Section 10 Reading: Impulse Turbines In an impulse turbine steam is admitted through a nozzle and directed against one or more rows of blades. Prior to passing through this nozzle, the steam is at high pressure but low velocity. The nozzle normally consists of a convergent and divergent section. In the former, the steam suffers a drop in pressure, but its velocity is increased. ‘The function of the divergent section is to reduce to a minimum the tendency of the fluid to turbulence, and thus to ensure that the fluid flow is as smooth as possible. On emerging from the nozzle at its maximum velocity, the steam impinges on the row of moving blades which project radially from the turbine shaft. In this axial-flow type of turbine, the steam flow is along the axis of rotation of the shaft, and therefore the blades radiate outwards from the shaft. On entering the blades, which are set at a definite angle to the steam flow, the steam is deflected from its original path. In being deflected, it exerts an impulsive force on the blades, which causes them to rotate. While passing over the blades, the steam suffers a slight reduction in velocity through friction. In a simple tur- bine, it is then passed out into the atmosphere, or to a condenser, where it is condensed and led back to the boiler. However, after leaving the blades of the turbine, the steam still possesses a considerable velocity, and this may be utilised in another type of turbine by passing it through a series of two or more turbine wheels. This is known as velocity-compounding. On passing through the first row of moving blades, the steam encounters a row of stationary blades which deflect the steam on to a second row of moving blades, and so on. Each time part of the kinetic energy of the steam is lost through friction, and therefore the velocity of the steam is progressively reduced. In order to compensate for this, the blades in each successive row are made progressively larger in cross-section, and their pitch is increased. In this way, a larger proportion of the kinetic energy of the steam can be utilised than in the simple turbine. Another type of turbine in common use is known as the pressure-com- pounded turbine. It incorporates several rows of blades, but each one is en- closed between diaphragms to form a separate pressure stage. After passing through the first set of blades, the steam is directed through nozzles set in the succeeding diaphragm, and impinges on the following row of blades.A DIRECTION OF STEAM THROUGH NOZZLES & BLADES Tito NODES OWING BLADES {GUIDE BLADES. MOWING BLADES Hitt MOVING BLADES. ‘GUIDE SLAs. ltt CLEARANCE. shart 8 © peta. oF ouPHRAGM (GLANDS) ETAL OF LABYRINTH Cross-section of impulse turbine WORD STUDY Tend, Apt, Inclined 1. Aperson tends fo (Put on w 2. Wer steam | ir"tpr to erode the blades of a turbine. 3. Cast-iron, fracture under excessive tension. is incline 4 Turbulence )* Melined 12 5. Leaks tend to \develop around the tips of the turbine blades. 6. Steam pockets) @7* 24 29 | fform in the water tubes. leaks to develop round the tips of the blades. 7. There is a tendency for} cast-iron to fracture under excessive tension. 8. The present tendency is to use pulverised fuels in large boilers. Impinge on, Encounter 1. The flames from the furnace should not impinge on the joints. (= strike) 2. On entering the turbine, the steam impinges on the rotating blades. 3. The beam of accelerated protons impinges on a beryllium target. ‘4, On entering the turbine, the steam encounters a row of fixed blades. (= meet) 61Deflect, Refract (bend); Reflect (bend back) 1, A ray of light entering water at an angle is eas at the surface. 2. A ray of light passing through the glass of a mirror is reflected by the silver. 3. A billiard ball which strikes another ball is from its path. 4. Steam which impinges on the turbine blades is ete om its course. 5. A nearby piece of iron causes a compass needle to be from north. Diverge, Converge 1, Railway lines seem to ‘as they go away from the observer. 2. All roads tend to ‘converge, as they approach a large city. 3. The sides of the nozzle. towards the throat. 5. All roads tend to as they go away from a large city. 4. Railway lines seem to ‘as they approach the observer. Jone { 6. The sides of the nozzle. as they go away from the throat. PATTERNS 1. Contracted Time Statements (1) In the previous section, we practised time statements in which the subjects of both parts of the statement were the same. e.g. Before the steam enters the nozzle, it is at very high pressure. Before it enters the nozzle, the steam is at very high pressure. ‘These time statements are very often shortened or contracted to: Before entering the nozzle, the steam is at very high pressure. Here are the different possibilities of this structure: Peer fentering the nozzle, the steam is at high pressure. {- yefore it enters. Le = while itis passing Whil passin, us e les, the steam is deflected. — fed passing through the blades, the st deflects of through. Afi ieving the blades, the steam passes out to the ‘atmosphere, {= efter it teaves. EXERCISE Change these statements in the same way. 1, Bete ‘it imikés “eff the products of combustion, the air is pre-heated, “Ks the pistontises;it carries the exhaust gas upwards. 3. The aircraft exploded as it was landing. 624. After the gases pass through the boiler, they are still very hot. 5. As the shaft rotates, it splashes oil up into the bearings. 6. When the metal surfaces reach welding heat, they are pressed together. 7. Ae the rivet cools, it contracts. 8. When bearings rotate at high speeds, they generate frictional heat. 9. Before it enters the furnace, the fuel is pulverised. 10. When it leaves the furnace, the molten metal is channelled into moulds. 11, While the fuel is travelling along the conveyor chain, it burns. 12. Before it becomes molten, the metal is in a plastic state. 13, The structure of the metal begins to change as soon as it exceeds the critical temperature. 14. The hot gases pass up the flue to the chimney after they transmit their heat to the boiler water. 15. The gas may be compressed before it is circulated through the mains. 16. As they rotate, the pulverisers break up the coal into fragments. 17. As soon as the steam passes into the discharge pipe, it condenses. 18. After the liquid is heated for 10 minutes, it should be allowed to cool. 19, While it was entering the harbour, the vessel collided with the sea-wall. 20. Before it is passed back to the boiler, the condensate should be re-heated. 2. Contracted Time Statements (2) ‘These contracted forms on, before, while, etc. -+ -ing are normally used when the subject of both statements is the same, as you have just seen. ‘They are not normally used when the subjects are different. But one other type of statement can be expressed in the same way. On removing the impurities, the water can be passed back to the boiler. When installing a boiler, the floor space which is available is very important. You will notice that this really means: When we remove thei mpurities and When we are installing a boiler . EXERCISE Use the contracted structure to re-write the following statements: 1. Before we apply heat for a weld, the plates should be clamped together. 2. When we use superheated steam, compounding becomes less effective. 3. When we are drilling deep holes, the feed movement should be released from time to time. 4. While we are making an efficiency test on an engine, certain precautions should be observed. 5. When screws are being cut, the lead-screw on the lathe is engaged. 6. When railway tracks are being laid, allowance must be made for expansion. 637. In the construction of locomotives, the provision of a large heating sur- face is very important. 8, After the roughing cut is taken, the cutting tool should be sharpened. 9. Before the final cut is taken, the exact size of the bar should be measured. 10. Before the dam can be built, the course of the river will have to be diverted. 11. After you have read the book, a summary should be made of the im- portant chapters. 12. Before starting production, extensive tests must be made. 13. In the course of construction of the motorway, vast quantities of earth have to be moved. 14. While the engine was being examined, a number of defects were found. 15, After £1,000,000 were spent on research and development, the whole project was suddenly abandoned. 3. Sequence When steam enters the turbine, it has a very high initial velocity. ‘When it leaves the turbine, it has a much lower final velocity. As it passes through the turbine, its velocity is progressively reduced. ‘The rows of blades in the turbine are made progressively larger. Each row is a little larger than the previous or preceding row. From January to August, the weather gets progressively warmer. Each month is slightly warmer than the previous or preceding one. ‘The first steam engine was built during the nineteenth century. During the following or succeeding hundred years, it became the main source of power. “The initial attempt to solve the problem ended in failure. So did the three succeeding attempts. The final attempt succeeded. ‘Subsequent or later attempts to repeat the experiment failed. ‘The condensate is stored in a cooling tower, for subsequent use in the condenser. In a turbine, the steam passes through a series or succession of wheels holding blades. It passes through them one after the other. Each successive row reduces the kinetic energy of the steam. The energy of the steam is progressively reduced as it passes through the successive rows. Not every row of blades rotates. There is a rotating ring, followed by a stationary ring, and this is succeeded by another rotating ring. Every second ring is a rotating ring. Every other ring is a rotating ring. Each alternate ring rotates. ‘The rotating rings alternate with the stationary rings. Each alternate stroke on a two-stroke engine is a working stroke. Only one stroke in four of a four-stroke engine is a working stroke. ‘The strokes occur in a sequence. 64EXERCISE Complete these statements: 1. During the past century, there has been a... .. increase in the size of boilers. 2. The metal which was ...... heated is now quenched in a cold liquid. 3. Acomplicated ...... of operations is necessary to produce steel. 4. As the metal cools, its surface grows ...... harder and tougher. 5. The pneumatic riveter closes the rivet by a quick ...... of blows. 6. The ...... cost of the machines is high, but maintenance and operating costs are low. 7. Modern boilers are designed for higher pressures than those of the ...... century. 8. The exhaust steam is condensed, and can ...... be used again in the boiler. 9. The original design was not very satisfactory, anda ...... of modifica- tions were made over several years. 10. The . pressure of the steam before expansion is 60 Ib/in®. 11. The neutrons lose their energy gradually by ...... collisions with other particles. 12. As work went on, the dam grew higher. 13. The manager retired and was . by his assistant. 14, After a ...... of tests, the model was put into production. 15. He works ...... shifts: this week he is on the day-shift, and next week he will be on the night-shift. 65