I.

Why learning English

Reasons for learning
All around the world, students of all ages are learning to speak English, but their reasons for wanting
to study English can differ greatly. Some students, of course, only learn English because it is on the
curriculum at primary or secondary level, but for others, studying the language reflects some kind of a
choice.
Many people learn English because they have moved into a target-language community and they
need to be able to operate successfully within that community. A target-language community is a place
where English is the national language - e.g. Britain, Canada, New Zealand, etc - or where it is one of
the main languages of culture and commerce - e.g. India, Pakistan, Nigeria.
Some students need English for a Specific Purpose (ESP). Such students of ESP (sometimes also
called English for Special Purposes) may need to learn legal language, or the language of tourism,
banking or nursing, for example. An extremely popular strand of ESP is the teaching of business
English, where students learn about how to operate in English in the business world.
Many students need English for Academic Purposes (EAP) in order to study at an English-speaking
university or college, or because they need to access English-language academic texts.
Many people learn English because they think it will be useful in some way for international
communication and travel. Such students of general English often do not have a particular reason for
going to English classes, but simply wish to learn to speak (and read and write) the language
effectively for wherever and whenever this might be useful for them.
The purposes students have for learning will have an effect on what they want and need to learn - and
as a result will influence what they are taught. Business English students, for example, will want to
spend a lot of time concentrating on the language needed for specific business transactions and
situations. Students living in a target-language community will need to use English to achieve their
immediate practical and social needs. A group of nurses will want to study the kind of English that
they are likely to have to use while they nurse. Students of general English (including those studying
the language as part of their primary and secondary education) will not have such specific needs, of
course, and so their lessons (and the materials which the teachers use) will almost certainly look
different from those for students with more clearly identifiable needs. Consideration of our students‟
different reasons for learning is just one of many different learner variables, as we shall see below.
Different contexts for learning
English is learnt and taught in many different contexts, and in many different class arrangements. Such
differences will have a considerable effect on how and what we teach.
EFL, ESL and ESOL
For many years we have made a distinction between people who study English as a foreign language
and those who study it as a second or other language. It has been suggested that students of EFL
(English as a Foreign Language) tend to be learning so that they can use English when travelling or to
communicate with other people, from whatever country, who also speak English. ESL (English as a
Second Language) students, on the other hand, are usually living in the target-language community.
They may need to combine their learning of English with knowledge of how to do things in the target-
language community - such as going to a bank, renting a flat, accessing health services, etc. The
English they learn, therefore, may differ from that studied by EFL students, whose needs are not so
specific to a particular time and place. However, this distinction begins to look less satisfactory when
we look at the way people use English in a global context. The use of English for international
communication, especially with the Internet, means that many „EFL students‟ are in effect living in a
global target-language community and so might be thought of as „ESL students‟ instead. Partly as a
result of this we now tend to use the term ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages) to
describe both situations.
Schools and language schools
A huge number of students learn English in primary and secondary classrooms around the world. They
have not chosen to do this themselves, but learn because English is on the curriculum. Depending on
the country, area and the school itself, they may have the advantage of the latest classroom equipment
and information technology (IT), or they may, as in many parts of the world, be sitting in rows in
classrooms with a blackboard and no other teaching aid.
 Private language schools, on the other hand, tend to be better equipped than some government schools
(though this is not always the case). They will frequently have smaller class sizes, and, crucially, the
students in them may well have chosen to come and study. This will affect their motivation.
Large classes and one-to-one teaching
Some students prefer to have a private session with just them on their own and a teacher, commonly
referred to as one-to-one teaching. At the other end of the scale, English is taught in some
environments to groups of over 100 students at a time. Government school classes in many countries
have up to 30 students, whereas a typical number in a private language school lies somewhere between
8 and 15 learners. Clearly the size of the class will affect how we teach. Pair work and group work
are often used in large classes to give students more chances for interaction than they would otherwise
get with whole-class teaching. In a one-to-one setting the teacher is able to tailor the lesson to an
individual‟s specific needs, whereas with larger groups compromises have to be reached between the
group and the individuals within it. In large classes the teacher may well teach from the front more
often than with smaller groups, where mingling with students when they work in pairs, etc may be
much more feasible and time-efficient.
In-school and in-company
The vast majority of language classes in the world take place in educational institutions such as the
schools and language schools we have already mentioned, and, in addition, colleges and universities.
In such situations teachers have to be aware of school policy and conform to syllabus and curriculum
decisions taken by whoever is responsible for the academic running of the school. There may well be
learning outcomes which students are expected to achieve, and students may be preparing for specific
exams.
A number of companies also offer language classes and expect teachers to go to the company office
or factory to teach. Here the „classroom‟ may not be quite as appropriate as those which are specially
designed for teaching and learning. But more importantly, the teacher may need to negotiate the class
content, not only with the students, but also with whoever is paying for the tuition.
Real and virtual learning environments
Language learning has traditionally involved a teacher and a student or students being in the same
physical space. However, the development of high-speed Internet access has helped to bring about
new virtual learning environments in which students can learn even when they are literally thousands
of miles away (and in a different time zone) from a teacher or other classmates.
Some of the issues for both real and virtual learning environments are the same.
Students still need to be motivated and we still need to offer help in that area.
As a result, the best virtual learning sites have online tutors who interact with their students via email
or online chat forums. It is also possible to create groups of students who are all following the same
online program - and who can therefore „talk‟ to each other in the same way (i.e. electronically). But
despite these interpersonal elements, some students find it more difficult to sustain their motivation
online than they might as part of a real learning group.
Virtual learning is significantly different from face-to-face classes for a number of reasons. Firstly,
students can attend lessons when they want for the most part (though real-time chat forums have to be
scheduled), rather than when lessons are timetabled (as in schools). Secondly, it no longer matters
where the students are since they can log on from any location in the world. Online learning may have
these advantages, but some of the benefits of real learning environments are less easy to replicate
electronically. These include the physical reality of having teachers and students around you when you
are learning so that you can see their expressions and get messages from their gestures, tone of voice,
etc. Many learners will prefer the presence of real people to the sight of a screen, with or without
pictures and video. Some communication software (such as Messenger and Skype) allows users to see
each other on the screen as they communicate, but this is still less attractive - and considerably more
jerky - than being face to face with the teacher and fellow students. Of course, whereas in real learning
environments learning can take place with very little technical equipment, virtual learning relies on
good hardware and software, and effective and reliable Internet connections.
II. Grammar translation method
- A method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study
as the main teaching and learning activities.
 - The Grammar Translation Method also called Classical Method was traditionally used to teach the
classical languages (Latin and Greek) in Europe. In the 19th century it began to be used to teach
“modern” languages such as French, German, and English.
- A typical lesson consists of the presentation of a grammatical rule, a study of lists of vocabulary, and
a translation exercise.
- Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized at cost of pronunciation.
- Activities characteristic of the method are:
*translation of a literary passage
*reading comprehension
*finding antonyms and synonyms
*gap-filling exercises
*using words in sentences
*compositions
- Its main aim was to help students read literature in the target language and write in both their native
and the target languages through translation. (Reading and writing are the primary skills; less attention
is given to speaking and listening)
- The language that is used in class is mostly the students' native language; the meanings of new words
are made clear by translating them into the student‟s native language.
- Teacher‟s role is very traditional; the teacher is the authority in the classroom.
- Characteristic interaction in the teaching process is a Student – Teacher interaction
- Error correction is very important; the teacher always supplies the students with the correct answer.
- The syllabus is structure-based.
- Evaluation is accomplished on the basis of written tests in which students are expected to translate
from their native language to the target one or vice versa.
- Literary language is considered superior to spoken language, culture is considered as consisting of
literature and the fine arts; behaviour culture is ignored.
- Some aspects of the method are still used today.
- Because the Grammar Translation Method emphasizes reading rather than the ability to communicate
in a language there was a reaction to it.

Syllabus: a description of the contents of a course of instruction and the order in which they are to be
taught.

III. The Audio-lingual method

- The Audio-lingual method is considered as a reaction against the shortcomings of the Grammar
Translation method.
- The audio-lingual method was prominent in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in the United States, and
has been widely used in many other parts of the world.
- The ideas behind the method were based on BEHAVIOURISM.
Characteristics of the method:
- The method aims at developing listening and speaking skills which is a step away from the Grammar
translation method.
- It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing. (speaking and
listening were considered the most basic language skills)
- Audio-lingual method rejects the use of the mother tongue in class.
- The teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the language behaviour of his
students; he provides them with a good model for imitation.
- New vocabulary and structures are presented through dialogues.
- Although correct grammar is expected in usage, no explicit grammatical instruction is given.
- The students are expected to produce correct output. Attention is also paid to correct pronunciation.
(Accurate pronunciation and grammar)
- Most of the interaction is teacher-student.
- Pronunciation is taught from the beginning, often by students working in language laboratories.
- Mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they are considered bad habits.
 - Lessons in the classroom focus on the correct imitation of the teacher by the students.
- Key structures from the dialogues serve as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds.
- The syllabus is structure-based
- Cultural information is contextualized in the dialogues or presented by the teacher.
Activities characteristic of the method:
- The main activities include reading aloud dialogues, repetitions of model sentences, and drilling.
- Repetition drill (role play)
- Single-slot substitution drill (The teacher says a line, usually from the dialogue. Next, the teacher
says a word or a phrase- called a cue. The students repeat the line the teacher has given them
substituting the cue into the line in its proper place. The major purpose of this drill is to give the
students practice in finding and filling in the slots of a sentence.)
- Transformation drill (Students are asked for example to transform an affirmative sentence into a
negative one.)
- Use of minimal pairs (The teacher works with pairs of words which differ in only one sound eg. ship
– sheep.)
- Gap-filling
Example of dialogues used
• Sally: Good morning, Bill.
• Bill: Good morning, Sally.
• Sally: How are you?
• Bill: Fine, Thanks, And you?
• Sally: Fine. Where are you going?
• Bill: I‟m going to the post office.
• Sally: I am too. Shall we go together?
• Sure. Let‟s go.
Disadvantages
The method is based on false assumptions about language. The study of language doesn‟t amount to
studying the “parole”, the observable data. Mastering a language relies on acquiring the rules
underlying language performance. That is, the linguistic, sociolinguistic, and discourse competences.
1. Linguistic competence: it is the knowledge of the language code, i.e. its grammar and vocabulary,
and also of the conventions of its written representation. The grammar component includes the
knowledge of the sounds and their pronunciation (i.e. phonetics), the rules that govern sound
interactions and patterns (i.e. phonology), the formation of words by means of e.g. inflection and
derivation (i.e. morphology), the rules that govern the combination of words and phrases to structure
sentences (i.e. syntax), and the way that meaning is conveyed through language (i.e. semantics).
2. Sociolinguistic competence: it is the knowledge of sociocultural rules of use, i.e. knowing how to
use and respond to language appropriately. The appropriateness depends on the setting of the
communication, the topic, and the relationships among the people communicating. Moreover, being
appropriate depends on knowing what the taboos of the other culture are, what politeness indices are
used in each case, how a specific attitude (authority, friendliness, courtesy, irony etc.) is expressed etc.
3. Discourse competence: it is the knowledge of how to produce and comprehend oral or written texts
in the modes of speaking/writing and listening/reading respectively. It‟s knowing
how to interpret the larger context and how to construct longer stretches of language so that the parts
make up a coherent whole. Thus, discourse competence deals with organizing words, phrases and
sentences in order to create conversations, speeches, poetry, email messages, newspaper articles etc.

IV. Communicative language teaching

Communicative language teaching (CLT), or the communicative approach, is an approach to language
teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of study. Communicative
language teaching sets as its goal the teaching of communicative competence.
The principles of communicative language teaching
- Classroom goals are focused on all of the components of communicative competence and not
restricted to grammatical or linguistic competence.
- Language teaching techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic and functional use of
language for meaningful purposes. Language forms are not the central focus but rather aspects of
language that enable the learner to accomplish those purposes.
- Real communication is the focus of language learning.
- Authentic language should be introduced in the classroom whenever possible.
- Opportunities should be provided for learners to develop both accuracy and fluency.
- There should be connectivity among the language skills such as listening, speaking, reading and
writing, since they usually occur so in the real world.
- Errors are seen as a natural outcome of the development of the communication skills and are
therefore tolerated. Learners trying their best to use the language creatively and spontaneously are
bound to make errors. Constant correction is unnecessary and even counter-productive.
- Provide opportunities for learners to experiment and try out what they know.
- The target language is a vehicle for classroom communication, not just the object of study.
- Evaluation is carried out in terms of fluency and accuracy. Students who have the most control of the
structures and vocabulary are not necessarily the best communicators.
- The students' native language has no role to play. The target language is used both during
communicative activities and for the purpose of classroom management.
- In CLT, games, role plays, group work, pair work, etc. play an important role as they have certain
feature in common to learn language effectively.
- The teacher is the facilitator of students' learning, manager of classroom activities, advisor during
activities and a 'co-communicator' engaged in the communicative activity along with the students.
- Some might argue that this method can't be employed genuinely with low levels as there is no
authentic communication, due to a limited vocabulary and restricted range of functions.
Communicative competence
Communicative competence, a term coined by linguist Dell Hymes in 1972, refers to a learner's ability
to use the language correctly and appropriately to accomplish communication goals. Communicative
competence is made up of four competence areas:
1. Linguistic competence: it is the knowledge of the language code, i.e. its grammar and vocabulary,
and also of the conventions of its written representation. The grammar component includes the
knowledge of the sounds and their pronunciation (i.e. phonetics), the rules that govern sound
interactions and patterns (i.e. phonology), the formation of words by means of e.g. inflection and
derivation (i.e. morphology), the rules that govern the combination of words and phrases to structure
sentences (i.e. syntax), and the way that meaning is conveyed through language (i.e. semantics).
2. Sociolinguistic competence: it is the knowledge of sociocultural rules of use, i.e. knowing how to
use and respond to language appropriately. The appropriateness depends on the setting of the
communication, the topic, and the relationships among the people communicating. Moreover, being
appropriate depends on knowing what the taboos of the other culture are, what politeness indices are
used in each case, how a specific attitude (authority, friendliness, courtesy, irony etc.) is expressed etc.
3. Discourse competence: it is the knowledge of how to produce and comprehend oral or written texts
in the modes of speaking/writing and listening/reading respectively. It‟s knowing how to interpret the
larger context and how to construct longer stretches of language so that the parts make up a coherent
whole. Thus, discourse competence deals with organizing words, phrases and sentences in order to
create conversations, speeches, poetry, email messages, newspaper articles etc.
4. Strategic competence: it is the ability to recognise and repair communication breakdowns and how
to work around gaps in one‟s knowledge of the language. For instance, the speaker may not know a
certain word, thus will plan to either paraphrase, or ask what that word is in the target language.
During the conversation, background noise or other factors may hinder communication; thus the
speaker must know how to keep the communication channel open. If the communication was
unsuccessful due to external factors (such as interruptions), or due to the message being
misunderstood, the speaker must know how to restore communication. These strategies may be
requests for repetition, clarification, slower speech, or the usage of gestures, taking turns in
conversation etc.
V. Definition of basic Terms
Linguistics: The study of language as a system of human communication.Linguistics includes many
diffrent approaches to the study of language and many diffrent areas of investigation (structure and
function, history, development, etc.) Several specialied branches of linguistics have also developed in
combination with other disciplines, E.g. Applied Linguistics, Sociolinguistics, Psycoliguistics,
Computational Linguistics,etc.

Applied linguistics: Is an interdisciplinary field of linguistics that identifies, invastigates, and offers
solutions to language-related real- life problems.Applied linguistics uses information from sociology,
psycology, education, communication research, as well as from linguistics. In order to develop its
own theoritical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in
practical areas (language pedagogy, translation, speech pathology, etc.). Applied linguistics refers to
the practical applications of linguistics and language theory.

The field of language learning and teaching (language didactics) is a branch of applied linguistics.
It is concerned with the development of language programmes and courses, teaching methodology,
materials development, second language acquisition theory, testing, teacher training, and related areas.

SLA theories: Second language acquisition, or Second language learning is the process of learning a
language in addition to the first language(L1). The additional language is called a second
language(L2), regardlessof whether it is the second, third, or any subsequent language to be acquired.

SLA: As a field of research, Second Language Acquisition, often abbreviated to SLA, is the study of
how a second language is learned. Its main focus is on learners and learning rather than teachers and
teacging.

SLA research: The main concern of SLA research is the study of the underlying processes involved in
learning another language; that is, how learners come to internalize a new language system. Gass and
Selinker ( 2008,p.1) define SLA as ‘‘the study of the acquisition of non-primary language; tha is,
the acquisition of a language beyond the native language’’. They add that SLA ‘‘is the study of
how learners create a new language system’’. Some second language researchers make the
distinction between foreing language learning and second language acquisition. The former is
used to refer to language learning in the context where the language is not spoken outside the
classroom.

Secon language acquisition, on the other hand, is used to refer to the learning of a language in the
environment in which that language is spoken. But it is common to put all contexts of learning under
the cover term „second language acquisition‟.

SLA theories attempt to provide a theoritical explanation to how second languages are learned. They
include „„an understanding, in general, of what language is, what learning is, and for classroom
contexts what teaching is‟‟.

Long, in 1993, showed that there were between 40 to 60 SLA theories. Nevertheless, „„we are far from
a complete theory of SLA‟‟ (Gass & Selinker, 2008, p.1).

Approach method and technique: Edward Anthony (1963) was the first to introduce the three-tier
system: approach, method and technique. Based upon Anthony‟s framework, Brown (2001, p. 16)
gave the following definitions which reflect current usage of the terms:

Approach: Theoritically well-informed positions and beliefs about the nature of language, the nature
of language learning, and the applicability of both to pedagogical setting. An approach can be said to
define the ussumptions and beliefs about the nature of language, and the nature of language learning
and teaching

Method: A generalized set of classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives.

Methods tend to be concerned primarly with teacher and students roles and behaviours and secondarily
with such features as linguistic and subject matter objectives, sequencing, and materials. A method,
then, can be said to refer to a systematic way of teaching and learning a language based upon a
selected approach.

Technique: Any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or tasks used in the language classroom for
realizing lesson objectives. Techniques are specific classroom activities consistent with a specific
method.

Assessment involves testing, measuring or judging the progress, the achievement or the language
proficiency of the learners. The focus is on the students‟ learning and the outcomes of teaching.
Assessment may be one part of an evaluation. In some cases classroom assessment can be non-
judgemental, and does not provide evidence for evaluating or grading students, it is simply used to
assess and provide early feedback on the students‟ learning before tests, midterm and final exams are
administered.

Evaluation is a broad term which involves the systematic way of gathering reliable and relevant
information for the purpose of making decisions. Evaluation may focus on different components of a
course: the achievement of the learners, the teachers, quality of the materials, the appropriateness of
the objectives, the teaching methodology, the syllabus etc.

The curriculum is a tool of decision making. It identifies learners‟ needs and purposes; establishes
goals and objectives; selects and grades content; organises appropriate learning arrangements and
learner groupings; selects, adapts, or develops appropriate materials, learning tasks, and assessment
and evaluation tools.

Testing is the use of tests, or the study of the theory and practice of their use, development, evaluation,
etc.

A syllabus is based on the account and records of what actually happens at the classroom level as
teachers and learners apply a given curriculum to their own situation. These accounts can be used to
make subsequent modifications to the curriculum, so that the developmental process is on-going and
cyclical (Nunan, 1988).

Materials, in language teaching, are anything which can be used by teachers or learners to facilitate the
learning of a language. Materials may be linguistic, visual, auditory, or kinaesthetic, and they may be
presented in print, audio or video form, on CD-ROMS, on the Internet or through live performance or
display. (Tomlinson, 2001).

Materials evaluation in language teaching, are the process of measuring the value and effectiveness of
learning materials.