U3T1 (Optical Measurement and Inferometry)

MNIT
Unit 3 Topic 1
Optical Measurement
and
Interferometry
Dr. Anup Malik
anup.mech@mnit.ac.in
1
Contents
Optical Measurement and Interferometry:
 Introduction
 Optical Measurement Techniques
 Interferometers
 Metrology of Gears and Screw Threads
2
Introduction
OPTICAL MEASUREMENT
 Optical measurement provides a simple, easy, accurate, and reliable means
of carrying out inspection and measurements in the industry.
 Since optical instruments are used for precision measurement, the
projected image should be clear, sharp, and dimensionally accurate.
 In general, an optical instrument should have the following essential
features:
 A light source
 A condensing or collimating lens system to direct light past the work
part and into the optical system
 A suitable stage or table to position the work part, the table preferably
having provisions for movement in two directions and possibly rotation
about a vertical axis
 The projection optics comprising lenses and mirrors
 A viewing screen or eyepiece to receive the projected image
 Measuring and recording devices wherever required
3
Optical Measurement Techniques
TOOL MAKER’S MICROSCOPE
 It is a multifunctional device that is primarily used for
measurement on factory shop floors.
 The main use of a tool maker’s microscope is to measure the shape,
size, angle, and position of small components that fall under the
microscope’s measuring range.
Tool maker’s microscope 4

Source: Book: N.V. Raghavendra and L. Krishnamurthy, “Engineering Metrology and Measurements”, Oxford University Press.
PRINCIPLE OF MICROSCOPY
 A microscope couples two stages of magnification. The objective lens forms
an image of the workpiece at I1 at the stop.
 The stop frames the image so that it can be enlarged by the eyepiece.
 Viewed through the eyepiece, an enlarged virtual image I2 is obtained.
 Magnification at each stage multiplies.
 Thus, a highly effective magnification can be achieved with only moderate
magnification at each stage.
Principle of microscopy
Source: Book: N.V. Raghavendra and L. Krishnamurthy, “Engineering Metrology and Measurements”, Oxford University Press. 5
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5GS6MAPx598
APPLICATIONS OF TOOL MAKER’S MICROSCOPE
 It is used in shop floor inspection of screw threads, gears, and
other small machine parts.
 Its application includes precision measurement of test tools in
tool rooms.
 It helps determine the dimensions of small holes, which
cannot be measured with micrometers and callipers.
 It facilitates template matching inspection. Small screw
threads and involute gear teeth can be inspected using the
optional template reticles.
 It enables inspection of tapers on small components up to an
accuracy of 61.
6
PROFILE PROJECTOR
 The profile projector, also called
the optical projector, is a
versatile comparator, which is
widely used for the purpose of
inspection.
 It is especially used in tool
room applications.
 It projects a two-dimensional
magnified image of the
workpiece onto a viewing screen Profile Projector
to facilitate measurement.
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UFGw3uvWIC0
APPLICATIONS OF PROFILE PROJECTORS
8
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5UTiPWWjhZY
APPLICATIONS OF PROFILE PROJECTORS
 Inspection of elements of gears and screws
 Measurement of pitch circle diameters of holes located on
components
 Measurement of unusual profiles on components such as
involute and cycloidal, which are difficult to measure by other
means
 Measurement of tool wear (Drawing of a tool to scale is made
on a tracing sheet. The tracing sheet is clamped on to the
screen. Now, the used tool is fixed on the table and the image
is projected to the required magnification. Using a pencil, one
can easily trace the actual profile of the tool on to the tracing
sheet. This image superimposed on the actual drawing is
useful for measuring the tool wear.)
9
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5UTiPWWjhZY
OPTICAL SQUARES
 An optical square is useful in turning the line of sight by 90° from its
original path.
 An optical square is essentially a pentagonal prism (pentaprism).
 Regardless of the angle at which the incident beam strikes the face of the
prism, it is turned through 90° by internal reflection.
 Unlike a flat mirror, the accuracy of a pentaprism is not affected by the
errors present in the mounting arrangement.
Mirror reflecting light by 90° Optical square

10
OPTICAL SQUARES
 Figure illustrates the use of an optical
square to test the squareness of machine
slideways.
 Squareness of the vertical slideway with
respect to a horizontal slideway or bed is of
utmost importance in machine tools.
 The test set-up requires an autocollimator,
Use of an optical square to test
plane reflectors, and an optical square. squareness
 It is necessary to take only two readings,
one with the reflector at position A and a
second at position B, the optical square
being set down at the intersection of the
two surfaces when the reading at B is taken.
 The difference between the two readings is
the squareness error.
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Fo1kt4Myjo
OPTICAL SQUARES
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Fo1kt4Myjo
Interferometers
OPTICAL INTERFERENCE
 Figure illustrates how the property of interference of light can be used for linear
measurement.
 Let us consider two monochromatic light rays from two point sources, A and B,
which have the same origin.
 Since both rays originate from the same light source, they are of the same
wavelength.
 Let us also assume that the distances OA and OB are equal.
 Now, consider convergence of two rays at point O1 on the screen. Since the distances
AO1 and BO1 are equal, the two rays are in phase, resulting in maximum
illumination at point O1.
 On the other hand, at point O2, the distance BO2 is longer than the distance AO2.
Therefore, by the time the two rays arrive at point O2, they are out of phase,
resulting in complete interference forming a dark spot.
Formation of fringes
13
Interferometers
 This process repeats on either side of O1 on the screen, resulting in
the formation of alternate dark and bright areas.
 This pattern of alternate bright and dark areas is popularly known
as fringes.
 The dark areas will occur whenever the path difference of A and B
amounts to an odd number of half wavelengths, and the bright areas
will occur when the path difference amounts to an even number of
half wavelengths.
Formation of fringes
14
Interferometers
 This phenomenon is applied for carrying out precise
measurements of very small linear dimensions, and the
measurement technique is popularly known as interferometry.
 This technique is used in a variety of metrological
applications such as inspection of machine parts for
straightness, parallelism, and flatness, and measurement of
very small diameters, among others.
 Calibration and reference grade slip gauges are verified by the
interferometry technique.
 The instrument used for making measurements using
interferometry technique is called an interferometer.
15
Interferometers
OPTICAL FLATS
 An optical flat is a disk of high-quality glass or quartz.
 The surface of the disk is ground and lapped to a high degree of
flatness.
 Sizes of optical flats vary from 25 to 300 mm in diameter, with a
thickness ranging from 25 to 50 mm.
 When an optical flat is laid over a flat reflecting surface, it orients
at a small angle θ.
Fringe formation in an optical flat Formation of fringes

16
Interferometers
OPTICAL FLATS
Fringe patterns reveal surface conditions
Fringe patterns and the resulting surface conditions
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dfamvm1GM9k
Interferometers
Comparative Measurement with Optical Flats
let the number of fringes on the
reference block be N over a width
of l mm. If the distance between
the two slip gauges is L and λ is
the wavelength of the
monochromatic light source, then
the difference in height h is given
by the following relation:
Height measurement using an optical flat

18
Interferometers
Comparative Measurement with Optical Flats
 This simple procedure can be employed to measure very small
height differences in the range of 0.01–0.1 mm.
 However, the accuracy of this method depends on the accuracy of
the surface plate and condition of the surfaces of the specimen on
which the optical flat is resting.
 It is difficult to control the ‘lay’ of the optical flat and thus orient
the fringes to the best advantage. The fringe pattern is not viewed
from directly above, and the resulting obliquity can cause distortion
and errors in viewing.
 A better way of conducting accurate measurement is to use an
interferometer. While a variety of interferometers are used in
metrology and physical sciences, most common are the NPL flatness
interferometer and the Pitter–NPL gauge interferometer.
19
Interferometers
NPL FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER
 This interferometer was designed and developed
by the National Physical Laboratory of the United
Kingdom.
 The NPL flatness interferometer is used for
checking flatness between gauge surfaces.
 The gauge to be checked is placed on a base plate
that has a high degree of flatness.
 The entire optical system is enclosed in a metal
or fibreglass body. It is provided with adjustments
to vary the angle of the optical flat, which is
mounted on an adjustable tripod. In addition, the
base plate is designed to be rotated so that the
fringes can be oriented to the best advantage
Optical system of an NPL
flatness interferometer
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vQ6U-b86pWc&ab_channel=DrJojiThomas
Interferometers
Example of fringe patterns (a) Equal fringes on

parallel surfaces (b) Unequal fringes due to flatness error
Interferometers
Measuring Error in Parallelism
Testing parallelism in gauges

Interferometers
 The NPL flatness interferometer is used for
checking flatness between gauge surfaces.
 If the gauge length is smaller than 25 mm, the
gauge is placed on the base plate and the fringe
pattern is observed.
 If the gauge being inspected is free from flatness
error, then the fringes formed on both the gauge
surface and the base plate are equally spaced.
 For gauges longer than 25 mm, fringe pattern on
the base plate is difficult to observe. Therefore, the
gauge is placed on a rotary table.
Optical system of an NPL

flatness interferometer
Interferometers
PITTER–NPL GAUGE INTERFEROMETER
 This interferometer is used for determining actual lengths of slip gauges.
 Since the measurement calls for a high degree of accuracy and precision,
the instrument should be used under highly controlled physical conditions.
 It is recommended that the system be maintained at an ambient
temperature of 20 °C, and a barometric pressure of 760 mmHg with a water
vapour pressure of 7 mm, and contain 0.33% by volume of carbon dioxide.
Optical system of the Pitter–NPL gauge interferometer

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NDxIAA1819c&ab_channel=SureshlalCET
Interferometers
LASER INTERFEROMETERS
 Laser interferometers are used to calibrate machine tables, slides,
and axis movements of coordinate measuring machines.
 The equipment is portable and provides a very high degree of
accuracy and precision.
Laser interferometer
25
Metrology of Gears and Screw Threads
MEASUREMENT OF GEAR ELEMENTS
1. Measurement of Runout
 Runout is caused when there is some deviation in the
trajectories of the points on a section of a circular surface in
relation to the axis of rotation.
 In case of a gear, runout is the resultant of the radial throw of
the axis of a gear due to the out of roundness of the gear
profile.
Measurement of radial runout (a) Single-probe check (b) Two-probe check

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j0vdP3Ke_Zg
2. Measurement of Pitch
 Pitch is the distance between corresponding points on equally
spaced and adjacent teeth.
 Pitch error is the difference in distance between equally spaced
adjacent teeth and the measured distance between any two
adjacent teeth.
Pitch-measuring instrument Pitch-checking instrument
27
3. Measurement of Profile
 The profile is the portion of the tooth
flank between the specified form circle and
the outside circle or start of tip chamfer.
 As the feeler is mounted exactly above the
straight edge, there is no movement of the
feeler if the involute is a true involute.
 If there is an error, it is sensed due to the
deflection of the feeler, and is amplified by
the electronic unit and recorded by the
Gear-measuring machine
chart recorder.
 When there is no error in the involute
profile, the trace on the recording chart
will be a straight line.
28
4. Measurement of Lead
 Lead is the axial advance of a helix for one
complete rotation about its axis.
 The measuring pointer is mounted on a
slide, which travels parallel to the centre
on which the gear is held.
 The measuring pointer is connected to a
dial gauge or any other suitable
comparator, which continuously indicates
the deviation. Measurement of lead
 The total deviation shown by the dial

indicator over the distance measured
indicates the amount of displacement of
the gear tooth in the face width traversed.
29
5. Measurement of Backlash
 A small play between the mating tooth surfaces is called a
backlash.
 We can define backlash as the amount by which a tooth space
exceeds the thickness of an engaging tooth.
 A dial gauge is usually employed to measure the backlash.
Backlash
30
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backlash_%28engineering%29
6. Measurement of Tooth Thickness
 There is a choice of instruments such as the gear tooth calliper,
and span gauging or tooth span micrometer.
Gear tooth calliper Tooth span micrometer

31
Measurement with Gear Tooth Callipers
Chordal thickness and

chordal height
32
COMPOSITE METHOD OF GEAR INSPECTION
 Composite action refers to the variation in centre distance
when a gear is rolled in tight mesh with a standard gear.
 It is standard practice to specify composite tolerance, which
reflects gear runout, tooth-to-tooth spacing, and profile
variations.
 Composite tolerance is defined as the allowable centre
distance variation of the given gear, in tight mesh with a
standard gear, for one complete revolution.
 The Parkinson gear testing machine is generally used to
carry out composite gear inspection.
33
COMPOSITE METHOD OF GEAR INSPECTION
 Parkinson Gear Tester
 It is a popular gear testing machine used in metrology
laboratories and tool rooms.
 The gear being inspected will be made to mesh with a standard
gear, and a dial indicator is used to capture radial errors.
Parkinson gear tester

34
SCREW THREAD TERMINOLOGY
Screw thread terminology
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R5A93IAEyXo
MEASUREMENT OF SCREW THREAD ELEMENTS
1. Measurement of Major Diameter
 The simplest way of measuring a major diameter is to measure it using a
screw thread micrometer.
 However, for a more precise measurement, it is recommended to use a
bench micrometer.
 A major advantage of a bench micrometer is that a fiducial indicator is a
part of the measuring system. It is thus possible to apply a pressure
already decided upon by referring to the fiducial indicator.
Bench micrometer
36
2. Measurement of Minor Diameter
 The best way of measuring a minor diameter is to measure it
using a floating carriage micrometer.
Floating carriage micrometer Vee wedge pieces contacting

minor diameter
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4YViG2X67zg 37
Source: Book: Metrology & Measurement by Anand and Vinay
3. Measurement of Effective Diameter
 It is the diameter of the pitch cylinder, which is coaxial with the axis
of the screw and intersects the flanks of the threads in such a way as
to make the widths of threads and the widths of spaces between them
equal.
 In general, each of the screw threads is specified by an effective
diameter as it decides the quality of fit between the screw and a nut.
 Thread measurement by wire method is a simple and popular way of
measuring an effective diameter.
 Small, hardened steel wires (best-size wire) are placed in the thread
groove, and the distance over them is measured as part of the
measurement process.
 The two important methods of using wires: one-wire and two-wire
methods.
38
One-wire Method
 This method is used if a standard gauge of the same
dimension as the theoretical value of dimension over
wire is available.
 Micrometer readings are taken at two or three
different locations and the average value is calculated.
 This value is compared with the value obtained with
the standard gauge. One-wire method
 The resulting difference is a reflection of error in the
effective diameter of the screw.
 An important point to be kept in mind is that the
diameter of the wire selected should be such that it
makes contact with the screw along the pitch cylinder.
39
Two-wire Method
The two wires used in the measurement should be
identical in diameters between flanks and
threads.
The effective diameter is given by E = T + P
where T is the dimension under the wires and P is
the correction factor.
T = M − 2d
d = Diameter of wire
Two-wire method
40
Diameter of Best-size Wire
 This wire is of such a diameter that it makes contact with the flanks of the thread on the
effective diameter or pitch line, i.e., the contact points of the wires must be on the pitch line
or effective diameter.
 Refer Fig. OP is perpendicular to the flank position of the thread. Let half the included angle
of the thread be θ.
Best size wire
41
4. Measurement of Pitch
 A round-nosed stylus makes
contact with the thread at
approximately the pitch line.
 The screw, which is mounted
between the centres on a slide,
is given a traverse motion in
a direction parallel to its axis.
 This makes the stylus ride
over the threads. A micrometer
connected to the slide enables Pitch-measuring machine
measurement of the pitch.
42
43

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MNIT

Tool maker’s microscope 4

Mirror reflecting light by 90° Optical square

Fringe formation in an optical flat Formation of fringes

Fringe patterns reveal surface conditions

Fringe patterns and the resulting surface conditions

Height measurement using an optical flat

Example of fringe patterns (a) Equal fringes on

Testing parallelism in gauges

Optical system of an NPL

Optical system of the Pitter–NPL gauge interferometer

Measurement of radial runout (a) Single-probe check (b) Two-probe check

Pitch-measuring instrument Pitch-checking instrument

 The total deviation shown by the dial

Gear tooth calliper Tooth span micrometer

Chordal thickness and

Parkinson gear tester

Screw thread terminology

Floating carriage micrometer Vee wedge pieces contacting

Best size wire

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