Topic-12

Introduction to Research
 Research

• Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING

ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.
• QUESTIONS: should be relevant, useful, and important.
• FINDING ANSWERS: Research is successful when we find answers.
Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an answer.
• ORGANIZED: focused and limited to a specific scope.
• SYSTEMATIC: a definite set of procedures and steps
 Types of Research
• Exploratory Research (explore)
• Generate basic knowledge, clarify relevant issues, uncover variables associated with a problem,
uncover information needs, and/or define alternatives for addressing research objectives.
• A very flexible, open-ended process.
• Descriptive Research (who, what, where, how)
• Provide further insight into the research problem by describing the variables of interest.
• Applications: Profiling, defining, segmentation, estimating, predicting, and examining
associative relationships.
• Causal Research (If-then)
• Designed to provide information on potential cause-and-effect relationships.
• Most practical in marketing to talk about associations or impact of one variable on another,
referred to as causal inference.
• A causal inference can be supported with causal evidence such as temporal sequence,
concomitant variance and non-spurious association.
 Experimental Research

Common Features:
• Division of the subjects/elements into groups (control, experimental).
• Use of a "treatment" (usually the independent variable) which is
introduced into the research context or manipulated by the researcher.
• In contrast to qualitative research, virtually all experiments are designed
to test hypotheses.
• Its highly analytical.
 Qualitative & Quantitative Research

 Qualitative research: explore perceptions, attitudes and motivations

• To understand how they are formed.
• To provides depth of information
• To determine what attributes will subsequently be measured in quantitative
studies
 Quantitative research: descriptive
• provides raw data on the numbers of people exhibiting certain behaviors,
attitudes, etc.
• allows sample large numbers of the population.
• Its highly data-intensive and mathematical
Qualitative & Quantitative Research
 Examples of each type of research
• Exploratory: Understanding the immunity built by Covid vaccine, new type of
health supplement products liked by consumers
• Descriptive: Sales analysis, consumer perception and behavior analysis, market
characteristics analysis
• Causal: Impact of medicines in curing certain disease, impact of advt. on sales,
impact of FDI on economic growth
• Experimental: Drug experiments on two or more group of patients, product
experiments with different set of consumers
• Qualitative: Branding perception among customers, adding/deleting features in
new products, assessment of services
• Quantitative: Customer feedback surveys, employee satisfaction surveys,
financial assessment of companies, stock market analysis
 Scales of Measurement
• Two scales for measuring ‘qualitative data’
 Nominal Scale: A qualitative scale for which there is no meaningful ordering, or ranking of the
categories. It only measures the presence or absence of an attribute and does not contribute to any
higher order analysis. For example, name, address, gender, income category, education etc.
 Ordinal Scale: It measures a qualitative phenomenon that exists with a varying degree. An ordinal scale
is used when the phenomenon can be arranged in ascending or descending order and hence also
known as ranked order scale. For example, customer satisfaction, leadership, credit rating etc.
• Two scales for measuring ‘quantitative data’
 Interval Scale: Interval scale measures qualitative data in a quantitative manner. It is based on equal
intervals between the scale points where ‘zero’ has no meaning. For example, Likert scale where the
measurement is done on a scale of 1 to 5 and ‘zero’ has no meaning. For example, rate the service of a
restaurant on a scale of 1 to 5 with 1 represents very bad, 2 represents bad, 3 represents neither good
nor bad, 4 represents good and 5 represents very good.
 Ratio Scale: Any quantitative data where ‘zero’ has a meaning and we can also perform mathematical
operations. For example, sales data, advertisement expenditure, profit/loss, distance etc. In some of the
statistical analysis, ratio scales are also converted into interval scales for the ease of analyses.
 Criteria for Good Measurement
1. Reliability
• The extent to which an experiment, test, or measuring procedure yields the same
results on repeated trials.
• It refers to the consistency, accuracy and predictability of a measure.
• Reliability is the extent to which a measurement process is free from random errors.
Internal Consistency:
 Measures the homogeneity of responses across the items on a multiple-item
measure.
 Internal consistency may be examined by asking several similar but non-identical
questions.
 Split-half method is used to check internal consistency which involves splitting
the items into two sets, such as the first and second halves of the items or the
even and odd numbered items.
 Then a score is computed for each set of items, and the relationship between the
two sets of scores is examined.
 For example, the appended figure shows the split-half correlation between
several university students’ scores on the even-numbered items and their scores
on the odd-numbered items of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.
 Pearson’s coefficient of correlation (r) for these data is +0.88. A split-half
correlation of +0.80 or greater is generally considered good internal consistency.
Example 1: 12 students take a test with 50 questions. For each student, the total score
is recorded along with the sum of the scores for the even questions and the sum of the
scores for the odd question as shown in below. Determine whether the test is reliable
by using the split-half methodology.

Spearman-Brown correction
One problem with the split-half
reliability coefficient is that since
only half the number of items is
used the reliability coefficient is
reduced. To get a better estimate of
the reliability of the full test, we
apply the , namely:

This result shows that the test is

quite reliable.
Example 2: Calculate the split-half coefficient of the ten-question questionnaire using a
Likert scale (1 to 7) given to 15 people whose results are shown in the figure.
 The most common measure of internal consistency used by researchers is a
statistic called Cronbach’s Alpha (α).
 Conceptually, α is the mean of all possible split-half correlations for a set of
items.
 For example, there are 252 ways to split a set of 10 items into two sets of five.
Cronbach’s α would be the mean of the 252 split-half correlations.
 However, Cronbach’s Alpha should not be considered as a sole indicator of
validity.

Cronbach’s Alpha () Internal Consistency

α ≥ 0.9 Excellent
0.8 ≤ α < 0.9 Good
0.7 ≤ α < 0.8 Acceptable
0.6 ≤ α < 0.7 Questionable
0.5 ≤ α < 0.6 Poor
α < 0.5 Unacceptable
Test-retest Reliability:
 Repeated measurements of the same person or group using the same scale and
under similar conditions are taken.
 A high correlation between the two scores indicates high reliability of the scale.
 Time difference between two measurements should neither be more nor be
more, an appropriate difference is of 5 to 6 months.
 Problems may be respondents’ changed perception due to situational factors,
boredom/anger or attempt to remember the previous answers.

Equivalent-form method:
 Two alternative instruments are designed which are as equivalent as possible.
 Each of the two is administered to the same group of subjects.
 If there is high correlation, then the scale is said to be reliable.
 It is similar to Split-half method where homogeneity or inter-item consistency is
measured.
2. Validity
• Validity refers to the ability of a scale to measure what was intended to measure
• It is a more serious in nature than reliability.
• In validity, the measurement does not always have to be similar as in case of
reliability.
• A scale may be reliable but may not be valid and vice-versa.
• Different ways to test validity are Face Validity, Content Validity, Concurrent &
Predictive Validity, Construct Validity and Internal & External Validity.

Face Validity:
 Face validity refers to an adequate coverage of the concept.
 Measures may appear as highly valid but actually they have low face validity.
 Example: No. of members in the family, TRP rating.
Content Validity:
 Content Validity involves a systematic evaluation of the content to determine
whether it is able to measure the objects.
 A test has content validity built into it by careful selection of which items to
include.
 Example: IQ test covering all areas, theoretical questions in numerical
subject.
Concurrent & Predictive Validity:
 Concurrent validity tests the validity of new measuring scales by correlating
them with standard or established scales.
 It computes correlation coefficient of the same phenomenon at the same
time.
 Example: IQ test of gold standard (90min.) vs. IQ test of 15 minutes.
 Predictive validity is established when a measured phenomenon at one point
of time predicts about a future event or phenomenon.
 Example: CAT /JEE scores, Pre-employment test.
Construct Validity:
 Construct validity refers to the extent to which operationalization of a
construct (i.e., practical tests developed from a theory) do actually measure
what the theory says they do.
 Example: Extent of measuring intelligence by using an IQ questionnaire,
selection of sample size.

Internal & External Validity:

 Internal validity is an estimate of the degree to which conclusions
about causal relationships can be made,e.g., experimental researches.
 External validity concerns the extent to which the internally valid results of a
study can be held to be true for other cases, e.g., to different people, places
or times.
3. Sensitivity
 Sensitivity refers to an instrument’s ability to measure some variability in
responses.
 It is an important measurement concept, particularly when changes in
attitude are under investigation.
 A dichotomous response category such as YES/NO or AGREE/DISAGREE or
SATISFIED/DISSATISFIED does not allow recording of subtle attitude changes.
 In such situations, a more sensitive scale such as five-point or seven-point
scale may be required.
 Example: (a) How satisfied are you with product X?
(b) Product X is unique in its range.
 Attitude Measurement

• Attitude: The way of feeling or acting towards a person, thing or situation

• composed of cognitive, emotional and behavioural components
• Inferred from actions, behaviour and statements
• Hypothetical Construct: Variables that are not directly observable but are
measurable through indirect indicators, such as verbal expression or overt
behaviour.
 Techniques for Measuring Attitudes

• Rating: to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic or quality

• Ex: a brand loyalty, store service quality, or product life
• Ranking: to rank order a small number of stores, brands, or objects
• On the basis of overall preference or some characteristics
• Sorting: Presents a respondent with several objects or product
concepts
• Requires the respondent to arrange the objects into piles or classify the
product concepts.
• Choice: identifies preferences
• Requiring respondents to choose between two or more alternatives
 Attitude Rating Scales

• Category scale: A rating scale that consists of several response

categories, often providing respondents with alternatives to indicate
positions on a continuum.
• Likert scale: Respondents are asked to indicate the amount of
agreement or disagreement (from strongly agree to strongly disagree)
on a five- or seven-point scale. The same format is used for multiple
questions.
 Likert Scale Example

Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly

disagree agree nor agree
disagree
1. D-Mart sells high quality merchandise. 1 2 3 4 5

2. D-Mart has poor in-store service. 1 2 3 4 5

3. I like to shop at D-Mart. 1 2 3 4 5

• The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or a total (summated) score
can be calculated.
• Semantic Differential Scale: A seven-point rating scale with end points associated
with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning.
Jio fiber is:
Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak
Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable
Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned

 The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale
and sometimes at the right.
 This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very
positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without
reading the labels.
 Scored on either -3 to +3 or 1 to 7 scale.
A Semantic Differential Scale for Measuring Self- Concepts,
Person Concepts, and Product Concepts
1) Rugged :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Delicate
2) Excitable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm
3) Uncomfortable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable
4) Dominating :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive
5) Thrifty :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent
6) Pleasant :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant
7) Contemporary :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete
8) Organized :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unorganized
9) Rational :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Emotional
10) Youthful :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Mature
11) Formal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Informal
12) Orthodox :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Liberal
13) Complex :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Simple
14) Colorless :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Colorful
15) Modest :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Vain
• Stapel Scale:
 This is a unipolar ten-point rating scale.
 Ranges from +5 to -5 and has no neutral zero point.
 Measures intensity of an attitude.
 This scale is usually presented vertically.
Croma products and service:
+5 (describes very well) +5
+4 +4
+3 +3
+2 +2X
+1 +1
HIGH QUALITY POOR SERVICE
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4X -4
-5 (describes poorly) -5

The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the same way as semantic differential data.
• Graphic Rating Scale: A measure of attitude that allows respondents
to rate an object by choosing any point along a graphic continuum.
 A
Exercise:
Can you identify the scale?

B
C
A B

C
 CONSTRUCTION
OF
QUESTIONNAIRES
 Types of Questionnaire
Structured Questionnaire Unstructured Questionnaire
• definite, concrete, and pre- • set of questions which are
determined questions not structured in advance
• prepared in advance, not • questions may be adjusted
constructed on the spot as per the need
• additional questions may • these questionnaires are
be asked only when some flexible in nature
clarification is required
 Construction of Questionnaire

A. General Considerations
• Well-defined goals are the best way to assure a good questionnaire
design. Questionnaires are developed directly to address the goals of
study.
• Keep it short and simple to maximize responses.
• Try to eliminate unimportant questions…involve experts and decision-
makers while doing this.
• Provide a well written cover page…it gives the first impression and
provides you the best chance to convince the respondent to complete the
survey.
• Give your questionnaire a title that is short and
meaningful to the respondents.
• Place the most important items in the first half
of the questionnaire. Respondents often send
back partially completed questionnaires.
• Leave adequate space for respondents to make
comments and provide valuable information.
• Use professional printing methods and
materials for the questionnaires.
B. Language
• Wording of a question is extremely important.
Researchers strive for objectivity in surveys and,
therefore, must be careful not to lead the
respondent into giving a desired answer.
• Questionnaires require special measures to cast
questions that are clear and straight forward in
four important aspects; simple language,
common concepts, manageable tasks and
widespread information.
• The nature and structure of population to be studied
should be kept in mind. Technical terms and jargons
should be avoided to the maximum possible extent.
• Common concepts should be used in the questionnaire.
Mathematical abstractions tend to be difficult for the
general public.
C. Type of Questions
Researchers use two basic types of questions:
• Closed-ended (dichotomous, multiple choice & scales)
• Open-ended
Examples of each kind of questions are:
Closed-ended: Dichotomous Questions
1. Do you have a car: (a) Yes (b) No
2. What kind of petrol do you use: (a) Normal (b) Premium
3. Your working hours are: (a) Fixed (b) Flexible

Multiple Choice Question

1. Which kind of car you own
(a) Hatch back (b) Sedan (c) SUV (d) Luxury
(e) Others……….
2. How much do you spend monthly on grocery items
(a) Upto Rs. 2500 (b) Rs. 2500-5000 (c) More than Rs. 5000
3. Which one do you like the most?
(a) Pizza Hut (b) Domino’s (c) Pizza Corner (d) Nirula’s
(e) Any other (specify…………)
4. Which brand of apparel you like?
(a) Allen Solley (b) Louis Phillipe (c) Levi’s (d) Adidas
(e) Spykar (f) Reebok (g) Any other (specify…………)
Scales like Ordinal scale and Likert scale are often used while designing a
questionnaire, e.g.,

(A) How would you rate the performance of your car?

1. Excellent 2. Very Good 3. Good 4. Fair 5. Poor
(B) How much do you agree with the following statements?
Neither
Sr. Strongly Strongly
Statement Agree agree nor Disagree
No. Agree Disagree
disagree
My car is very fuel
1
efficient
My car gives me
2
max. comfort
My car is maint-
3
enance free
My car is most
4
stylish
Open-ended: Numeric Open Ended
1. How much money did you spend on fuel last week?
…………….
2. How many children do you have? …………
3. What is your age? …………

Text Open Ended

1. How can the performance of your car be
improved? …………….
2. What training programme did you attend last week?
…………
3. You like Nescafe because …………………
D. Question Contents
• Clearly specify the issue
Incorrect: Which newspaper you read?
Correct: Which newspaper(s) do you read generally?
• Use simple terminology
Incorrect: Do you think thermal wear provides immunity?
Correct: Do you think that thermal wear protects from cold?
• Avoid Ambiguity in questioning
Incorrect: How often you visit McDonald’s in a month?
(a) Never (b) Occasionally (c) Often (d) Regularly
Correct: How often you visit McDonald’s in a month?
(a) Never (b) Less than 2 times (c) 2-5 times(d) More than 5 times
• Avoid Leading Questions
Incorrect: Do you think working mothers should buy ready -to-eat food
knowing that might contain preservatives?
(a) Yes (b) No (c) Can’t say
Correct: Do you think working mothers should buy ready -to-eat food?
(a) Yes (b) No (c) Can’t say
• Avoid Sensitive/Loaded Questions
Incorrect: Do you support the dowry system? (a) Yes (b) No
Correct: Do you think that most Indian men still support dowry system?
(a) Yes (b) No
• Avoid implicit choices in questions
Incorrect: Would you prefer to work fixed hours, five days a week? (a)
Yes (b) No
Correct: Would you prefer to work fixed hours, five days a week or a
flexi time of 40 hrs per week?
• Avoid double-barrel questions
Incorrect: Do you think Nokia and Samsung have a wide variety of
touch phones? (a) Yes (b) No
Correct: A wide variety of touch phones is available for-
(a) Nokia (b) Samsung (c) Others
Incorrect: Did the training make you feel motivated and effective in
your job? (a) Yes (b) No
Correct: Did the training make you feel motivated in your job?
Did the training make you more effective in your job?
 Structure of Questionnaire
• General Instructions and Greetings
Sir/Madam,
I, (your name), a student of MBA-II semester at IBS Hyderabad, am
conducting a market survey of consumers on ‘The Most Preferred Pizza
Brand in Hyderabad.’ In this regard, I seek your valuable cooperation and
suggestions which could be helpful for our study. I promise to keep the
information provided by you strictly confidential.
• Opening Questions
 Personal questions like name, age, gender, contact information,
occupation, income etc.
 Non-threatening questions like ‘Have you ever tried Pizza’ or ‘How
much do you like Pizza’?
• Study Questions
(Questions related to objectives)
1. How often you order pizzas from outside?
(a) Once in 2-3 months (b) Once a month (c) Once in a fortnight (d) Once a week (e) 2-3 times a
week (f) Everyday
2. How is it purchased?
(a) Personal visit/take away (b) Home delivery
3. What are the preferred days of ordering pizzas?
(a) Week days (b) Weekends (c) Special Occasions
4. What is the general time of ordering?
(a) Lunch time (b) Dinner time (c) Evening (d) Anytime
5. How much generally you spend on pizzas per month?
(a) Upto Rs.500 (b) Rs.500-1000 (c) Rs.1000-1500 (d) More than Rs.1500
6. From where do you order pizzas generally?
(a) Pizza Hut (b) Domino’s (c) Pizza Corner (d) Nirula’s (e) Local Bakery Shops (f) Any other
(specify…………….)
• End Matter
 Questionnaire generally ends with seeking suggestions or remarks
on the subject matter
 Researcher must not forget to acknowledge the inputs of the
respondent and thank him for sparing his time.
 Assignment # 1
The management of magazine ‘Outlook’ finds that despite the changes in the
publication’s frequency, it is still facing stiff competition from the rival ‘India
Today’. Thus they wanted to conduct a comparative survey for the two
magazines and assess whether Outlook has a different market.
• Identify some of the research objectives for this survey
• Prepare a questionnaire of at least 10-15 study questions based on the
research objectives
 Assignment # 2
‘Rainbow Seven’ is a regional brand of packaged water whose market share has
remained fairly stable for the past few years. The management wants to increase the
brand’s market share through the use of a more effective advertising theme. For the
last two years, Rainbow Seven’s advertising has featured a well-known actress who
presents a message ‘Safe and secure, always’.

The company knows it needs to make the brand more progressive and needs to
reposition it. Thus they want to carry out a short study to know the perception about
‘Rainbow Seven’ as compared to the other local/regional brands. They feel that such
information will help them structure the positioning exercise better.

You are required to design a structured questionnaire including different

containing 10-15 study questions of different types.