a
Second Language (ESL). In June 1988, I accepted a job in a rural of Japan called
Niigata and found myself faced with this language problem. One event in particular
stands out as an example of my inability to express my ideas to the people around
me due to my lack of vocabulary.

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I had been in Japan only a few days, and I was feeling restless. I wanted to make
some fresh bread, so I set out for the store with the simple intention of buying some
flour. I had taken some Japanese language classes before I arrived in Japan.
Although I knew my Japanese skills were limited, my lack of knowledge did not stop
me from going to the store to buy flour. I thought that I would locate the section
where the grains were displayed and find the bag that had a picture of either bread
or flour on it.

The small town where I lived had one tiny store. I wandered around the store a few
times, but I did not see a bag of anything that appeared to be flour. In the United
States, flour usually comes in a paper bag with pictures of biscuits or bread on it, so
this is what I was looking for. I finally found a few clear plastic bags that had bread
crumbs inside, so I thought that flour might be located nearby. No matter how many
bags I examined, I could not find any flour.

I desperately wanted to ask one of the three elderly women clerks where the flour
was, but could not do this simple task. I knew how to ask where something was, but
I did not know the word for “flour.” I tried to think of how to say “flour” using
different words such as “white powder” or “the ingredient that you use to make
bread“, but I did not know “powder” and I did not know “ingredient.” Just then, I
saw one of my students leaving the store. I rushed outside to his car and explained
that I needed to know a word in Japanese. “How do you say ‘flour’?” I asked. He
told me the word was Hanna.

I rushed back into the store, which was about to close for the evening. I found one
of the elderly clerks and asked in my best Japanese, “sumimasen Hanna wa doko
desuka?” or “Excuse me. Where is the Hanna?” The petite old woman said
something in Japanese and raced to the far right side of the store. “Finally,” I
thought, “I’m going to get my flour and go home to make bread,” However, my
hopes ended rather quickly when I followed the clerk to the produce section. I saw

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green onions, tomatoes, and even pumpkins, but I could not understand why flour
would be there. The woman then pointed to the beautiful yellow chrysanthemums
next to the green onions.

At first I was puzzled, but suddenly it all made sense. I had been in the country long
enough to know that people in Japan eat chrysanthemums in salads. I was standing
in front of the f-l-o-w-e-r display, not the f-l-o-u-r display. It had never occurred to
me that grocery stores, especially small ones, might sell flowers.

I did not buy any chrysanthemums that night. I was not able to find the flour either.
My lack of knowledge about Japanese cuisine and my very limited knowledge of
Japanese caused me to go home empty-handed that night. However, I learned the
often-underestimated value of simple vocabulary in speaking a second language. For
me, this event in a small store in rural Japan really opened my eyes to my lack of
vocabulary skills.
Set out for: to start going to a place
In particular: especially
Stand out: to be different from the other
Pumpkin: a large, round, orange fruit
Chrysanthemum: a type of flower
Crumbs: tiny pieces of food
3. In a few sentences, tell what happened in this story. Use your own words.
4. A good hook in an essay involves the reader in what follows. Write the hook
for this essay.
5. How does this hook try to involve the reader? Do you think that this hook is
successful? Why, or why not?
6. How many paragraphs are in this essay? In which paragraph doses the
writer reveal what the problem is with the question he asked in Japans?

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 7. Supporting sentences: Why does the writer include the information in
paragraph 6? (Hint: What supporting information does the writer give to
explain the language miscommunication?)
8. This essay tells a story. It is an organized sequence of events. This kind of
essay is called a narrative essay.

Here is a list of the main events in the essay. Read the list and number the items from
1 to 12 to indicate the order of the events
________ The clerk took the writer to the produce section.
________ The writer asked the student for a Japanese translation.
________ The clerk pointed to the flowers.
________ The writer arrived in Japan.
________ The writer wanted to make some bread.
________ The writer spoke to an elderly clerk.
________The writer realized that the student had not understood the question
correctly.
________ The writer want home without the flour.
________The writer looked all over the store for the flour.
________ The writer saw one of his students.
________ The writer studied Japanese.
________ The writer went to the store.

EXERCISE 3: Studying an Example Essay

Essay 3
Which do you like better, the city or the countryside? Read this comparison essay about
some differences between these two types of places
1. Describe the place where you grew up.
2. What were the best and worst things about living there?
Differences in Urban and Rural Life

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Imagine life in Toronto. Now imagine life in a neighboring rural Canadian town.
Finally, picture life in Rome, Italy. Which of these last two places is more different
from Toronto? Many people might mistakenly choose Rome because it is in a
different country. In fact, city dwellers all over the world tend to have similar
lifestyles, so the biggest differences are between Toronto and its smaller neighbor.
Urban people and rural people, regardless of their country, live quite differently.
Perhaps some of the most notable differences in the lives of these two groups
include degree of friendliness, pace of life and variety of activities.

One major difference between growing up in the city and in the country is the
degree of friendliness. In large cities, we often hear of people living in huge
apartment buildings with hundreds of strangers. These urban apartment dwellers
tend to be wary of unknown faces and rarely get to know their neighbors well. The
situation in a small town is often just the opposite. Small-town people generally
grow up together, attend the same schools and churches, and share the same
friends. As a result, rural people are much more likely to treat their neighbors like
family and invite them into their homes.

Another difference is the pace of life. In the city, life moves very quickly. The streets
reflect this hectic pace and are rarely empty, even late at night. City dwellers appear
to be racing to get somewhere important. Life for them tends to be a series of
deadlines. In the country, life is much slower. Even during peak hours, traffic jams
occur less often. Stores close in the early evening. And the streets do not come alive
until the next morning. The people here seem more relaxed and move in a more
leisurely way. The pace of life in these two areas couldn’t be more different.

A third difference lies in the way people are able to spend their free time. Although
life in the city has its drawbacks, city dwellers have much wider choice of activities
that they can participate in. For example, they can go to museums, eat in exotic
restaurants, attend concerts, and shop in hundreds of stores. The activities available
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to people in rural areas, however, are much more limited. It is rare to find museums
or exotic restaurants there. Concert tours almost never include stops in country
towns. Finally, people who enjoy shopping might be disappointed in the small
number of stores.

Life in urban areas and life in rural areas vary in terms of human interaction, pace of
life and daily activities. Other important differences exist, too, but none of these
makes one place better than the other. The places are simply different. Only people
who have experienced living in both the city and the country can truly appreciate
the unique characteristics of each.
Urban: of the city Pace: speed; rate
Dwellers: those who live in a wary: cautious, suspicious
Regardless of: in spite of deadline: the time limit for doing
something
Notable: important; worthy on notice peak: the highest; the top (amount)
3. What is topic of this essay? The writer’s purpose is to compare and contrast
life in two locations. This kind of essay is called a Comparison essay.
4. What is the thesis statement?
5. In each paragraph, which location is always discussed first, rural or urban?
6. Which paragraph talks about activities in each area?
7. Supporting sentences: Some of the supporting sentences in “Differences in
Urban and Rural Life” contrast the pace of life in the two areas. Write those
sentences in the chart under the correct heading. Include the paragraph
number.
Pace of Life (paragraph____)
A. urban
1 .________________________________________________
2 ._________________________________________________
3 ._________________________________________________
4 ._________________________________________________

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 B. Rural
1 .________________________________________________
2 ._________________________________________________
3 ._________________________________________________
4 ._________________________________________________

EXERCISE 4: Studying an Example Essay

Essay 4
This cause-effect essay explains the connection between cancer and an unhealthy
lifestyle.
1. Do you think people are healthier now than in the past? Why, or why not?
2. What three changes could you make in your lifestyle to become healthier? Be
specific.

Cancer Risks
Lung cancer kills more people in one year than all criminal and accidental deaths
combined. These statistics are shocking. But the good news is that people are
now well —informed about the risks connected to lung cancer. They know that
their risk of contracting this terrible disease decreases if they either stop smoking
or don’t smoke at all. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said about other types
of cancer. Many people are not aware that their everyday behavior can lead to
the development of these different forms of cancer. By eating better, exercising
regularly and staying out of the sun, people can reduce their risks.

Instead of foods that are good for them people often eat hamburgers, cheese,
French fries, and pizza. These common foods contain large amounts of saturated
fat, which is the worst kind of fat. Even if light and fat-free products are
constantly being introduced to the consumer market, many people still buy food
that contains fat because it often tastes better. However, eating fatty foods can
increase a person’s chances for some kinds of cancer. People do not eat as many

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fresh vegetables and fresh fruit as they used to. Instead, they now eat a lot
more processed foods that do not contain natural fiber. Lack of fiber in a
person’s diet can increase the chance of colon cancer. In the past, people with
less information about nutrition actually had better diets than people do today.
They also had fewer cases of cancer.

Many people today are overweight, and being overweight has been connected to
some kinds of cancer. This is the generation that started the couch potato boom,
and today’s couch potatoes are bigger than ever. Health experts warn that being
overweight is a risk not only for heart disease but also for certain kinds of
cancer. The best way to attain a healthy weight again is to cut back on the
amount of food and to exercise regularly. It is not possible to do only one of
these and lose weight permanently. The improved diet must be in conjunction
with regular exercise. In the past, people di more physical activity than people
do today. For example, people used to walk to work: now almost no one does.
In addition, people had jobs that required more physical labor. Now many people
have desk jobs in front of computers.

Finally, health officials are gravely concerned by the astounding rise in the cases
of skin cancer. Many societies value a tanned complexion, so on weekends
people tend to flock to the beach or swimming pools and lie in the sun. Many of
these people do not use a safe sunscreen, and the result is that they often get
sunburned. Sunburn damages the skin, and repeated damage may lead to skin
cancer later in life. Once the damage is done, it cannot be undone. Thus,
prevention is important. In the past, people did not lie in direct sunlight for long
periods, and skin cancer was not as prevalent as it is now. People have started
to listen to doctors’ warnings about this situation, and more and more people are
using proper sunscreens. Unfortunately, millions of people already have this
potential cancer problem in their skin and may develop cancer later.

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Cancer has been around since the earliest days of human existence, but only
recently has the public been made aware of some of the risk factors involved.
Anti-smoking campaigns can be seen everywhere: on billboards, television, radio,
and newsprint. If the same amount of attention were given to proper diets,
exercise, and sunscreens, perhaps the number of overall cancer cases would be
reduced.
Astounding: amazing; surprising
Fiber: a plant material that is good for the
In conjunction with: at the same time as
Digestive system together with together colon: an organ in the digestive
system
Diet: a special plan for losing weight; what a person eats
Attain: to achieve prevalent: common
Cut back on: to reduce the amount (of something)
Flock to: to go to a place in large numbers (as birds do)
1. What is the writer’s main message in this essay?
2. In a few words, what is the general topic of “Cancer Risks”?
3. The writer presents several causes for the rise in the number of cancer cases.
This kind of organization is called a cause-effect essay. In this kind of essay,
the writer shows that one thing happened (effect) because something else
happened first (cause). What are the causes that the writer discusses?
4. What is the thesis statement of the essay?
5. The thesis statement should tell the reader how the paper will be organized.
What do you know about the organization of the essay from the thesis
statement?
6. Supporting sentences: in paragraph 2, the writer states that many people eat
unhealthy food. What supporting information explains why this food is not is
not healthy?
7. Supporting sentences: The writer also explains why people enjoy eating
unhealthy food. What is the reason?

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EXERCISE 5: Studying an Example Essay
Essay 5
The following argumentative essay explains that choosing a college is an important
decision.
1. What do you know about community colleges? How are they different from
universities?
2. What are some things that students consider when they are choosing a college?

The Advantages of Community Colleges

A high school diploma is not the end of many people’s education these days. High
school students who want to continue their education generally choose one of two
routes after graduation. Some students opt to attend a community college and then
transfer to a university, while others go directly to a university. Making this difficult
choice requires a great deal of careful thought. However, if the choice is based on three
specific factors; namely, cost, location, and quality of education, students will quickly
see the advantages that attending a community college offers.

Attending a community college is much cheaper than attending a university. For

example, tuition at a local community college attended might cost less than $53,000 for
two years. The same classes taken at a nearby university would cost almost $ 55,000.
When the bill is calculated or what is included is taken into account, it is more
expensive to study at a university.

Attending a community college can be more convenient because of its location. Going
to a university often requires recent high school graduates to live far from home, and
many of them of are reluctant to do so. These students are only seventeen or eighteen
years old and may have very little experience at being away from home. It would be
difficult for these young people to suddenly find themselves far away from their
families. In addition, very few parents are prepared to send their teenagers to distant

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universities because almost every area has a community college. Students who opt to
go to a community college can continue to be near their families for two more years.

Finally, there are educational benefits to attending a community college. University life
is very different from one in community colleges, which typically have fewer students
and extracurricular activities, may be a better environment for serious study. In
addition, the library facilities at a community college, though not as large as those at a
university, are more than sufficient for the kind of work that is required in first-or
second-year courses. Class size is also an issue to consider.

Introductory courses at a university often have fifty to sixty or even one hundred
students. In such large classes, student-teacher interaction usually is minimal and
learning can be more difficult for some students. Finally, the teaching at community
colleges is often better than the teaching at a university, professors at community
colleges have the same credentials as those at universities, and community college
professors spend most of their time teaching instead of conducting research, as
university professors have to do.

The decision to enter a university directly or to attend a community college for the first
two years after high school can be difficult. However, based on the three important
factors discussed in this essay-cost, location, and quality of education-it is clear that
attending a community college is the smarter thing to do.
Opt: to choose (do something) reluctant: hesitant
Namely: such as; for example minimal: the least possible
Tuition: money paid for classes credentials: qualifications
3. What two things are being compared in this essay? Which one does the writer
think is better?
In essays like this one, the writer compares or contrasts two or more things. However,
unlike “Differences in Urban and Rural Life”, in “The Advantages of Community
College,” the writer compares community colleges and universities with the intention of

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persuading the reader to agree that community colleges are better or new high school
graduates. This kind of essay is called an argumentative essay (Unit 5). Some books call
this persuasive essay.
4. What is the organization of this essay? Fill in the blanks of this simple outline
with the words that are missing.
Topic/Title: The Advantages of Community Colleges
Paragraph I: Introduction
Thesis statement: ____________________________________________
Paragraph 2 topic: ___________________________________________
A. Community College cost: $____________________________
B. ________________: $_______________________________
C. Other higher university costs
1. Parking
2. __________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________
4. Health clinic services
Paragraph 3 topic: ____________________________________________
A. Students’ reasons
B. __________________________________________________

Paragraph 4 topic: ____________________________________________

A. Quiet campus
B. _____________________________________________________
C. Class size
D. Quality of teaching
Paragraph 5: Conclusion: _____________________________________
5. The writer discusses three factors-cost, location, and quality of education—in the
decision about what kind college to attend. Can you think of two other factors
that the writer could have used?

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 6. Before you read this essay, did you know much about this topic? What was your
opinion before you read this essay? (Check all possible answers.)
______ I thought that attending a university directly after high school was best.
______I thought that attending a community college after high school was best.
______ I thought that a university offered a better education than a community college.
______I thought that a community college offered a better education than a university.
______I thought that a university was cheaper than a community college.
_____ I thought that a community college was cheaper than a university.
______I did not know much about university education in the United States.
______I did not know much about community college education in the United States.
7. Did your opinion about community colleges change after you read “The
Advantages of Community Colleges”? In other words, did the writer persuade
you your mind about community colleges in the United States?
8. Which part of the essay was the most persuasive for you?
9. If your answer to question 7 is “Yes,” tell why your opinion changed. If your
answer to question 7 is “no,” can you think of some fact or information that the
writer could have used to make the essay more persuasive?

9.2. Writing the Introduction

The introduction is the first part of an essay, usually the first paragraph. The
introduction does not have to be written first; however, some writers design and write
this part last or at another point in their writing process. From the basic outline that
follows, you can see how the introduction fits into the essay.
1. Introduction (usually one paragraph)
2. Body (two to four paragraphs, although there is no limit to the number of
body paragraphs you can write)
3. Conclusion (usually one paragraph)

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There are many ways to write an introduction. Some writers begin with a question.
Other writers give background information about the topic. The kind of introduction you
choose depends on how you want to present the topic and the kind of essay you decide
to write.

What is the introduction?

The introduction for most essays is one paragraph. This introductory paragraph usually
consists of three parts:
1. The hook
Introduction = 2. Connecting information
3. The thesis statement (or writing plan)
Now look at each of these parts to see what they are and how they work in the
introduction.

The Hook
The hook is the opening statements. Just as a fisherman uses a hook to catch a fish, so
a writer uses a hook to catch readers’ attention. If a hook does its job well, readers will
want to read the rest of the essay after they have read the hook. Writing a good hook
is not easy. It requires a great deal of thought and practice.
There are many different ways to write a hook.
1. One common way write a hook is to ask a question. If readers want to know the
answer to the question, they are “hooked” and will read the essay. For example,
a writer might begin an essay with this sentence:
How many people out there on the roads are driving uninsured vehicles?
Most readers will not know the answer to this question, but they will probably be
hooked and want to find out more about the topic.
2. Another way to write a hook is to begin an essay with an interesting observation.
Here is an example.
Asian economists are out sleeping well these days.

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This observation makes readers want to know why economists are not sleeping well. To
find out, they read on. Here’s another example of an observation hook full of interesting
details that leads readers to the subject of international trade:
3. Writers often begin an essay with a unique scenario to catch readers’ attention:
Traveling at more than one hundred miles an hour, he feels as though he is not
moving. He is engulfed in complete silence. For a moment, it is as if he has
entered another dimension.
Are you hooked? Do you want to read the rest of the essay? This essay is about
the exciting sport of sky diving.
4. Sometimes writers use a famous quote as a hook, as in this example:
“To be or not to be; that is the question.”
Many readers may think that this hook will lead into a discussion of Shakespeare or the
story of Hamlet. In fact, this hook begins an essay on the topic of suicide.
WRITER’S NOTE: Hook versus Main idea
In English writing, the main idea, or thesis, of an essay is in the introduction, but it is
not often the first sentence. The hook is usually the first sentence. If you begin essay
with a sentence stating the main idea, such as:
This essay will talk about the most embarrassing day of my life.
Or
There are three ways to curb teen pregnancy.
Your readers may not be interested in reading the rest of your essay. These sentences
do not grab your readers’ attention. Be sure to write a hook and put it first.

Connecting Information: After the hook, the writer usually writes three to five
sentences that help connect the reader and the topic. These sentences can be
background information about the topic or they can be examples. The following
sentences from Essay 1 give examples of how Cinderella probably spent her days
before she met the prince: Her daily routine was not glamorous. She did everything
from sweeping the floors to cooking the meals. If someone had asked Cinderella, “Are
there any household chores that you particularly hate” she probably would have

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answered. “Why, none, of course. Housework is my duty!” From these sentences, the
reader has a good idea of what the topic might be: Unpleasant household chores.
WRITER’S NOTE: What does the Reader know?
A good writer does not jump into a topic too quickly. First, a good writer tries to
imagine what the reader already knows about the topic. Then the writer can focus on
bridging the gap between what the reader knows and what he or she needs to know
about the topic.
The Thesis Statement
The thesis statement, or writing plan, is usually the last part of the introduction. It can
be one or two sentences long. In the thesis statement, the writer tells the reader what
to expect in the essay. Basically, there are two kinds of thesis statements, direct and
indirect.
Direct thesis Statement
Some writers want to give a specific outline of the paper in their thesis statement. For
example:
The main problems facing South American countries are a lack of job
opportunities for citizens, increasing demand for better health care, and limited
university programs for poor students.
From this statement, the reader knows that the body of the essay has three main parts.
One part will discuss job opportunities, another part will talk about health care needs,
and the last part will talk about university programs for poor students. This kind of
thesis statements is called a direct thesis statement.
Indirect Thesis Statement
Other writers are not as direct on the same topic as the previous example; these writers
might use this thesis statement:
The important problems facing African countries today require immediate
attention.
From this statement, the reader expects to find a discussion of problems in Africa. The
reader does not know exactly what to expect, but that is not a problem. This kind of
thesis statement is called an indirect thesis statement.

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Both direct and indirect thesis statements are acceptable. It is up to the writer to decide
which approach to take.
Practice with Hooks and Thesis Statements
The following activities will give you practice writing hooks. You will also compare your
hooks with those your classmates wrote. This will help you improve you understanding
of how hooks work I essay introductions. Be prepared to explain why you think your
hook will attract readers’ attention and make them want to read the essay. You will also
practice writing and identifying thesis statements.
EXERCISE 6: Practice with Hooks
5. This essay begins with the second sentence. Read the whole essay. Then, write
three possible hooks on the lines.
Essay 6
In this argumentative essay, the writer argues that mandatory retirement should be
abolished.
Hook 1: __________________________________________
Hook 2: __________________________________________
Hook 3:__________________________________________
Traditionally, people retire from their jobs when they reach the age of sixty-five.
In some jobs, this is not an option but a requirement. I object to mandatory
retirement for capable workers because it violates personal choice, discriminates
against senior citizens, and wastes valuable skills as well as money.

First of all, I believe that mandatory retirement violates individual’s personal

choice of continuing to work or retiring. The older working person should be
given the right to choose his or her retirement age. A person’s right to life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness (as written in the Declaration of
Independence) is a very special thing. Forced retirement takes away people’s
livelihood, deprives them of their freedom to choose their line of work, and
prevents them from pursuing happiness.

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A second mandatory retirement is surely a form of age discrimination. A young
person might wonder why an older worker should be kept on the payroll when
the company could hire someone who is younger and more creative. However, a
younger person will not necessarily be a better or more creative worker. Age
does not indicate the equality of a person’s work. Many well-known artists,
politicians, and writers developed their best works after the age of sixty. The
common belief that a person’s mind slows down after a certain age is nothing
but a misconception.

In addition to the previous two points, there is the issue of quality of work. Older
employees have knowledge and experience that can truly be beneficial.
Unfortunately, many employers disregard this fact. Captain Al Haynes, age fifty-
eight, was able to land a DC-10 that was out of control so that 186 of the 296
people aboard survived when it crashed. McDonald-Douglas, the maker of the
DC-10 simulated the same problem forty five times and not one time did they
have a successful landing. Safety experts agree that the high survival rate
among the passengers on the night was due to Captain Haynes’ aviation skills. It
is doubtful that a less experienced pilot could have accomplished this feat.
However, a year later, Captain Haynes had to retire because he had reached the
age of sixty, the mandatory retirement age for pilot in the United States. They
often focus on obvious differences such as school uniforms or extracurricular
activities.

Many people especially fresh college graduates do not agree that retirement
should be an option. They are worried that if older workers are allowed to
continue in their jobs, there will not be enough openings for younger people.
However, is there really a danger that older people will take away job
opportunities from younger people? This is unlikely because younger workers
and older workers rarely compete for the same jobs. In fact, older workers rarely
seek entry-level positions. This type of faulty logic was used in the 1 960s to
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 oppose the passage of the civil rights laws that now protect women and
minorities from employment discrimination. More importantly, the U.S
Department of Labor is concerned that labor shortages might occur when “baby
boomers” retire after the year 2000. Therefore, employers should start looking
for ways to attract experienced workers, not retire them.

In conclusion, the age of retirement should be decided by an individual’s

economic need, health status, and work preference. Our lives are our own, and
we should be allowed to live our lives to the fullest potential. Without a doubt,
mandatory retirement goes against fulfilling this potential and should not be a
part of modern society.
EXERCISE 7: Thesis Statements
Answer these questions about the thesis statement in “Mandatory Retirement Has to
Go”
1. What is the thesis statement in the essay?
2. Is this a direct or indirect thesis statement? Give the reason for your answer.
3. Rewrite the thesis statements as an indirect thesis statement.

EXERCISE 8: More Practice with Hooks

1. This essay begins with the second sentence. Read the whole essay. Then write
three possible hooks on the lines.
Essay 7
This comparison/contrast essay gives facts about education in South Korea and North
America.
Differences in education in South Korea and North America
Hook 1:
Hook 2:
Hook 3:

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The school systems of South Korea, Canada, and the United States are about the
same in two areas: the age when students start school and the number of years
they go to school. However, in the field of education, there are several notable
differences between South Korea on the one hand and Canada and the United
States on the other.

First, the number of hours of study and formal training that Korean students go
through in order to enter a university is much greater than that of either
Canadians or Americans. People say that it is easy to graduate from a Korean
university. But the really hard part is getting into the university in the first place.
Because it’s so difficult to get into a university in South Korea, most students not
only attend their regular classes but also attend special “cram” schools for a few
hours in the morning or afternoon. As a result, high school students in South
Korea have fifty-five to sixty hours of instruction each week. This is in stark
contrast to the situation in Canada and United States where secondary school
students attend school less than thirty-five hours a week. In these North
American countries, the most difficult years begin at age eighteen and don’t let
up until age twenty-two.

A second difference lies in society’s attitude toward university education. In

South Korea, competition to gain admittance to a prestigious university is
intense. This competition results in an incredible amount of studying dedication
and self-sacrifice as students do almost nothing but study for examinations.
Parents feel this pressure as well and start training their children at a very young
age for the eventual university exams. Thus, students feel pressure from their
parents, their peers and society in general. North American students may feel a
comparable amount of pressure if they want to enter a school such as Harvard or
Yale, but the average Canadian or American student does not have to deal with
the societal pressure common in South Korea.

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 Finally, opportunities for university scholarships are very different in these
countries. In Canada and the United States there are academic scholarships,
athletic scholarships and scholarships for minority students. This allows for all
types of students to take advantage of higher education at little or no cost. In
South Korea, however, the most prevalent type of scholarship is the academic
type. Sports skills, ethnic background, and other nonacademic matters do not
play a role in the awarding of university scholarships.

When people talk about educational differences between South Korea and
Canada and the United States, they often focus on obvious differences such as
school uniforms or extracurricular activities. However, these superficial
differences are not nearly as important as the differences in the hours of study,
society’s attitude toward education and scholarships. Despite these differences,
the educational systems in all three countries continue to produce thousands of
successful college graduates each year.

EXERCISE 9: Thesis Statements

Answer these questions about the thesis statement in “Differences in Education in
South Korea and North America.”
1. What is the thesis statement in the essay?
2. Is this a direct or indirect thesis statement? Give a reason for your answer.
3. Rewrite the thesis statement as a direct thesis statement.
9.3. Writing the Body
The body of an essay is the main part and usually consists of three or four paragraphs
between the introduction and the conclusion. The body follows a plan of organization
that the writer usually determines before he or she starts writing. This organization
varies depending on the kind of essay you are writing. You can write the organizational

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plan of your essay in an outline. There are different levels of outlining. A general outline
includes the main points, while a specific or detailed outline includes notes on even the
smallest pieces of information. It is much easier to write an essay from a specific outline
than from a general outline. However, most writers start with a general outline first and
then add details.

The best essays have well-planned outlines that are carefully prepared before the writer
starts writing. Here is a general outline and a specific outline for the essay “Differences
in Education in South Korea and North America,” Read and compare the two outlines.
a) General Outline
I. Introduction
A. Hook: pose a question
B. Connecting information
C. Thesis: Differences in education between South Korea and the US/Canada
II. Body
A. Difference #1: Number of hours
B. Difference # 2: societal attitude toward education
C. Difference # 3: scholarship opportunities
III. Conclusion
Restate thesis statement
b) Specific Outline
I. Introduction
A. Hook: Is education in South Korea really different from education in
Canada or the U.S.?
B. Connecting information: We often hear of education differences
between South Korea and Canada/US, but the school systems are not so
different on the surface.
1. Children start school at the same age.
2. Students attend school the same number of years.

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 C. Thesis statement: There are several notable differences in educational
systems between South Korea on the one hand and Canada and the
United States on the other.
II. Body
A. Difference # 1. Number of hours
1. Hard to enter a Korean university but easy to graduate/exit
2. Korean students attend cram schools
3. Canada/U.S. =35 hrs/wk; Korea=55-60 hrs/wk
B. Difference # 2: societal attitude toward education
1. Competition to enter a prestigious university
a. Studying
b. Dedication
c. Self-sacrifice
2. Pressure
a. from parents
b. from peers
c. from society in general
3. North Americans don’t have this pressure (except the few who
enter Harvard/Yale).

C. Difference # 3: scholarship opportunities

1. Canada/U.S.
a. academic scholarships
b. sports scholarships
c. scholarship for minorities
2. Korea
a. Only academic scholarships
b. No role for sports/ethnicity

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 III. Conclusion: Despite these differences the educational systems in all three
countries continue to produce thousands of successful college graduates each
year.
EXERCISE 10: Practice with Outlining an Essay
Here is a general outline for Essay 2, “How Do You Say?” Read the essay again and
complete this outline.
Title: “How Do You Say…?”
I. Introduction (paragraph 1)
A. Hook: Asks a general question
B. Connection information: __________________________
C. Thesis statement: ___________________________________
II. Body
A. Paragraph 2 topic sentence: ______________________________
B. Paragraph 3 topic sentence: ______________________________
C. Paragraph 4 topic sentence: ______________________________
D. Paragraph 5 topic sentence: ______________________________
E. Paragraph 6 topic sentence: At first I was puzzled, but suddenly it all made
sense.
III. Conclusion (paragraph 7)
A. End of action
B. Restatement of thesis

EXERCISE 11: Making Specific Outlines

Here is a specific outline for Essay 1, “Cinderella and Her Odious Household Chores”.
Read the Essay again and complete this outline. You may use complete sentences if you
wish, but be sure to include all of the specific information.
Topic/Title: Cinderella and Her Odious Household chores
I. Introduction (Paragraph 1)
A. Hook:____________________________
B. Connecting information: _______________

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 C. Thesis statement: __________________________
II. Body
A. Paragraph 2
1. Paragraph 2 topic sentence(chore#1): ___________________
2. Supporting ideas
a. Attention to detail
i. Smoothing out the fabric
ii. Following the seams
iii. ________________
iv. ________________
b. Problem: __________________
B. Paragraph 3
1. Topic sentence: (chore#2) ____________________________
2. Supporting ideas
a. Why we cannot depend on dishwashers
b. Negative aspects of this chore
i. Elbow grease
ii. ________________________
iii. ________________________
C. Paragraph 4
1. Topic sentence: (chore #3) _________________________
2. Supporting ideas
a. Tasks
i. _____________________
ii. Cleaning the sink
b. Cleaning the toilet: Negative aspects
i. Bathroom is full of germs
ii. ____________
c. Cleaning the toilet: Positive aspect:
i. _____________

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 III. Conclusion (Paragraph 5)
A. Maintaining a house includes chores.
B. Taking pride in doing a good job and getting through the three odious
chores.
OUTLINE LENGTH: If your outline is too long, combine some of the ideas or eliminate
ideas that don’t add interest to the essay.

9.4. Writing the Conclusion

Some people think that writing the conclusion is the hardest part of writing an essay.
For others, writing the conclusion is easy. When you write a conclusion, follow these
guidelines:
1. Let the reader know that this is the conclusion. You can mark the conclusion with
some kind of transition or connector that this is the final paragraph of the essay.
Here are some examples:
In conclusion,
From the information given,
To summarize,
Sometimes the first sentence of the conclusion restates the thesis or main idea of the
essay.
This essay has presented three of the numerous problems the new parents face today.
2. Do not introduce new information in the conclusion. The conclusion should help
the reader to reconsider the main ideas that you have given in the essay. Any
new information in the concluding paragraph will sound like a continuation of the
body of the essay.
3. Many writers find the conclusion difficult to write. It requires a great deal of
thought and creativity, as writing a good hook or thesis statement does. The
kind of essay you are writing may determine the way you and the essay;
however, two ideas can be helpful for any essay.
4. The final sentence or sentences of an essay often give a suggestion, an opinion,
or a prediction about the topic of the essay.

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  Suggestion: The facts strongly support the existence of a greenhouse warming
effect on our atmosphere. It is vital, therefore, that we heed the warnings and
do our best to keep this problem for getting worse.
 Opinion: Certainly, there are advantages and disadvantages to both plans
presented here. However, because the second plan has more mass appeal than
the former one, it would be a much better choice for the citizens of our country.
 Prediction: This essay has presented strong arguments in favor of government
control of television. Without this control, there will be a decline in the moral
values of American society.
 Sometimes the final sentence or sentences simply say that the issue has been
discussed in the essay with so many strong, persuasive facts that the answer to
the issue is now clear.
 Once aware of this information, any reader would have to agree that animal
testing is cruel and unethical and should be abolished.
 After careful consideration of all the facts, readers will surely agree that the use
of corporal punishment in our schools should be prohibited immediately.
9.5. Types of Essay
Like paragraphs, there are many types of essay. The types of essay are not different
from that of a paragraph. Look at the chapter on types of paragraphs for more
information on how these types are written. Also, look at the various essays presented
and discussed in this chapter to see how each type is written. The following section
gives you a brief introduction to the types of essay, and exercises on each type.
9.5.1. Narrative Essay
A narrative essay is one that tells a story. This is usually a story about a personal
experience you had, but it may also be an imaginative exploration of something you
have not experienced. Narrative essays test your ability to build up a narrative in an
engaging, well-structured way. They are much more personal and creative than other
kinds of academic writing. Writing a personal statement for an application requires the
same skills as a narrative essay.

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You can follow the normal essay structure in writing narrative essays (introduction,
body and conclusion); however, you will find in some instances that a narrative essay is
not strictly divided into introduction, body, and conclusion, but it should still begin by
setting up the narrative and finish by expressing the point of the story—what you
learned from your experience, or why it made an impression on you.

Learning Something New

Learning something new can be a scary experience. One of the hardest things I have
ever had to do was learn how to swim. I was always afraid of the water, but I decided
that swimming was an important skill that I should learn. I also thought it would be
good exercise and help me to become physically stronger. What I didn’t realize was that
learning to swim would also make me a more confident person.

New situations always make me a bit nervous, and my first swimming lesson was no
exception. After I changed into my bathing suit in the locker room, I stood timidly by
the side of the pool waiting for the teacher and other students to show up. After a
couple of minutes the teacher came over. She smiled and introduced herself, and two
more students joined us. Although they were both older than me, they did not seem to
be embarrassed about not knowing how to swim. I began to feel more at ease.

We got into the pool, and the teacher had us put on brightly colored water wings to
help us stay afloat. One of the other students, May, had already taken the beginning
class once before, so she took a kickboard and went splashing off by herself. The other
student, Jerry, and I were told to hold on to the side of the pool and shown how to kick
for the breaststroke. One by one, the teacher had us hold on to a kickboard while she
pulled it through the water and we kicked. Pretty soon Jerry was off doing this by
himself, traveling at a fast clip across the short end of the pool.

Things were not quite that easy for me, but the teacher was very patient. After a few
more weeks, when I seemed to have caught on with my legs, she taught me the arm

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strokes. Now I had two things to concentrate on, my arms and my legs. I felt
hopelessly uncoordinated. Sooner than I imagined, however, things began to feel
“right” and I was able to swim. It was a wonderful feeling - like flying, maybe - to be
able to shoot across the water.

Learning to swim was not easy for me, but in the end my persistence paid off. Not only
did I learn how to swim and to conquer my fear of the water, but I also learned
something about learning. Now when I am faced with a new situation I am not so
nervous. I may feel uncomfortable to begin with, but I know that as I practice being in
that situation and as my skills get better, I will feel more and more comfortable. It is a
wonderful, free feeling when you achieve a goal you have set for yourself.

9.5.2. Descriptive Essay

A descriptive essay provides a detailed sensory description of something. Like narrative
essays, they allow you to be more creative than most academic writing, but they are
more tightly focused than narrative essays. You might describe a specific place or
object, rather than telling a whole story. Descriptive essays test your ability to use
language creatively, making striking word choices to convey a memorable picture of
what you are describing.

A descriptive essay can be quite loosely structured, though it should usually begin by
introducing the object of your description and end by drawing an overall picture of it.
The important thing is to use careful word choices and figurative language to create an
original description of your object. Here is a typical example, and check if it meets the
requirements of a standard essay with a clear structure.

The Weekend Market

Many tourists I have met have told me that one place they have to go is the weekend
market. This market is huge and has everything from bags, souvenirs and handicrafts
to many kinds of animals, many kinds of plants and it also has a variety of local food. In

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other words, the weekend market is a great place for shopping and experiencing the
local culture.

The market is located near the city's main bus station so people come from all over the
country to buy and sell goods. Moreover, it is also near a sky train station and a subway
station which makes it very convenient for city people, especially young people who
don't have cars. The market is very large and full of hundreds of small shops and stalls.
Consequently, it can be confusing to get around. However, if you get lost, it is a good
idea to look for the clock tower which is right in the middle of the market. It will help
you find your way.

When I walk into the market early on a Sunday morning there are people and cars and
motorcycles everywhere. You have to be careful where you walk. Many people are
bringing their goods to sell in big bags on carts and trolleys. In fact, you might even
have to jump out of the sellers' way as they charge along the narrow walkways with
their goods. In addition to the sellers, tourists and locals are pouring in looking for
something to eat or ready to start shopping. As time goes by, the market gets more
and more crowded and you have to start squeezing past people to keep moving.

As you walk through the market you will experience many sensations. For example,
there are many smells, scents and aromas. One moment you will be smelling the
aromas of stir-friend cooking dishes from a small restaurant and the next you smell the
scents of orchids and other flowers as you pass through the cooler and more relaxing
garden section. Furthermore, walking deeper into the market, your eyes will have
trouble recording so many products with their many colors, designs and sizes. After a
while you may feel dizzy and look for a quiet place to have a rest and a refreshing
drink. Fortunately, there are many small cafes and drink stalls selling fresh coconut
juice, orange juice or iced water.

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To sum up, a day at the weekend market is both a day of shopping and a unique
experience for your senses. It is a kind of magical journey that is great as a first
experience for tourists and an escape from daily life for locals. Moreover, while it is
usually hot and crowded, the atmosphere is friendly and good-natured.
9.5.3. Explanatory/Expository Essay
An expository essay provides a clear, focused explanation of a topic. It doesn’t require
an original argument, just a balanced and well-organized view of the topic. Expository
essays test your familiarity with a topic and your ability to organize and convey
information. They are commonly assigned at high school or in exam questions at
college level.

The introduction of an expository essay states your topic and provides some general
background, the body presents the details, and the conclusion summarizes the
information presented. Look at the example below, and check if it meets the
requirements of a standard essay with a clear structure.

Enjoying Your Camping Trip

Each year, thousands of people throughout the United States choose to spend their
vacations camping in the great outdoors. Depending on an individual's sense of
adventure, there are various types of camping to choose from, including log cabin
camping, recreational vehicle camping, and tent camping. Of these, tent camping
involves "roughing it" the most, and with proper planning the experience can be
gratifying. Even with the best planning, however, tent camping can be an extremely
frustrating experience due to uncontrolled factors such as bad weather, wildlife
encounters, and equipment failures.

Nothing can dampen the excited anticipation of camping more than a dark, rainy day.
Even the most adventurous campers can lose some of their enthusiasm on the drive to
the campsite if the skies are dreary and damp. After reaching their destination, campers
must then "set up camp" in the downpour. This includes keeping the inside of the tent
dry and free from mud, getting the sleeping bags situated dryly, and protecting food

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from the downpour. If the sleeping bags happen to get wet, the cold also becomes a
major factor. A sleeping bag usually provides warmth on a camping trip; a wet sleeping
bag provides none. Combining wind with rain can cause frigid temperatures, causing
any outside activities to be delayed. Even inside the tent problems may arise due to
heavy winds. More than a few campers have had their tents blown down because of the
wind, which once again begins the frustrating task of "setting up camp" in the
downpour. It is wise to check the weather forecast before embarking on camping trips;
however, Mother Nature is often unpredictable and there is no guarantee bad weather
will be eluded.

Another problem likely to be faced during a camping trip is run-ins with wildlife, which
can range from mildly annoying to dangerous. Minor inconveniences include mosquitoes
and ants. The swarming of mosquitoes can literally drive annoyed campers indoors. If
an effective repellant is not used, the camper can spend an interminable night
scratching, which will only worsen the itch. Ants do not usually attack campers, but
keeping them out of the food can be quite an inconvenience. Extreme care must be
taken not to leave food out before or after meals. If food is stored inside the tent, the
tent must never be left open. In addition to swarming the food, ants inside a tent can
crawl into sleeping bags and clothing. Although these insects cause minor discomfort,
some wildlife encounters are potentially dangerous. There are many poisonous snakes
in the United States, such as the water moccasin and the diamond-back rattlesnake.
When hiking in the woods, the camper must be careful where he steps. Also, the tent
must never be left open. Snakes, searching for either shade from the sun or shelter
from the rain, can enter a tent. An encounter between an unwary camper and a
surprised snake can prove to be fatal. Run-ins can range from unpleasant to dangerous,
but the camper must realize that they are sometimes inevitable.

Perhaps the least serious camping troubles are equipment failures; these troubles often
plague families camping for the first time. They arrive at the campsite at night and
haphazardly set up their nine-person tent. They then settle down for a peaceful night's
rest. Sometime during the night the family is awakened by a huge crash. The tent has

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fallen down. Sleepily, they awake and proceed to set up the tent in the rain. In the
morning, everyone emerges from the tent, except for two. Their sleeping bag zippers
have gotten caught. Finally, after fifteen minutes of struggling, they free themselves,
only to realize another problem. Each family member's sleeping bag has been touching
the sides of the tent. A tent is only waterproof if the sides are not touched. The
sleeping bags and clothing are all drenched. Totally disillusioned with the "vacation,"
the frustrated family packs up immediately and drives home. Equipment failures may
not seem very serious, but after campers encounter bad weather and annoying pests or
wild animals, these failures can end any remaining hope for a peaceful vacation.

These three types of camping troubles can strike campers almost anywhere. Until some
brilliant scientist invents a weather machine to control bad weather or a kind of wildlife
repellant, unlucky campers will continue to shake their fists in frustration. More than
likely, equipment will continue to malfunction. Even so, camping continues to be a
favorite pastime of people all across the United States. If you want camping to be a
happy experience for you, learn to laugh at leaky tents, bad weather, and bugs, or you
will find yourself frustrated and unhappy.

9.5.4. Persuasive/Argumentative essays

An argumentative essay presents an extended, evidence-based argument. It requires a
strong thesis statement—a clearly defined stance on your topic. Your aim is to convince
the reader of your thesis using evidence (such as quotations) and analysis.

Argumentative essays test your ability to research and present your own position on a
topic. This is the most common type of essay at college level—most papers you write
will involve some kind of argumentation.

The essay is divided into an introduction, body, and conclusion:

 The introduction provides your topic and thesis statement.

 The body presents your evidence and arguments, and

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  The conclusion summarizes your argument and emphasizes its importance.

Look at the example below, and check if it meets the requirements of a standard essay
with a clear structure.

Cats as House Pets

"A dog is man's best friend." That common saying may contain some truth, but dogs
are not the only animal friend whose companionship people enjoy. For many people, a
cat is their best friend. Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent house
pets as they are good companions, they are civilized members of the household, and
they are easy to care for.

In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many cats are
affectionate. They will snuggle up and ask to be petted, or scratched under the chin.
Who can resist a purring cat? If they are not feeling affectionate, cats are generally
quite playful. They love to chase balls and feathers, or just about anything dangling
from a string. They especially enjoy playing when their owners are participating in the
game. Contrary to popular opinion, cats can be trained. Using rewards and
punishments, just like with a dog, a cat can be trained to avoid unwanted behavior or
perform tricks. Cats will even fetch!

In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household. Unlike dogs, cats do
not bark or make other loud noises. Most cats do not even meow very often. They
generally lead a quiet existence. Cats also do not often have "accidents." Mother cats
train their kittens to use the litter box, and most cats will use it without fail from that
time on. Even stray cats usually understand the concept when shown the box and will
use it regularly. Cats do have claws, and owners must make provision for this. A tall
scratching post in a favorite cat area of the house will often keep the cat content to
leave the furniture alone. As a last resort, of course, cats can be declawed.

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Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as house pets is their ease of
care. Cats do not have to be walked. They get plenty of exercise in the house as they
play, and they do their business in the litter box. Cleaning a litter box is a quick,
painless procedure. Cats also take care of their own grooming. Bathing a cat is almost
never necessary because under ordinary circumstances cats clean themselves. Cats are
more particular about personal cleanliness than people are. In addition, cats can be left
home alone for a few hours without fear. Unlike some pets, most cats will not destroy
the furnishings when left alone. They are content to go about their usual activities until
their owners return.

Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who have small living quarters
or less time for pet care should appreciate these characteristics of cats. However, many
people who have plenty of space and time still opt to have a cat because they love the
cat personality. In many ways, cats are the ideal house pet.

The following exercises require you to write essays, and this gives you the opportunity
to write different kinds of essay. Look at the section on how introductory, body and
concluding paragraphs are written and use that to outline and write essays on the
following topics.

EXERCISE 12: OUTLINING

1. Use the following topics to work out general and specific outlines for an
essay of six or more paragraphs.
A. The Side-effects of Cross-Sex(Having sexual intercourse with someone
who is not your wife or husband or boy/girlfriend
B. Our Campus(Think of the physical appearance of your campus, both from
within and outside)

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 C. Why People Chew ‘Chat’
D. The Differences between Learning in Private Colleges and Learning in
Public Universities
E. Who Should Rule a Country?
2. Use the outlines below to write well-organized essays.
Title: Watching Violent Movies
I. Introduction
A. Hook: Many young people are becoming addicted to violent movies which
are usually the production of Hollywood.
B. Definition: Violent movies are those types of movies in which there are a
lot of actions, offensive use of language, criminal acts, killing, etc. among
others.
C. Thesis statement: Watching violent movies has a lot of side-effects.
II. Body
Body Paragraph 1
Topic sentence: Violent movies encourage criminal acts.
A. Bullying and rape
B. Robbery
C. In extreme cases, killing people
Body Paragraph 2
Topic sentence: Young people who often watch violent movies tend to be perverts.
A. Disrespect for their seniors
B. Use of abusive words/language
C. Unwillingness to engage in productive activities
Body Paragraph 3
Topic sentence: Viewers of violent movies have psychological problems.
A. Thinking patterns(unusual thinking patterns compared to other members of
their community
B. Face problems communicating with members of their community
C. Find it difficult to adjust to socially approved behavior patters

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 III. Conclusion
A. Watching violent movies is said to encourage criminal acts, pervert behavior
and psychological problems.
B. Respective families and community members should find ways of discussing
its problems with their children.
C. The young should find alternative/ harmless ways of enjoying themselves.
D. They should use their time properly doing things that will benefit them in
their future life.

Title: Major Causes of Students’ Disciplinary Problems

Complete the blank essay outline and write an essay of five paragraphs.
I. Introduction
A. Hook: ______________________________________________
B. Connecting information:______________________________
C. Thesis statement: ____________________________________
II. Body paragraph 1
Topic sentence: ___________________________________________
Supporting sentences:
A. ________________________________________________________
B. ________________________________________________________
C. ________________________________________________________
Body paragraph 2
Topic sentence: ______________________________________________
Supporting sentences:
A. ________________________________________________________
B. ________________________________________________________
C. ________________________________________________________
Body paragraph 3
Topic sentence: _______________________________________________________
Supporting sentences:

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 A. ________________________________________________________
B. ________________________________________________________
C. ________________________________________________________
III. Conclusion
A. ________________________________________________________
B. ________________________________________________________
C. _______________________________________________________

References
A Sample Five-Paragraph Essay. https://www.touro.edu › tutorials. [Accessed on March
22, 2022]
Carol, A. & Senn J.A. (1988). Heath Grammar and Composition (2nd course): Houghton
Mifflin College Div: Houghton
Descriptive Essay Examples. https://examples.yourdictionary.com. [Accessed on March
22, 2022]

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Examples of Five-Paragraph Essays-Structuring the Five-Paragraph Essay.
https://monroecollege.libguides.com. [Accessed on March 22, 2022]
McDougal, L. (2020). Building English Skills (Orange Level): McDougal, Littell &
Company: Illinois
McDougal, L. (1989). Basic Skills in English (Blue Level): McDougal, Littell & Company:
Illinois
Writing-Resources
Five-Paragraph Essay. https://www.jscc.edu.[Aaccessed on March 22, 2022]
Sample Five-Paragraph Narrative Essay. https://mrsyatesclass.files.wordpress.com.
[Accessed on March 22, 2022]

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